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Topological group
(Redirected from Birkhoff-Kakutani theorem)

In mathematics, topological groups are the combination of groups and

topological spaces, i.e. they are groups and topological spaces at the same
time, such that the continuity condition for the group operations connects
these two structures together and consequently they are not independent
from each other.[1]

Topological groups have been studied extensively in the period of 1925 to

1940. Haar and Weil (respectively in 1933 and 1940) showed that the The real numbers form a topological group under addition
integrals and Fourier series are special cases of a very wide class of
topological groups.[2]

Topological groups, along with continuous group actions, are used to study continuous symmetries, which have many applications, for
example, in physics. In functional analysis, every topological vector space is an additive topological group with the additional property
that scalar multiplication is continuous; consequently, many results from the theory of topological groups can be applied to functional
analysis.

Formal definition
A topological group, G, is a topological space that is also a group such that the group operation (in this case product):

⋅ : G × G → G, (x, y) ↦ xy
and the inversion map:
−1 : G → G, x ↦ x−1
are continuous.[note 1] Here G × G is viewed as a topological space with the product topology. Such a topology is said to be
compatible with the group operations and is called a group topology.

Checking continuity

The product map is continuous if and only if for any x, y ∈ G and any neighborhood W of xy in G, there exist neighborhoods U of x
and V of y in G such that U ⋅ V ⊆ W, where U ⋅ V := {u ⋅ v : u ∈ U, v ∈ V}. The inversion map is continuous if and only if for
any x ∈ G and any neighborhood V of x−1 in G, there exists a neighborhood U of x in G such that U−1 ⊆ V, where
U−1 := { u−1 : u ∈ U }.
To show that a topology is compatible with the group operations, it suffices to check that the map

G × G → G, (x, y) ↦ xy−1

is continuous. Explicitly, this means that for any x, y ∈ G and any neighborhood W in G of xy−1, there exist neighborhoods U of x
and V of y in G such that U ⋅ (V−1) ⊆ W.

Additive notation

This definition used notation for multiplicative groups; the equivalent for additive groups would be that the following two operations
are continuous:

+ : G × G → G , (x, y) ↦ x + y
− : G → G , x ↦ −x.
Hausdorffness

Although not part of this definition, many authors[3] require that the topology on G be Hausdorff. One reason for this is that any
topological group can be canonically associated with a Hausdorff topological group by taking an appropriate canonical quotient; this
however, often still requires working with the original non-Hausdorff topological group. Other reasons, and some equivalent
conditions, are discussed below.

This article will not assume that topological groups are necessarily Hausdorff.

Category

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In the language of category theory, topological groups can be defined concisely as group objects in the category of topological spaces,
in the same way that ordinary groups are group objects in the category of sets. Note that the axioms are given in terms of the maps
(binary product, unary inverse, and nullary identity), hence are categorical definitions.

Homomorphisms

A homomorphism of topological groups means a continuous group homomorphism G → H. Topological groups, together with their
homomorphisms, form a category. A group homomorphism between topological groups is continuous if and only if it is continuous at
some point.[4]

An isomorphism of topological groups is a group isomorphism that is also a homeomorphism of the underlying topological spaces.
This is stronger than simply requiring a continuous group isomorphism—the inverse must also be continuous. There are examples of
topological groups that are isomorphic as ordinary groups but not as topological groups. Indeed, any non-discrete topological group is
also a topological group when considered with the discrete topology. The underlying groups are the same, but as topological groups
there is not an isomorphism.

Examples
Every group can be trivially made into a topological group by considering it with the discrete topology; such groups are called discrete
groups. In this sense, the theory of topological groups subsumes that of ordinary groups. The indiscrete topology (i.e. the trivial
topology) also makes every group into a topological group.

The real numbers, with the usual topology form a topological group under addition. Euclidean n-space n is also a topological
group under addition, and more generally, every topological vector space forms an (abelian) topological group. Some other examples of
abelian topological groups are the circle group S1, or the torus (S1)n for any natural number n.

