A Critical Discourse Analysis of Prof Yemi Osibanjo’s speech during the 2023

APC presidential primary election.

 ABSTRACT
Politics revolves around the organization of human affairs while language acts as a potent
instrument used by politicians for conveying political concepts and influencing decisions. The
thrust of this study is to examine how language is used to reproduce and sustain power in Prof
Yemi Osinbajo's speech delivered during the 2023 APC presidential primary election on June
6th. The study adopts van Dijk's (1993) socio-cognitive model of Critical Discourse Analysis
(CDA) and Halliday's Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL). This combined approach enables
an exploration of ideology, power relations, and linguistic structures embedded in the speech. It
has been found that persuasive techniques were employed by Prof Yemi Osinbajo, which
highlighted how language is harnessed to assert dominance, project ideologies, and shape
political narratives. The study concluded that language plays a vital role in politics, as it is used
as a linguistics technique to persuade, exhibit leadership, influence decisions and evoke action as
politicians use language to sway opinions and solidify leadership roles
 1

CHAPTER ONE

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the study

Language is an indispensable tool in human existence which serves as a means of

communication. Language makes human world meaningful; it facilitates interaction among

people as well as enables them to create and recreate the world around them. Language is innate

and many scholars have given different definitions of language. It is central to our lives and to

imagine a world without language is to imagine the unimaginable given that its use underpins the

study of everything in the universe (Adedimeji, 2006). Language though can be written, spoken

or non-verbal still serves as the bedrock of holding a community together by means of

interaction, acquisition, communication of ideals by a community for mutual benefits. Bloch and

Trager (2004, p.53) defines language as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a

social group cooperates. According to Sapir (1921) cited in Oyeyemi (2011, p.1) Language is a

living phenomenon, It is a primarily human and non- instinctive method of communicating ideas,

emotions and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols.

Language can be used for several reasons, such as communicating ideas, and influencing

others. Language is used by the politicians to trigger, influence and persuade the citizens.

Language in politics refers to all the ways language can be used as leverage to manage people,

gain power and promote interests. According to Aliu (1998) Politics is the management of

human beings. Politics is defined as activities associated with the governance of a country or

area. Politics is a collective decision making or the making of public policies for an entire

society. Language and politics are interwoven. Beard (2000) claims that language of politics
 2

helps us to understand how language is used by those who wish to gain power, those who wish to

exercise power and those who wish to keep power.

Discourse refers to a unit of language longer than a sentence. To study discourse is to

analyze the use of spoken or written language in a social context. Discourse studies look at the

form and function of language in conversation beyond its small grammatical pieces such as

phonemes and morphemes. It is interested in how larger units of language including lexemes,

syntax, and context contribute meaning to conversations. van Dijk (2005, p.94). Discourse

Analysis (DA) is the analytical framework which was created for studying actual text and talk in

communication context (Van Dijk 2014, p28).

Critical discourse analysis (CDA) is a critical, interdisciplinary approach to discourse

according to which language is a form of social practice. It essentially deals with analyzing

opaque as well as transparent structural relationships as manifested in language. Critical

discourse analysis studies discourse as a social practice with the aim of understanding the power

language exercises in society. It tries to uncover ways in which the dominant forces in a society

create versions of reality that favour their interests through spoken or written language

(McGregor, 2018). According to Fairclough (1995), relationships between the use of language

and the exercise of power are often not apparent, and it is through CDA that the researcher can

identify them. The three cornerstones of CDA are: the concept of power, the concept of history,

and the concept of ideology. Its origin resides in classical rhetoric, text linguistics,

sociolinguistics, applied linguistics and pragmatics. It refers to the theoretical and

methodological perspective of discourse analysis in which the discourse creates not only

semantic-pragmatic meaning, but also socio-cultural and/or socio-political meaning Fairclough

(1989, p.49).
 3

Speech is a formal address or discourse delivered to an audience. Politician often use

speech to influence people, to persuade them and make promises to sway people into supporting

them. According to Wikipedia, Speeches are frequently convincing and compelling spoken texts

that are intended to persuade the public to cast a particular vote or accept a particular set of

political and social principles. In the political world different speeches are always necessary done

in respect to such occasion as inauguration of a new administration, Democracy Day, primary

election, during a crisis in the state, Celebration, Workers Day Anniversary, Independence

