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    Fawwaz T. Ulaby-Fundamentals of Applied Electromagnetics (5th Edition) - PH (2006)

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    Fundamentals of Applied Electromagnetics Fifth Edition ey ae, ey FAWWAZ T. ULABY Wee this book was first taught from, each student was asked to write a brief statement describing his or her understanding of what role electromagnetics plays in science, technology, and society. The following statement, submitted by Mr. Schaldenbrand, who has since graduated with a BS.E. degree, was selected for inclusion here: Electromagnetics has done more than just help science. Since we have such advanced communications, our understanding of other nations and nation- alities has increased exponentially. This understanding has led and will lead the governments of the world to work towards global peace. The more knowledge we have about different cultures, the less foreign these cultures will seem. A global kinship will result, and the by-product will be harmony. Understanding is the first step, and communication is the means. Electromagnetics holds the key to this communication, and therefore is an important subject for not only science, but also the sake of humanity. Mike Schaldenbrand EECS 332, Winter 1994 ‘The University of Michigan FUNDAMENTALS OF APPLIED ELECTROMAGNETICS Fawwaz T. Ulaby The University of Michigan Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 For educating me, | dedicate this book to The American University of Beirut and The University of Texas For embracing me as one of their own, | owe gratitude to The University of Kansas and The University of Michigan Timelines and Technology Briefs Timeline for Electromagnetics in the Classical Era 6 Timeline for Telecommunications 8 Timeline for Computer Technology 10 Microwave Ovens 86 Global Positioning System 128 X-Ray Computed Tomography 136 Resistive Sensors 174 Capacitive Sensors 186 Noncontact Sensors 188 Electromagnets and Magnetic Relays 224 Magnetic Recording 236 Inductive Sensors 242 EMF Sensors 274 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) 302 Lasers 344 Bar-Code Readers 362 Contents Timeline and Technology Briefs iv Preface xiii 1 Introduction: Waves and Phasors 2 1-1 Dimensivas, Units, and Notation 5 1-2. The Nature of Electromagnetism = 12 1-21 The Gravitational Force: A Useful Analogue 13 2.2 Electric Fields 14 1-2.3 Magnetic Fields 16 1-2.4 Static and Dynamic Fields 18 1-3 Traveling Waves 18 131 inusoidal Wave in a Lossless Medium = 21 1-32 Sinusvidal Wave ina Lossy Medium = 23 1-4 The Eleciromagnetic Spectrum 26 1-5 Review of Complex Numbers 28 1-6 Review of Phasors = 31 Problems 936 2 Transmission Lines 40 2-1 General Considerations 41 2-11 The Role of Wavelength 42 2-1.2 Propagation Modes 43 Lumped-Element Model 45 ‘Transmission-Line Equations 49 ‘Wave Propagation on a Transmission Line 50 ‘The Lossless Transmission Line 53 2-5.1 Voltage Reflection Cocficient 54 25.2 Standing Waves 57 Input Impedance of the Lossless Linc 61. Special Cases of the Lossless Line 64 2-7.) Shon-Circuited Line 64 27.2 Open-Circuited Line 66 Application of Short-Circuit and Open-Circuit Measurements Lines of Length! = ni/2 68 Quaner-Wave Transformer 68 Matched Transmission Line: 2-81 Instantancous Power 2-82 Time-Average Power 2.9 TheSmith Chat 72 2.9.1 Parmmetric Equations 72 2.9.2 Input impedance 77 2-9.3. SWR, Voltage Maxima, and Minima 79 2.9.4 Impedance to Admittance Transformations 80 2-10 Impedance Matching 88 2-11 Transients on Transmission Lines 92 211.1 Transient Response 92 211.2 Bounce Diagrams 96 Problems 100 Vector Analysis 108 31 Basic Laws of Vector Algebra 109 31.1 Equality of Two Vectors 110 3-12. Vector Addition and Subtraction 111 31.3 Position and Distance Vectors 111 31.4 Vector Muttiplication 112 3-15 Scalar and Vector Triple Products 115 3-2 Onhogonal Coordinate Systems 116 3-21 Canesian Coordinates 117 3-22 Cylindrical Coordinates 117 32,3. Spherical Coordinates 121 3-3 Transformations between Coonlinate Systems 123 33.1 Canesian to Cylindrical Transformations 123 33.2 Canesian to Spherical Transformations 125 