applied
sciences
Article
Determination and Evaluation of a Three-Wheeled Tilting
Vehicle Prototype’s Dynamic Characteristics
Deividas Navikas 1,2, *
Citation: Navikas, D.; Pitrėnas, A.
Determination and Evaluation of a
Three-Wheeled Tilting Vehicle
Prototype’s Dynamic Characteristics.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 5121. https://
doi.org/10.3390/app12105121
Academic Editor: Nicola Bosso
Received: 25 April 2022
Accepted: 17 May 2022
Published: 19 May 2022
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4.0/).
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 5121. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12105121
and Aurelijus Pitrėnas 3
1 Department of Automobiles Transport Engineering, Vilnius Technology and Design College,
10303 Vilnius, Lithuania
2 Department of Mobile Machinery and Railway Transport, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University,
10223 Vilnius, Lithuania
3 Department of Electric and Electronic Engineering, Vilnius Technology and Design College,
10303 Vilnius, Lithuania; a.pitrenas@vtdko.lt
* Correspondence: d.navikas@vtdko.lt
Abstract: When a new vehicle is being developed, the parameters of the electric motor, battery
modules, and control algorithms have a significant impact on its dynamic characteristics. This paper
presents a method of determining the dynamic characteristics of a three-wheeled tilting vehicle
created by AKO team. In order to achieve this, the acceleration values in theoretical calculations were
determined and were verified by experimental field tests using a three-wheeled vehicle prototype.
Theoretical calculations include the determination of speed, dynamic factor, air resistance, and
traction force. The theoretical calculation of the above-mentioned dynamic factors also involves
the experimental determination of the drag coefficient, which was performed in a wind tunnel
using a scaled-down (1:16) three-wheeled vehicle model. Field tests were conducted to determine
acceleration data using two accelerometers, one of which was used for the synchronization of the
calculated acceleration data with experimentally obtained acceleration data. Obtained data from
very sensitive accelerometer were filtered using a Butterworth second-order low-pass filter. Results
show compliance between the calculated and measured accelerations, which means that theoretical
calculations were verified by experimental measurements.
Keywords: three-wheeled tilting vehicle; determination; dynamic characteristics; acceleration; prototype
1. Introduction
Motorized tilting land road vehicles with more than two wheels have been studied
and developed since the beginning of the 1950s. There have been many other attempts
since the prototype was proposed by Ernst Neumann [1] in 1945–1950.
Later on, in the middle of the 1950s, the Ford Motor Company presented a gyro-
scopically stabilized two-wheeled lean vehicle (called Gyron) with retractable wheel pods
for parking. In the 1960s, the MIT proposed a tilting vehicle similar to a motorcycle but
equipped with active roll control. At the beginning of the 1970s, General Motors presented
the Lean Machine, characterized by a fixed rear frame and a tilting body module that was
controlled by the rider by using foot pedals to balance the tilting body [2].
These projects were confined to the field of research and therefore were far from the
stage of mass production. Therefore, the interest in these kinds of vehicles petered out,
even though new configuration proposals continued to be made [1].
After a small period of time, innovators focused on this idea again, and some of them
were successful. For example, there was a vehicle that was produced and commercialized
in the UK by the BSA Company in 1971. The project was then acquired by Honda, which
produced the Honda Gyro model at the beginning of the 1980s.
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 5121 2 of 12