Anniversary, among others. The president position is the highest in the country and various

individuals interested in this position go through the process of election in which they will be

required to render a speech which is a primary election speech. The Primary Election is an also

defined as election by the political parties to nominate their candidates for the General Election

ballot. No one is elected in a Primary election; candidates are nominated. Primary elections

or direct primary are a voting process by which voters can indicate their preference for their

party's candidate, or a candidate in general, in an upcoming general election, local election,

or by-election. Depending on the country and administrative divisions within the country, voters

might consist of the general public in what is called an open primary, or solely the members of a

political party in what is called a closed primary. The primary election speech being the crux of

this study as this study attempts to analyze Prof. Yemi Osinbajo’s primary election speech.

Oluyemi Oluleke Osinbajo GCON (born 8 March 1957) is a Nigerian lawyer, professor,

and politician who is the 14th and current Vice President of Nigeria since 2015.Although he is

leaving office 2023 May. He became the vice president under the platform of the All

Progressives Congress. The presidential primary election he delivered a speech where his

intentions and plans for the presidential post were stated. Since critical discourse is concerned
 4

with power and dominance relation. Therefore the need to address the key components of

language used in political speeches focusing majorly on Prof. Yemi Osinbajo speech during the

2023 presidential primary election led to the development of this study.

1.2. Statement of the problem

Several linguistic studies have been carried out by several researchers on political

speeches to reveal the use of language in politics. Several scholars have worked on analyzing the

Nigerian politics with different approaches of language such as discourse, stylistics, syntactic

analysis and so on. Some other existing studies have considered critical discourse analysis on

some topics. Some of the works includes; Abdulkadir (2020) worked on a critical discourse

analysis of selected political campaign speeches in Nigerian newspapers. Bello (2013) carried

out a study on a Critical Discourse Analysis of presidential campaign news items in Nigeria.

However, this study will explore different ideologies embedded in Prof. Osinbajo Yemi 2023

APC presidential primary election speech dusting out the ideological conceptions that can be

gotten from the speech. This research will also interpret the relation between discourse structures

and social structures as critical discourse analysis enables a vigorous assessment of what is

meant when language is used to describe and explain instead of what is said.

1.3 Aim and Objectives

The study aims at carrying out a critical discourse analysis of Prof Yemi Osinbajo’s

speech during the 2023 APC presidential primary election. It will unravel the hidden ideologies

in the speech by analyzing the strategies deployed. Its specific objectives include;

i. To identity the ideological insights that can be gotten from the speech
 5

ii. To evaluate how the deliberate use of language by politicians manipulate or

dominate people values and belief system

iii. To identifying the syntactic strategies deployed in the speech and how ideologies

are being represented

1.4 Research Questions

i. What are the ideological insights that can be gotten from the speech?

ii. How does the deliberate use of language by politicians manipulate or dominate people

values and belief system

iii. What are the syntactic strategies deployed in the speech and how are ideologies being

represented

1.5 Justification of the Study

In Linguistics today, different research works have been conducted using critical

discourse analysis by different researchers. Different researchers employed the use of ideological

tools to conduct their research. For instance, Marcus (2016) worked on A Critical Discourse

analysis of selected political campaign speeches of gubernatorial candidates in South-western

Nigeria 2007-2014. Jombadi (2019) used CDA and SFL to analyze online videos of Boko

Haram. Faola (2021) worked on A Critical discourse to analyze selected tweets on hijab crisis in

Kwara State. Nwafor (2016) used CDA to analyze selected political speeches of Gubernatorial

Candidates in South-Western Nigeria. To the best knowledge of the researcher, no work has been

done on Prof Yemi Osibanjo 2023 presidential primary election using Critical discourse analysis.

This is based on its recency as it has not received much attention. This research will therefore

adopt Van Dijk socio-cognitive model and Halliday’s systemic functional grammar model of
 6

Critical Discourse Analysis. The study will enlighten and make readers gain more knowledge

about CDA (Critical Discourse Analysis). The result will also help understand the play of power,

influence and dominance in politics.

1.6 Scope of the study

This study is concerned with Prof Yemi Osinbajo speech during the 2023 APC

presidential primary election on 6th of

June. The study is limited to this speech so as to be

thorough in the analysis and to finish within the stimulated time frame. The transcribed version

of the speech is downloaded from www.yemiosinbajo.ng in full-text, the data consists fifteen

paragraphs. The researcher extracts parts of the speech for analysis. This is due to the fact that

the speech is lengthy.