3-33. Cylindrical to Spherical Transformations 127 3-34 Distance between Two Points 127 3-4 Gradient of a Scalar Field 130 344.1 Gradient Operator in Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates 344.2. Properties of the Gradient Operator 132 Contents Comments vii 3-5. Divergence of a Vector Field 133 35.1 Divergence Theorem 135 3-52 Remarks on Notation 135 3-6 Curlof'a Vector Field 139 3-461 Vector Identities Involving the Curl 140 3-62 Stokes’s Theorem 141 3-7 Laplacian Operator 142 Problems 144 4 Electrostatics 150 41 Maxwell’s Equativas 151 4-2 Charge and Current Distributions 152 4-21 Charge Densities 152 422 Current Density 154 43° Coulomb's Law 155 4-3. Electric Ficld due to Multiple Point Charges 156 4-32 Elecuric Field due to a Charge ribution «157 4-4 Gauss’s Law 160 45 Electric Scalar Potential 163 45.1 Electric Potential as a Functivn of Elecuric Field 163 4-52 Electric Potential due to Point Charges 165 4-53 Electric Potential due to Continuous Distributions 165 45.4 Electric Ficld as a Function of Electric Potential 165 4:55 Poisuon's Equation 167 46 Electrical Properties of Materials 168 4-7 Conductors 169 4-7. Resistance 170 4-72 Joule’sLaw 172 48 Dickectrics 173 49. Electric Boundary Conditions 177 49.1 Dielectric-Conductor Boundary 180 4-92 Conductor-Condactor Boundary 181 +10 Capacitance 182 4-11 Electrostatic Potential Energy 190 4-12 Image Method 191 Problems 194 viii Contents Magnetostatics 204 5-1 42 35 56 5-7 58 59 Magnetic Forces and Torques 205 5-11 Magnetic Force on a Currem-Carrying Conductor 207 5-12 Magnetic Toryue on a Current-Carrying Loop 210 ‘The Bict-Savart Law 213 $-2.1 | Magnetic Field duc to Surface and Volume Curreat Distribations 214 5-22 Magnetic Field of a Magnetic Dipole 217 Magnetic Force between Two Parallel Conductors 218 Maxwell's Magnetostitic Equations 219 5-41 Gauss’s Law for Magnetism 9 219 5-42 Amptre’sLaw 220 Vector Magnetic Potential 226 Magnetic Properties of Materials 228 5-6.1 Orbital und Spin Magnetic Moments 228 56.2 Magnetic Permeability 229 5-63 Magnetic Hysteresis of Ferromagnetic Materials 230 Magnetic Boundary Conditions 233 Inductance 234 5-8.1 Magnetic Field in a Solenoid 235 S-R2 Sclf-Inductance 238 3-83 Mutual Inductance 240 Magnetic Energy 241 Problems 245 Maxwell's Equations for Time-Varying Fields 254 61 62 63 e+ 65 66 67 68 69 Paraday's Law 255 Stationary Loop in a Time-Varying Magnetic Field 257 ‘The Ideal Transformer 261 Moving Canductor in a Static Magnetic Field 262 ‘The Ekectromagnetic Generator 265 Moving Conductor in a Time-Varying Magnetic Field 267 Displacement Current 268 Boundary Conditions for Electromagnetics 270 Charge-Current Continuity Relation 271 6-10 Free-Charge Dissipation in a Conductor 273 6-11 Electromagnetic Potentiuls 276 G-1L.1 Retarded Potentials 276 6-11.2 Time-Harmonic Potentials 277 Problems 281 Contents 7 Plane-Wave Propagation 286 7-1 Time-Harmonic Fields 288 T-1.1 Complex Perminivity 289 7-1.2 Wave Equations for a Charge-Free Medium 289 7-2. Plane-Wave Propagation in Lossless Media 290 7-21 Uniform Plane Waves 290 7-22 General Relation between Eand H | 294 7-3. Wave Polarization 25 7-3.1 Linear Polarization 296 7-32 Circular Polarization 297 ‘7-33 EMliptical Polarization 299 7-4 Plane-Wave Propagation in Lossy Mediu 304 7-41 Low-Loss Dielectric 306 742 GoodConductor 306 7-5 Current Flow in u Good Conductor 308 7-6 Elecuromagnetic Power Density 311 7-61 Plane Wave in a Lossless Medium = 312 7-62 Plane Wave ina Lossy Medium = 313 7-63 Decibel Scale for Power Ratios 314 Problems 316 8 Reflection, Transmission, and Waveguides 320 8-1 Wave Reflection and Transmission at Normal Incidence 322 BLL Boundary between Lossless Media 322 4-12 Transmission-Line Analogue 325 8-13 Power Flow in Lossless Media 326, 14 Boundary betwece Lossy Media 329 82 SneI'sLaws 331 83° Fiber Optics 334 84 Wave Reflection and Transmission at Oblique Incidence 336 84.1 Perpendicular Polarization 337 8-42 Parallel Polarization 341 843 Brewster Angle 343 %5. Reflectivity and Transmissivity 346. $6 Waveguides 49 #7 General Relations for E and Ti 351 10 Contents 8-8 TM Modes in Rectangular Waveguide 352 8.9. TE Modes