Learning Models and Styles

Samuel A.
Malone
Learning Models and

Styles
Smart Learning for Adults Part 3

SAMUEL A. MALONE
LEARNING MODELS
AND STYLES
SMART LEARNING FOR
ADULTS PART 3
2
Learning Models and Styles – Smart Learning for Adults Part 3
1st edition
© 2018 Samuel A. Malone & bookboon.com
ISBN 978-87-403-2105-0
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LEARNING MODELS AND STYLES Contents
CONTENTS
Introduction 6
1 Learning Models for Adults 8

1.1 The Four Learning Stages 8
1.2 Lessons from the Four-Stage Model 13
1.3 70:20:10 Model 14
1.4 Lessons from the 70:20:10 model 20
1.5 Lessons from Bloom’s taxonomy 24
1.6 The ASPIRE Self-development Model 25
1.7 Lessons from the ASPIRE Model 27
2 Learning Styles for Adults 28

2.1 Kolb’s Learning Cycle 28
2.2 The Four Styles of Learning 32
2.3 Lessons from the Learning Styles model 35
2.4 VAK Model of Learning Styles 36
2.5 Lessons from the VAK model 41
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LEARNING MODELS AND STYLES Contents
2.6 Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences 42

2.7 The eight intelligences in alphabetical order 43
2.8 Lessons from the MI Model 51
2.9 Fixed versus Growth Mindsets 54
2.10 Smart Successful Intelligent Behaviour 62
Summary 68
Acknowledgements 70
References and Bibliography 71
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LEARNING MODELS AND STYLES Introduction
INTRODUCTION
The third book in the series is about learning models and learning styles. Awareness of
how you learn will make you a more competent learner. You will encounter different
emotions and feelings at each stage of the four stage learning model. You will feel anxiety
and frustration at the seemingly insurmountable obstacles, until eventually you experience
breakthroughs, excitement and satisfaction on your journey towards mastery. The model
will help you stay focused and motivated when times seem tough, and you feel like giving
up until you experience success. It reminds you not to expect too much, too soon and the
importance of persistence.
The 70:20:10 model tells us that we learn 70 per cent from practical experience, 20 per
cent from coaching and mentoring and 10 per cent from formal learning. This means that
up to 90 per cent of our learning is experiential or practical. It is a very useful framework
to be aware of, particularly as some people think that all learning is formal, and has to take
place in academic settings. It highlights that many learning programmes rely too heavily on
formal classroom learning, with limited opportunity for on-the-job development options
such as stretch assignments, project work, coaching and mentoring.
Bloom’s taxonomy is a well-known learning model that is widely used in academic and
training circles. The model is sequential, meaning a learner must master a given step before
significant progress is possible to the next. The hierarchy consists of six levels – knowledge,
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. It reminds learners that learning
is a complicated process and the higher up you go in the hierarchy the deeper the learning.
The ASPIRE self-development model is a great learning roadmap for learners who want
to progress in their jobs. It demonstrates the need for action plans in the pursuit of goals.
Things don’t happen by chance – they must be made to happen! Many learners aspire to
things but don’t take the necessary steps to make them happen. Also, it shows that learners
need discipline, dedication, determination, hard work and persistence to succeed in their
chosen careers.
The acronym DRUD is a useful memory jogger to help you remember Kolb’s learning
cycle – do something (activist), reflect on it (reflector), understand it (theorist) and do
it differently (pragmatist). The learning cycle highlights the importance of reflection and
continuous improvement and the potential for lifelong learning. The learning styles of
activist, reflector, theorist and pragmatist are linked to and derived from the learning cycle.
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LEARNING MODELS AND STYLES Introduction
The premise of learning style models is that it produces more effective learning outcomes if
the learning style of the learning facilitator is matched to the learning style of the learner.
We are all born with unique brains and have distinctive learning styles derived from our
talents, aptitudes, personalities, experience and interests. The four learning styles model
gives us a useful framework and some insights into why this is so.
VAK stands for visual, audial and kinaesthetic. We learn through these senses – seeing,
hearing and touching – but in a learning context many learners have a preference for one
particular style or indeed any combination of styles. In fact, some people have a mixed and
evenly balanced blend of the three styles. Psychologists estimate that we learn 60 per cent
through our visual senses, 30 per cent through our auditory senses, and 10 per cent through
our kinaesthetic senses (via the sense of touching, which includes moving). Learners who
engage all the senses have a greater chance of learning something than those who do not.
The VAK model is a much more straightforward and easier to understand model of learning
styles than Kolb’s learning cycle – hence its popularity with adult learners, trainers, coaches,
learning facilitators and designers of learning events.
Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory recognises the range of intelligences that people
may have. By developing a variety of approaches to learning and recognising individual
strengths and weaknesses, our potential for learning and understanding can be enhanced
and developed. It is up to each individual learner to discover the unique intelligences they
have. By concentrating on our preferential style we can reach our potential and become
accomplished in an area that interests us. This has been proven by the experience with
savants who can be helped to exploit their unique intelligences, whereas previously they
would have been considered mentally disabled, shunned, marginalised and institutionalised.
After reading these series of three books you will discover all the opportunities open to
you to become a smart adult learner. It is up to you to tailor their use to your unique
requirements and research them further (if you need to do so). To facilitate this process
a comprehensive bibliography is provided at the end of the third book. There is now an
enormous quantity of information on Google to help you explore any issues that interest
you. You can read this book series sequentially or dip into the three books as the need
arises. Whatever approach you adopt you are sure to be enlightened! Good luck on your
journey to smart learning!
Samuel A. Malone February 2018
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LEARNING MODELS AND STYLES Learning Models for Adults
1 LEARNING MODELS FOR ADULTS

• What are the four stages of learning?
• What is the 70:20:10 model?
• What is Bloom’s taxonomy?
• What is the ASPIRE model of development?
1.1 THE FOUR LEARNING STAGES

The origins of this theory are obscure. Sometimes it is attributed to Abraham Maslow
although it doesn’t appear in his formal writings. In the 1970s, psychologist Noel Burch
suggested a similar model for how we master skills and relationships. He called it the
‘conscious competence learning model.’ It fell into disuse for decades but has now resurfaced
as a popular model with trainers and educationalists. To my knowledge it hasn’t been
empirically proved. Nevertheless, it is a very useful concept to be aware of.
Awareness of how you learn will make you a more competent learner. All learning involves
persistence, determination and disappointments on the way to competence. Psychologists
have discovered that there are four learning stages. These stages range from unconscious
incompetence to conscious incompetence to conscious competence and lastly to unconscious
competence. The model will help you understand the thinking and emotional stages that all
learners go through when learning a new skill or discipline such as driving a car, learning
a new language or becoming a better writer.
You will encounter different emotions at each stage as you feel initial anxiety and frustration
at the seemingly insurmountable obstacles, until eventually you experience breakthroughs
and excitement on your journey towards mastery. The model will help you stay focused
and motivated when times seem tough and you feel like giving up until you experience
success. It reminds you not to expect too much, too soon. After all, Rome wasn’t built in
a day! It shows you where you are on the road to competence and what more you have to
do to get there.
The model is useful in mentoring, coaching, teaching and training situations, because it
allows learners to stay in touch with people when they are going through the process of
learning something new. It will help facilitators, teachers and trainers to empathise with
the emotions and feelings that learners are experiencing so that they can encourage them to
stick with the task. As a facilitator do not be afraid to praise the learner for each progress
made as this will reinforce the learning and motivate the learner to continue.
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Learners must be made aware that everybody goes through these stages so that they should learn
to manage them effectively. The four learning stages are illustrated in the following diagram:
Incompetence Competence
Conscious
2 – Conscious 3 – Conscious
Unconscious
1 – Unconscious 4 – Unconscious
Conscious Competence Learning Matrix
Fig. 3.1 Conscious Competence Learning Model
Unconscious Incompetence
This is the stage where you don’t know what you don’t know. You are just not aware of your
own level of ignorance and lack of skill and experience. Facilitators of learning often get
resistance from learners at this stage because prospective learners do not know what they do
not know. If you’ve never driven a car, you will have no idea of the challenges involved. For
example, very young children, often imagines they can drive a car. Their enthusiasm and
confidence exceeds their ability while at the same time they have no idea of the range of
skills necessary to drive a car. If you have ever given driving lessons, you begin to appreciate
just how much you need to know without realising it. It is very difficult to translate tacit
knowledge into words. This is why it is so difficult for an experienced, competent driver, at
the unconscious competent level, to train somebody at the unconscious incompetence level.
It is very challenging to make tacit knowledge explicit because the skills have become
habitual, automatic responses and are thus almost impossible to verbalise, organise and explain
consciously. Many a happy marriage has come to grief because one partner has unwittingly
agreed to teach the other how to drive without really thinking about how difficult, frustrating
and traumatic it can prove to be. This demonstrates just how much of our everyday actions
are done unconsciously with the minimum of conscious awareness on our part. Everyday
habits are activated unconsciously – we are on autopilot without realising it.
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To move out of this stage do a strengths and weaknesses analysis and training needs assessment
so that you are aware of the areas that you need to address. Consider your goals so that
you acquire those skills that will help you meet your career and personal needs. The more
precisely you define goals the more likely you are to achieve them. Vague unspecified goals
will do little to move you towards success. Also refer to your peers for feedback as they may
help you identify other areas that you need to improve. To move from stage one to stage
two, read up on the subject you want to know, watch YouTube films on the topic, talk to
experts in the field, or watch someone do what you want to learn. All of this will provide
you with the roadmap and motivation to undertake the journey of learning.
Conscious Incompetence
This is the stage where you know you don’t know. At the conscious incompetence level you’re
aware of what you’re doing and what you need to do to reach your full potential. To learn
new things, you must motivate and challenge yourself to move out of your comfort zone.
You start to learn how to drive. You become disillusioned and your confidence drops when
you see how awkward you are. You feel you would need to be an acrobat to co-ordinate the
movements required for mirror work, steering, gears, clutch, brake and accelerator, while at
the same time watching the control dials and the road. In addition, you are trying to obey
the rules of the road. It seems like an impossible task. Feelings of anxiety and hopelessness
are often a feature of this stage.
The conscious incompetence stage is where you have embarrassing kangaroo starts and
jerky stops, forget to release the handbrake, fail to indicate, grind the gears, oversteer and
generally challenge the patience of your instructor and other road users. You learn most at
this time, but need confidence, persistence and determination to take you to the next stage.
Motivation, true grit, encouragement, goals, action plans and taking responsibility for your
own learning will get you there in the end.
Some people get frustrated and lose confidence at this stage and give up. Consider the
number of people who start educational programmes, pay their fees and shortly afterwards
give them up at great financial loss, disappointments and personal inconvenience. The first
year at college has usually the greatest attrition rate. People don’t realise that everybody goes
through the same stages of the learning curve and experience negative feelings, setbacks,
frustrations, disappointments and difficulties before they finally master any skill. There is no
gain without some pain. Determination and commitment will see you through in the end.
To counteract your lack of confidence adopt a positive attitude to your learning. Use positive
affirmations to combat negative thinking and to refocus your energy and thinking on the
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days that you feel down. Everybody resists change to some degree. Remember learning new
things can be uncomfortable but if you stick to the task you will achieve your goals in the
end. Adopt role models that you admire to help you achieve your dreams.
Conscious Competence
This is the stage where you know what to do and you’re doing it. Good instruction, feedback
and regular practise has moved you from a place where you got things mostly wrong to a
place where you are getting things mostly right. The learner can perform the skill without
assistance. This has been achieved through effort and reflection – learning from your mistakes
and moving on. You have been assisted in your goals by the facilitator who has imparted
tricks, tips and techniques of the trade to help you gain proficiency. However, even though
you may be able to demonstrate the skill to another, it is unlikely that you will be able to
teach it well to another learner.
Let’s refer to the driving analogy again. This is the stage where you can finally drive the car
but you are very self-conscious of the fact. It takes all your concentration and energy and
you feel uncomfortable and drained after driving even for a short while. You still haven’t
mastered totally a smooth gear shift and your car stalls occasionally at traffic lights. In the
meantime you have assiduously studied and applied the rules of the road.
However, as time progresses your confidence increases in line with your skill. You are
reasonably proficient but not yet a master of the art. You may even pass the driving test
at this stage, but you must make a conscious effort to reach the required standard. As you
make progress overconfidence may be a problem, leading to the taking of unnecessary risks.
The result of this is a high rate of accidents for newly qualified brash young drivers, which
is confirmed by road accident statistics.
Take every opportunity to practise your new skills so that you become proficient. Practice is
the best and most effective way to move from stage three to stage four. For example, look
for opportunities at work to use your new skills or take up volunteer positions outside of
work that exercise similar skills. It’s all about repetition and practise at this stage. As you
know if you do something the same way over and over again, the behaviour requires less
conscious effort each time. As one famous golfer was quoted as saying ‘the more I practise
the better I become.’ Practise makes perfect and practise makes permanent.
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Unconscious Competence
You are now at the pinnacle of your skill – a master of your craft! You’ve worked hard to get
there and moved beyond your comfort zone. Using the driving analogy again, at this stage
you can drive; listen to the radio and converse at the same time. You are a self-reliant driver.
Some drivers even manage to carry out several complicated conversations with passengers
without a problem. The movements involved in driving the car have become an automatic
response. Your unconscious mind has taken over the routine, freeing your conscious mind
to concentrate on the road, on other road users and the prevailing traffic conditions.
Driving has become a routine and a habit. However, the problem with habits is that there
are bad habits or poor practices as well as good habits. Many a person over the years has
unconsciously acquired poor driving habits, such as steering with one hand, which may
need to be unlearned and replaced by good habits. Others attempt to multitask such as
using the mobile phone to converse or text while driving. This practice is dangerous and
illegal in most countries.
When I was learning keyboarding skills I was very conscious, reflective and deliberate about
striking the appropriate keys. After considerable practice, I got to know where the letters
were, but was still very conscious and unsure about their positions on the keyboard. As a
result, I was slow and inefficient. Today, after many years’ experience I don’t consciously
know where any of the letters are, and I’m fast and efficient. I can focus entirely on what
I want to write and let my fingers do the work automatically. In other words my working
memory can devote itself entirely to the problems of spelling, grammar, layout, composition
and punctuation while my unconscious mind does the typing. Experts have an elaborate
schema or model that they build up in their heads over a long period of time.
This is why they find it almost impossible to explain how they do things to others. This is
why famous sports people often don’t make great coaches. Their skill is an intuitive reflex
that they find impossible to verbalise and explain to others.
Remember to use your skills regularly and keep up to date or else you will lose them. A
good way of doing this is to teach them to others. This will consolidate your knowledge,
deepen your understanding and give you the satisfaction of passing on your skills. With
your knowledge of the four stages of learning you should be more sensitive to others’ needs
when imparting knowledge or skills.
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1.2 LESSONS FROM THE FOUR-STAGE MODEL