The classical groups are important examples of non-abelian topological groups. For instance, the general linear group GL(n, ) of all
invertible n-by-n matrices with real entries can be viewed as a topological group with the topology defined by viewing GL(n, ) as a
subspace of Euclidean space n×n. Another classical group is the orthogonal group O(n), the group of all linear maps from n to
itself that preserve the length of all vectors. The orthogonal group is compact as a topological space. Much of Euclidean geometry can
be viewed as studying the structure of the orthogonal group, or the closely related group O(n) ⋉ n of isometries of n.

The groups mentioned so far are all Lie groups, meaning that they are smooth manifolds in such a way that the group operations are
smooth, not just continuous. Lie groups are the best-understood topological groups; many questions about Lie groups can be converted
to purely algebraic questions about Lie algebras and then solved.

An example of a topological group that is not a Lie group is the additive group of rational numbers, with the topology inherited from
. This is a countable space, and it does not have the discrete topology. An important example for number theory is the group p of p-
adic integers, for a prime number p, meaning the inverse limit of the finite groups /pn as n goes to infinity. The group p is well
behaved in that it is compact (in fact, homeomorphic to the Cantor set), but it differs from (real) Lie groups in that it is totally
disconnected. More generally, there is a theory of p-adic Lie groups, including compact groups such as GL(n, p) as well as locally
compact groups such as GL(n, p), where p is the locally compact field of p-adic numbers.

The group p is a pro-finite group; it is isomorphic to a subgroup of the product in such a way that its topology is induced

by the product topology, where the finite groups are given the discrete topology. Another large class of pro-finite groups
important in number theory are absolute Galois groups.

Some topological groups can be viewed as infinite dimensional Lie groups; this phrase is best understood informally, to include several
different families of examples. For example, a topological vector space, such as a Banach space or Hilbert space, is an abelian
topological group under addition. Some other infinite-dimensional groups that have been studied, with varying degrees of success, are
loop groups, Kac–Moody groups, Diffeomorphism groups, homeomorphism groups, and gauge groups.

In every Banach algebra with multiplicative identity, the set of invertible elements forms a topological group under multiplication. For
example, the group of invertible bounded operators on a Hilbert space arises this way.

Properties

Translation invariance

Every topological group's topology is translation invariant, which by definition means that if for any left or right multiplication
by this element yields a homeomorphism Consequently, for any and the subset is open (resp. closed) in
if and only if this is true of its left translation and right translation If is a neighborhood
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basis of the identity element in a topological group then for all is a neighborhood basis of in
[4] In particular, any group topology on a topological group is completely determined by any neighborhood basis at the identity

element. If is any subset of and is an open subset of then is an open subset of [4]

Symmetric neighborhoods

The inversion operation on a topological group is a homeomorphism from to itself.

A subset is said to be symmetric if where The closure of every symmetric set in a

commutative topological group is symmetric.[4] If S is any subset of a commutative topological group G, then the following sets are
also symmetric: S−1 ∩ S, S−1 ∪ S, and S−1 S.[4]

For any neighborhood N in a commutative topological group G of the identity element, there exists a symmetric neighborhood M of
the identity element such that M−1 M ⊆ N, where note that M−1 M is necessarily a symmetric neighborhood of the identity
element.[4] Thus every topological group has a neighborhood basis at the identity element consisting of symmetric sets.

If G is a locally compact commutative group, then for any neighborhood N in G of the identity element, there exists a symmetric
relatively compact neighborhood M of the identity element such that cl M ⊆ N (where cl M is symmetric as well).[4]

Uniform space

Every topological group can be viewed as a uniform space in two ways; the left uniformity turns all left multiplications into uniformly
continuous maps while the right uniformity turns all right multiplications into uniformly continuous maps.[5] If G is not abelian, then
these two need not coincide. The uniform structures allow one to talk about notions such as completeness, uniform continuity and
uniform convergence on topological groups.