in Rectangular Waveguide 357 8-10 Propagation Velocities 358 8-11 Cavity Resonators 363 8-11. Resonant Frequency 364 8-11.2 Quality Factor 364 Problems 366 Radiation and Antennas 372 9-1 The Shon Dipole 375 1.1 Far-Field Approximation 377 9-12 Power Density 378 92 Antenna Radiation Characteristics 380 92.1 Antenna Pattern 381 9-2.2 Beam Dimensions 383 92.3 Amtenna Directivity 383 9-24 AmennaGain 386 9-25 Radiation Resistance 386 9-3 Half-Wave Dipole Antenna 387 9-3.1 Directivity of 4/2 Dipole 389 9-32 Radiation Resistance of 4/2 Dipole 389 9-33 Quarter-Wave Monopole Antenna 390 94 Dipole of Arbitrary Length 391 9-5 Effective Area of a Receiving Antenna 392 9-6 Friis Transmission Formula 395 9-7 Radiation by Large-Aperture Antennas 397 9-8 Rectangular Aperture with Uniform Aperture Distribution 400 9-8.1 Beamwidth 401 ‘9-82 Durectivity and Effective Area 402 9-9 Antenna Amays 403 9-10 N-Element Array with Uniform Phase Distribution 410 9-11 Electronic Scanning of Arrays 412 9-11.1 Uniform-Amplitude Excitation 414 9-112 Asray Feeding 415 Problems 418 Satellite Communication Systems and Radar Sensors 424 10-1 Satellite Communication Systems 425 10-2 Satellite Transpuoders 427 Contents 10.3 Communication-Link Power Budget 430 10-4 Amenna Beams 432 10-5 Radar Sensors 433 105.1 Basic Operation of a Radar System 433 10-5.2 Unambiguous Range 434 10-5.3 Range and Angular Resolutions 435 10-6 Target Detection 436 10-7 Doppler Raat 439 108 Monopulse Radar 440 Problems 444 Symbols, Quantities, and Units 445 Material Constants of Some Common Materials 447 Mathematical Formulas 449 0 oOo DOD > Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems 451 Bibliography 457 Index 459 Preface Dering 2005, Fundamentals of Applied Electromag- rnencs, 2004 Media Edition was used as a textbook by close 10 100 US, universities and by a comparable number of academic institutions in other countries as well. As an author, I am of course delighted and gratified by the book's success, but to keep its conten! relevant and its presentation style attractive, I have to continue 10 explore ways (o improve it. My hest source of feedback has been frum colleagues who teach from the book al other universities. Their comments and suggestions have proved invaluable, as have some of the questions 1 received from students via e-mail, This fifth edition incorporates a number of specific changes aimed at clarifying certain concepts or elaborat- ing on their significance. More significant, however, are the following major revisions: 1. Waveguides and Cavity Resonators The material in Chapter 8 on geomerric optics has been deleted and replaced with six new sections on waveguides nud cavity resonators. This revision has been in response to input from a few colleagues who told me that they Tike teaching from the hook, hat they have had to supplement it with handout material of their own on waveguides and resonators, 2. Technology Briets In an attempt to bridge the gap between the fundamental concepls covered in an undergriduate-level textbook, such as Applied Electromagnetics and the world of applications that students experience all around theu— from cell phones and compulers to the near-instantuncous retrieval and display of information—the fifth edition of fersascquence of “Technology Briefs” onselevant topics. Examples include capacitive sensors and how they are used to measure pressure and as fingerprinting devices; liquid crystal displays, emphasizing the fundamental role of wave polarization to their operation: and the principles of operation of the laser, GPS, and X-ray tomogruphy, ‘among others. In each case, the intent is ta connect a basic ‘concept, such as capacitance, inductance, or polarization, to real-world applications, 3. End-of-Chapter Problems Extensive revisions have been made to end-of-chapter problems. In some casex problems were replaced with fnew ones. while in other cases, numerical values were changed to render ok! solutions essentially obsotetc. CONTENT ‘The book begins by building a bridge between what should be familiar to a third-year clectrical engineering student and the electromagnetics (EM) material covered