Expertise in any area of life takes time, determination, persistence and commitment. It
will take about 10 years of application and reading before you become an expert in any
subject. Learning is a continuous process, not a destination. To learn, you must go from
unconscious incompetence to unconscious competence. The model is a timely reminder to
educationalists, teachers, trainers, facilitators, coaches and mentors to train people in stages.
There is an appropriate way to teach or train people at each stage. For example, if you train
people at stage three when they are still at stage one; the training will have been a waste
of time. Learners must be aware of the skill and their deficiency in it to benefit from the
training. Learners only respond to training when they are aware of their need for it and
the benefits that will accrue from it.
Some companies make a mistake when training new entrants to a company. They get the
best person in the department to train the novice in, hoping as if by osmosis; the new
employee will become as proficient as the expert. If this doesn’t happen they blame the
situation on the new employee’s inability to comprehend or lack of intelligence.
In fact, an expert is the worst person you could get to induct another person in. He is at the
unconscious competence stage and will more likely be unable to explain adequately what’s
involved in the job. In addition, it is likely that he has no instruction skills or knowledge
of the learning process. Sometimes he may even resent training someone else in his skills
as he doesn’t want them to acquire the level of expertise that he has.
As soon as you attain mastery, you must keep up-to-date with developments and best
practice as well as consolidating and practising your existing skills. If you fail to do so, your
knowledge will be forgotten or become out of date. People who have accomplished stage
four may become complacent and blind to new methods and technologies – they think they
have reached the limits of mastery. The danger here is that the learner could find themselves
at the consciously incompetence stage again.
In addition, learners need to keep their existing skills alive through practise. It is a question
of using it or losing it. Lifelong learning and continuous self-improvement is the name of
the game. The leading professional bodies have taken this concept on board through their
continuing professional development programmes, which are mandatory in most institutes.
‘We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act but a habit.’
– Aristotle
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1.3 70:20:10 MODEL

This is the viewpoint that learners learn 70 per cent from hands on experience such as on-
the-job training, project work, stretch assignments, secondments, and self-directed learning.
We learn 20 per cent from coaching, mentoring, shadowing, networking, communities of
practice both live and virtual and guidance from supervisors. We only learn 10 per cent from
formal training, whether classroom, seminars, workshop or e-learning. These percentages are
approximations only and are likely to vary a little depending on the context and therefore
should not be taken as the absolute truth. One company uses a 40:30:30 ratio while another
claims that a 50:30:10 ratio is best for their needs. The Institute for Research on Learning
found that formal learning (courses and workshops) is the source of only 20 per cent of
the learning that takes place in organisations.
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• 70% • 20% • 10%

• Experience • Coaching • Classroom
• Projects • Mentoring instruction
• Stretch • Teamwork • Seminars
assignments • e-Learning
Fig. 3.2 70:20:10 Model
The origins of the model are disputed but the Centre for Creative Leadership seems to be
the main contender for its invention. It is a very useful framework and guide to be aware
of particularly as some people think that all learning is formal and has to take place in
classrooms, training academies, colleges and lecture halls. It is not meant to be a prescriptive
model. Nevertheless it is respected in corporate training circles as a useful concept as it
shows the significance of informal versus formal learning.
The 70:20:10 model is intuitively appealing and is based on observation rather than scientific
study. Many training managers claim that it resonates with their own and learners’ experience
and would agree with its overall conclusions. It does highlight the fact that many learning
programmes rely too heavily on formal learning, with limited opportunity for on-the-job
development options. It is only when interacting with others that we can learn political skills,
interpersonal relationships skills and communication skills such as negotiation, listening to
others and providing constructive feedback.
Learn through experience 70%

Informal learning (sometimes called incidental learning) is the type of learning that happens
on-the-job on a day-to-day basis. It often happens as a by-product of other activities. It is
embedded in everyday activities and taken for granted. It is the type of learning that we
had when we were children and learned how to perform jobs from parents and other adults.
We watched parents perform tasks like sewing, farming, cooking, housework, and do-it-
yourself jobs. In some instances, we learned from observation alone but more frequently, we
mastered a task with help, discussion and guidance from an experienced adult. It is generally
accepted that we learn mostly from experience, solving problems, from making mistakes,
getting feedback and correcting them and that such learning is more lasting and memorable.
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Informal learning tends to be acquired having casual conversations and networking with
others, rather than following a set curriculum, and in many cases probably accounts for
most of a person’s learning during a lifetime. In informal learning, learners design their
own learning. They identify their learning needs, evaluate their performance against those
needs and find real-life experience to address them.
Informal learning is more cost effective than formal learning as there is no design, development,
process or administration cost. Informal learning is also random, idiosyncratic to each learner
and happens spontaneously. For example, learning about a particular feature of a software
package can be accomplished by asking an IT colleague, during a random encounter such
as a tea break, or when you bump into them in the corridor, or even on the phone.
Learning networks can take three forms – internal to the business, external with links to
a profession, and in socially-based relationships facilitated by Twitter, Facebook, LinkedIn,
email and even through casual encounters and phone conversations. Through informal
learning we accumulate knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, beliefs and insights from daily
exposure to work, personal experiences and interaction with others. In some instances we
may not be conscious that learning has taken place. Informal learning can also be acquired
from newspapers, magazines, television, CDs; DVD’s the internet and other computer media.
We know that the brain processes information unconsciously without awareness through
osmosis – information that is neither actively attended to nor noticed. People can learn
complex rules by being exposed to sequences that follow rules, without having any explicit
notion of the rules or having learned them formally. Thus if you watch rugby matches
you instinctively know the rules after watching many games. Patients will learn about
the procedures and practices of the health service as a by-product of experiencing a stay
in hospital.
In addition, they often learn more about the disease they have by interacting with medical
staff, talking with other patients, reading patient information leaflets or visiting Internet
sites. Such learning is incidental and is part of the process of dealing with the illness. This
is a type of tacit or implicit learning and suggests that the brain is innately programmed
for lifelong learning.
Implicit learning is where there is no intention and awareness to learn. Implicit knowledge
is the type of learning acquired through unconscious learning. It is knowledge that is not
generally available to others because it exists primarily in someone’s head: it is intangible,
tacit, observable primarily in action, and may be complex and difficult to express and
capture. It is the type of knowledge that a master craftsman passes on to an apprentice
through demonstration. In such circumstances it is often called the ‘tricks of the trade.’ It is
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the type of knowledge a trainee medical doctor acquires during an internship by watching,
observation, shadowing and modelling more knowledgeable and experienced doctors. Implicit
knowledge acquires commercial value only when it becomes explicit, recorded and made
available to others.
Managers should encourage experimentation and internal and external networking amongst
their staff, delegate stretch assignments, devise interesting and challenging projects and
provide on-the-job opportunities to apply newly learned skills, and promote job rotation
and job enrichment. Job assignments play a vital role in the development of managerial
skills. They should push people out of their comfort zone and may involve roles that are
not well defined, and have some elements new to the individual. They force people to try
out skills and behaviours that matter. These kinds of assignments place people in challenging
situations to solve problems, resolve dilemmas, overcome obstacles, and make decisions
under conditions of risk and uncertainty.
Team and peer learning is an important aspect of learning-on-the-job. Rapid change is part
of corporate life and information is increasing exponentially. Knowledge also becomes quickly
out of date particularly in fields like information and communications technology. Knowledge
information systems need to be in place so that learners can access this information as and
when they need it.
Modern technology, such as smart phones, facilitates just-in-time learning through channels
like YouTube. Learners value the know-how that is taught by experience, rather than
theoretical concepts in books which are generic rather than meeting their unique practical
needs. It is generally accepted that leadership skills are learned through practising the art
of leadership in actual corporate or institutional settings.
Learning through others 20%

We also learn from coaches, mentors, supervisors, teams, peers, parents and friends and
this learning is more effective than structured courses and programmes. We learn through
360 degree feedback. This is where employees receive feedback from the people who work
around them. This includes the employee’s manager, peers, team members and direct
reports. It helps people to identify their strengths and weaknesses so that they can take the
appropriate action to remedy any problems. We learn too through professional networks,
and from suppliers and customers.
People need to learn on the job and not away from it. This would suggest that we should
view learning in a more holistic way and see formal learning as a minor but important part
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of the total equation of how people learn. People need to learn information in real time
when they need it rather than a few days or weeks in advance when the likelihood is that
they will forget it.
Managers, supervisors and indeed staff should be taught coaching, mentoring and facilitation
skills so that they can impart their tacit knowledge to others. This is the type of knowledge
which is picked up through discussion and observation. Learners should be made aware
that one of the most effective ways to learn is through teams and discussion. Managers
should be taught how to brief people regarding their expectations before training, and
debrief people after attending training sessions so that the benefits of training are identified
and not lost. They should know how to give constructive feedback so that the morale of
learners is maintained.
Learning through structured courses and programs 10%

Formal learning refers to learning that takes place in formal settings such as colleges or
third level institutes. Formal learning is planned and highly structured with a curriculum,
syllabus, learning outcomes and assessments in the form of exams. It has a defined start and
finish; learners are registered and monitored and training materials are created. The learning
process is guided by an instructor, with specified content typically including lectures, written
material, examples and exercises. If the learning involves e-learning, modules are created and
posted online for 24/7 access. The end product of formal learning is usually a recognised
qualification. Such certification is highly valued and often demanded by employers as a
sign of academic achievement.
In the workplace learning from formal courses is rapidly forgotten and is likely to be out of
date unless it is applied quickly on the job after returning from the course. In addition, a lot
of the material presented on the course is conceptual, general and irrelevant to the immediate
job needs of the learner. Instead learners need the right information at the right time and
in the right format at their fingertips to quickly solve urgent job related practical problems.
Even though the formal part of training isn’t as important as we once thought it was, it
should nevertheless be a part of any learning plan. We should do everything possible to
increase the effectiveness of formal training by making it more interactive and relevant to
the needs of learners and to company objectives. We can do this by using techniques such
as simulations, case studies, role play, discussions, practical examples and presenting the
information in digestible chunks followed by plenty of review and reflection periods.
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Managers should debrief learners on return from courses and workshops, and ask them
how they intend to apply the learning to their jobs in order to increase their productivity
and the profitability of the company. The learner should be incentivised and rewarded to
apply the learning to their job.
Web based technologies can be used to provide some of the 10% formal courses in a cost
effective way. Excellent well-designed courses are available 24/7 in a digestible format and
through a range of attractive delivery channels. Using mobile technology and the resources
on YouTube could be part of this strategy.
Formal learning is essential when preparing for professional examinations and university
degrees such as accountancy, law, medicine and HRM exams where certification is an essential
part of the process. We do need to be assured that our doctors are able to diagnose our
medical problems, that our accountants are ethical and know their tax and that our lawyers
are proficient in the law. It would be very scary if our pilots had no proper certification to
fly a plane. In accountancy and other professions on-the-job practise is used to reinforce
classroom learning.
It is very difficult to study for professional exams on your own but it is possible through
online courses for learners who are very committed even if in full-time jobs. These courses
can be backed up by on-the-job experience which helps the learner embed and reinforce
the knowledge learnt. I myself studied for the ACMA (Chartered Management Accountant)
and ACIS (Chartered Secretaries and Administrators) through study manuals and week-end
seminars while working full-time in the accounts department of my employer.
Later on in my career I did a M.Ed. (training and development) while I worked as a training
manager during the day while attending quarterly week-end seminars and workshops over
a two year period. The course was supplemented by training manuals, work-based projects
and assignments relevant to my role as training manager in the company.
‘The method people naturally employ to acquire knowledge is largely unsupported by

traditional classroom practice. The human mind is better equipped to gather information
about the world by operating within it than by reading about it, hearing lectures on it, or
studying abstract models of it. Nearly everyone would agree that experience is the best
teacher, but what many fail to realise is that experience may be the only teacher.’
– Santa Fe Institute 1994
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1.4 LESSONS FROM THE 70:20:10 MODEL

The model gives learners a greater awareness that significant training and development can
take place outside of a formal learning event. Learners should realise that development takes
place all the time and not just during formal training. An example of this is a management
development programme in which participants are involved in real life work based projects.
Management is a unique profession in that unlike other professions such as accounting,
engineering, medicine, law or psychology, no licence is required to practice it. Many managers
have no formal qualifications and take pride in the fact that they learned their craft in the
‘University of Hard Knocks.’
The model emphasises the important role that managers and supervisors play in the training
and development of their staff. This is an inherent part of their role rather than a casual
add-on. They should be trained in coaching, mentoring and learning skills to undertake
this role effectively. Staff in HR and L&D (Learning and Development) may see this as a
diminution of their role so that senior management needs to diplomatically acquaint them
with the new reality. L&D professionals need to become facilitators of learning rather than
providers of formal training and development programmes.
In practice it may be difficult to measure the effectiveness of informal training and attempts
to do so are still a work in progress in many organisations. Cheetham et al have come up
with a very useful model of informal learning for people who work in the professions.
The model of informal learning

The general learning mechanisms in the model of informal learning were:
• Practice, repetition and rehearsal. Generally the more often we do something, the
better we become at it.
• Reflection – reflection is important to effective learning.
• Observation and copying – Most of us learn by observing others. Modelling, role
play, shadowing and computer simulations can be effective here.
• Learning transfer from other occupations or organisations – People can benefit
from learning from activities outside the workplace, the results of which can be
used on-the-job.
• Stretching activities – Things we haven’t done before can be regarded as good
developmental opportunities.
• Perspective-changing-switching viewpoints – Reframing or seeing things from
different viewpoints add to our learning.
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• Mentor/coach interaction – Many successful managers and people admit that they
owe their success to effective and inspiring mentors.
• Unconscious absorption or osmosis – When working closely with other experts we
sometimes unconsciously pick up their unique perspectives and experience.
• Use of psychological devices/mental tricks – Positive thinking, visualisation, chunking,
mnemonics, learning maps and reframing are some of the devices that successful
managers adopt.
• Articulation – Putting things down in writing clarifies one’s thinking.
• Collaboration – The effect of synergy is often achieved when working with others.
‘Development generally begins with a realisation of current or future need and the motivation
to do something about it. This might come from feedback, a mistake, watching other people’s
reactions, failing or not being up to a task – in other words, from experience. The odds are
that development will be about 70% from on-the-job experiences – working on task and
problems; about 20% from feedback and working around good and bad examples of the
need; and 10% from courses and reading.’
– Michael Lombardo and Robert Eichinger
Bloom’s Taxonomy
This is a well-known model used widely in academic and training circles. It was developed
in 1956 by Benjamin Bloom. The model is sequential, meaning a learner must master a
given step before significant progress is possible to the next. This allows learners to identify
a progression of learning outcomes as evidence of the mastery of content. The taxonomy
consists of six levels that represent a hierarchy of learning objectives as shown in the
following diagram:
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Bloom’s Taxonomy for Thinking
Evaluation Judgement
Putting things together