1.7. Research methodology

Research methodology is the path through which researchers need to conduct their

research (Wikipedia). Research methodology describes the patterns, procedure and explains how

a research is to be structured. Since the data that will be used are non-numerical data, this study

adopts a qualitative research method using critical qualitative research method. According to

Habermas (1972) cited in Sharam (2003, p, 9) critical qualitative research uncovers, examines

and critiques the social, cultural and psychological assumptions that structure and limit human

thinking. Critical research focus less on individual than on context this will help the research

expand the analytical process of the study as the research will not only check the context but also

analyze the socio-cultural and psychological ideologies. Through the use of qualitative research

which is descriptive and explanatory in nature the data is gotten from www.yemiosinbajo.ng

website. The study adopts a combination of models of van Dijk’s (1993) CDA model called

socio- cognitive model and Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL). Using the
 7

conceptual framework, the researcher will use certain concepts from critical discourse analysis

that dwells on ideology, power relation, while the linguistic theory will also be applies to the

analysis of the structure of the speech. The speech comprises three main parts: the introduction,

the body and the conclusion a total word count of six hundred and seventy (670) upon

transcription and fifteen paragraphs.

1.8 Summary

This chapter presents the introduction to the study, the statement of the research problem,

the aim and objectives of the study, research questions, research methodology, scope of the study,

and the justification of the study. The next chapter will elucidate a thorough review of literature

that is in one way or another related to the study.

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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter is a review of theories and concepts in discourse which includes history of

critical discourse, critical discourse analysis. Also this chapter reviewed language of politics,

political discourse, and overview of speech. Also reviewed is the theoretical framework for the

study.

2.2 Historical development of discourse

Critical Discourse Analysis, (henceforth, CDA) is a field of linguistics that is concerned with

studying and analyzing written and spoken texts to reveal the discursive sources of power,

dominance, inequality and bias. Classical rhetorics, Text Linguistics, Sociolinguistics, Applied

Linguistics and Pragmatics provide the raw materials for CDA. The orientation of CDA can be

linked with discourse as discourse provides the primary instrument through which ideology is

transmitted, enacted, and reproduced. CDA actually started as a new direction of discourse

analysis in the mid -1980s by such works of a group of linguists, such as Fairclough, van Dijk,

and Wodak (Anwar, 2013). It began as a movement in 1992, during a meeting in Amsterdam,

with contributions from the same group, and was later published as a special issue of Discourse

and Society in 1993. The group grew over time and began meeting annually in 1992. Since then,

several influential papers have been published, and two new journals, Critical Discourse Studies

and the Journal of Language and Politics, have appeared since 2004 (Leeuwen, 2006). CDA is

defined by a shared aim in de-mystifying ideologies and power through systematic and

reproducible semiotic data analysis (written, spoken or visual). It is based on the belief that

language and speech play a critical role in perpetuating and legitimizing social inequality,
 9

injustice, and oppression. It demonstrates how this is done using a variety of discourse analysis

methodologies, with the goal of raising awareness of this element of language use in society and

advocating for change (Leeuwen, 2006). It is largely concerned with and driven by current social

challenges, which it attempts to better comprehend through discourse analysis. Theories,

descriptions, methodologies, and empirical studies are chosen or elaborated based on their use in

achieving such a social aim. Due to the complexity of social problems, a multidisciplinary

approach to discourse and highly sophisticated ideas are required in order to comprehend them.

2.3 The Meaning of Discourse and Discourse Analysis

Discourse, in linguistics refers to a unit of language longer than a single sentence. To

study discourse is to analyze the use of spoken or written language in a social context. (Richard

2020). Discourse analysis generally means the study of conversation. Originally the word comes

from Latin 'discursus' which means “conversation or speech”. Johnstone (2002, p. 2) defines

discourse as “actual instances of communication in the medium of language. The term discourse

refers to the whole process of interaction of which a text is just a part (Fairclough 1989, p.24).

Brown and Yule (2003) defines discourse simply as language in use. This definition suggests

that language takes many forms, which are shaped by the context in which they are used then

discourse looks at these forms of language in conversation beyond its small grammatical pieces

such as phonemes and morphemes.

