Presentation

Chitkara University Himachal Pradesh

Elements and atoms Nuclear Composition Atomic Number and Atomic Mass Isotopes, Isotones, Isobars & Mirror Nuclei Mass Defect Binding Energy Binding Energy per Nucleon
Nuclear Physics

The atom consists of two parts:

1. The nucleus which contains:

protons neutrons

Nucleons

2. Orbiting electrons.
The term nucleon refers to either a proton or a neutron in the nucleus The term nuclide refers to a nucleus with a specific number of protons and neutrons.


All matter is made up of elements (e.g. carbon, hydrogen, etc.).

Atom of different elements contain different numbers of protons. The mass of an atom is almost entirely due to the number of protons and neutrons.

Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

X Z

Element symbol

Atomic number = number of protons

X Z
A Z
= number of protons + number of neutrons = number of protons = number of electron

A Z = number of neutrons
Number of neutrons = Mass Number Atomic Number

Inside Atoms: neutrons, protons, electrons

Carbon (C )
Atomic number Z=6
(number of protons)

Gold (Au)
A=12 Atomic number Z = 79

Mass number

(number of protons + neutrons)

# electrons = # protons
(count them!) (atom is electrically neutral)

Mass number
(trust me!)

A = 197

#electrons = # protons

Further layers of substructure:

u quark: electric charge = 2/3

d quark: electric charge = -1/3

Proton = uud electric charge = 1

Neutron = udd electric charge = 0
www.cpepweb.org

If each proton were 10 cm across, each quark would be .1 mm in size and the whole atom would be 10 km wide.

Atomic Mass
Atomic mass = 1/12 of the mass of a neutral Carbon atom (126C) or 1 12g 1a.m.u. The mass of 1 carbon atom = 12 N Because 1 mole of carbon means that 12 g of atomic carbon contain Avogadros number (N) of atoms. Therefore 1 a.m.u.=1.66 x 10-27 kg

Unit of Energy
The unit in which nuclear energy is expressed is called electron volt. The amount of energy acquired by an electron when accelerated through a potential difference of 1 volt is called an electron volt (eV) 1 electron volt (or eV) = charge on electron x 1 volt =1.6 x 10-19C x 1V 1eV =1.6 x 10-19 J
The bigger unit of nuclear energy is mega electron volt (MeV) 1MeV= 106 eV

Relation between a.m.u. and Energy

According to Einsteins equation E= mc2 Here, m = 1a.m.u.=1.66 x 10-27 kg and c = 3 x 108 ms-1 E = 1.484 x 10-10 J E= 931.49 MeV
Energy Equivalent:
E = mc2 E = 931.49 MeV

The energy corresponding to 1 a.m.u. is 931.49 MeV

Properties of nucleons with different mass scale used

Particle Proton Neutron Electron Mass (kg) 1.6726 x 10-27 1.6750 x 10-27 9.1095 x 10-31 Mass (a.m.u.) 1.007276 1.008665 5.486 x 10-4 Mass (MeV/c2) 938.28 939.57 0.511 Electric Charge (e) +1 0 -1

1 H 1

atom

1.6736 x 10-27

1.007825

938.79

Units:
The electric charge of an electron is -1 in these units. Mass units are million electron volts where 1 eV is a typical energy spacing of atomic electron energy levels.

Nuclear Size
If nucleus is spherical then 4 3
1 3

R3

A
1 3

R R0 A R A Where R0 is constant for all nuclei and has a value = 1.2 fm (where 1fm = 10-15m)

Nuclear diameter ~10-15 m Atomic diameter ~10-10 m

Isotopes,
The number of protons (atomic number) determines which element it belongs to. Atoms with the same atomic number but different number of neutrons are called isotopes.

Examples:
(1) 1H, 2H and 3H (2) 35Cl and 37Cl (3) 235U and 238U.

There are many types of uranium:

235
A Z

U 92

238
A Z

U 92

Number of protons Number of neutrons

Number of protons Number of neutrons

There are many types of uranium:

235
A Z

U 92
235 92 92 143

238
A Z

U 92
238 92 92 146

Number of protons Number of neutrons

Number of protons Number of neutrons

Isotopes of any particular element contain the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons.

Isobars,
The nuclei of an atom having the same atomic mass but different number of protons are called isobars. Example:
40Ar

and 40Ca.

Isobars,

40
A Z

Ar 18
40 18

40
A Z

Ca 20
40 20

Number of protons 18 Number of neutrons 22

Number of protons 20 Number of neutrons 20

Isobars of any particular element contain the same number of nucleon, but different numbers of protons.

Isotones,
The nuclei having the same number of neutrons are called isotones. e.g., 15N and 16O. Example:
15N

and 16O.

Isotones,

15 7
A Z

N
15 7

16
A Z

O 8
16 8

Number of protons 7 Number of neutrons 8

Number of protons 8 Number of neutrons 8

Isotones of any particular contain the same number of neutons.

Mirror Nuclei
The nuclei having the number of proton in one nucleus is equal to number of neutrons in other nucleus or vice versa.