Synthesis
Creative thinking
Breaking things down

Analysis
Critical thinking
Using knowledge in
Application
new situations
Comprehension Understanding
Knowledge Recall
Knowledge Retention
Foundation for higher
order thinking
Fig. 3.3 Bloom’s Taxonomy
Knowledge is remembering information in a form very close to that in which it was first
encountered. This is the most basic form of learning. Being able to recall terms and
definitions and memorise poetry, list the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, or name
the parts of the human brain are all examples of the expected behaviour at the knowledge
level. Examiners use words like ‘list,’ ‘define,’ ‘describe,’ ‘show,’ ‘label,’ ‘tabulate’, and so on
to test learning at this level.
Comprehension is the ability to understand the meaning of this knowledge. This might
involve demonstrating knowledge in the form of interpreting facts or showing comparisons
or contrasts between theories or information. Examples of comprehension include expressing
an argument in one’s own words, giving directions on how to do something, or reviewing
the main points of a discussion. Examiners use words like ‘interpret,’ ‘contrast,’ ‘distinguish,’
‘differentiate,’ ‘estimate,’ ‘discuss,’ and so on to test learning at the comprehension level.
Application is the ability to apply general principles to specific problems. This is the difference
between being able to understand the concept of the internal combustion engine versus
being able to work and repair one. It might involve using methods, concepts, theories and
models to solve problems in new situations. Examples would include relating principles of
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job motivation to an actual case study, using statistics to test for differences between two
experimental groups, or employing computer language to write a program. Examiner use
words like ‘apply,’ ‘demonstrate,’ ‘calculate,’ ‘illustrate,’ ‘solve,’ ‘examine,’ ‘classify,’ and so
on to test learning at this level.
Analysis is an advanced skill. According to Bloom, analysis involves the ability to break a
topic into its constituent parts showing the relationship between them. Examples would
include being able to detect flaws or defects in the design of a product, break information
into parts and identify the basic elements, specify the interrelationships between the
elements, and recognise the structure and organisation of the information as a whole. This
might involve examining the information to draw conclusions or find evidence to support
recommendations. Examiners use words like ‘analyse,’ ‘explain,’ ‘connect,’ ‘classify,’ ‘arrange,’
‘select,’ and so on to test learning at this level.
Synthesis according to Bloom is the putting together of elements and parts so as to form
a new and meaningful whole. Activities involving creating, planning, designing, preparing
or setting up would all require the synthesis of different elements. Examples would include
writing a story, designing an experiment, planning a conference, or designing a building.
Examiners use words like ‘combine,’ ‘integrate,’ ‘modify,’ ‘rearrange,’ ‘design,’ ‘compose,’
‘formulate,’ and so on to test understanding at this level.
Evaluation, or the ability to judge the value of learning material using clear criteria, either
of one’s own devising or derived from the work of others. It is the highest form of learning.
This might involve assessing the value of theories or models and making choices based on
reasoned argument. Examples of evaluation would include being able to make judgements
about the accuracy of an estimate, the adequacy of a budget, the value of a new idea, or the
significance of a research article. Examiners use words like ‘assess,’ ‘decide,’ ‘rank,’ ‘measure,’
‘recommend,’ ‘judge,’ ‘conclude,’ and so on to test learning at this level.
Facilitators should be aware that adult learners need to participate in small group activities
to help them move beyond understanding to application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.
Adults like an opportunity to share, reflect, and generalise the learning experiences. Some
professional bodies have organised their examination syllabus around Blooms taxonomy
with the earlier parts of the exam concentrating on the lower levels and the later exams
concentrating on the higher levels.
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1.5 LESSONS FROM BLOOM’S TAXONOMY

Learning is complicated. There are different types of learning – starting at the most basic
levels like knowledge and progressing to the most advanced stages like evaluation. The
deeper the learning the more advanced it is on Bloom’s taxonomy.
Surface learning happens at the basic level. This is the type of learning that is often referred
to as rote memorisation. A parrot can be trained to say certain words but it has no real
understanding of the words. Similarly with humans there is no real understanding at this
level. It is only at the advanced levels of application, synthesis and evaluation that real
understanding happens.
Understanding requires reflection and advanced processes such as analysis, synthesis and
evaluation. Most third level programmes such as degrees and professional qualifications are
organised on this basis with the most advanced stages of the examination testing application,
analysis, synthesis and evaluation with a foundation of knowledge taught at the earlier stages.
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‘Real learning gets to the heart of what it means to be human. Through learning we recreate
ourselves. Through learning we perceive the world and our relationship to it. Through
learning we extend our capacity to create, to be part of the generative process of life.’
– Peter Senge
1.6 THE ASPIRE SELF-DEVELOPMENT MODEL
ASPIRE Model of
SELF-DEVELOPMENT
Assess Current Position
SWOT Analysis
Plan
Implement
Review
Evaluate
Fig. 3.4 ASPIRE Self-development Model
This is a great model for adults who want to progress in their jobs or career. It offers a
systematic roadmap for personal improvement. People won’t get ahead unless they are
persistent and determined in the pursuit of their goals. In addition to goals, determination
must be combined and supported by a vision, plans and action programmes. Determination
without purpose is unlikely to bring success in your career. Careers must be planned and
not left to chance. The acronym, ASPIRE will help you remember the required steps for a
successful self-development plan:
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• Assess your current position. Decide where you are now, and the future desired
state – where you want to be. Keep this firmly in your mind’s eye. Consider how
you can get there. Successful people think about missions, roles, values, visions
and goals. A mission is discovering the purpose of your life. A role is the various
identities you have to assume to achieve your mission. Values such as telling the
truth and being honest are what are important to you. Vision translates your life
purpose into images specific enough to inspire. The conflict between the vision
and the reality of your present position drives you forward. The subconscious
mind generates the energy to achieve the vision. Goals are the specific results you
want to achieve in order to fulfil your mission. Once you set a goal the reticular
activating system in the brain makes you aware of new information which will help
you achieve your goal. This is why when you decide to do research on a particular
topic of interest you suddenly begin to see sources of information and ideas for
your topic all around you. The brain is switched on to anything that will help you
achieve your goal. There is a big difference between having a dream and becoming a
success. Not all dreamers achieve but all achievers are dreamers. Remember Martin
Luther King Jnr’s famous speech: ‘I have a dream?’ Successful people support their
dreams with action. Success comes to those people who dream things and then take
the necessary practical actions to make their dream come true. Starting a project
is more than half the battle.
• SWOT analysis. SWOT stands for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats.
Draw up a cruciform chart and fill in the four quadrants. Strengths might include
your positive attitude, determination, experience, qualifications and a good IQ.
Weaknesses might include your tendency to be reactive and to procrastinate. An
opportunity might be an offer of promotion or an assignment abroad while a
threat might be a downturn in the market and a possibility of company closure.
Carry out a strengths and weaknesses analysis of your capabilities. Try to turn
weaknesses into strengths and threats into opportunities. For example, a downturn
in the market might encourage you to acquire further qualifications which qualify
you for opportunities that will arise when the market picks up again. Notice the
gap between your existing level of experience and knowledge and the desired level.
Consider what you need to do to fill it. This might include further experience,
training and educational qualifications. Write down your long-term and short-term
targets and set up an action plan to achieve them.
• Plan. Draw up an action plan to achieve your long-term and short-term goals. In
the long-term you may need to do an MBA or professional qualification to give
you the competitive edge and help you get ahead in the future. In the short-term
you may need to develop all-round computer expertise such as internet skills, and
word processing, database, spreadsheet and graphical presentation skills. Consider
the resources you’ll need to acquire to support your plan. Resources would include
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finance, equipment, knowledge, skills and support from others. Don’t forget internet
based resources available to support your lifelong learning needs.
• Implement. Decide the steps to be taken and the deadlines that will make things
happen realistically. Reduce it to manageable (daily/weekly) steps. Focus your
concentration by doing one thing at a time. Edison, probably the greatest inventor
of all time, and who patented over 1,000 commercial products including the electric
bulb and gramophone, always focused on one thing at a time.
Write daily to do actions into your diary. Tick them off as you achieve them. This will
concentrate your mind, give you a sense of accomplishment and satisfaction and help
motivate you to continue. Many people give up when on the cusp of achievement –
if they had only stuck to the task a little longer they would have reaped the results!
• Review. Write down the rewards (immediate, intermediate and final) to yourself
when you have achieved your goals and sub goals. What will you feel, hear and
do on the achievement of your goals? What praise, compliments, recognition and
respect will you earn? See yourself graduating with that MBA? Imagine the scene
and sense of elation and pride. A combination of desire, imagination and expectancy
will keep your going and see you through in the end.
• Evaluate. How successful have you been in achieving your personal development
goals? What can you learn from any setbacks or mistakes? What corrective action do
you need to take to put things right and get you back on target again? What lessons
can you apply to other areas of your life? Evaluation is a continuous process against
sub-goals to measure progress until the desired end-goal is achieved. Evaluation is an
integral part of lifelong learning – learning from your mistakes, taking corrective action
and implementing a process of continuous improvement. The cycle continues as we
reflect on, analyse and evaluate what we learn and open ways for further learning.
This ensures that you are taking concrete action to improve throughout your life.
1.7 LESSONS FROM THE ASPIRE MODEL

The ASPIRE model gives you a systematic step by step approach to personal development.
It shows you that there is a process to follow if you want to draw up and implement a
successful personal development plan. Goals must be supported by a vision, plans and action
programmes if you want to progress.
‘It’s not the strongest, who survive, nor the most intelligent, but the ones most adaptable
to change.’
– Charles Darwin
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LEARNING MODELS AND STYLES Learning Styles for Adults
2 LEARNING STYLES FOR ADULTS

• What is the Kolb learning cycle?
• What is Mumford and Honey’s learning styles?
• What is the VAK model of learning styles?
• What are Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences?
• What is the difference between Fixed and Growth Mindsets?
• What is Whole Brain learning?
• What is Smart Successful Behaviour for Adults?
2.1 KOLB’S LEARNING CYCLE

This is another famous, useful and respected model that adult learners should be aware of. It
is widely practised and accepted in learning circles although some academics query its validity
because it has little empirical research supporting it. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) a
French philosopher was one of the first to promote the idea that there were different learning
styles. He felt that teaching should pursue a student’s ‘natural inclinational impulses’ and
‘feelings.’ This is also in line with Carl Jung’s (1875–1961) thoughts on teaching. Jung was
a Swiss psychiatrist and psychotherapist and the founder of analytical psychology. He said:
‘One looks back with appreciation to the brilliant teachers, but with gratitude to those who
touched our human feelings.’
Kurt Lewin (1890–1947) was an American psychologist and as a researcher at MIT came
up with the learning cycle of action, reflection, generalisation and testing. Jean Piaget
(1896–1980), a Swiss psychologist known for his pioneering work on child development,
maintained that experience, conceptualisation, reflection and action are the foundation of
adult thinking.
David Kolb (born 1939), an American educational theorist, is the creator of the best known
learning cycle. Kolb built on the ideas of Piaget and Lewin by saying that learners go through
a cycle of experience, reflection and action to build up their knowledge, skills and attitudes.
Isaac Newton said: ‘If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.’
The learning styles of activist, reflector, theorist and pragmatist promoted by Alan Mumford
and Peter Honey are linked to the learning cycle and we will explore these styles later on.
The learning cycle highlights the importance of reflection and continuous improvement
and learning. It is a simple idea, and simple ideas are often the best. Newton and Einstein
maintained that simple laws explain complicated things. The premise of learning style models
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is that it is better to match the learning design to the particular learning style preferences
of the learner. It also leads to less learner stress in the learning environment.
The mnemonic DRUD will help you remember the steps involved:
• Do something (activist). Be actively involved in the experience.

• Reflect on it (reflector). Think deeply about the experience.
• Understand it (theorist). Use analytical skills to conceptualise the experience.
• Do it differently (pragmatist). Use decision-making and problem-solving skills to
use the new ideas gained from the experience.
Kolb’s Learning Cycle is illustrated in the following diagram:
Do something
Activist
Do it differently Think about it

Pragmatist Reflector
Make sense of it
Theorist
Fig. 3.5 Kolb’s Learning Cycle
Do something (Activist)
Getting information is essential for learning. In formal education in schools and colleges
getting information is the primary goal. We are treated like an empty vessel and become
totally dependent on the teacher to fill us with information – a type of learned helplessness.
This is where we become powerless and feel we cannot undertake learning activities ourselves
without the guidance of a teacher. In the real world you mostly learn by actually doing
things yourself, by identifying and exploiting opportunities. On-the-job learning is possibly
the best type of learning. People learn and remember more effectively by actually doing
the task. Such an approach brings all the senses, visual, auditory and tactile to bear on the
learning activity.
Vision is probably the most important sense giving us precise spatial information on objects
around us. These maps of the world form the backbone of our thinking and learning.
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Auditory data is the core of language, which has both thinking and emotional content.
This also helps us to build our maps of the world. Tactile substitutes for vision in that we
can use touch to create maps or visual representations of anything within our reach. This
is how a blind person interprets their surroundings.
Smell and taste are sensed through our emotional system. Sweet, sour, fragrant and putrid
all trigger experiences such as pleasure or disgust in our body that we interpret as feelings.
These feelings become part of the sensory data that engender emotional responses. On-
the-job learning including job enrichment; job enlargement and job rotation engage all
the senses. This is why they are very impactful methods of learning. On-the-job learning
also includes coaching, mentoring, shadowing, demonstrations, secondments, project work
and overseas assignments. In formal programmes, learning facilitators try to mimic the real
world by using models, simulations, role-play and case studies.
Think about it (Reflector)

At the end of each day, you should review successes and failures and record them in a
learning log or diary for active review. Reflection gives you the time to make links and
associations between new events and past events. The more past events you have to draw
on the greater your ability to make links. Reflecting and learning from your mistakes and
successes is the most effective form of learning. You don’t want to make the same mistakes
over and over again. We make progress by correcting and building on what we did before.
You do want to repeat your successes. Aristotle like Socrates believed that asking probing
questions, critically debating issues and seeking answers is the best way to learn. If you ask
the right questions, you’ll elicit the right answers.
G.B. Shaw said: ‘Most people do not think, I have made a fortune from thinking about
once or twice a week.’ Henry Ford is reputed to have said that thinking is the hardest
work there is, which is probably the reason why so few do it. Einstein maintained that the
most important part of learning was asking questions. Directed curiosity about why certain
things happen the way they do and cause and effect relationships will help you learn from
the past. Apply questions like what, when, how, where and who to your experiences. How
can you apply the lessons in the future to help you avoid repeating past mistakes and work
more efficiently and effectively?
A person with an insatiable thirst for knowledge and an endless curiosity about the world
around him was the Renaissance artist and inventor Leonardo da Vinci. He learned by
reflecting on the mysteries of nature.
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The review process is also called the ‘Santayana Review,’ after the famous philosopher George
Santayana, who coined the phrase ‘Those who cannot remember the past are condemned
to repeat it.’ This is why we learn history. Unfortunately, many people today are indifferent
to the past and by failing to reflect on it, valuable lessons for the future are lost. If you
consider the mistakes of current political leaders you will know what I mean. They seem
to repeat the same mistakes as their predecessors made.
Reflection is enhanced by feedback. Learners should take every opportunity to receive

constructive feedback from teachers, trainers, coaches, mentors or supervisors. Feedback
can enable the learner to analyse their actions and understandings and to plan for future
learning. Those who neglect to consider feedback are missing out on an important source of
learning. You can use negative experiences as a source for thoughtful reflection, and further
analysis may help you to reframe these experiences and thus find new meaning from them.
Make sense of it (Theorist)