in the book Prior to enrolling in an EM course. a typical student will have taken one or more courses in circuits. He or she should be familiar with circuit analysis. Ohm's low, Kirchhoff's current and voltage laws, and related topics, Transmission lines constitute a natural bridge xiv between electric circuits and electromagnetics. Without having to deal with vectors or fields. the student uses concepts that are already familiar 10 learn about wave srotion, the reflection and wransinission of power. phasors, impedance matching, and many of the properties of wave propagation in a guided structure, All of these newly learned concepts will prove invalnable later (in Chapters 7 through 9) and will facilitate the learning of how plane waves propagate in free space and in material media Transmission lines are covered in Chapter 2, which is preceded in Chapter I by reviews of complex numbers and phasor analysis. The next part of the book, Chopters 3 throught 5. covers vector analysis, electrostatics, and magnctostatics, Compared with most EM textbooks written for undex- ‘graduate instruction, the present hook differs in terms Of its presentation of these three topics in the following two ways: Of the total mumber of pages contained in the book, about 30% are allocated to these topics. compared with 50% or more in mast EM textbooks. The electrostatics chapter begins with Maxwell's equations for the time-varying case. which are then specialized to elecuostatics and magnetostatics, thereby providing the student with an overall framework for what isto come and showing him orher why electrostatics and magnetostatics are special cases of the more general time-varying case. Chapter 6 deals with time-varying fields and sets the stage for the material in Chapters 7 through 9. Chapter 7 covers pkine-wave propagution in dielectric and conducting media and Chapter & covers reflection and transmission at discontinuous boundaries and introduces the student to fiber optics, waveguides, and resonators. In Chapter 9. the student is introduced to the principles of radiation by curremts flowing in wires, xuch us dipoles. as well as to radiation by apertures, such as a horn fantennu or an opening in an opaque screen illuminated by alight source. To give the student a taste of the wide-ranging applications of electromagnetics in today’s technological society, Chapter 10 concludes the book with overview Preface presentations of two system examples: satellite commu- nication systems and radar sensors. ‘The muterial in this book was wvitten for a two-semester sequence of six cretits, but it is possible to trim it down to generate a syllabus for a one-semester four-credit course. The accompanying table provides syllabi for each of these 1wo options. In writing this book, I avoided lengthy derivations of theorems. particularly those involving extensive use of vector calculus. My goal bas been to help the student to develop competence in applying vector calculus 10 solve electromagnetic problems of practical imerest. | view vector calculas and mathematics in general as useful tools and not as ends in and of themselves, ‘Throughout the matcrial. emphasis is placed on using the mathematics 10 explain and clarify the physics, followed by practical examples intended to demonstrate the engineering relevanice of physical concepts. I believe the combination of the approach used in presenting the material, the arrangement of topics covered in the book, and the relative emphasis in favor of dynamics constinmes, an effective algorithm for equipping our future graduates, with a relevant foundation in applied electromagnetics. INTERACTIVE CD-ROM ‘The CD-ROM. first introduced in the 2001 Media Firion and Tater upgraded and expanded in the 2004 Media Edition. contains four types of matcrials: 1. The text contains 112 exercises, cach question, followed by an abbreviated answer. If the student wishes to verify that his/her solution for a particular exercise is correct. be/she can do so by ooking up the solution fur that exercise through the CD-ROM menu entry called Exercises (E). Equation (1.27) on page 23 of the text describes the ‘relationship between the frequency, wavelength, and velocity of a sinusoidal wave. The symbol SS appears next to Eq. (1.27), followed by v xv Suggested Syllabi “TWe-Semevier Syllabus Oneaemester Syllahas 6 credits (42 contact hours per semester) 4 credits ($6 contact hours) Gupir Sections Hours | Sections Hours _| 1_tetrodaction All 4 All 4 2 Transmission Lines [ All R Beli 2Rand 211 3. Vector Analysis All x all 8 + Bictrostaties All a +1104-10 6 | 3 Magnesonatics ~All 7 S110 5-5 and 5-70 5-8 s_ | Bans a 2 Total forfirst xemeuer 42 ‘Maxwell's Equations all 6 611063, and 6-6 3 7 Plane-wave Propagation all 7 7-1 wo 7-4, and 7-6 3 Wave Reflection all 9 E and Transmission 9 Radiation and Amieanas All 10 9119 9-6 6 10 Satellite Communication all 3 ‘Nowe = Systems and Radar Sensors Exams x] t “Toul forsccond semester WU ~ Toul 36 Exsra Hours 2 o This refers 10 interactive modules (M).1.1=13 in the CD-ROM, each of which preseats a graphical rendition of a waveling sinusoidal wave and asks the user to III] out answers 10 questions about the wavelength and frequency of the wave. If the user enters incorrect answers, the program will so inform hiner, and if the user activates the “help” icon, the program will display the correct solution. The CD-ROM contains 77 such modales, each of which uses video animations and/or drill exercises tu belp the stuuem develop better understanding of EM concepts and applications. 3. The CD-ROM contains 85 demonstration (D) exercises that utilize spatial displays of fcld distributions of temporal plots of certain quantities to convey the dynamic nature of EM fields and the roles of key parameters, fn the text, each demonstrution is identified by the letter D. as in oa. 4. Under the section entitled “Solved Problems (P),” the CD-ROM contains complete solutions for 90 Problems. Half of these problems were selected from among the end-of-chapter problems appearing wi inthe book, and sre identified by the symbol * next to the problem statement. An additional set of 45 problems was added in the 2004 Media Edition. ‘Their problem statements and complete solmions are availuble on the CD-ROM. 5. Copies of all figures appearing in the book, made available to facilitate the practical reproduction of the figures by instructors who may want to venerate viewgraphs of the figures electronically. Massage to the Studont The interactive CD-ROM accompanying this hook was developed with you, the student, in mind. Take the time to use Lin conjunction with the moterial inthe textbook. The multipte-windaw feanure of electronic displays makes it possible to design interactive modules with “help” buttons to guide the student through the solution of a problem when nceded. Video animations can show you how ficlds and waves propagate in time and space, how the beam of an antenna arfuy can be made to scan electronically, and examples of how current is muuced in a circuit under the influence of a changing magnetic field. The CD-ROM is a useful resource for self-study Use it! Message to ihe tastructor 1 found the demos conuiined in the CD-ROM to be extremely helpful in explaining certain EM concepts, particularly when both time and space are involved. Examine D8.3 as an example und you'll see what I mean. With that demo. it was so much casier to explain to the students the concepts of travelling and standing waves, how boundary conditions are satisfied at the interface between two dissimilar media. and what we mean by stunding wave ratio. The video prescatotions were well received by the students and generated a lot of questions. Thope you will make use of these demos also, especially if you have the means to project them onto. large screen Preface | would like to take this opportunity to thank Leland Pierce and Junice Richards for their technical assistance in the CD-ROM development. The high quality of the video demonstrations is duc in large measure to their creative talents and computer wizardry. Acknowledgments My sincere gratitude goes to Roger DeRoo, Richard Cares, and Jim Ryan, | am indebted to Rager DeRoo for his painstaking review of several drafts of the manuscript. Richard Camesis unquestionably the best technical typist, Thave ever worked with; his mastery of ISTEX. coupled with his attention to detail, made it possible to arrange the material in a clear und smooth formut, The artwork, was done by Jim Ryan, who skillfully transformed my rough sketches into drawings that are both professional looking and esthetically pleasing. 