Separation properties

If U is an open subset of a commutative topological group G and U contains a compact set K, then there exists a neighborhood N of
the identity element such that KN ⊆ U.[4]

As a uniform space, every commutative topological group is completely regular. Consequently, for a multiplicative topological group
G with identity element 1, the following are equivalent:[4]
1. G is a T0-space (Kolmogorov);
2. G is a T2-space (Hausdorff);
3. G is a T31⁄2 (Tychonoff);
4. { 1 } is closed in G;
5. { 1 } := ∩ N, where 𝒩 is a neighborhood basis of the identity element in G;
N∈𝒩

6. for any such that there exists a neighborhood U in G of the identity element such that

A subgroup of a commutative topological group is discrete if and only if it has an isolated point.[4]

If G is not Hausdorff, then one can obtain a Hausdorff group by passing to the quotient group G/K, where K is the closure of the
identity.[6] This is equivalent to taking the Kolmogorov quotient of G.

Metrisability

Let G be a topological group. As with any topological space, we say that G is metrisable if and only if there exists a metric d on G,
which induces the same topology on . A metric d on G is called

left-invariant (resp. right-invariant) if and only if (resp. ) for all

(equivalently, is left-invariant just in case the map is an isometry from to itself for each
).
proper if and only if all open balls, for , are pre-compact.

The Birkhoff–Kakutani theorem (named after mathematicians Garrett Birkhoff and Shizuo Kakutani) states that the following three
conditions on a topological group G are equivalent:[7]

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1. G is first countable (equivalently: the identity element 1 is closed in G, and there is a countable basis of neighborhoods
for 1 in G).
2. G is metrisable (as a topological space).
3. There is a left-invariant metric on G that induces the given topology on G.

Furthermore, the following are equivalent for any topological group G:

1. G is a second countable locally compact (Hausdorff) space.

2. G is a Polish, locally compact (Hausdorff) space.
3. G is properly metrisable (as a topological space).
4. There is a left-invariant, proper metric on G that induces the given topology on G.

Note: As with the rest of the article we of assume here a Hausdorff topology. The implications 4 3 2 1 hold in any topological
space. In particular 3 2 holds, since in particular any properly metrisable space is countable union of compact metrisable and thus
separable (cf. properties of compact metric spaces) subsets. The non-trivial implication 1 4 was first proved by Raimond Struble in
1974.[8] An alternative approach was made by Uffe Haagerup and Agata Przybyszewska in 2006,[9] the idea of the which is as follows:
One relies on the construction of a left-invariant metric, , as in the case of first countable spaces. By local compactness, closed balls
of sufficiently small radii are compact, and by normalising we can assume this holds for radius 1. Closing the open ball, U, of radius 1
under multiplication yields a clopen subgroup, H, of G, on which the metric is proper. Since H is open and G is second countable,
the subgroup has at most countably many cosets. One now uses this sequence of cosets and the metric on H to construct a proper
metric on G.

Subgroups

Every subgroup of a topological group is itself a topological group when given the subspace topology. Every open subgroup H is also
closed in G, since the complement of H is the open set given by the union of open sets gH for g ∈ G \ H. If H is a subgroup of G
then the closure of H is also a subgroup. Likewise, if H is a normal subgroup of G, the closure of H is normal in G.

Quotients and normal subgroups

If H is a subgroup of G, the set of left cosets G/H with the quotient topology is called a homogeneous space for G. The quotient map
is always open. For example, for a positive integer n, the sphere Sn is a homogeneous space for the rotation group
n+1
SO(n+1) in , with Sn = SO(n+1)/SO(n). A homogeneous space G/H is Hausdorff if and only if H is closed in G.[10] Partly
for this reason, it is natural to concentrate on closed subgroups when studying topological groups.

If H is a normal subgroup of G, then the quotient group G/H becomes a topological group when given the quotient topology. It is
Hausdorff if and only if H is closed in G. For example, the quotient group is isomorphic to the circle group S1.