Make sense of your experiences. To get a great insight into your experience, relate it to
theoretical concepts, models, knowledge and previous experience. Practice, by nature, will
always differ from theory. One difference is that practice is experienced in a social context
in the real world and understood through our unique perspective. But the theory may help
you understand the experiences better and thus act as a guide in the future. The trick is to
take what is useful from the theory, apply it and discard the rest.
All human progress has been acquired through carrying out experiments, carefully observing
what went on, making any necessary adjustments and making sense of what happened.
Theories come and go and are discarded and replaced by more reliable theories based on
sounder principles and research, using more sophisticated scientific detecting devices.
Learning is a continuous modification of what we already know. For example, it was only
recently (2016) and almost a hundred years later than Einstein’s theory of gravitational
waves has finally been proved. In his day Einstein had no computers, no internet and no
on line printers. Even pocket calculators and ball point pens did not exist. Yet it took the
most sophisticated scientific computers ever built, costing hundreds of millions of dollars,
to prove his idea – an idea he had come up with as a thought experiment requiring nothing
more sophisticated than a paper and fountain pen combined with a creative imagination
and sharp mind.
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Do it differently (pragmatist)
This is the final stage of the learning cycle – adapting your ideas if necessary and trying them
out to see if they work. Theories must be tested by action to see how our understanding
matches reality. Adults are most likely to learn when a new experience conflicts with their
existing theories.
Learners need to talk and debate with facilitators and peers to gauge the soundness and
validity of their theories. These people can supply new experiences and raise new questions
for the learner to confront. Learners need to explore and discover for themselves what works
and what doesn’t work.
It is only by changing our actions that we hope to change the outcomes. If you keep on
doing the same things you are going to get the same results. This is the reason why some
people get stuck in a rut. If something doesn’t work, you need to try something else until
you get the desired outcomes. This feedback channels your energies and determination in
a positive and constructive way. This will enable you to critically solve problems and make
decisions. After this, the learning cycle starts again and continues its indefinite cycle. The
learning cycle is thus a loop of continuous feedback and relearning.
‘This delicate little plant, aside from stimulation, stands mainly in need of freedom; without
this it goes to rack and ruin without fail.’
– Albert Einstein
2.2 THE FOUR STYLES OF LEARNING

Adult learners will become more motivated to learn if they know about their strengths and
weaknesses as learners. It is long accepted that learners vary enormously in the speed and
manner with which they grasp new information and ideas and the confidence with which
they process and use them. It depends on their talent, aptitude, experience and interest.
Learners respond to some teaching methods better than others. Also, learners retain some
material better and for a longer period of time than other material delivered in a different
way. It depends on how useful the information is and how much interest we have in it. We
are all born with unique brains and have distinctive learning styles framed by our experience
of the world. The four learning styles model gives us a useful framework and some insights
into why this is so.
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People have different approaches to learning. Some people are inclined to be academic and
are interested in theories and concepts. Others are more interested in the practical application
of ideas. Adult learners in general like to get involved actively in their own learning and
development. They like to share their experiences and be self-directing and problem-centred.
Some learners are analytical and rational and prefer logical and sequential learning. Others
are creative and artistic and like plenty of interaction, visual/spatial experiences and role-play.
To develop our brainpower, we should engage in a variety of learning experiences. These

should appeal to both the rational and artistic parts of the brain and to as many of our
senses as possible. Psychologists now believe that we mostly learn through hands on practical
experience rather than passively listening to lectures.
There are numerous learning style models around with their own particular terminology
(this can be confusing for the novice). A very popular model is one developed by Alan
Mumford (1912–1988) and Peter Honey, who were management development experts and
colleagues in the mid-seventies. Their model was based on their own research with managers
but influenced by the Kolb model. It was published in 1982. It has its limitations but is
widely used and respected especially in management training and development. They have
identified four types of learners which can be linked to the learning cycle. The four types
are Activist, Reflector, Theorist and Pragmatist. The mnemonic TRAP will help you recall
the four types of learner. Let’s now explain these in some detail.
• Activist • Reflector
Four Types
Of Learners
• Theorist • Pragmatist
Fig. 3.6 Four Styles of Learners
• Activist. As the name suggests, activists have a hands on approach and enjoy
getting things done. They are very much involved in the here and now. They
enjoy learning new experiences especially if they have a practical use. They tend
to be reactive rather than proactive. They thrive on problem solving. They enjoy
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brainstorming and lateral thinking and love being involved in teams. They are
gregarious, attention-seeking and like to be the life and soul of the party. They
are more at home in doing things rather than thinking about things. They do not
learn well from passive situations such as reading a book, observing somebody else
do something, watching a video or listening to a lecture. Instead they prefer to
be challenged and learn best on-the-job through practical exposure, trial and error
and direct experience. Activists make good engineers, builders and trades people.
• Reflector. Plato said, ‘The life which is unexamined is not worth living.’ Plato
believed that learning was a process of inner reflection to discover truth and the
knowledge within us. Reflectors tend to think deeply about their experiences and
consider them from different perspectives. They like to consider the facts and weigh
options carefully before they come to a conclusion. They tend to be cautious and
have the philosophy of ‘look before you leap.’ Consequently, reflective people when
asked a question need to think about their answer before they provide one. Socially
they tend to be quiet, reserved and detached but are good listeners. Part of their
approach is to get as many different points of view as possible before making up their
own minds. They like to research and reflect before they plan and do things. They
do not like being rushed into making decisions. Instead they like to be thoroughly
briefed before dealing with a situation or solving a problem. The Lord gave us two
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ends – one to sit on and the other to think with. Success depends on which one
we use the most! Reflectors make good strategic planners and political advisors.
• Theorist. Theorists tend to be detached, logical, analytical and rational. They are
keen on basic assumptions, principles, theories, concepts, models, systems thinking
and facts. They learn through observation, discussion, analysis and sophisticated
philosophical reasoning. They like to consider numerous viewpoints and theories and
analyse situations before generating and selecting alternatives approaches to a task.
They feel uncomfortable with ambiguous experiences, creative and lateral thinking.
They like to organise different facts and synthesise them into coherent theories. They
are good people to have around because of their objectivity. In a group situation,
they may come up with interesting factually based alternatives and challenge the
conventional wisdom. Theorists make good systems analysts and academics.
• Pragmatist. As the name suggests, these people have a very good practical bent.
They can’t wait to try out ideas, theories and techniques to see if they work in
practice. Unlike activists, they like to see a link between what they’ve learned and
the situations in which they plan to use it. They are more proactive than reactive.
They like to learn through practical demonstrations and are the type of people who
come back from a learning event bursting with enthusiasm and ideas and very keen
to apply them. Abstract concepts, theories and models are of limited use unless
they see an application for them in practice. They see problems as opportunities
and threats as challenges. They know there is always a better way of doing things.
They believe in the philosophy of continuous improvement. Pragmatists make good
computer programmers, engineers and work study practitioners.
2.3 LESSONS FROM THE LEARNING STYLES MODEL

Most people have a mix of the four learning styles, with a preference for one or two. Learning
styles can be influenced by aptitudes, past experience, learning preferences, education, work
and the learning context. It is important to know that they are not fixed but may be adapted
to the needs of the situation and what is being learned. You can determine your learning
styles by taking one of the questionnaires on Google. These only take about 20 minutes
to complete and they will give you a fair idea of your learning preferences. The results of
such tests should be used as a guide rather than accepted as definitive. The notion that we
learn better by favouring a particular form of sensory input – a visual style as opposed to
a verbal style – has received little validation in scientific research. Most of the proof seems
to be anecdotal rather than scientific.
It is important to find out your learning preferences so that you can take corrective action
on your weaker styles. Draw up an action plan specifying the actions you need to take to
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improve your weaker styles. Also, when going for jobs, it might be a good idea to find out
your particular preferences in order to match the style to the requirements of the job. If
you coach or mentor people try to find out their learning styles so that you can cater for
their needs. Research shows that learners absorb information quicker if the teaching style
is matched to the learner’s style, although in practice this matching can be quite difficult
to achieve.
‘When a concrete experience is enriched by reflection, given meaning by thinking, and

transformed by action, the new experience created becomes richer, broader, and deeper.’
– David Kolb
2.4 VAK MODEL OF LEARNING STYLES

There is general agreement that different learning styles exist. However, despite a proliferation
of numerous models on the market there is little agreement on which one is the best. In
addition, there is controversy regarding their academic validity with all sorts of unproven
claims being made. They should only be used as guides and as useful ways of understanding
different learning styles and preferences. They are part of our repertoire of learning to
learn skills.
Visual
Seeing
Images
Diagrams
Audial
Hearing
Discussing
Listening to lectures
Kinaesthetic
Tactile
Field trips
Demonstrations
Fig. 3.7 VAK Learning Model
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The VAK model is an acronymic guide to the three basic styles of learning. It is a much
more straightforward and easier to understand approach to the learning styles issue than the
Kolb learning cycle – hence its popularity with learning instructors and designers of learning
events. However, it does give a different perspective on learning styles which will increase your
understanding of the topic. The VAK model was developed by practitioners of neurolinguistic
programming (NLP), and stands for Visual, Auditory and Kinaesthetic. This model is very
useful for adult learners as it gives a practical and memorable guide to how we learn.
We learn mostly through thee senses – seeing, hearing and touching – but in a learning
context many learners have a preference for one particular style or indeed any combination
of styles. In fact, some people have a mixed and evenly balanced blend of the three styles.
The other senses, such as taste and smell do not seem as important, although smell can often
invoke strong memories of linked past childhood events. In addition, taste is important to
wine tasters and cooks.
Psychologists estimate that we learn 60 per cent through our visual senses, 30 per cent
through our auditory senses, and 10 per cent through our kinaesthetic senses (via the
sensation of touching, which includes moving). These are rough estimates only as learners
will have a unique combination of styles depending on their experience and preferences.
Facilitators of learning who design learning events to cater for all of these styles have a
greater chance of getting their message across and achieving their learning objectives. In a
learning context, then, VAK stands for:
Visual learning (seeing and reading)

The visual cortex in the human brain is five times larger than the auditory cortex. Not
surprisingly, therefore, many learners have a preference for visual learning. Visual learners
have vivid imaginations, learn by seeing or observing things, and may find verbal instructions
boring or difficult. Visual learning might be by means of DVDs, YouTube, learning maps,
graphs, diagrams, charts, handouts, video clips and pictures. If you have trouble remembering
spoken instruction but can follow written instructions, you obviously have a preference for
visual learning.
Visual learners can remember what they see whether in text or pictorially and reproduce it
visually. They like to see the big picture and purpose. They prefer a time-line to remember
historical events. At presentations they like to take detailed notes, even when notes are
provided. Visual learners tend to be best at written communication. They tend to use the
sentences ‘I see what you mean,’ ‘I get the picture,’ ‘The future looks bright,’ and ‘I see
your point.’ Visual learners should make their learning as visually appealing as possible.
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A mini case study about visual learners

Ruth is a visual learner. She is 21 years of age and lives at home with her mother and father.
She struggled at primary and secondary school and because of this experience believes she
is not very smart. She was shy and reserved and was afraid to draw attention to herself
by asking specific questions. She recently attended a learning event on learning styles and
discovered she was a visual learner.
She realised that there were learning strategies she could use as a visual learner which would
help her to learn more effectively. She has started using learning maps to capture information
and this has given her a new perspective on learning. She is able to visualise learning maps
in her mind and she finds that this is a great aid to memorising and learning.
She also discovered that it is easier to understand information if there is a context to

place it in, if linked to other information, or if she can apply the information in her life.
Unfortunately, at school she wasn’t made aware of this so that she was inclined to ‘tune out’
and daydream in class. Ruth has returned to college and finds that her new understanding
of learning has aided her greatly. She looks forward to study and assignments as she is now
aware of the learning strategies that suit her particular learning style. She uses learning maps
to summarise the main points of the lecture in class and fills it out when she gets home.
This gives her a comprehensive overview of the lecture which she can use for learning
and revision. She self-tests her knowledge by drawing learning maps from memory and
comparing them with originals she has previously compiled. She then fills in the gaps in
her knowledge. Ruth is now a confident learner and she feels that discovering her learning
style has opened up a new chapter in her life particularly regarding her potential to learn.
Auditory learning (listening and speaking)

Good auditory learners learn through reading aloud, asking questions and listening to
CDs. Unlike visual learners they generally do not create images in their minds. Auditory
learners relate best to the spoken word combined with the written. They tend to listen to
a lecture, and then take notes afterwards, or rely on handouts. They learn best if they write
summaries or outlines of course material in their own words. Often written information
will have little meaning to them until it has been heard. For more effective learning it helps
auditory learners to read out loud particularly when revising.
They like to talk through a concept they feel difficult to understand. When attending lectures
they may like to record them so that they can listen to them afterwards at their leisure.
They can also listen to the recordings while going to and from lectures. Auditory learners
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may be good public speakers and they tend to favour professions like law, public relations
or politics. They thrive on group discussion and love to debate issues. They have a good
ear for accents and can mimic people quite easily. Consequently they make accomplished
comedians. They use sentences like ‘sounds good to me,’ ‘explain it to me,’ ‘I hear you loud
and clear, and ‘it sound like music to my ears.’ Auditory learners should make as many
auditory cues as possible.
A mini case study about auditory learners

Mary is a 36 year old separated mother who has two children aged 16 and 12. She left school
half-way through her secondary education much to the dismay of her parents because she
was bored and preferred to socialise with her friends rather than study. She always liked to
read and listen to topical debates on the radio and has kept this up since she left school. If
she is interested in the topic she has good powers of concentration and likes to reflect on
what she has read and heard.
For the past 12 years she has had various part-time jobs mainly as a cleaner in offices and
private homes. She is reasonably content with her lot as she believed that is all she was
capable of achieving having never earned good academic results at school. She recently took
an IQ test and was told she was working well below her potential. She was informed she
had a good logical brain and very good reading skills. She has a very supportive mother
who is a loving grandmother and who is always willing to babysit for her.
At home she is a very good organiser, money manager and her housekeeping skills are of
a high order. She lives within a tight budget and likes to operate to lists of things and has
schedules for various tasks that she needs to attend to during the week. This attention to
detail has helped her achieve great efficiencies in the way she works and has also given her
time to keeping up her reading.
Recently she was offered a job with a local charity as an office administrator and organiser
of charitable events. This has opened her eyes to her true potential and capabilities and
she hopes to take up part-time studies over the next few years learning office and personal
computer skills. She plans to make recordings of lectures and listen to them while commuting
or during spare moments of the day. Mary has experienced a radical reassessment of her
true potential and is now looking forward to a more fulfilling and rewarding life.
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Kinaesthetic learning (touching and doing)