1 am also grateful to the following graduate students for reading through parts or all of the manuscript and for belping me with the solutions manual: Bryan Hauck, Yanni Kouskoulas, and Paul Siqueira. Special thanks are due to the reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions, They include Constantine Batanis of Arizona State University, Harold Mot of the University of Alabama, David Pozar of the University of Massachusetts, S. N. Prasad of Bradley University, Robert Bond of New Mexico Institute of Technology, Mark Robinson of the University of Colonide at Colorado Springs, and Raj Mittra of the University of Illinois. | appreciate the dedicated efforts of the staff at Prentice Hall and am grateful for their help in shepherding this project through the publication process, ina very timely manner. | also would like to thank Ralph Pescatore for copyediting the manuscript. Fawwaz T. ULasy FUNDAMENTALS OF APPLIED ELECTROMAGNETICS Fawwaz T. Ulaby The University of Michigan Introduction: Waves and Phasors Overview Historical Timeline 1-1 Dimensions, Units, and Notation 1-2 The Nature of Electromagnetism 1-3 Traveling Waves 1-4 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 1-3 Review of Complex Numbers 1.6 Review of Phasors OVERVIEW Liquid erystal displays bave become integral, parts of masy electronic gadgets, from ular clocks and cell phones to laptop computers and television systems. LCD technology relies oa special electrical and optical propertics of a class.of materials known as liquid crystals, which are neither pure solids, nor pure Liquids, but ruther a hybrid of both. The molecutar stracture of these materials is soch that when light travels through (be material, the wave polarization of the emerging light depends on whether or not o voltage exists across the material. Consequently, when no voltage is applied, the éxit surface appears bright. and conversely, when a voltage of a certain level is applied across the LCD material, no Tight passes through it, resulting in a dack pixel. The in-between ‘ange translates into a range of grey levels. By controlling the voltage across cach individual pixel in a two-dimensional array of pitels, a complete image can be displayed (Fig. 1-1). (Color displays are composed of three subpixels with red, geen, and blue filters. The wave-polarization behavior ina LCD is a prime example of hw electromagnetics is atthe heart of electrical and computer engineering. ‘The subject of this book is applied electromagnetics, which encompasses the smdy of electric and magnetic Pheiomena and their engineering applications, uider both static and dynamic conditions. Primary emphasis is placed on the fundamcatal properties of time-varying (dynamic) elecuomagnetic fiells because of their eater relevance %0 practical problems in may communicatioss, radar systems, bioclectromagnetics, andhigh-speed microelectronics, among others. We shall Two: Dimensional Paxel Array’ Polsrizer Unpolsrized Light 2Darray study wave propagaiion in guived média. such as coaxial transmission lines, optical fibers and waveguides: wave reflection and transmission at the interface between dissimiter media; radiation: by astennas, and several other related topics. The concluding chapter is intended to illustrate a few aspects of applicd electromagnetics through an examination of design considerations aisociated with the use and operation of rader sensors and satellite communication systems. 