In any topological group, the identity component (i.e., the connected component containing the identity element) is a closed normal
subgroup. If C is the identity component and a is any point of G, then the left coset aC is the component of G containing a. So the
collection of all left cosets (or right cosets) of C in G is equal to the collection of all components of G. It follows that the quotient
group G/C is totally disconnected.[11]

Closure and compactness

In any commutative topological group, the product (assuming the group is multiplicative) KC of a compact set K and a closed set C is
a closed set.[4] Furthermore, for any subsets R and S of G, (cl R)(cl S) ⊆ cl (RS).[4]

If H is a subgroup of a commutative topological group G and if N is a neighborhood in G of the identity element such that H ∩ cl N
is closed, then H is closed.[4] Every discrete subgroup of a Hausdorff commutative topological group is closed.[4]

Isomorphism theorems

The isomorphism theorems from ordinary group theory are not always true in the topological setting. This is because a bijective
homomorphism need not be an isomorphism of topological groups.

For example, a native version of the first isomorphism theorem is false for topological groups: if is a morphism of
topological groups (that is, a continuous homomorphism), it is not necessarily true that the induced homomorphism
is an isomorphism of topological groups; it will be a bijective, continuous homomorphism, but it will not
necessarily be a homeomorphism. In other words, it will not necessarily admit an inverse in the category of topological groups.

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There is a version of the first isomorphism theorem for topological groups, which may be stated as follows: if is a
continuous homomorphism, then the induced homomorphism from G/ker(f) to im(f) is an isomorphism if and only if the map f is
open onto its image.[12]

The third isomorphism theorem, however, is true more or less verbatim for topological groups, as one may easily check.

Hilbert's fifth problem

There are several strong results on the relation between topological groups and Lie groups. First, every continuous homomorphism of
Lie groups is smooth. It follows that a topological group has a unique structure of a Lie group if one exists. Also, Cartan's
theorem says that every closed subgroup of a Lie group is a Lie subgroup, in particular a smooth submanifold.

Hilbert's fifth problem asked whether a topological group G that is a topological manifold must be a Lie group. In other words, does
G have the structure of a smooth manifold, making the group operations smooth? As shown by Andrew Gleason, Deane Montgomery,
and Leo Zippin, the answer to this problem is yes.[13] In fact, G has a real analytic structure. Using the smooth structure, one can define
the Lie algebra of G, an object of linear algebra that determines a connected group G up to covering spaces. As a result, the solution to
Hilbert's fifth problem reduces the classification of topological groups that are topological manifolds to an algebraic problem, albeit a
complicated problem in general.

The theorem also has consequences for broader classes of topological groups. First, every compact group (understood to be Hausdorff)
is an inverse limit of compact Lie groups. (One important case is an inverse limit of finite groups, called a profinite group. For
example, the group p of p-adic integers and the absolute Galois group of a field are profinite groups.) Furthermore, every connected
locally compact group is an inverse limit of connected Lie groups.[14] At the other extreme, a totally disconnected locally compact
group always contains a compact open subgroup, which is necessarily a profinite group.[15] (For example, the locally compact group
GL(n, p) contains the compact open subgroup GL(n, p), which is the inverse limit of the finite groups GL(n, /pr) as r' goes to
infinity.)

Representations of compact or locally compact groups

An action of a topological group G on a topological space X is a group action of G on X such that the corresponding function
G × X → X is continuous. Likewise, a representation of a topological group G on a real or complex topological vector space V is a
continuous action of G on V such that for each g ∈ G, the map v ↦ gv from V to itself is linear.

Group actions and representation theory are particularly well understood for compact groups, generalizing what happens for finite
groups. For example, every finite-dimensional (real or complex) representation of a compact group is a direct sum of irreducible
representations. An infinite-dimensional unitary representation of a compact group can be decomposed as a Hilbert-space direct sum of
irreducible representations, which are all finite-dimensional; this is part of the Peter–Weyl theorem.[16] For example, the theory of
Fourier series describes the decomposition of the unitary representation of the circle group S1 on the complex Hilbert space L2(S1).
The irreducible representations of S1 are all 1-dimensional, of the form z ↦ zn for integers n (where S1 is viewed as a subgroup of the
multiplicative group *). Each of these representations occurs with multiplicity 1 in L2(S1).