These are tactile learners who learn through physical and emotional experience. They find it
difficult to remain still for extended periods of time. Learning may be by means of Post-it
notes, cue cards, and exercising while listening to music on the smartphone. In general they
like a hands-on approach to learning and so touching, feeling, doing and role-play would
suit their learning style. They like to use highlighters and touch their learning materials.
They like actively researching and completing a project or assignment.
They learn best through demonstrations, imitation and practice. The cerebellum – a part of
the brain that stores skill or muscle memory – regulates physical movement, and this kind
of memory is particularly long-lasting. People who learn to cycle or swim never forget. As
Aristotle said: ‘Anything we have to learn to do we learn by the actual doing of it…’ We
become ethical by doing ethical acts, conscientious by working hard, temperate by avoiding
alcohol, fit by taking exercise and brave by performing brave acts.
Infants have a preference for kinaesthetic learning. An infant may pick up a toy, look at it,
shake, move, bite and taste it, throw it away and sometimes break it. This is how the infant
learns about the world. Infants instinctively know that passive observation is insufficient
to learn. Kinaesthetic learners use sentences like ‘That feels right for me,’ ‘let’s try it out
and see what happens,’ ‘I feel we’re moving in the right direction,’ and ‘I’ve got a grip on
what you’re saying.’ Any occupation where people use their hands suit kinaesthetic learners.
Kinaesthetic learners should actively take notes, draw learning maps, take stand-up-and-
stretch breaks, and generally learn by doing including transferring text material to their
computers via a keyboard.
A mini case study about kinaesthetic learners

Simon is 22 years of age and in a serious relationship with the mother of his two year
old son. He left school early and didn’t finish his secondary education. He wasn’t a good
student and found his experience at school uninspiring and boring. His teachers had a talk
and chalk approach to imparting knowledge which bored Simon. He was unable to relate
things to life events and so didn’t see the point of most lessons, and thus was unable and
unwilling to learn them. He felt stupid, discouraged and self-doubting. He was interested
in football and couldn’t wait until the end of class to go playing with his team mates. Since
leaving school Simon has been mostly unemployed getting brief stints of casual work. These
included spells on a building site and in a building supplier’s store. As a hobby he likes
to dismantle and reassemble personal computers. He finds this pastime very relaxing and
enjoyable. He often repairs PCs for friends and relatives and loves the positive feedback.
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Simon has now decided to do something about his job situation and thinks he would make
a good computer technician. He finds that he can do a two year part-time course at night
at the local college with good prospects of getting a suitable job with a local employer on
completion of the course. In the meantime he will be able to do part-time work. A career
counsellor has told Simon that he is an active, verbal learner. He now realises that he has
a hands-on approach to learning and likes to discuss problems with his classmates at night
school. He particularly likes using the computer to write up his assignments.
He also likes to do something concrete with the knowledge he acquires and has started a
little business repairing personal computers. Simon now concludes that he was completely
unsuited to the talk and chalk approach adopted by the teacher at school. He likes actively
doing, constructing and discussing things. Had he been aware of this he could have had a
more positive learning experience at school and his life may have turned out much differently.
‘Since we cannot know what knowledge will be most needed in the future, it is senseless
to try to teach it in advance. Instead, we should try to turn out people who love learning
so much and learn so well that they will be able to learn whatever needs to be learned.’
– John Holt
2.5 LESSONS FROM THE VAK MODEL

The VAK model is intuitively appealing and easy to learn and remember – hence its popularity
with trainers, coaches, mentors and other facilitators of learning. It is very popular with
NLP practitioners. Like other learning style models it highlights the fact that the best and
most effective learning is obtained if we match the learning style of the learning facilitator
with that of the learner.
It should be used as a guide only and is a useful addition to our repertoire of learning to
learn skills. It gives us a different perspective on how people learn and emphasises the role
that the senses play in our learning. Learning preferences should not be treated as fixed
but vary from time to time in line with the learners needs, experience and context. Most
learners have a blend of learning styles but many have a strong preference for the visual style.
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2.6 GARDNER’S MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

Some people are very quick at learning new things. Some people have excellent memories.
Some people are good at solving problems while others are good at learning new words or
a foreign language. Some people are good at understanding ideas while others are good at
doing physical tasks. Some people are great socialisers while others prefer the solitude of their
own company. Some people have an ear for music while others are tone deaf. Some people
are good rational thinkers while others have a bent for creativity. We are all intelligent in
our own unique ways. The challenge is to discover and exploit the way or ways we excel in.
The difference between successful and average learners seems to be the extent in which
successful learners are able to build up particular abilities, often by sheer enthusiasm,
application, willpower, effort and years of dedicated training and experience. Also, they
are often helped by being in the right place at the right time with good parents, teachers,
coaches and mentors.
In his book Frames of Mind (1984), Howard Gardner gives seven reasons to boost self-
esteem for learning. In 1996 Gardner added an eight intelligence which he called natural
intelligence. Other authors have suggested spiritual and practical intelligence. Gardner
considers the conventional IQ to be a very limited way of measuring intelligence as it focuses
mainly on the verbal and logical areas. Despite the conventional wisdom, just because you’re
poor at maths doesn’t mean that you are not smart! Learners have diverse intelligences and
one IQ test is insufficient to evaluate, label and plan learning programmes for all learners.
Many individuals show talents in more than one discipline. Musicians, for example, need
not only an understanding of music but also kinaesthetic intelligence to manipulate the
keys on a saxophone or draw the bow across the strings of a violin or hit the appropriate
keys on a piano. Similarly scientists often need a blend of intelligences. They need linguistic
intelligence to describe and explain their discoveries made through using their mathematical
intelligence and in writing up their findings. They must employ interpersonal intelligence
in interacting with colleagues and in maintaining a productive and smooth functioning
laboratory. Dancers combine musical, spatial and kinaesthetic intelligences. Conventional
education concentrates predominately on the linguistic and analytical (mathematical)
intelligences. In a learning situation, trainers, coaches and mentors need to draw on as
many of the intelligences as possible.
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Music Body
Smart Smart
Picture People
Smart Smart
MULTIPLE
INTELLIGENCES
Self Word
Smart Smart
Nature Logic
Smart Smart
Fig. 3.8 Multiple Intelligence Model
Gardner identifies eight different types of intelligences which he considers we all have or
can nurture and develop to a lessor or greater degree. He defines intelligence as an ability
to solve a problem or make a product that is valuable in at least one culture or community.
He emphasises that multiple intelligence is very different from learning styles although the
two are sometimes confused. The theory of multiple intelligences has been enthusiastically
embraced by many educationalists, trainers and learning facilitators.
2.7 THE EIGHT INTELLIGENCES IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER
Analytical intelligence or logic smart

This is one of the eight intelligences described by Howard Gardner. It refers to the intelligence
of the logical or mathematical learner. People with this intelligence are good at reasoning,
logic, problem-solving and mathematics. They like to do experiments, solve puzzles, work
with numbers, explore patterns and relationships and find connections between separate
pieces of information. Accountants, actuaries, architects, engineers, scientists, statisticians,
mathematicians, computer programmers and lawyers are the types of people who value
this ability.
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Charles Babbage (1792–1871), a British inventor, who designed and built mechanical
computing machines on principles that anticipated the modern electronic computer, had a
superb analytical intelligence. In more modern times, Bill Gates, one of the richest people
in the world and the founder of Microsoft, has a superb logical/mathematical intelligence.
Other renowned mathematicians and scientists with this intelligence included Alfred North
Whitehead, Henri Poincare, Albert Einstein and Marie Curie.
In everyday life, people good at household budgeting, organising and time management
have this style of intelligence. It is usually noticed early in life and peaks at between 30
and 40 years of age. Edward de Bono, of lateral thinking fame, suggests that when looking
at problems we should consider plus, minus and interesting factors. Like linguistic ability,
analytical ability is highly valued in the academic, accounting and business world. We all
have this ability to one extent or another.
People with this intelligence learn best by categorising, arranging, classifying and working
with abstract information. Logical intelligence is fundamental to business acumen and
scientific thinking. Scientists when doing research establish a hypothesis, test it, and then
modify it in the light of the results. Theories last only as long as they are not disproved.
Eventually they will be replaced by better proven and more acceptable theories.
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As a learner you exercise and develop your logical intelligence by comparing and contrasting
situations, doing mental arithmetic, doing cause-and-effect analysis and creating decision trees.
In your domestic life prepare a cash budget for your personal expenditure and balance your
current account. Watch science, court, and business programmes on television to develop this
intelligence better. To improve your analytical reading skills, operate the PEACE approach
which stands for looking for key Points, Evidence, Assumptions, Conclusions and Examples.
This will help you develop a more critical and reflective view of whatever you read.
Interpersonal intelligence or people smart

People with this intelligence are good at interpersonal relationships, have the ability to
read other people’s moods and understand the motives and concerns of others. They have
a good sense of empathy and get along very well with their peers, friends, work colleagues
and acquaintances. They have a good sense of humour and don’t take themselves or life
too seriously.
A lack of interpersonal intelligence would limit your ability to operate successfully within
groups. The ability to work and collaborate with others is a prerequisite for success in the
corporate world.
Many famous people were handicapped in their personal lives by a lack of interpersonal
intelligence. Isaac Newton (1642–1727) had one of the best scientific brains of all time
but was an arrogant and difficult man who fell out with many of his contemporaries.
Similarly, Beethoven (1770–1827) had a low interpersonal intelligence. He had a brusque
and often uncouth manner. His personal eccentricities and unpredictability became worse
as he grew older, mainly because of his realisation in 1798 that he was going deaf. On the
other hand, Raphael (1483–1520), unlike his two famous contemporaries, Leonardo da
Vinci and Michelangelo, was not a solitary genius but a sociable and approachable figure.
Well known examples of people with this intelligence are President Clinton, Oprah Winfrey,
the late Mother Teresa and the late Sir Terry Wogan. They tend to be extroverts, friendly
in a very relaxed way, unflappable, humorous, project a modest persona and seem to treat
all people equally. They have superb communication and empathy skills. They can sense
others’ feelings, temperament, and intentions. However, some people can project a false
persona which is not really representative of their true personality. An example that comes
to mind is Ronald Reagan, the late president of the United States.
Reagan was widely admired for his remarkable presence, personal charisma and ability to
engage, inspire and motivate people – all the traits of somebody with high interpersonal
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intelligence. On the other hand, his biographers and close acquaintances actually saw him
in a different light. They found him flat, emotionally disconnected and unable to engage
at a deep personal level. This is supported by the estranged relationship (with the exception
of his wife Nancy) he had with his children. He had been a film actor in his younger years
and in his political life seemed to be playing a part rather than being genuinely interested
in other people.
Salespeople, trainers, social directors, travel agents, clinicians, and human resource people
such as interviewers, counsellors and negotiators need interpersonal intelligence to do well in
their jobs. People in the hospitality industry and the caring professions need this intelligence
to be successful in their chosen careers.
The interpersonal learner learns best by sharing, comparing, relating, cooperating, influencing,
negotiating, resolving conflicts and interviewing. To enhance this intelligence get involved
in teams, debating societies, clubs, teach others, lead discussions, coach and mentor others,
conduct interviews and seminars, engage in small talk with shop assistants and socialise as
much as possible. We all have this intelligence to a lessor or greater extent. It is up to each
person to develop it further. Some business people maintain that whereas IQ will get you
hired, you need practical and interpersonal intelligence to get you noticed and promoted.
Intrapersonal intelligence or self-smart

People with this intelligence tend to be introverts. In learning style mode they are called
reflectors. They tend to be deep thinkers, introspective, and detached, focusing on inner
feelings and intuitions. These sorts of people have a high level of self-understanding and
self-perception and know the workings of their inner mind. They know their own strengths
and weaknesses, talents, motivations, values, beliefs, interests, prejudices, goals and feelings.
They know what they can do, what they can’t do and thus which things to avoid. They
know who to go to when they need help.
Without self-knowledge people often make very poor decisions in their personal lives with
lifelong serious consequences. Learners with good intrapersonal intelligence understand
the areas in which they are likely to excel, which helps them plan and manage their own
learning. Leaders need to be socially aware as well as being self-aware. They need to have
a heightened sensitivity as to how their behaviour, in words and deeds, impacts on those
they lead.
Monks and religious in the contemplative religious life such as Christians and Buddhists
tend to have developed this intelligence to a high degree. Freud’s science of psychoanalysis
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emerged from his great capacity for self-reflection and introspection. Jung classified people as
either introverts or extroverts. Writers, philosophers, therapists, counsellors, psychotherapists
and psychologists need intrapersonal intelligence to be successful in their careers.
Well known philosophers include Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Confucius, Voltaire and William
James. Socrates is said to have learned the motto ‘Know thyself ’ from the Oracle at Delphi.
In knowing oneself, he saw the possibility of learning what is really good, in contrast to
accepting and being influenced by the superficialities of life and mere outward appearances.
To enhance this intelligence, reflect on your life’s experiences on a daily basis and record
them in a diary. Read the works of the great philosophers. We all have this intelligence to
a lessor or greater extent. The intrapersonal learner learns best from project work, writing,
research and computer based training. Use guided imagery, meditation and a reflection
journal to develop this intelligence.
Kinaesthetic intelligence or body smart

Describes learning through doing, moving and touching. People with this intelligence have
the ability to use their bodies to express emotion, play games and invent things. Athletes,
footballers, boxers, racing drivers, dancers, masseurs, chiropractors, osteopaths, mime artists,
gymnasts and sculptors all have this intelligence.
Surgeons need fine-tuned kinaesthetic skills to carry out precise operations, and skilled
tradespeople need highly developed manual skills. Brain research shows that when you move
your body, you produce chemicals that have a positive effect on thinking. People who learn
in an active, relaxed setting learn faster – and remember more – than those who just sit
passively and listen.
A superb example of kinaesthetic intelligence is Rory McIIroy, the Northern Ireland

professional golfer. He was world number one in the Official World Golf Ranking for 95
weeks. Despite the pressures of early stardom, Rory maintains a friendly, down-to-earth
presence on and off the links demonstrating a high interpersonal intelligence in addition
to his kinaesthetic intelligence. Other well-known examples of people with kinaesthetic
intelligence would include Thomas Edison, Michael Flatley, Fred Astaire, Martha Graham,
Marcel Marceau, George Best, Charlie Chaplin, and Muhammad Ali.
People with this intelligence have a hands-on approach and tend to be mechanically minded.
They like to take things apart and put them back together again. Experiential learning
such as project based learning and the action learning approach enhances this intelligence.
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Psychologists know that experiential learning is what we are programmed by evolution to

do. Get learners to perform the job, role-play, demonstrate to others, and simulate real
situations. To enhance this intelligence, use body language, take notes, make learning maps,
make models, walk up and down as your learn, learn on-the-job, and practise. The more
practice you get the better. We all have this intelligence to a lessor or greater degree.
Linguistic intelligence or word smart