Discourse Analysis (DA) is seen as language above clause or sentence, DA is an aspect

of linguistics that is concerned with how meaning is built in larger communication. It is the

analytical framework which was created for studying actual text and talk in communication

context (van Dijk 2014, p28). Discourse analysis can also be seen as the organization of
 10

language above the sentence level. Discourse analysis sheds light on how meaning can be

created through the arrangement of chunks of information across series of sentences or through

the details of how a conversationalist takes up and responds to what has just been said (Ashiru

2013, p. 21). According to Jorgensen and Philips (2002, p.1) discourse analysis is the study of

different patterns that people‘s utterances follow when they take part in different domains of

social life. Discourse analysts are, therefore, not solely interested in studying language as an

abstract system, but in understanding how common knowledge and context come into play in the

use of certain types of discourses. The concern of discourse analysis is not restricted to the study

of formal properties of language; it also takes into consideration what language is used for in

social and cultural contexts.

2.4. Language of Politics

Language as a human vocal noise or the arbitrary graphic representation of this noise

used systematically and conventionally by members of a speech community for communication

purposes, is indispensable to man (Osisanwo, 2008, p. 1). As the faculty of human speech

present in most human beings due to heredity, language is the main means of communication

which distinguishes man from other animals (Crystal, 1971, p. 161). Since man, as a social

animal, constantly finds himself in an environment where there is a need for communication,

language - the main channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted from man to

man is used to achieve this aim (Halliday 1978, p. 9). However, giving a precise definition of

politics has been a herculean task since the idea of politics is relative. In everyday usage, we can

simply say that politics signifies what politicians do, especially that which pertains to the affairs

of the state. In the words of Chilton (2004, p. 1), politics has been defined as struggle for power,

between those who seek to assert and maintain their power and those who resist. The thirst to be
 11

in control of power probably explains why there seems to be a lot of contest or struggle between

individuals for the one who takes over the mantle of leadership in a particular environment. Oha

(1994), one of the important, if not the most important, system(s) of communication in politics is

language. Politics, which is a public phenomenon, is enabled by language. It is clear that, the

concepts language and politics are interwoven. Hence, it will not be out of place to say that

politics has become linguistic – a linguistic issue while language has become political – a

political issue (Osisanwo, 2017). Language is a powerful tool of manipulation in the hands of

political leaders. Since politics is basically about struggling to control power, language is used to

accomplish the control of power, thereby making language a very strong political weapon. It is

used to inform, instruct, motivate, persuade, entertain and influence the citizenry. In the same

vein, language is used to prepare, accompany, control, guide, explain, justify, evaluate, criticize,

and influence politics (Osisanwo, 2009). Conscious of the needs of the masses, political leaders

become aware of the language to use in pursing their political agenda; they make frantic efforts

to address the needs of their audience and win their support through persuasion, an essential

communicative fuse in political discourse. Hence, according to Edom (1965) as cited by

Adeyanju (2002, p. 532) language is the key to the heart of the people, if you lose it, you lose the

people, if you keep it safe, it unlocks the people’s heart. This is supported by the view of Opeibi

(2009) who emphasises the fact that No matter how good a candidate’s manifesto is; no matter

how superior political thoughts and ideologies of a political party may be, these can only be

expressed and further translated into social actions for social change and social continuity

through the facilities provided language. Political discourse is complex and comprises

parliamentary debates, speeches, propaganda, political talk shows, interviews, and a host of

others. It aims at persuading or manipulating the audience to accept what the leaders sell to them.
 12

This postulation is supported by Anifowose (1999) in Adebisi (2015, p. 9) when he says

men are engaged in politics as they try to define their positions in the society, as they struggle for

scarce resources, and as they try to convince others to accept their points of view. In this regard,

politics is a social event that man directly or indirectly, voluntarily or involuntarily partakes in

the society. Berkes (2000, p. 1) observes that politicians choose words that help them gain

control over the people by selling to them ideologically loaded words which on further

interpretations may end up in lies, deception or absolute nothingness. Succinctly put, politics and

power are two interwoven entities. Politics is a struggle for the means of putting certain political,

economic and social ideas into practice. In this process, language plays a crucial role, for every

political action is prepared, accompanied, influenced and played by language.