The irreducible representations of all compact connected Lie groups have been classified. In particular, the character of each irreducible
representation is given by the Weyl character formula.

More generally, locally compact groups have a rich theory of harmonic analysis, because they admit a natural notion of measure and
integral, given by the Haar measure. Every unitary representation of a locally compact group can be described as a direct integral of
irreducible unitary representations. (The decomposition is essentially unique if G is of Type I, which includes the most important
examples such as abelian groups and semisimple Lie groups.[17]) A basic example is the Fourier transform, which decomposes the
action of the additive group on the Hilbert space L2( ) as a direct integral of the irreducible unitary representations of . The
irreducible unitary representations of are all 1-dimensional, of the form x ↦ e2πiax for a ∈ .

The irreducible unitary representations of a locally compact group may be infinite-dimensional. A major goal of representation theory,
related to the Langlands classification of admissible representations, is to find the unitary dual (the space of all irreducible unitary
representations) for the semisimple Lie groups. The unitary dual is known in many cases such as SL(2, ), but not all.

For a locally compact abelian group G, every irreducible unitary representation has dimension 1. In this case, the unitary dual is a
group, in fact another locally compact abelian group. Pontryagin duality states that for a locally compact abelian group G, the dual of
is the original group G. For example, the dual group of the integers is the circle group S1, while the group of real numbers is
isomorphic to its own dual.

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Every locally compact group G has a good supply of irreducible unitary representations; for example, enough representations to
distinguish the points of G (the Gelfand–Raikov theorem). By contrast, representation theory for topological groups that are not locally
compact has so far been developed only in special situations, and it may not be reasonable to expect a general theory. For example,
there are many abelian Banach–Lie groups for which every representation on Hilbert space is trivial.[18]

Homotopy theory of topological groups

Topological groups are special among all topological spaces, even in terms of their homotopy type. One basic point is that a topological
group G determines a path-connected topological space, the classifying space BG (which classifies principal G-bundles over
topological spaces, under mild hypotheses). The group G is isomorphic in the homotopy category to the loop space of BG; that implies
various restrictions on the homotopy type of G.[19] Some of these restrictions hold in the broader context of H-spaces.

For example, the fundamental group of a topological group G is abelian. (More generally, the Whitehead product on the homotopy
groups of G is zero.) Also, for any field k, the cohomology ring H*(G,k) has the structure of a Hopf algebra. In view of structure
theorems on Hopf algebras by Heinz Hopf and Armand Borel, this puts strong restrictions on the possible cohomology rings of
topological groups. In particular, if G is a path-connected topological group whose rational cohomology ring H*(G, ) is finite-
dimensional in each degree, then this ring must be a free graded-commutative algebra over , that is, the tensor product of a
polynomial ring on generators of even degree with an exterior algebra on generators of odd degree.[20]

In particular, for a connected Lie group G, the rational cohomology ring of G is an exterior algebra on generators of odd degree.
Moreover, a connected Lie group G has a maximal compact subgroup K, which is unique up to conjugation, and the inclusion of K into
G is a homotopy equivalence. So describing the homotopy types of Lie groups reduces to the case of compact Lie groups. For example,
the maximal compact subgroup of SL(2, ) is the circle group SO(2), and the homogeneous space SL(2, )/SO(2) can be
identified with the hyperbolic plane. Since the hyperbolic plane is contractible, the inclusion of the circle group into SL(2, ) is a
homotopy equivalence.

Finally, compact connected Lie groups have been classified by Wilhelm Killing, Élie Cartan, and Hermann Weyl. As a result, there is
an essentially complete description of the possible homotopy types of Lie groups. For example, a compact connected Lie group of
dimension at most 3 is either a torus, the group SU(2) (diffeomorphic to the 3-sphere S3), or its quotient group
SU(2)/{±1} ≅ SO(3) (diffeomorphic to RP3).