4 CHAPTER | this chupter with 2 historical chronology of electricity and magnetism, Next, we introduce the fundamental electric and magnetic field quantities we ‘use in electromagnetics, us well as their relationships to each other and to the electric charges and currents that generate them. The laws governing these relationships constitute the basic infrastructure we use in the study of electromagnetic phenomena. Thea, in preparation for the material presented in Chapter 2. we provide short reviews of three topics: traveling waves. complex numbers, and phasor analysis, Although the reader most likely has encountered these topics in circuit analysis or other engineering disciplines, short reviews of the properties of ‘waves and of the convenieuce phasor notation =: should prove uscful in solving time-harmonic Historical Timeline ‘The history of clectromagnetics may be divided into two overlapping cras. In the classical era, the fundamental laws of electricity and magnetism were discovered and formulated. Building on these fundamental formulations, the modern cra of the past 100 years, characterized by the inoduction of a wide range of engineering applications, ushered the birth of the field of applied electromugnetics. the topic of this book, EM In the Classical Era ‘Chronology 1-1 (pages 6 and 7) provides a timeline for the classical era. It highlights those inventions snd dis- coverics that have impacted the historical developmicat of electromagnetics in a very significant way, albeit that the discoveries selected for inclusion represent oaly a small fraction of the many scientific explorations responsible for our current understanding of electromagnetics. As we Proceed thruugh the bouk. we will observe that some of the names highlighted in Chronology 1-1, such as those: of Coulomb and Faraday. appear ayain later as we discuss the laws and formulations named after them. INTRODUCTION: WAVES AND PHASORS, ‘The anractive force of magnetite was reported by the Greeks some 2B00 years ago. It was also a Greek. Thules of Miletus. whe first wrote about what we now call static cleetricity; he described how rubhing amber caused it to develop a force that could pick up light objects such as feathers. The term cleciric first appeared in print in ~1600 in a treatise on the (electric) force generated by friction, authored by the physician to Queen Elizabeth I, William Gilbert. About a century later. in 1733, Charles-Frangois div Fay introduced the concept that electricity consists of two types of “Aids.” one positive and the other negative, and that like-fluids repel and upposite-fluids attract. His notion of A what we today call electric charge. Invention of the capacitor in 1748. originally called the Leyden jar, made it possible to store significant amounts of electric charge in a single device. A few years later, in 1782, Renjamin Franklin demonstrated that lightning is a form of electricity. He transferred clectric charge from a cloud to a Leyuen jar via a silk kite own in a thunderstorm. The collective 18th century knowledge about electricity was integrated in 1785 by Charles- Augustin de Coulomb, in the form of a mathematical formulation characterizing the electrical force between two chasges in terms of the strengths and polarities of the charges und the distance between them. The year 1800 is noted for the development of the first electric hattery, by Alessandro Volta, and 1820 was a hanner year for discoveries about bow mngnetism is induced by electric currents. This knowledge was put to ood use by Joseph Henry. who developed one of the earliest designs for electromagnets and electric motors. Shortly thereufter, Michael Faraday built the first clectric generator (the converse of the electric motur). Faraday. ‘essence. demonstrated that a changing magnetic fiek! induces an electric field (and hence a voltage). The converse relation, namely that a changing electric field induces a magnetic Geld, was proposed by James Clerk Maxwell in 1873 when be introduced his four (now) 1:1_ DIMENSIONS, UNITS. AND NOTATION famous equations, Mavscll’s equ ms represent the nero vdassivul elevtovmente Maxwell's thoory. which predicted a number of properties for electromagnetic waves, was not fully accepted by the scientific community at that time. not ‘until those properties were verified experimentally with radio waves by Heinrich Hert: in the 1880s. X-rays, nother member of the EM family, were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Roentgen. On the