People with this intelligence are good at reading, writing, talking, debating and learning
languages. They tend to have an excellent vocabulary, be fluent speakers and good all-round
communicators. They have an interest in words, the origin of words and how they are used.
They process information through many forms of the written and spoken word, such as
poetry, humour, story-telling, metaphors, reading and writing. Linguistic ability is likely
to increase right through life and into their fifties, sixties and seventies. They are good at
remembering names, dates, places, facts and other detailed information. Poets, writers,
actors, lawyers, preachers, public speakers and politicians tend to have highly developed
linguistic intelligence.
Oscar Wilde (1854–1900) the Irish poet and dramatist, was a great conversationalist and a
man of great wit and wide learning. James Joyce (1882–1941), the Irish born author, was
one of the greatest literary innovators of the 20th century. His books contain extraordinary
experiments in language and in writing style. Other examples of people with great linguistic
intelligence are William Shakespeare, Winston Churchill, John F. Kennedy, Bill Clinton,
Isaac Asimov, Charles Dickens, Henry James, Maya Angelou and Jerry Seinfeld. It is not
widely known that Winston Churchill, the great English statesman, won the Nobel Prize for
Literature. Linguistic intelligence is highly valued in most occupations and in life generally.
Many politicians have this ability to a high degree.
To enhance this intelligence, learn from books, DVDs, CDs, games, lectures and seminars,
do crosswords and word games and debate issues with friends. Write instructions for others
to follow. Explain how to solve a problem, and solve problems collaboratively with a friend.
Take up part-time lecturing or join Toastmasters. We all have this intelligence to a lessor
or greater extent. We just need to take every opportunity to develop it.
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Musical intelligence or music smart

Mozart, Bach and Beethoven enjoyed this intelligence to an exceptional degree. Most of
the rest of us exercise this intelligence to a lesser extent by listening to music, singing and
humming along to a tune and dancing to a beat. People with musical intelligence are good
at picking up sounds, remembering melodies, noticing pitches/rhythm and keeping time.
Composers, song writers, musicians, singers and pop artists have this ability. Elton John,
the Beetles, Frank Sinatra, Elvis Presley, Madonna, Peter Gabriel, Bob Dylan and Luciano
Pavarotti would be prime examples. Bob Dylan won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2016
proving he also has linguistic intelligence in abundance.
Research has shown that many people listening to music can enhance both the creative
and learning process because a complexity of melody and harmony supports complexity of
thinking. Scientists are finding out that the human brain may be pre-wired for music and
that some intelligence may be enhanced by music. Studies show that children who learn to
play music tend to do better at mathematics. This may be because music involves proportion,
ratios and sequences, all of which form the foundation for mathematical reasoning.
Scientists have discovered that Baroque music can assist in regulating heartbeat and blood
pressure and for many people helps to create a stress-free learning environment. It has also
been found that lively harmonic music, such as Mozart, Beethoven and Brahms, stimulates
the brain. Setting information to music may help many to remember better. Advertisers
invent jingles which they put to music for more effective recall by listeners.
The front part of the corpus callosum – the part of the brain that connects the two
hemispheres – is more developed in musicians than other professions. To be successful,
musicians need to integrate the emotional right brain with the analytical left brain.
Imaging technology shows that when people listen to music the right hemisphere of the brain
is activated. When people read music the left hemisphere of the brain is activated in the
same area involved in analytical and mathematical thinking. One report has disclosed that
the foremost designers and engineers in Silicon Valley are almost all practising musicians.
Scientists have also discovered that mental rehearsal combined with physical practice at
music improve performance better than physical practice alone.
Facilitators of learning can use music to create a positive learning atmosphere by playing
appropriate music as course participants enter the training room, during breaks, and at the
end of training sessions. Music may be used to help focus concentration, improve memory,
enhance imagination, develop rapport, and reduce tension. Adult learners may use music
to help them relax and study.
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To increase musical intelligence, try relaxing to music and studying or reading to Baroque
music playing softly in the background. Listen, dance and sing to music of your choice. We
all have this intelligence to a lessor or greater degree. Set what you want to learn to music.
Rhythm and music will make it easier to remember. Use music to reduce stress and create
poems and songs to memorise and learn information. According to Ludwig van Beethoven
‘Music is the electrical soil in which the spirit lives, thinks and invents.’
Naturalist intelligence or nature smart

This is the eight intelligence expounded by Howard Gardner. People with this intelligence
are tuned into the natural and ecological world. Gardner describes the naturalist as the
individual who ‘is able to recognise flora or fauna, to make other consequential distinctions
in the natural world, and to use this ability productively in hunting, farming and biological
science.’ As a hunter and gatherer early man had this intelligence to a high degree as his
very survival depended on it. He knew which animals to hunt and which to run away from.
He knew which berries to eat and which were poisonous.
Farmers, botanists, fishermen, conservationists, biologists, zoologists, entomologists,

environmentalists, Green Party members and Friends of the Earth would all have strong
naturalist intelligence. A marine biologist needs strong naturalistic intelligence in addition
to logical intelligence. A famous example of naturalist intelligence would be Charles Darwin
(1809–1882), John James Audubon (1785–1851) and Rachel Louise Carson (1907–1964).
Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection is probably the major intellectual contribution
of the 19th century. He exhibited a strong naturalist intelligence combined with a logical-
mathematical and linguistic intelligence which he displayed when classifying and concluding
from the results of his research.
John James Audubon was an American ornithologist, artist and naturalist known for his
studies, drawings and painting of North American birds. Rachel Carson was an American
writer, scientist and ecologist and an advocate for the protection of all living things. Sir David
Attenborough is an English broadcaster and environmentalist famous for his educational
programmes on anthropology and natural history and a renowned advocate for conservation.
Jane Goodall is a famous primatologist, anthropologist and ethologist (science of animal
behaviour). She is best known for her ground-breaking work on chimpanzees.
To increase natural intelligence engage in gardening, fishing, mountaineering and other

outdoor activities. Take an interest in conservation and how to use the natural resources of
the earth more sustainably. Watch David Attenborough’s absorbing programmes on BBC
dealing with nature, animals, anthropology and environmental issues such as global warming.
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Cultural groups possessing and valuing this form of intelligence include Native American
nations and Australian Aboriginal peoples.
Spatial intelligence or picture smart

People with this intelligence, like objects, shapes, charts, designs, diagrams, pictures and
maps. First evidence of this intelligence was the 40,000 year old drawings discovered in
caves throughout the world. Humans like to draw, design and create things. They can form
mental images and pictures in their minds and visualise maps in their heads. Thus they have
a well-developed sense of direction and are adept at finding their way around unfamiliar
terrain. Well-known outstanding examples of people with this intelligence would include
Pablo Picasso, Salvador Dali, Caravaggio, Rembrandt, Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo,
and the great explorers of history such as Marco Polo, Christopher Columbus and Edmund
Hillary. A more modern example would be the Hollywood director Stephen Spielberg.
People with this intelligence are excellent at visualisation and think and remember things in
the form of pictures. Graphic artists, architects, decorators, surveyors, chess players, guides,
sailors, pilots and navigators have this intelligence in abundance. Successful people with this
intelligence have, in addition, long years of experience and training behind them. We all
possess this intelligence to a lessor or greater extent and so it is up to us to develop it further.
To enhance this intelligence read maps and charts, use learning maps, pictures, diagrams,
graphs, flowcharts, colours, and your powers of visualisation.
‘Although they are not necessarily dependent on each other, these intelligences seldom
operate in isolation. Every normal individual possesses varying degrees of each of these
intelligences, but the ways in which intelligences combine and blend is as varied as the face
and the personalities of individuals.’
– Howard Gardner
2.8 LESSONS FROM THE MI MODEL

The theory of multiple intelligences is a cause for celebration and high self-esteem. It seems we
all have plenty of ability, if only we make the commitment and implement the action plans
necessary to exploit our unique intelligences. You can integrate the eight intelligences into
your self-development and continuous improvement plan. If you study you can summarise
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your work in the form of learning maps, flow charts and diagrams. This is an application
of spatial intelligence. You can discuss issues in groups or get involved in project work. This
is an example of interpersonal intelligence. Relax to your favourite music and invent jingles
and rhymes to help you remember critical issues. This is an example of musical intelligence.
Reflecting on your work on a daily basis is an example of intrapersonal intelligence. Can

you learn from your mistakes and would you do things differently now or in the future?
Keeping a learning reflection log would be a formal way of reviewing. Better still; get
involved in a learning set that systematically goes through the learning cycle. This would
include reviewing and reflecting on actions taken at work, sharing experiences, drawing
conclusions and trying out new ideas.
Writing and making presentations to others is an example of linguistic intelligence, as is

brushing up on your French and German language skills by attending night classes. Inventing
acronyms as memory joggers will improve your linguistic intelligence and ability to recall.
Preparing household budgets or flow charting organisational systems is an application of
logical intelligence.
Lastly, the hands-on approach to work, such as developing PC skills and training schemes
such as job rotation are examples of the development of tactile intelligence. In your social
life, playing sport of any kind will enhance your kinaesthetic intelligence.
We all have the eight intelligences to a lesser or greater extent. Analyse your eight intelligences
and seek out opportunities to develop those that are presently under-utilised and that could
help you progress further in your career. If you are an accountant or engineer you are likely
to have analytical skills to a high degree. It might be a good idea to balance these with any
opportunities to develop linguistic and interpersonal skills that are essential if you want to
progress into general management.
Conventional IQ tests are pen-and-paper tests with a narrow focus. They concentrate on
logical and linguistic abilities and are a poor barometer of success in the business world,
where other qualities such as political acumen, hard work, commitment, determination,
enthusiasm and creativity are just as important, if not more so. Many longitudinal studies
demonstrate that exceptional children do not necessarily grow up into successful adults.
This shows the limits of IQ as a hallmark of intelligence.
Although creativity and IQ are known to be related, some people with average IQ can be
very creative. IQ tests, which were developed in 1900 by Binet, a French psychologist, gave
rise to the notion that intelligence was fixed at birth and that IQ was the sole criterion of
intelligence. This is not true as supported by the latest research on brain plasticity. We all
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have the ability to improve our IQ through further education and learning. The average
person can develop their skills through practice. It just takes a lot of concentrated dedication
and effort.
The theory of multiple intelligences highlights the need to recognise and value diversity
in the range of abilities that people may have. By developing a variety of approaches to
learning and recognising individual strengths and weaknesses, our potential for learning
and understanding can be enhanced. Some people may have poor linguistic skills. They
may be unable to express something in writing but may very well be able to illustrate
it by a drawing or diagram. Some people are introverts with a natural predisposition to
have a high intrapersonal intelligence. On the other hand, some people are extroverts
with a natural predisposition to be socialisers and thus with the potential to have a high
interpersonal intelligence.
Scientists are equally divided about the relative importance of heredity and environment in
determining intelligence. Some psychologists emphasise the importance of the environment
in determining IQ. Others attach great importance to heredity. It is safe to conclude that
both heredity and environment are both critically important in determining intelligence. A
person’s genetic intelligence potential can only be developed fully in a favourable environment.
On the other hand, a favourable environment can only nurture and grow an intelligence
that is there already.
‘The brain is made up of anatomically distinct regions, but these regions are not autonomous
mini brains; rather they constitute a cohesive and integrated system organised for the most
part in a mysterious way.’
– Professor Susan Greenfield
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2.9 FIXED VERSUS GROWTH MINDSETS
Fig. 3.9 Fixed V Growth Mindsets
It seems the old parental advice to their children that they can achieve anything they put
their minds to is generally if not totally true. This has been confirmed by the work of
psychologist, Carol Dweck, who has discovered two types of mindsets – fixed and growth.
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They serve as a framework shaping perceptions, emotions, creativity, thinking, problem

solving, planning and learning.
A person with a fixed mindset believes that their IQ is innate and fixed at birth, and
irrespective of effort they can’t do anything to improve it. They believe that they are totally
limited by the natural talent they were born with. The result is they avoid challenges, new
learning and developmental opportunities, and generally give up when faced with seemingly
insurmountable obstacles. They like to operate within their comfort zone, dislike challenge
and are afraid of failure. They are sensitive to making mistakes and thus never reach their
true potential. They are thus more likely to leave things as they are rather than use their
initiative and energy to challenge things and seek out novel solutions to problems.
People with a fixed mindset don’t realise that expertise is acquired by hard work, focused
learning, further education, continuous practise and persistence. They are low achievers who
tend to attribute failure to lack of ability and success to luck. They often blame others for
their failure, and don’t seek help for self-improvement. Unless people recognise that failure
results from their own actions, they will not learn from their mistakes. In psychology this
phenomenon is known as the attribution bias where failure is blamed on bad luck rather
than resulting from a person’s own actions.
In business a fixed mindset encourages the sort of leadership that relies on intimidation and
coercion stifling initiative and undermining job satisfaction. An employee operating from
a fixed mindset will block out unfavourable feedback, avoid stretch goals, be motivated by
seeking approval, avoid effort and see other’s success as a threat. Such an employee will not
reflect on where they went wrong and thus learn from their mistakes. The fixed mindset
thrives in bureaucracies such as central and local government departments and large multi-
nationals. The fear of failure, making mistakes and humiliation in front of peers is endemic
in such organisations.
The growth mindset

On the other hand, people with a growth mindset believe that IQ is not fixed, and that the
brain expands with use. They are high achievers who tend to attribute failure to lack of
effort and success to effort and ability. Confucian societies in the East agree with this view
and feel that individual differences in endowment are modest. Differences in achievement
are thought to be due largely to effort.
People with a growth mindset enjoy challenges, strive to learn and are eager to develop
new skills. They think about possibilities and opportunities rather than limitations and
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potential setbacks. They believe that the brain is flexible and with effort can change, grow
and prosper irrespective of how good you are at present. This belief is now supported by
neuroscience research.
People with a growth mindset don’t fear failure, are not afraid of taking reasonable risks
and believe that mistakes are learning opportunities rather than a cause for embarrassment
or punishment. Neuroscience shows that those with a fixed mindset making errors display
considerably less brain activity that those with a growth mindset, who actively process errors
to learn from them.
The growth mindset and positive thinking