Example:
7 Li 3

and 74Be

Mass Defect
The nucleus is formed by bringing protons and neutrons together, the mass of the nucleus so formed is less than the sum of the masses of the constituent protons and neutrons.

Mass of 11H atom = 1.007825 a.m.u. + mass of neutron = 1.008665 a.m.u. Expected mass of 21H atom= 2.016490 a.m.u. However, The measured mass of 21H atom=2.014102 a.m.u
Difference M = 0.002388 a.m.u.

This mass difference is called mass defect and is denoted as M

Mass Defect M = [Zm(11H)+ Nm(n)]-m( AZX) in a.m.u.

Mass Defect
Hydrogen atom mH = 1.007825 a.m.u.

Cont.

= 2.016490 neutron mn = 1.008665 a.m.u.

M = 0.002388 a.m.u. Deuterium atom mD = 2.014102 a.m.u.

The mass of a deuterium atom is less than the sum of the masses of a hydrogen atom and a neutron

Packing Fraction
It is observed that the atomic masses are very close to whole numbers, but they invariably differ from integers By a small amount
100

80

Packing Fraction

60

This deviation of the atomic mass from whole number is expressed in the form of a quantity called Packing Fraction
16 8

40

20

Definition: It is defined as the mass defect per nucleon Packing fraction

-20 0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Mass Number A

m A

A Z

X A A

Cont. Packing fraction measures the comparative stability of the nucleus. The smaller the value of f, the larger is the stability of the nucleus. From Figure: 1. For very light nuclei f is maximum and hence these are unstable nuclei. 2. As the value of A increses, f goes on decreasing till it becomes zero for A=16. Therefore the packing fraction of 168O is zero. 3. Beyond A=16 with the increase of A the value of f decreases (-ve value) and becomes maximum with further increase of mass number , the value of f starts increasing (becoming less ve) till it again becomes zero at A>240. Thus, one can conclude that the nuclei of the middle range are stable whereas the heavy nuclei (A>240) are unstable. 4. All the nuclieds have the tendency to move from region of higher f to the lower f. This is possible for lighter nuclei by means of fusion and for heavy nuclei by means of fission

Packing Fraction

Binding Energy
The energy equivalent to the mass defect is called the binding energy of the nucleus. Definition: It can be defined as the energy required to separate a Nucleus into its constituents particles.

Mass Defect M = [Zm(11H ) + Nm(n)]- m( AZX) in a.m.u.

Einstein mass energy equation:

E = mc2

EBE = mc2 = [{Zm(11H )+ Nm(n)}-m( AZX)] c2 = [{Zmp+ (A-Z)mn}- AZX] a.m.u. = [{Zmp+ (A-Z)mn}- AZX](931.49 MeV/a.m.u)
Note: All masses are in atomic mass units

Binding Energy
Hydrogen atom mH = 1.007825 a.m.u.

Cont.

= 2.016490 neutron mn = 1.008665 a.m.u.

Deuterium atom

mD = 2.014102 a.m.u. EBE = mc2 = 0.002388 x 931.49 MeV= 2.224 MeV

The energy equivalent of the missing mass is called the binding Energy of the nucleus The greater is the binding energy of a nucleus more is the energy required to break it

Deuterium nucleus
= 2.224-MeV gamma ray

Proton

Neutron

The binding energy of the deuterium nucleus is 2.224 MeV. A gamma ray whose energy is 2.224 MeV or more can split A deuterium nucleus into protons and neutrons Note: A gamma ray whose energy is less than 2.224 MeV cannot do this. Range of BE from 2.224 MeV for 21H (deuterium) To 1640 MeV for 20983Bi (an isotope of metal bismuth)

Numerical
Q1. The binding energy of the neon isotope 2010Ne is 160.647 MeV find its atomic mass. [Ans=19.992 a.m.u.] Q2. The mass number of 3517Cl is 34.9800 a.m.u. calculate its binding energy. Given Mass of =1.007825 a.m.u. Mass of proton = 1.007276 a.m.u. Mass of neutron = 1.008665 a.m.u.

Binding Energy per Nucleon

Definition: The amount of energy required to release a nucleon from the nucleus is called binding energy per nucleon.

Binding energy per nucleon (BE/A) = Binding Energy/ Total number of nucleons in the nucleus

BE/A = [{Zm(11H )+ Nm(n)}-m( AZX)] c2 /A = [{Zmp+ (A-Z)mn}- AZX]/A a.m.u. = [{Zmp+ (A-Z)mn}- AZX](931.49 MeV/a.m.u)/A
Binding energy per nucleon of a nucleus determines The stability of the nucleus. If BE/A of a nucleus is less, the nucleus is less stable whereas the nucleus is more stable if its BE/A is higher.

Binding Energy per Nucleon

Fusion
+ + Energy

Cont.
The left figure shows the binding energy per nucleon as a function of mass number. Iron is the most stable element. Large amount of energy (yield) is released by fusion of light elements into heavier elements or by fission of heavy elements into lighter elements. The BE/A of 21H is 2.2 MeV/2 =1.1 MeV/nucleon The BE/A of 20983Bi is 1640 MeV/209 =7.8 MeV/nucleon

Fission
+ + Energy

Binding Energy per Nucleon

Fusion
+ + Energy

Cont.