Recently, the problems of pollution, energy consumption, vehicle cost, and traffic
congestion and the progress of control system technology has created new interest in
narrow commuters for individual mobility [3].
Later, different producers were developing these ideas and created models such as
F 300 Life-Jet [4], Clever [5], Carver One [6], and MP3 [7]. Additionally, some of them
chose different types of construction but concentrated on the small city vehicle segment
Triggo [8]. In this decade, popular examples are NIU TQi-GT [9] and Deliverator [10],
created by Arcimoto.
Most of these three-wheeled vehicles can be divided into two groups: those with a
front axle consisting of two wheels and those with a front axle consisting of one wheel.
There are two groups of tilting technologies: tilting just the front axle or tilting the whole
vehicle. However, the main differences affecting the dynamic characteristics are the tilting
angle and the steering mechanism.
Mobility is an essential activity in modern society, and it relies on vehicles. Currently,
the energy consumed by vehicle transportation accounts for over 25% of the global energy
consumption due to the rapid progress of motorization throughout the world [11].
The primary focus of the automobile industry is to develop more efficient, safer, and
eco-friendly transportation systems [12,13].
There are few studies that present three-wheeled vehicles using deep research and the
determination of dynamic characteristics.
Research conducted by Al-jameel and Abdulamer [14] shows that a particular percentage
of three-wheeled vehicles, especially in urban use, can improve traffic flow speed. Therefore,
these vehicles should be improved and offered to a wider number of potential users.
Electric vehicles have recently received a lot of attention due to their being classified as
zero-emissions vehicles, in addition to having a higher energy efficiency than comparable
internal combustion vehicles. It is well known that driving parameters such as harshness
of acceleration have an impact on the fuel economy [15,16] and that changes to driving
behavior can influence it [17].
Many studies have investigated the acceleration and deceleration of traffic movement
based on different types of vehicle, as well as individual models for separate systems
analysis [18–23]. However, for optimized traffic flow, parallelly extending vehicle types is
not only friendly for environment but also provides good dynamic characteristics without
sacrificing passenger and pedestrian safety.
Dynamic characteristics are one of the goals where producers of new vehicles are
competing. Therefore, there are a lot of different theoretical and experimental methods
to determining and evaluating these characteristic [19,20]. These methods, on one hand,
are unified, and on the other, they are also evolving. According to this attitude, each
vehicle designer and manufacturer is trying to find the best methods for determination
and verification.
It has been predicted that the prevailing COVID-19 situation will result in an increased
demand for personal vehicles. There is a renewed interest in three-wheeled vehicles for
short urban mobility in Western countries due to their inherent cost advantages, which will
make it affordable for the common person [24].
A problem for electric and hybrid vehicles is powertrain control, which is focused
on the major challenge of power distribution among the energy sources, i.e., the energy
management strategy. Many advanced techniques have been published concerning this
challenging issue [25,26].
There are technical safety requirements that are presented in SAE technical papers. If
they are achieved, then three-wheeled vehicles can offer safe alternatives to four-wheeled
vehicles [27].
The present research discusses the optimal control of hybrid electric vehicles [28].
One of initial conditions is to accurately determine vehicle acceleration, which later can be
corrected to fit the best performance not only for the fastest acceleration but also for best
comfort for drivers and passengers.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 12