The growth mindset, a type of positive thinking, now permeates education, sport and business.
In education, students with a fixed mindset will focus on exam results and be concerned
with how their performance compares with their peers. They may challenge the validity of
exam questions answered incorrectly, and often blame the examiner for writing an unfair
ambiguous question. They blame everybody else for their problems except themselves. They
want to save their self-esteem at all costs in response to failure, and may adopt a helpless
approach which, in turn, leads to lower achievement.
On the other hand, students with a growth mindset are more concerned with the examination
process and less likely to become discouraged or lessen their efforts in the face of failing the
exam. They do not interpret poor performance as a sign that they lack ability, but rather
as a sign that they must work harder and adopt better learning, study and exam technique.
Because they are motivated to apply more effective study strategies, they are likely to become
more knowledgeable which, in turn, will lead to better examination performance.
Although, just like everybody else, students with a growth mindset find failure painful, they
focus on learning from their mistakes and failures. They show an increased awareness of
their strengths and weaknesses as learners and are more capable of realistically monitoring
and assessing their performance. Consequently, they throw themselves wholeheartedly into
revision and repeating their exams with renewed effort until they are successful.
The growth mindset in business

In business a growth mindset views challenges and setbacks as an opportunity to learn and
improve through experience, encouraging initiative, resilience and creating job satisfaction.
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Managers with a growth mindset notice improvement in their employees, while those with
a fixed mindset do not because they are stuck in their initial impressions. Employees who
are taught a growth mindset become more aware of opportunities for self-improvement,
more willing to embrace challenge, and more likely to persist when confronted by obstacles.
Therefore, as a manager you should tell employees that they can develop themselves and
that they can grow and expand their talents if they apply themselves.
In business, self-belief is often the factor that keeps entrepreneurs going in the face of
seemingly overwhelming obstacles. Managers with a growth mindset learn from feedback,
benefit from stretch goals, are intrinsically motivated to master their work, value effort
and model other people’s success. They know that praise for effort helps drive improved
performance as compared to praise for talent. They hire candidates based on their potential
rather than their past performance.
Google is an example of a progressive company with a growth mindset. It has been number
one on Fortune’s list of best companies to work for. It has many perks for its employees,
and also operates a 20 per cent time policy where engineers are encouraged to spend time
on independent projects that they find interesting. This has resulted in several successful
services like Gmail, Google News, and AdServe.
The growth mindset is supported by the ‘self-efficacy’ concept introduced by the famous
psychologist Albert Bandura in 1977. Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s capabilities to
succeed at something. If you believe things are possible you are more likely to experiment
and succeed. For example, if you believe that you have an innate talent for using computers
then you are more likely to succeed at computing than a person who doesn’t believe. If you
believe that you can improve your health by taking preventative action, such as giving up
smoking, cutting down on alcohol intake and taking exercise, then you are likely to do so.
In sport self-belief is often the difference that makes the difference between winning and
losing. Learning from the failures of the past is the key to improved performance in the
future. In sport the most successful athletes are those who want to grow, improve and
develop rather than those who want to coast along on their reputations and natural talent.
In sport like football it is important that teamwork, effort, risk-taking and innovation
should be encouraged and rewarded rather than individual genius. As in any walk of life,
no matter how good you think you are, there is always room for improvement through
effort and practice.
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Famous people with a growth mindset

People with a growth mindset understand that nobody has ever reached expert levels of
performance without years of practice, hard work and confronting setbacks. People with
a fixed mindset are more likely to get frustrated and discouraged when things become
challenging. Increasingly, studies are showing that genius is more made than born. Expertise
is acquired through 10,000 hours of specific dedicated practise, 3 hours a day or 20 hours
a week, over 10 years. Even though boredom may set in it is important to persevere, as it
will eventually lead to maximum benefits for you. It seems it takes this amount of time for
the brain to assimilate enough knowledge and experience to become a true master.
It is sometimes assumed that child prodigies grow up into adult geniuses. However, this is
not always the case. Sometimes very ordinary children with extraordinary interests grow up
to be outstanding adults. Charles Darwin, famous for his theory of evolution, showed little
promise as a child. He failed to qualify for a degree and his father despaired that he would
never amount to much. He had a growth mindset and developed his interests and talents
over many years of reading, research, reflection, observation, experimentation, questioning
and experience. He became one of the most renowned scientists of all time.
Albert Einstein, was a slow developer and didn’t start talking until he was four, or write
until he was six. It’s ironic to think that in relation to current standards the greatest scientist
of all time would have been deemed in need of remedial education. Gregor Mendel, the
founder of modern genetics, failed every exam to become a high school teacher in Austria.
In 1865 he was planting peas and watching how characteristics were passed on from plant
to plant. He laid down the rules of inheritance which are the basis of genetics today. Bill
Gates, the founder of Microsoft, was virtually withdrawn from formal education at the
age of 13 but nevertheless went on to revolutionise information and communications
technology. What these and other innovators show is that they found the world outside of
formal education seducing and challenging, offering compelling opportunities for learning
that they couldn’t resist.
Michelangelo took 4 years to finish the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican, and
invented the painting technique of fresco in the process. This is the art of painting on fresh
moist plaster with pigments dissolved in water. Some of the great cathedrals of Europe
have taken centuries to finish. You need to do something each day to move you closer to
your goal. Many famous writers stuck rigidly to a daily routine to get their work done. For
example, the poet W.H. Auden was obsessively punctual, living to an exacting timetable
during his lifetime.
Martin Luther King Jr., the famous social and political activist, had a growth mindset
with a dream that the United States could become a society free from racial prejudice,
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segregation and injustice. He achieved his objective with the passing of the Civil Rights
Act of 1964, which started the process of achieving equal rights for black people. He was
awarded the Nobel Prize for his work. Similarly, Mahatma Gandhi had a growth mindset
winning independence for India from British rule by peaceful means. His persistent belief
in the effectiveness of non-violent protest changed the course of world history and brought
down the might of the British Empire.
‘Think about your hero. Do you think this person is someone with extraordinary abilities
who achieved with little effort? Now go find out the truth. Find out the tremendous effort
that went into their accomplishment – and admire them more.’
– Carol S. Dweck
Techniques for whole brain learning

There are other approaches to whole brain learning which I will now address. Adopt a
growth mentality about your ability to learn and develop. With this positive attitude you
believe that your brain is capable of learning anything, and that it has the capacity and
flexibility to go on learning for as long as you live.
This will prevent you from being constrained by a belief in the limitations of your innate
abilities, and provide you with the attitude and motivation that with hard work, persistence
and resilience you can achieve what you desire in life. Excellence in any area of life is
achieved more by hard work and constant practise than by innate ability.
If you feel you are more logical than creative or artistic then you should intentionally engage
the right hand side of your brain. You can become more creative by thinking up alternative
ways of solving everyday problems while considering feelings and intuitions about situations.
You can also become more creative by reframing problems and asking questions nobody
else has thought about.
There are different solutions to any problem, and the best one is the one suitable to the
particular context and your preferences. On the other hand, if you are very creative you
might consider adopting a more logical approach to everyday problems. In the modern
world the ability to think outside the box, to see complex relationships, to synthesise new
ideas, and look at the big picture are now more important than ever. In the modern world
knowledge is divided up into specialised disciplines. Each discipline develops its own theories
and methodologies. This means that few people have a total perspective on a problem.
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It’s like the Hindu proverb about three blind men trying to define an elephant. The first
blind man feels its trunk and concludes it’s a large snake. The second feels its leg and
thinks it is a tree. The third feels its ear and concludes it’s a massive leaf. The totality and
magnificence of the elephant was lost because none of the blind men could comprehend the
whole animal. Thinking big and seeing the whole picture are the sort of skills that modern
high tech companies like Google, Facebook and Microsoft pay a premium for.
The brain learns in patterns just like the way it is organised. The brain under a microscope
with its connected neurons, dendrites, synapses and axons has a map-like patterned shape.
We learn by making meaningful memorable links and associations between information
and experiences. Seeing how things are organised and connected helps us learn smarter and
quicker, and gives us a deeper understanding. The brain can’t make sense of unrelated and
disconnected information. By filling in the gaps and organising the material it constructs
its own meaning. This is why learning maps which mimic the way the brain is organised
make such good vehicles for learning.
We know that the brain operates as a whole system, coordinating and integrating all its
specialised functions. Whole brain learning means that you consciously try to involve all the
parts of your brain when learning. One of the most prominent advocates of whole brain
learning was Ned Herrmann, who developed the “whole brain model,” which is widely used
in training and development. The areas where whole brain thinking is frequently applied
are decision-making, problem solving, and improving team performance.
Whole Brain Thinking Model
Upper Mode
Thinking Processes
U
t
pp
f
Le
er
er
A D
R
pp
ig
U
ht
LOGICAL HOLISTIC
ANALYTICAL INTUITIVE
Thinking Processes
Thinking Processes
FACT-BASED INTEGRATING
QUANTITATIVE SYNTHESIZING
Right Mode
Left Mode
ORGANIZED INTERPERSONAL
SEQUENTIAL FEELING-BASED
PLANNED KINESTHETIC
DETAILED EMOTIONAL
t
B C
Lo
gh
w
Ri
er
er
L
w
ef
Lo
t
Lower Mode
Thinking Processes
© Herrmann International 1986 – 2010

Fig. 3.10 Herrmann’s Whole Brain Thinking Model
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Herrmann was an American physicist and scientist who studied the brain and the connection
between the brain, learning and behaviour. He concluded that the brain has four distinct
quadrants or preferred ways of learning. These are based on the cerebral hemispheres
(quadrants A and D) representing higher level modes of thinking, and the limbic system
(quadrants B and C) representing lower level modes of thinking. He reached his conclusion
after integrating his own scientific and intuitive observations with the left brain-right brain
theory and evolutionary brain models.
He classified the left quadrant of the brain into two halves: A and B. The A upper left
quadrant was logical, analytical, fact-based and quantitative. People with this learning style
favour rational problem solving using facts and logic. They are technical minded with a
direct communication style. People need to think through their ideas in a systematic and
logical way. The B bottom left quadrant was organised, sequential, planned and detailed.
A person with this style takes a linear, organised approach to their work and frequently
create “to do” lists. They value routine, and want to be sure that things are done correctly
and on time. People need form and structure to think through a plan of action to facilitate
a problem’s solution.
He classified the right quadrant into two halves: C and D. The C upper right quadrant
was holistic, intuitive, integrating and synthesising. People with this style are emotionally
sensitive to others. People need imagination to be creative and visualise problems. The D
right bottom quadrant was interpersonal, feeling-based, kinaesthetic and emotional. People
with this style are comfortable taking risks and acting spontaneously. They tolerate uncertainty
and ambiguity well. People need to be able to acknowledge their feelings, and take them
into account when making decisions.
Hermann proved that everyone has at least a primary preference for one of the quadrants,
although 90 per cent of us are multi-dominant. Each quadrant is associated with particular
thinking styles and behaviours. Hermann’s questionnaires, which are available online, are used
to determine the thinking preferences of individuals. His research showed that better problem
solving involved all four quadrants of the whole brain model. People with a dominant way
of thinking are blinkered and unable to see all the ramifications of a situation.
The brain performs best in a loving, caring and supportive environment. Companies like
Facebook and Google are aware of this, and encourage their employees to be happy and
enjoy themselves while they work. They know that a happy workforce is a productive, creative
and satisfied one. Working in teams is the preferred mode of working for their employees.
A balanced team will make use of all four quadrants of the whole brain model so that the
characteristics of all the team members are used successfully for different phases of a project.
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Adopt an attitude of lifelong learning and continue to do so into ripe old age. Neuroscientists
now know that the brain grows new brain cells at any age if it continues to be challenged.
Follow your passions. If you engage in activities that interest you and create a sense of wonder
in you, your brain will stay flexible, and create more interconnections. They will also give
you a sense of accomplishment and purpose, making you feel validated, and good to be alive.
“When you approach the learning situation from the standpoint of the whole brain, then
you have greatly expanded the strategies available to you and the options for design
and delivery.”
– Ned Herrmann
2.10 SMART SUCCESSFUL INTELLIGENT BEHAVIOUR
Decrease Felxible thinking/

Persistence Listen
impulsivity creativity
Thinking Knowledge/ Precise

Questioning
about thinking experience language
Use all senses Curiosity
Fig. 3.11 Smart Successful Intelligent Behaviour
The following are a list of some of the best behaviours that the more intelligent adults adopt
and use throughout their lives if they wish to be successful:
• Persistence. Persistence is the quality of going forward steadily or obstinately despite