Fission 1.
+ + Energy

2.

3.

4.

BE of all stable nuclei is positive Peaks in BE at A=4n for light nuclei corresponds to 42He, 8 Be, 12 C, 16 O, 20 Ne 4 6 8 10 and 2412Mg. In the medium mass region, i.e. between A=25 to A=125 the average BE/A is constant. There is slight decrease in the BE/A for A>125

Binding Energy Plot

Iron (Fe) has most binding energy/nucleon. Lighter have too few nucleons, heavier have too many.
10

BINDING ENERGY in MeV/nucleon

Fission Fission = Breaking large atoms into small Fusion = Combining small atoms into large

238 92 U

9/26/2011

33

Binding Energy per Nucleon

Cont.

Two remarkable conclusions 1. If we can somehow split a heavy nucleus into two medium size one, each of the new nuclei will have more binding energy per nucleon than the original nucleus did. The extra energy will be given off and it can be a lot. For Example: If the uranium nucleus 23592U is broken into two smaller Nuclei, the binding energy difference per nuclei is about 0.8MeV Therefore, the total energy given off (0.8 MeV/nucleon)(235 nucleons) = 188MeV. This is the energy produced in a single atomic event. Note: In ordinary chemical reaction involve the rearrangement of the electrons in atoms and liberate only a few eV per reacting atom. Here the splitting of heavy nucleus which is called Fission, involves 100 million times more energy per atom then say the burning of coal and oil

Fission Process
Heavy elements are split into lighter ones.

Binding Energy per Nucleon

Cont.

2. If we join two light nuclei together to give a single nucleus of medium size. It also means more binding energy per nucleon in the new nucleus. For Example: If two 21H deuterium nuclei combine to form a 4 He helium nucleus over 23 MeV energy is released Such a process is 2 called nuclear fusion.
Note: Nuclear fusion is the main source of energy in sun and other stars.

Fusion Process
Light elements are combined into more heavy ones

Numerical
Q1. The mass number of 3517Cl is 34.9800 a.m.u.at is the BE/A Given Mass of =1.007825 a.m.u. Mass of proton = 1.007276 a.m.u. Mass of neutron = 1.008665 a.m.u. Q2. (a) Find the energy needed to remove a neutron from the nucleus of the calcium isotope 4220Ca. (b) Find the energy needed to remove a proton from 4220Ca nucleus. Why are these energies different?

Force Strong nuclear Electromagnetic Weak nuclear Gravity

Strength 1 .001 .00001 10-38

Carrier Gluons Photon Z0,W+,WGraviton?

Physical effect Binds nuclei Light, electricity Radioactivity Gravitation

Subatomic particles interact by exchanging integer-spin boson particles. The varied interactions correspond to exchange of bosons with different characteristics.

Nuclear Forces
Nuclear Forces are attractive in nature. This is true as result of positive BE for all nuclei. If the BE is ve, then the nuclei would not be stable and the repulsive forces would be existing in the nucleus. The nuclear forces are very strong in nature Meson Theory of Nuclear forces

In 1936, A Japanese Scientist Yukawa predicted that The nuclear forces must be arising because of some constant exchange of particles between the nucleons. According to him, all nucleon i.e. protons and neutrons could be held together if they share these particles. The particles were named as mesons. Later these particles were detected in1947, and were found to have a mass 270 times mass of electron

Meson Theory of Nuclear forces

According to this theory:

1. All nucleons consists of identical cores surrounded by a cloud of one or more mesons.

2. Mesons may be neutral 0 or carry either charge (+or -).

3. The difference between proton and neutron is supposed to be in the composition of their respective meson clouds. 4. The forces that act between one neutron and another neutron and proton-proton are the result of the exchange of neutral meson (0) between them. The forces between neutron and proton is due to the exchange of charged mesons (+or -) between them.

Meson Theory of Nuclear Forces

Meson Cloud + - and 0 - + +- + + + + + -+ -

Neutron

Proton

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_force

1. A neutron emits - meson and convert into proton. n p + then, the proton absorb this - meson and convert into neutron. i.e. p + n

Similarly
p n + + and n + + p Thus the protons and neutrons continuously exchange their Nature by absorbing and emitting mesons. 0 is exchanged not between neutrons and protons but between Proton-proton or neutron-neutron as explained below. p p + 0 p + 0 and n n + 0 n + 0

Analogy
Imagine two interacting nucleons as two dogs and mesons as a piece of a bone which each of them is trying to snatch from each other. The bone can be considered to be rapidly exchanged between the two dogs as neither of them can part with it. Thus the bone keeps the two dogs bound together.
Similarly, the exchange of meson keep the two nucleon bound together in the nucleus.

Properties of nuclear forces

1. Nuclear Forces are short range. 2. Nuclear forces are charge independent. 3.Nuclear forces are strongest forces in nature. 4. Nuclear forces are spin dependent. 5. Nuclear forces are saturated forces. 6. Nuclear forces are non-central. 7.Exchange character.