Complete topological group

Information about convergence of nets and filters, such as definitions and properties, can be found in the article about filters in
topology.

Canonical uniformity on a commutative topological group

This article will henceforth assume that any topological group that we consider is an additive commutative topological group with
identity element

The diagonal of is the set

and for any containing the canonical entourage or canonical vicinities around is the set

For a topological group the canonical uniformity[21] on is the uniform structure induced by the set of all canonical
entourages as ranges over all neighborhoods of in

That is, it is the upward closure of the following prefilter on

where this prefilter forms what is known as a base of entourages of the canonical uniformity.

For a commutative additive group a fundamental system of entourages is called a translation-invariant uniformity if for every
if and only if for all A uniformity is called translation-invariant if it has a
base of entourages that is translation-invariant. [22]

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The canonical uniformity on any commutative topological group is translation-invariant.

The same canonical uniformity would result by using a neighborhood basis of the origin rather the filter of all
neighborhoods of the origin.
Every entourage contains the diagonal because
If is symmetric (that is, ) then is symmetric (meaning that ) and

The topology induced on by the canonical uniformity is the same as the topology that started with (that is, it is ).

Cauchy prefilters and nets

The general theory of uniform spaces has its own definition of a "Cauchy prefilter" and "Cauchy net." For the canonical uniformity on
these reduces down to the definition described below.

Suppose is a net in and is a net in Make into a directed set by declaring if

and only if Then[23] denotes the product net. If then the image of this net
under the addition map denotes the sum of these two nets:

and similarly their difference is defined to be the image of the product net under the subtraction map:

A net in an additive topological group is called a Cauchy net if[24]

or equivalently, if for every neighborhood of in there exists some such that for all indices

A Cauchy sequence is a Cauchy net that is a sequence.

If is a subset of an additive group and is a set containing then is said to be an -small set or small of order if
[25]

A prefilter on an additive topological group called a Cauchy prefilter if it satisfies any of the following equivalent conditions:

1. in where is a prefilter.
2. in where is a prefilter equivalent to
3. For every neighborhood of in contains some -small set (that is, there exists some such that
).[25]

and if is commutative then also:

4. For every neighborhood of in there exists some and some such that [25]

It suffices to check any of the above condition for any given neighborhood basis of in

Suppose is a prefilter on a commutative topological group and Then in if and only if and is
Cauchy.[23]

Complete commutative topological group

Recall that for any a prefilter on is necessarily a subset of ; that is,

A subset of a topological group is called a complete subset if it satisfies any of the following equivalent conditions:

1. Every Cauchy prefilter on converges to at least one point of

If is Hausdorff then every prefilter on will converge to at most one point of But if is not Hausdorff then a
prefilter may converge to multiple points in The same is true for nets.
2. Every Cauchy net in converges to at least one point of ;
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3. Every Cauchy filter on converges to at least one point of

4. is a complete uniform space (under the point-set topology definition of "complete uniform space") when is endowed
with the uniformity induced on it by the canonical uniformity of ;

A subset is called a sequentially complete subset if every Cauchy sequence in (or equivalently, every elementary Cauchy
filter/prefilter on ) converges to at least one point of

Importantly, convergence outside of is allowed: If is not Hausdorff and if every Cauchy prefilter on converges
to some point of then will be complete even if some or all Cauchy prefilters on also converge to points(s) in the
complement In short, there is no requirement that these Cauchy prefilters on converge only to points in The
same can be said of the convergence of Cauchy nets in
As a consequence, if a commutative topological group is not Hausdorff, then every subset of the closure of
say is complete (since it is clearly compact and every compact set is necessarily complete). So in
particular, if (for example, if a is singleton set such as ) then would be complete even though
every Cauchy net in (and every Cauchy prefilter on ), converges to every point in (include those points in
that are not in ).
This example also shows that complete subsets (indeed, even compact subsets) of a non-Hausdorff space may fail
to be closed (for example, if then is closed if and only if ).