applied side. Nikola Tevda was the first to develop the a-c motor, considered a Inajor advance over its predecessor, the d-c motor, Despite the advances made inthe 19th century in leamn- ing about electricity and magnetism and how to put them lopractical use, it was not until 1897 that the fundamental particle of clectric charge. the electron, was identified and its properties quantified (by J. J. Thomson), The ability 10 eject electrons from a material by shining electromagnetic energy. such as light, on it is known as the photuclectric effect. To explain this effect, bert Einstein adopted the quantum concept of energy that had been advanced a few years earlier (1900) by Max Planck in bis formulation of the quantum theory of matter. By so doing, Einstein symbolizes the bridge between the classical and modern eras of electromagnetics. EM in the Modern Era In terns of engineering spplications. electromagnetics Plays a role in the design and operation of every conceivable clectronic device. including diodes, tran- sistors, integrated circuits. lasers, display screens, bar- code readers. cell phones, and microwave ovens. to fame but a few, Given the breadth und diversity of these applications, it is far more difficult to construct 4 meaningful timeline for the moder era than was possible earlier for the classical era. However, it is quite possible to develop timelines for xpecific technologies and tw use them as educational tools by linking their milestone innovations to electromagoctics. Chronologies 1-2 pages 8-9) and 1-3 (pages 10-11) present timelines ‘Fable 1-1: Fundamental Si units, _. ‘Symbol | mabe kg s A for iclecommunications and computers, respectively, representing technologies tat have become integral parts of today’s societal infrastructure. Some of the entries in the tables refer 10 specific inventions, such as the Iclegraph, the transistor. and the laser. The operuiional principles and capabilities af some of these technologies are highlighted in special sections called fecinc Briefs, scattered throughout the bok. 1-1 Dimensions, Units, and Notation The Insernarinnal System of Unus, abbreviated ST after its French name Sysiéme Internationale, is the standard system used in today’s scientific literature for expressing the units of physical quantities. Length is a dimension ond meter is the unit by which it is expressed relative to a reference standard, The SI system is based (on the units for the six fundamental dimensions listed in Table 1-1. The anits for all other dimensions are regarded as secondary because they are based on and can be expressed in terms of the six fundamental units. Appendix A contains a list of quantities used in this book, together with their symbuls and units. For quantities ranging in value between 10-'* and 10", a set of pretines, arranged in steps of 10°, are commonly used to denote multiples and submultiples of units. These prefixes, all of which were derived from Greek, Latin. Spanish, and Danish terms, are listed in CHAPTER |_ INTRODUCTION: WAVES AND PHASORS ee RC osteo eesti, table) Electromagnetics in the Classical Era 22 0° Legend has tot whta wahng across a fokd e rorthom 1785 Bt Greece, shopherd named 24" ‘expenencos a pul ‘on tho ron nats in he sandass by the Diack rock he is ‘standing en. Tha rogion was lator named 8 yt 2.9 ceed ao ac wes tse ee ‘Greck word fr abe (akon), and Obcerves Et & ‘compass newSe ponts nom 20uth because the Earth acty as a bar mages, Thc: Andre-Marie Ampere (French) oles at parlle!eurrors in snices atteact oach other 3nd ‘oppoatte c-rrents repel. stect 21s 229 are of two forms, and al the charges -Jean-Bepuste Blots French) repoland uriio charges atract ‘and Felix Savart Frenchy dovelop the Bial-Savart law relating the magnenc lod Pieter van Munachanbroak Désh went the Leysan induced by a wre segineet In, the frst otoctncal 10 the current floweg through i, 1.1_DIMENSIONS, UNITS, AND NOTATION i Joseph John Thomson Englah) cercovers tne electron: 8 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: WAVES AND PHASORS, remem a deeb stool Leen} Telecommunications 282! 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