2.5. Political Discourse

Political discourse is polysemous, just like the term discourse, because it has many likely

senses depending on the focus of the user. Orwenjo (2010) shares this sentiment when he asks

whether political discourse is by politicians, for politicians, about politicians, or with politicians.

It can mean discourse that is political; in that way, all instances of language use can be said to be

political Shapiro, (1999) cited in Wilson (2001). Political discourse also refers to discourse in

any political forum such as campaigns, parliamentary address, interviews, national occasions,

writing, bill presentations and hearings, speeches, and so on. Political discourse can be thought

of as the spoken or written language used in politics to influence the audience's emotions and

beliefs and ultimately alter their opinions and behaviors. Political discourse, as defined by

Bayley, cited in Al-Faki (2014), is a broad and varied collection of discourse, genres, or

registers, including policy papers, ministerial speeches, government press releases or press

conferences, legislative discourse, party manifestos, electoral speeches, etc. Political speeches
 13

include, but not limited to, inaugural addresses, manifesto presentations, campaign speeches,

political debates, government press releases or press conferences, parliamentary discourse, and

so forth delivered as a response to particular national events, such as inauguration of a new

administration, Independence Anniversary, Democracy Day, Workers’ Day, among others,

depending on the import of different days to different countries. They are all characterized by the

fact that they are either spoken or written by (or for) primary political actors, members of the

government or the opposition, members of the parliament, leaders of political parties, candidates

for elective positioning, etc. (Chilton, 1989, p. 68). Political speeches are delivered for different

purposes, including the inauguration of new government. Inaugural speeches signal the end of

tenure of office and the inception of a new leadership. It is delivered by the head of the incoming

executive to set the tone of the new administration. Such a speech therefore contains the mission

statements of the new government. In the case of coup d’états, the new head of the junta justifies

their seizure of state power, while in a democratically elected regime, the incoming leader

appreciates the electorates for casting their votes for him/her, while promising them good

governance. Inaugural speeches also weigh the out gone leadership. Opeibi (2008, p. 99) also

posits that political discourse involves a process of informing, educating, and persuading people

to participate in a social and political event. Opeibi (2008, p. 94) explains that “politics does not

function independently of the instrument of communication.” He emphasizes the fact that

political communication and education are necessary in achieving stability in the governance of a

country. Chilton and Shafer (1999) view political discourse as any discourse with linguistic or

other actions involving power or its inverse resistance. In the same vein, Schaffer (1996) believes

that political discourse, as a sub-category of discourse can be based on two criteria: functional

and thematic. Functionally, it fulfills different functions due to different political activities. It is
 14

equally thematic because its topics are primarily related to politics such as political activities,

political ideas and political relations. Political discourse focuses on how language is used to

effect changes in the behaviour of politicians and the public towards governance in a society.

Thus, the study of political discourse which is useful to this study is necessary in order to

understand how language is manipulated by interactants in order to achieve their goals and how

the discourse can be further utilized to attain political stability in a society.

2.6 Approaches to Discourse Analysis

Since the conception of Discourse Analysis several theories have emerged and gained

ground as a result of Linguists developments. There are therefore several approaches to discourse

analysis, Critical discourse analysis which includes not only Multimodal discourse analysis,

Variation Analysis, Interactional Sociolinguistic Conversational analysis, Ethnography of

communication, among others

2.6.1 Critical Discourse Analysis

Critical Discourse Analysis is a critical interdisciplinary approach to discourse according

to which language is a form of social practice. It tries to uncover ways in which the dominant

forces in a society create versions of reality that favour their interests through spoken or written

language (McGregor, 2018). Critical discourse analysis (CDA) is a type of discourse analytical

research that primarily studies the way social power abuse, dominance, and inequality are

enacted, reproduced, and resisted by text and talk in the social and political context. According to

Fairclough (1995), relationships between the use of language and the exercise of power are often

not apparent, and it is through CDA that the researcher can identify them. . CDA draws attention

to power imbalance, non-democratic practices, social inequality, and other injustices with a view
 15

to promoting social justice, fairness and social equality. According to van Djik (2004) Critical

discourse analysts take explicit position, and thus want to understand, expose, and ultimately

resist social inequality.

Fairclough (1992, p. 135) sees CDA as:

An approach which aims to systematically explore often opaque relationships of causality

and determination between (a) discursive practice, events and texts, and (b) wider social

and cultural structures, relations and processes; to investigate how such practices, events

and texts arise out of and are ideologically shaped by relations of power and struggle over

power: and to explore how the opacity of these relationships between discourse and

society is itself a factor securing power and hegemony.