A commutative topological group is called a complete group if any of the following equivalent conditions hold:

1. is complete as a subset of itself.

2. Every Cauchy net in converges to at least one point of
3. There exists a neighborhood of in that is also a complete subset of [25]

This implies that every locally compact commutative topological group is complete.
4. When endowed with its canonical uniformity, becomes is a complete uniform space.
In the general theory of uniform spaces, a uniform space is called a complete uniform space if each Cauchy filter in
converges in to some point of

A topological group is called sequentially complete if it is a sequentially complete subset of itself.

Neighborhood basis: Suppose is a completion of a commutative topological group with and that is a neighborhood
base of the origin in Then the family of sets

is a neighborhood basis at the origin in [23]

Uniform continuity

Let and be topological groups, and be a map. Then is uniformly continuous if for every
neighborhood of the origin in there exists a neighborhood of the origin in such that for all if then

Generalizations
Various generalizations of topological groups can be obtained by weakening the continuity conditions:[26]

A semitopological group is a group G with a topology such that for each c ∈ G the two functions G → G defined by
x ↦ xc and x ↦ cx are continuous.
A quasitopological group is a semitopological group in which the function mapping elements to their inverses is also
continuous.
A paratopological group is a group with a topology such that the group operation is continuous.

See also
Algebraic group – Algebraic variety with a group structure
Complete field – Algebraic structure that is complete relative to a metric
Compact group – Topological group with compact topology
Complete topological vector space – A TVS where points that get progressively closer to each other will always
converge to a point

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Lie group – Group that is also a differentiable manifold with group operations that are smooth
Locally compact field
Locally compact group – topological group G for which the underlying topology is locally compact and Hausdorff, so
that the Haar measure can be defined
Locally compact quantum group – relatively new C*-algebraic approach toward quantum groups
Profinite group – Topological group that is in a certain sense assembled from a system of finite groups
Ordered topological vector space
Topological abelian group – concept in mathematics
Topological field – Algebraic structure with addition, multiplication, and division
Topological module
Topological ring – ring where ring operations are continuous
Topological semigroup – semigroup with continuous operation
Topological vector space – Vector space with a notion of nearness

Notes
1. i.e. Continuous means that for any open set U ⊆ G, f−1(U) is open in the domain dom f of f.

Citations
1. Pontrjagin 1946, p. 52.
2. Hewitt & Ross 1979, p. 1.
3. Armstrong 1997, p. 73; Bredon 1997, p. 51
4. Narici & Beckenstein 2011, pp. 19–45.
5. Bourbaki 1998, section III.3.
6. Bourbaki 1998, section III.2.7.
7. Montgomery & Zippin 1955, section 1.22.
8. Struble, Raimond A. (1974). "Metrics in locally compact groups" (http://www.numdam.org/item/?id=CM_1974__28_3_2
17_0). Compositio Mathematica. 28 (3): 217–222.
9. Haagerup, Uffe; Przybyszewska, Agata (2006), Proper metrics on locally compact groups, and proper affine isometric
actions on, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.236.827 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.236.827)
10. Bourbaki 1998, section III.2.5.
11. Bourbaki 1998, section I.11.5.
12. Bourbaki 1998, section III.2.8.
13. Montgomery & Zippin 1955, section 4.10.
14. Montgomery & Zippin 1955, section 4.6.
15. Bourbaki 1998, section III.4.6.
16. Hewitt & Ross 1970, Theorem 27.40.
17. Mackey 1976, section 2.4.
18. Banaszczyk 1983.
19. Hatcher 2001, Theorem 4.66.
20. Hatcher 2001, Theorem 3C.4.
21. Edwards 1995, p. 61.
22. Schaefer & Wolff 1999, pp. 12–19.
23. Narici & Beckenstein 2011, pp. 47–66.
24. Narici & Beckenstein 2011, p. 48.
25. Narici & Beckenstein 2011, pp. 48–51.
26. Arhangel'skii & Tkachenko 2008, p. 12.

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