problems, setbacks, difficulties, failure or obstacles. Failure in life is often due to
insufficient application or a lack of belief in ones’ self. People fail because they give
up too soon even after one attempt. Some people give up when they are on the
threshold of success. Great people overcome great adversity with mental strength,
courage, determination and character. They do have setbacks and make mistakes
but they learn from them and keep on trying. Persistence is not about doing the
same thing over and over again but may involve changing your habits, accepting
new challenges, learning new skills and adopting a different approach to reach
your goals. There are occasions when persistence may not be the right approach
to adopt. For example, if one is stuck in a poor relationship it may be time to cut
your losses and move on.
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• Decrease impulsivity. Think before you speak or do anything rash and reflect on
the possible consequences of your actions. After the event it is very difficult to
redress what you’ve said or redo what you’ve done. There is a saying ‘Act in haste
and repent at leisure.’ You may have to live with the consequences for the rest of
your life. Acting on a gut-feeling, instinct, mood or whim is being impulsive and
is a normal form of human behaviour. Impulsive behaviour is dysfunctional when
spur-of-the-moment decisions are insufficiently thought through and chronically
harm the person involved, their immediate family and even innocent bystanders.
Impulsive behaviour can be an asset and a liability. Some people have made the
best decisions of their lives impulsively, such as who to marry, where to buy a
house, what career to follow or where to invest their savings. They are the lucky
ones. On the other hand, some people have made the most destructive decisions
on impulse such as having an affair and ruining their marriage. A young man may
drive his car at 120mph and cause a serious accident with dire consequences for
all involved. An angry employee in a belligerent mood may assault their boss and
lose their job. All of these cases could have been avoided with a bit of reflection
and rational forethought about the possible outcomes of their actions.
• Listen. Listen to others with empathy and understanding. Try to visualise what it
feels like to be the speaker. How would you feel if you were standing in their shoes?
You have only two ears and one mouth, so that you should listen twice as much
as you speak. Listening should be your secret weapon to pick up more information
and knowledge. People learn when they listen. Communications experts maintain
that on average we spend 45 per cent of our time listening, 30 per cent speaking,
16 per cent reading and only 9 per cent writing. Managers rank listening as the
most important communication skill for success in the workplace.
Most people are poor listeners. Our ears enable us to hear but not necessarily to
listen. We don’t need to learn how to hear, as hearing is an innate capacity, but we
do need to learn how to listen. Most people feel listening comes naturally. This is not
true and we must practise the art of active listening to become effective listeners. This
includes restating, summarising, paraphrasing and clarifying to check understanding.
Reflect back feelings as well as the essence of the content to create empathy.
• Flexible thinking. Avoid rigid thinking. A flexible mind allows us to evaluate
and adjust to the different jobs, roles and responsibilities we have each day. To
develop a flexible mind, always consider other options – there is more ways to do
anything some of which are better than others. Don’t just go with the first thought
that comes into your head. Think about the possible options and pick the most
appropriate one taking into account your particular needs. There are times when
you must change to achieve your goals. If you keep on doing the same old thing
you are sure to reap the same results. Sometimes you have to do things differently.
Look at things from a different perspective and move away from problem thinking
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to possibility thinking. Listen to other points of view. There are always better and
more efficient ways to do something. Avoid being rigid in your thinking so that
you always consider other possibilities. Try to do something new, or do existing
things in a different way. Be open to other people’s thoughts and try out their ideas
if you think they are good. Frequently ask ‘Why’ questions. Be prepared to change
your thinking based on new evidence, facts, ideas and circumstances. Use what
you already know to learn something new. Plan to be spontaneous. Change your
routine – don’t get stuck in a rut! Take a different route to work or try a different
meal in a restaurant. Visit somewhere you have never been before. Sometimes things
change without warning and you need to change too to find new solutions to solve
them. You may not be able to change other peoples’ ways, views and attitudes but
you can always change your own.
• Creativity. Use your ingenuity, originality, and be insightful – we are all creative
beings. Creative people have broad and specific interests, and are innately curious.
Their broad interests motivate them to seek out various sources of novelty, challenge
and information. Their specific interests motivate them to increase the depth
of their specialist knowledge and experience. Creative people, whether they are
artists, inventors, fashion designers, or scientists, share some common traits such as
openness to experience. In the modern dynamic business environment, employees
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and managers need to be creative and innovative to come up with new ideas and
improvements on products and processes. This is why training in creativity is so
important. Creativity is a key part of learning. We can learn from our own creativity
and from studying the creativity of others. Learning how to use your creativity is
a most important aspect of learning-to-learn skills. Creativity is not the same as
intelligence. A person can be far more creative than intelligent, or far more intelligent
than creative.
• Thinking about thinking. Be aware of your own thinking process. Develop your
power of reflection to think through problems. Thinking about one’s thinking
creates the foundation for learning to learn. There is accumulating evidence from
brain research that thinking skills such as problem solving, decision making and
creativity can be learned. People are designed by evolution to learn and adapt
to their environment. The brain is an open and dynamic learning system. What
mental processes do we use when we solve problems? Are we aware of the reasoning,
assumptions, evidence and justification underlying our beliefs? People have different
learning styles. As learners what are our strengths and weaknesses? What learning
strategies have successfully worked for us in the past? Some people learn by reading,
some by watching, some by listening, and some through experimentation using
a hands-on approach. It is important to know what works best for us. If you
understand this you can refine and improve your learning skills.
• Questioning. Questions will help you solve problems and engage in meaningful
conversations. Be critical in your questioning. There are two basic types of questions –
closed and open. Closed questions are those which elicit a yes or no response.
These are useful if you want to check facts and establish the current status of an
issue. Open questions explore issues and options and keep the conversation going.
Open questions encourage possibility thinking and learning. To encourage open
thinking begin your sentences with what?, why?, when?, where?, who?, and how?
Closed questions encourage a particular response and discourage conversation. Test
understanding by asking the speaker now and again to paraphrase what you’ve just
said. This concentrates the mind of the speaker while at the same time checking
that questions have been understood and that listening is taking place. The actual
words used convey less than half the meaning, and so to interpret a message fully
you must take the accompanying body language into account.
• Past knowledge and experience. Learning ultimately begins with the known and
proceeds to the unknown. Draw on what you know, what has worked for you in
the past and use it in new situations. There is no point in reinventing the wheel.
The best teacher is experience, although we can learn also from reading about the
experiences of others. Ralph Waldo Emerson said: ‘Life is a succession of lessons
which must be lived to be understood.’ It is not possible to do everything ourselves
and that is why it is so important to learn from the experience and mistakes of
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others. This is one of the reasons we learn history so that we will not repeat the
mistakes of the past. We learn by reflecting on our failures, mistakes and successes
and applying the lessons learned to future events. One of the best ways of learning
is making connections between what we have experienced and what we are trying
to learn. This makes the learning more meaningful and memorably. Every mistake
is a learning experience, but we should not go on making the same mistakes over
and over again. We also learn from others’ mistakes and successes.
Learning from others’ mistakes is a less costly and painful process than making all
the mistakes ourselves. There is an old saying that an ounce of prevention is worth a
pound of cure. This suggests that learning from mistakes can be an expensive way of
learning and that preventative action when successful costs less in the long term and
is the ideal approach. For example, preventative medicine can postpone or prevent
many diseases from developing if people adopt a healthy lifestyle. Modelling other
peoples’ successes will guide us to more successful lives without incurring the same
mistakes they made on the way to success. Our stock of knowledge helps us make
progress in the world and is only constrained by our lack of imagination and our
inability to draw on our storehouse of memories. In addition, vocabulary plays a
fundamental role in building up our knowledge base. Understanding key words is
critical before people can progress academically and socially.
• Precise language. Use descriptive language to communicate more precisely. If you
are lazy with your use of language you will be continually misunderstood and cause
all kinds of problems for yourself and your listener. Effective language should have
four characteristics: it should be concrete and specific, not vague and abstract; it
should be concise, not verbose; it should be familiar, not obscure; and it should
be precise and clear. Concrete language use familiar words which create tangible
images conjuring up appropriate pictures in the mind of the listener. On the other
hand, abstract language is vague and obscure and does not create concrete pictures
in the listener’s mind. People when talking should be precise and concise. Words
can be interpreted differently by different people in different situations. That’s why
it is important to choose words which are as precise and clear as possible. The more
precise and clear the words the less likely they will be open to misinterpretation.
In addition, people should express their ideas in as few words as possible. People
have a short span of attention and rambling sentences will confuse and irritate
them causing them to lose concentration. When speaking your job is to engage
the listener and make the job of listening as easy as possible.
• Use all your senses. To learn most effectively use all you senses – visual, kinaesthetic
(tactile), auditory (hearing), olfactory (smell) and gustatory (taste). We learn mostly
through the visual, auditory and kinaesthetic senses – seeing, hearing and touching –
but in a learning context many people have a preference for one particular style.
In practice we match and mix learning styles depending on our needs and the
66
context of the learning. The other senses, such as taste and smell, do not seem
so important, although smell can often help us make strong connections to past
events. Taste is important to chefs and wine tasters. Visual learners respond best
to images, pictures diagrams, charts and graphics. Auditory learners prefer verbal
presentation such as lectures and getting involved in a group discussion.
Kinaesthetic learners prefer a physical, hands-on approach. They like to feel and
touch objects. Experts estimate that we learn 60 per cent through our visual senses,
30 per cent through our auditory senses, and 10 per cent through our kinaesthetic
senses (via the sensation of touching, which includes moving).
• Be curious. Develop your sense of wonder and be inquisitive – learn to enjoy problem
solving and develop effective thinking skills. Curiosity is an internal motivator of
exploratory behaviour, which leads to learning, or increased knowledge. Curiosity
is a natural personality trait, stronger in some people than in others. Leonardo da
Vinci wrote about having ‘an insatiably curious attitude to life, and unrelenting
quest for continuous learning.’ We should endeavour to ignite our natural childlike
curiosity and maintain it throughout our lives. The ability to continuously gain new
skills and develop professionally is essential to success in life and work. As Francis
Bacon said, ‘Wonder is the seed of knowledge.’ Children do have an inherent
curiosity about everything and an amazing capacity to learn. They have the habit of
prefacing everything they say with the marvellous word ‘Why?’ It is a characteristic
which should be encouraged by adults but at times can be embarrassing as they
sometimes cannot answer the questions posed. Inevitably, rather than admit their
ignorance they often respond in a discouraging and disparaging fashion.
Consequently, the child eventually gives up asking questions so that their natural
curiosity is stifled rather than nurtured and encouraged. To become successful learners
we must rediscover the child’s natural curiosity for knowledge and learning. Seeking
out answers to questions is an active form of learning, as opposed to a passive form
and is more effective, meaningful and memorable.
‘My biggest motivation? Just to keep challenging myself. I see life almost like one long
university education that I never had – every day I’m learning something new.’
– Sir Richard Branson
67
LEARNING MODELS AND STYLES Summary
SUMMARY
Awareness of how you learn will make you a more competent and successful learner. You will
encounter different emotions and feelings at each stage of the four stage learning model. You
will feel anxiety and frustration at the seemingly insurmountable obstacles, until eventually
you experience breakthroughs, excitement and satisfaction on your journey towards mastery.
The model will help you stay focused and motivated when times seem tough, and you feel
like giving up until you experience success. It reminds you not to expect too much, too
soon and the value of persistence.
The 70:20:10 model maintains that we learn 70 per cent from practical experience, 20 per
cent from coaching and 10 per cent from formal learning. It is a very useful framework to be
aware of, particularly as some people think that all learning is formal and has to take place
in academic settings. It highlights the fact that many learning programmes rely too heavily
on structured classroom learning, with limited opportunity for on-the-job development
options such as stretch assignments, projects, coaching and mentoring.
Bloom’s taxonomy is a well-known learning model widely used in academic and training
circles. The model is sequential, or a step-by-step progression. The hierarchy consists of six
levels – knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. And it
reminds learners that learning is a complicated process and the higher up you go in the
hierarchy the more challenging and deeper the learning.
The ASPIRE self-development model is a great learning roadmap for learners who want
to progress in their jobs. It demonstrates the need for action plans in the pursuit of goals.
Things don’t happen by chance – they must be made to happen! Many learners aspire to
things but don’t take the necessary steps to make them happen. Also, it shows that learners
need discipline, dedication, determination and persistence to succeed.
The acronym DRUD is a useful memory jogger to help you remember Kolb’s learning
cycle – do something (activist), reflect on it (reflector), understand it (theorist) and do
it differently (pragmatist). The learning cycle highlights the importance of reflection and
continuous improvement and the potential for lifelong learning. The learning styles of activist,
reflector, theorist and pragmatist are linked to the learning cycle. The premise of a learning
style model is that it produces more effective learning outcomes if the facilitator’s learning
style is harmonised with the learner’s learning style. We are all born with unique brains
and have distinctive styles derived from our personalities, talents, aptitudes, experience and
interests. The four learning styles model gives us a practical framework and some insights
into why this is so.
68
LEARNING MODELS AND STYLES Summary
VAK stands for visual, audial and kinaesthetic. We learn through these senses – seeing,
hearing and touching – but in a learning context many learners have a preference for one
particular style or indeed any combination of styles. In fact, some people have a mixed and
evenly balanced blend of the three styles. Psychologists estimate that we learn 60 per cent
through our visual senses, 30 per cent through our auditory senses, and 10 per cent through
our kinaesthetic senses (via the sense of touching, which includes moving). Learners who
engage all these senses have a greater chance of learning something than those who do not.
The VAK model is a much more popular, straightforward and easier to understand model
of learning styles than Kolb’s learning cycle.
Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory recognises the diversity and range of intelligences
that people may have. By developing a variety of approaches to learning and recognising
individual strengths and weaknesses, our potential for learning and understanding can be
enhanced and developed. It is up to each individual to discover the unique intelligences
they have. By concentrating on our preferred style we can reach our potential and become
accomplished in an area that interests us.
A person with a fixed mindset believes that their IQ is innate and fixed at birth, and irrespective
of effort they can’t do anything to improve it. They believe that they are totally limited by
the natural talent they were born with. On the other hand, people with a growth mindset
believe that IQ is not fixed, and that the brain expands with use. They are high achievers
who tend to attribute failure to lack of effort and success to effort and ability.
Whole brain learning means that you consciously try to involve all the parts of your brain
when learning. One of the most prominent advocates of whole brain learning was Ned
Herrmann, who developed the “whole brain model,” which is widely used in training
and development.
Finally, behaviours for successful learning and a successful life such as persistence, listening,
questioning and creativity were discussed.
69
LEARNING MODELS AND STYLES Acknowledgements
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The artwork in this text was produced by the author with the aid of Microsoft’s ‘SmartArt’
creatively combined with the clipart facility in the word package. Some of the artwork
was accessed through Google. Known copyright material accessed through Google has
been acknowledged. I will gladly acknowledge any other copyright material brought to my
attention in future editions.
70
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Samuel A.

Learning Models and

1 Learning Models for Adults 8

2 Learning Styles for Adults 28

2.6 Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences 42

References and Bibliography 71

Samuel A. Malone February 2018

1 LEARNING MODELS FOR ADULTS

1.1 THE FOUR LEARNING STAGES

Conscious Competence Learning Matrix

Fig. 3.1 Conscious Competence Learning Model

1.2 LESSONS FROM THE FOUR-STAGE MODEL

1.3 70:20:10 MODEL

• 70% • 20% • 10%

Fig. 3.2 70:20:10 Model

Learn through experience 70%

Learning through others 20%

Learning through structured courses and programs 10%

‘The method people naturally employ to acquire knowledge is largely unsupported by

– Santa Fe Institute 1994

1.4 LESSONS FROM THE 70:20:10 MODEL

The model of informal learning

– Michael Lombardo and Robert Eichinger

Bloom’s Taxonomy for Thinking

Putting things together

Breaking things down

Fig. 3.3 Bloom’s Taxonomy

1.5 LESSONS FROM BLOOM’S TAXONOMY

1.6 THE ASPIRE SELF-DEVELOPMENT MODEL

Assess Current Position

Fig. 3.4 ASPIRE Self-development Model

1.7 LESSONS FROM THE ASPIRE MODEL

2 LEARNING STYLES FOR ADULTS

2.1 KOLB’S LEARNING CYCLE

• Do something (activist). Be actively involved in the experience.

Kolb’s Learning Cycle is illustrated in the following diagram:

Do it differently Think about it

Think about it (Reflector)

Reflection is enhanced by feedback. Learners should take every opportunity to receive

Make sense of it (Theorist)

2.2 THE FOUR STYLES OF LEARNING

To develop our brainpower, we should engage in a variety of learning experiences. These

Fig. 3.6 Four Styles of Learners

2.3 LESSONS FROM THE LEARNING STYLES MODEL

‘When a concrete experience is enriched by reflection, given meaning by thinking, and

2.4 VAK MODEL OF LEARNING STYLES

Fig. 3.7 VAK Learning Model

Visual learning (seeing and reading)

A mini case study about visual learners

She also discovered that it is easier to understand information if there is a context to

Auditory learning (listening and speaking)

A mini case study about auditory learners

Kinaesthetic learning (touching and doing)

A mini case study about kinaesthetic learners

2.5 LESSONS FROM THE VAK MODEL

2.6 GARDNER’S MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

Fig. 3.8 Multiple Intelligence Model

2.7 THE EIGHT INTELLIGENCES IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER

Analytical intelligence or logic smart

Interpersonal intelligence or people smart

Intrapersonal intelligence or self-smart

Kinaesthetic intelligence or body smart

A superb example of kinaesthetic intelligence is Rory McIIroy, the Northern Ireland

Samuel A. Malone February 2018