Critical in CDA does not mean critique in the negative sense of it, but fostering in-depth

interpretation of texts and talks so as to open up hidden power relations. Such deeper

understanding helps to reveal whose interest the text and talk serve and the purpose it intends to

achieve. Wodak and Meyer (2001, p. 2) says CDA is concerned with analysing opaque as well as

transparent structural relationships of dominance, discrimination, power and control as

manifested in language. It also aims to investigate critically social inequality as it is expressed,

signaled, constituted, and legitimized, and so on by language use. Critical discourse analysis

examines the use of discourse in relation to social and cultural issues such as race, politics,

gender and identity and asks why the discourse is used in a particular way and what the

implications are of this kind of use Brain Paltridge (2012, P. 186).

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2.7 Approaches to Critical Discourse Analysis

This takes a critical look at how various scholars have approached critical discourse

analysis. Norman Fairclough, Ruth Wodak and Teun van Dijk are three significant researchers

who are frequently mentioned in CDA approaches.

2.7.1. Ruth Wodak: Sociological and Historical Approach

Wodak sociological and historical method of critical discourse analysis (similar to

Fairclough is based on the idea that language both discloses and constitutes social processes and

interactions (Wodak Ludwig 1999, p.12). Wodak and Ludwig (1999), language in this way

entails three things at least. First, there is power and ideology. There is no relationship that does

not involve power dynamics and the application of values and norms. Second, discourse is

always historical. In the sense that, it is linked synchronously and diachronically to other

communicative activities taking place at the same moment or in the past. Intertextuality, as

defined by Fairclough, is related to this. The third aspect of Wodak strategy is interpretation.

According to Wodak and Ludwig (1999, p.13), readers and listeners may understand the

same communicative event differently depending on their past knowledge and information as

well as their location. As a result, according to Wodak & Ludwig (1999), the right interpretation

does not exist; a hermeneutic approach is required. Interpretations can be biased, less credible, or

insufficient, but they cannot be accurate.

2.7.2. Teun Van Dijk A Socio-cognitive Model

In order to illustrate the assumptions made by the stronger of the less powerful, van Dijk

integrates diverse linguistic theories and methodologies in developing social and discursive
 17

processes. Three components of van Dijk (2001) model of critical discourse analysis show how

discourse can reflect social ideologies: discourse, cognition, and society. The background of the

social analysis is the overall societal structures, whereas the discourse analysis is mostly text-

based (syntax, lexicon, local semantics, topics, schematic structures, and so on). In this way, van

Dijk method combines the interpretative (text-based) and social tradition (context-based)

approaches to media education into a single analytical framework for studying media discourse.

However, another element of van Dijk approach is the use of cognitive analysis. Personal/social

ideas, understanding, and evaluation in speech are examined here, whereas society refers to local

interlocutor relationships or worldwide societal institutions such as political systems and

group/subgroup ties. van Dijk cognitive phenomena are linked to discourse structure and the

ways in which social inequity, dominance, and ideology emerge. The relationship between the

discourse structure and the structure of society must be examined in order to uncover social

actors social representations, attitudes, and ideologies. van Dijk models explain how language

reveals social and personal characteristics in itself, as well as how discourse differs depending on

the social setting. Also, the macrostructure reflects the common ideological strategies of positive

and negative self-presentation. Positive self- presentation is the strategy that shows the writers in

positive attributes as “us” while negative self-presentation is the strategy used by the writers to

describe the negative position as “them”. The semantic macro-ideological strategies used in

creating division between are the framework which represents positive self-representation or in-

group favoritism and negative other-representation or out-group derogation (Igwebuke 2018).

Some of the ideological strategies identified by van Dijk are represented below:
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Evidentiality

Evidentiality is the process of giving proof or evidence in order to establish or defend

one opinion. In doing so, the writer gives evidence in order to make their view, claim or opinion

more reliable and credible. This is done when they provide evidence or proof from

eyewitnesses/victims or references to authorities in order to validate their claim. This ideology is

common in reporting crisis events in newspapers.

Labeling

Labeling is an ideology used to consistently identify or refer an individual or a group

with certain tag or label. In news reports, certain words are used to address an individual or

group of people. Positive labels on one hand shows approval of people conduct while negative

label on the other hand condemns and attack the group which is perceived to be negative in the

society.

Number Game

van Dijk (2004) refers to number game as the use of figure or statistics to establish fact or

credibility. Since numbers are used to represent facts rather than opinion, people use the number

game to state fact, to convince people and to emphasize the argument through the use of number

and figure. Simply put, number game is the use of number and figure to support one claim.

Hyperbole

Hyperbole is a semantic rhetorical devices to make an exaggerated claim of an event or

features of a person to gain certain objective. It is important to state that hyperbolic expressions

could be positive or negative depending on what the writer wishes to achieve. Hyperbolic
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signifiers are used to intensify meanings in the mind of the readers. It is psychological and

through it, language users appeal to the emotions of the recipients.

Lexicalisation

Lexicalisation is the deliberate use of certain semantic of words positively or negatively

in order to foreground or represent an idea. It is the strategic choice of words used to emphasis

meaning. A writer does not use words accidentally. Through Lexicalisation strategy, the writer

inserts certain words to either support or oppose the event by carefully and consciously using

words that reflect their standpoint.

Disclaimer

This approach is used to disprove or make irrelevant, the first statement of the writer by

putting forth contradictive expression of the earlier claim. This is done through the use of

negative coordinators (but, however, and so on) or through the use of adverbial of concession

(although, even though and so on). The second sentence, which shows the contradictory action,

contradicts the writer’s first sentence, therefore cannot be laid claim on by anyone.

Victimization Strategy

This strategy involves telling bad stories about the others because they do not belong to

our pole of the continuum. Writers use this strategy to show negativity of the other group to

make people focus on their bad deeds. Using this strategy, the outgroup is represented as threat

while the is represented as the victim of such threat.

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Depersonalisation Strategy

This strategy is used to detach oneself or others from a claim or assertion. This technique

is achieved through passivisation where a writer deliberately omits the speaker or doer of an

action. As a result, the speakers or doers are mystified/suppressed while their opinions or actions

are foregrounded. The essence is to draw the attention of readers to the fact or opinion written

rather than the owner of the opinion. This strategy foregrounds the view and places emphasis on

the action rather than the speakers.

Euphemism

Euphemism is a strategy deliberately used to substitute a harsh or blunt words or

expression for one considered to be mild when referring to something unpleasant or

embarrassing. This is mostly used in news headlines where news writers avoid the recipients to

come in contact with certain words before the news in detail. Being the item that fronts news

report, the headline is carefully written and this involves substituting unpleasant words for mild

words as words tend to have certain psychological effects on the readers.

Repetition

This involves the constant use of certain words or phrases in order to intensify their negative or

positive effects. The use of this strategy also emphasizes the argument to make the audience

focus on the content of the utterance by repeatedly providing a similar words or phrases.

Implication and Presupposition

Presuppositions produced from socially shared information are known as implications.

Presupposition refers to the information which is assumed to be known to the audience. They
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express the readers or analyst assumptions or inferences about the speaker or intentions.

Presuppositions are indicated by textual statements that express or imply that a proposition is

(considered to be) true, even if this is debatable or not stated. Using implication however, the

main idea is not mentioned directly but can be deduced or implied through familiarity.

2.7.3. Norman Fairclough’s Socio-Cultural Approach

Norman Fairclough opined that CDA is a strategy for assessing social and cultural adjustments

that could be used as a political speech against an elite group authority and control over others.

Fairclough system of discourse has three dimensions, discourse is understood concurrently as:

 a text (spoken or written, including visual images),

 a discourse practice production, distribution and consumption of the text, and

 a sociocultural practice.

It means that text is a product of discursive activity or interaction, and that this practice

comprises text production, distribution, and consumption, all of which are determined by social

practice conditions. The second component is discourse analysis, which examines the process of

description, interpretation, and explanation through which texts are produced and received. It is

about how people understand, replicate, and modify texts. Simply put, description refers to the

stage that deals with the text formal properties, while interpretation deals with the relationship

between text and interaction by viewing the text as a product of the production process and a

resource in the interpretation process, and explanation deals with the relationship between

interaction and social context, with the social determination of the production process.
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The third dimension is social practice analysis, with a focus on the relationship of

discourse to power and ideology; this practice is concerned with questions of power, which is

implemented through inter-discursivity and dominance. Exploration of how discourses operate in

various realms of society is part of this dimension analysis, firstly, discourse is defined as a

written or spoken document that comprises formal features such as syntax and vocabulary.

Second, discourse is defined as a discursive practice that includes the processes of text

generation and interpretation, which indicates that when studying the language of text, the way

discourse is produced and interpreted in society should be considered. The last is discourse as

social practice, which emphasizes the need of placing textual language analysis, as well as

production and interpretation processes, in their proper social context. Fairclough also employs

Halliday systemic functional linguistics and the three domains of ideational, interpersonal, and

textual analysis in his textual analysis (Kuo & Nakamura, 2005). The ideational function

that involves meta-narratives circulates throughout society. At this level, transitivity is

considered, which refers to the many processes (or types of verbs) participating in the

interaction. Interpersonal functions are the meanings of the social relationships formed between

interaction partners. The mood (whether a sentence is a statement, question, or proclamation) and

modality are also examined in this area (the degree of assertiveness in the exchange). The textual

domain includes the text's thematic framework. Naturally, both van Dijk and Fairclough

versions of CDA place a strong emphasis on media text and context.

2.8 Theoretical Framework

CDA is a type of discourse analytical research that focuses on how text and talk in the

social and political context are used to perpetrate, reproduce, and contend social power abuse,

domination, and inequality (van Dijk, 2004, p. 352). CDA does not only limit its analysis to
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specific structures to text or talk, but systematically relate this to structure of sociopolitical

context. According to O'Halloran (2003, p. 2), CDA concentrates on text cognition at the

interpretation stage, revealing how text can obscure the events being recounted for the reader's

comprehension. According to van Dijk (1998) Critical Discourse Analysis is a field that is

concerned with study with studying and analyzing written and spoken texts to review the

discursive sources of power, dominance, inequality and bias. It examines how these discursive

sources are maintained and reproduced within specific social, historical, and political contexts.

The model used for this study Van Dijk (1991) emphasizes that CDA provides critics with a tool

for studying communication within socio-cultural contexts and how ethnicity affects our

ideological thinking as well as utterances. Conversations reflect the cognitive, social, historical,

cultural or political contexts. The theoretical underpinning therefore makes use of a combination

of models in CDA. Primarily van Dijk’s (1997) investigation of the hidden power structures that

ideological discourses reflect aspect of Van Dijk’s theory of socio-cognitive and Halliday’s

systemic functional grammar provides the theoretical framework for this research. van Dijk’s

theory concentrates on social cognition as the mediating part between text and society. He claims

that CDA needs to account for the various forms of social cognitions that are shared by the social

collectivities (groups, organizations and institutions) (van Dijk, 2001). Social cognitions are

"socially shared representations of societal arrangements, groups and relations, as well as mental

operations such as interpretation, thinking and arguing, inferencing and learning" (van Dijk,

1993, p.257). Every texts is embedded with various ideologies, these ideologies in the speech of

Prof. Osinbajo during the 2023 APC presidential primary election will be unravel using Van

Dijk’s theory of socio-cognitive. Three types of social representations have been identified in

Van Dijk's framework for understanding discourse which will be used for this study: (personal,
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group, and cultural) knowledge, attitudes, and ideologies (van Dijk, 2001). Van Dijk's method is

unique among CDA techniques because of its cognitive component (van Dijk, 2001). Socio-

cognition serves as the intermediary between society and speech in this perspective. Both social

and personal cognition are included in socio-cognition, it is also built on exposing the ideological

division of Us vs Them. In order to accomplish this, van Djik places particular emphasis on the

following categories: one, examining the discourse's historical, political, or social context as well

as its key participants; two, examining the power dynamics and interpersonal conflicts within

groups; three, identifying both positive and negative attitudes toward us and them; and four,

stating presuppositions and their implications clearly and precisely; scrutinizing lexical choices

and grammar to underscore or de-emphasize the opinions of “polarized groups” (van Dijk, 2008,

p.61). This theory will be used in this study, to analyze the hidden ideologies in the 2023 APC

primary election speech of Prof. Osibanjo.

2.9 Summary of the chapter

This chapter reviewed and provided critical discussions of relevant concepts, the

theoretical framework as well as the theories of discourse.