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 5121 be corrected to fit the best performance not only for the fastest acceleration but also 3for of 12
best comfort for drivers and passengers.
Previous studies show that using the rational design of energy optimization strate-
gies, the working
Previous pointsshow
studies of thethat
main power
using the components
rational design canofbeenergy
optimized, thus enhancing
optimization strategies,
energy
the working points of the main power components can be optimized,should
efficiency when driving vehicles [29–31]. Therefore, all vehicles be pre-
thus enhancing
cisely tested in each phase of project, especially safety and driving
energy efficiency when driving vehicles [29–31]. Therefore, all vehicles should be precisely properties.
He, in
tested Cao,
each and Cui of
phase in project,
2020 [32] presented
especially vehicle
safety andacceleration strategies based on the
driving properties.
optimization
He, Cao, and Cui in 2020 [32] presented vehicle accelerationshow
of energy consumption. The results of the case study that energy
strategies based oncon-the
sumption
optimizationin theof acceleration process can be
energy consumption. The effectively
results ofreduced
the caseusing study theshow
strategy’s con-
that energy
trol and with theinacceleration
consumption the acceleration time being
process extended within an appropriate
can be effectively reduced using range.
the Energy-
strategy’s
saving potential is better, especially under low target-velocity
control and with the acceleration time being extended within an appropriate range. conditions. The strategies
Energy-
obtained by the twoisalgorithms
saving potential can achieve
better, especially underalmost the same energy-saving
low target-velocity conditions.potential.
The strategies
Research
obtained by shows
the twothat when thecan
algorithms electric
achievevehicle
almost(EV)theaccelerates on a good road,
same energy-saving energy
potential.
consumption
Research and battery
shows thatcapacity
when the loss mainly
electric depend
vehicle (EV)onaccelerates
acceleration onand vehicle
a good road,veloc-
energy
ity, vehicle velocity
consumption can be expressed
and battery capacity loss bymainly
acceleration
depend andonacceleration
accelerationtime, and then
and vehicle ac-
velocity,
celeration and acceleration
vehicle velocity time can be
can be expressed bycharacterized
acceleration and by the acceleration
acceleration curve.
time, andTherefore,
then accel-
finding
eration a suitable acceleration
and acceleration timecurve
can be is extremely
characterized important
by thein order to reduce
acceleration curve.EVTherefore,
energy
consumption and extend battery life [33].
finding a suitable acceleration curve is extremely important in order to reduce EV energy
Acceleration
consumption andis one
extendof most important
battery life [33].parameters of a vehicle’s dynamic characteris-
tics of its driving cycle;
Acceleration is oneit affects
of mostnot only traffic
important flow speed
parameters of a and pollution,
vehicle’s dynamic but characteristics
also battery
discharging
of its driving level [34].it Basically,
cycle; affects notwith only optimized
traffic flowacceleration parameters
speed and pollution, but(including
also battery the
dis-
charging
driver level
factor), the[34]. Basically,
vehicle with optimized
can reach cruising speed acceleration parameters
faster, which leads (including
to the bestthe driver
perfor-
factor),
mance in the
terms vehicle can flow.
of traffic reach cruising speed faster, which leads to the best performance in
terms of traffic flow.
According to research, different age groups choose different levels of acceleration.
HigherAccording
acceleration todoes
research, different
not always leadage groups
to more choose but
accidents, different levelscan
sometimes of acceleration.
solve traf-
ficHigher acceleration
jam problems doesalso
[35]. We notshould
alwaysnot lead to more
forget thataccidents,
improvementsbut sometimes
in vehiclecan solvehave
quality traffic
jam problems
enabled the use of [35]. We alsosatisfaction
emotional should not as forget that improvements
an important criterion for invehicle
vehicleselection
quality have
as
enabled the use of
a dynamic characteristic [36].emotional satisfaction as an important criterion for vehicle selection as a
dynamic characteristic [36].
In sum, three-wheeled vehicles, like other vehicles other must go through long stages
In sum, three-wheeled
of improvement. To do this, vehicles, like other vehicles
many optimization processesother must
must bego through long
completed, suchstages
as
optimal determination of the vehicle’s dynamic characteristics. Additionally, eachsuch
of improvement. To do this, many optimization processes must be completed, stepas
optimal
must determination
be verified of the vehicle’s
with experimental dynamic characteristics.
tests. Therefore, this paper presents Additionally, each step
unified theoretical
must be verified with experimental
and experiment methodologies and their results. tests. Therefore, this paper presents unified theoretical
and experiment methodologies and their results.
2. Three-Wheeled Vehicle Description
2. Three-Wheeled Vehicle Description
The Lithuanian EV startup AKO presented new type of three-wheeled tilting vehicle
The Lithuanian EV startup AKO presented new type of three-wheeled tilting vehicle
in 2020 (Figure 1) [37].
in 2020 (Figure 1) [37].

Figure
Figure 1. 1.
AKOAKO trike
trike P150
P150 [37].
[37].

This
This two-seater
two-seater electric
electric three-wheeled
three-wheeled tilting
tilting vehicle
vehicle is is
nownow
at at
thethe second-generation
second-generation
prototype stage and features a novel tilting mechanism. Turning the steering wheel also
prototype stage and features a novel tilting mechanism. Turning the steering wheel also
turns the two front wheels, which is sufficient for turns at slow speed. At higher speeds, the
driver can lean the steering column from side to side, which causes the entire trike to lean
 01123ÿ5673ÿ8988ÿ ÿÿÿÿÿ ÿÿÿ
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 5121 4 of 12

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 '%
 ÿ 7
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,!ÿ qAÿB–d . - *g 170/60
rTÿ !""$ÿ)%."%ÿ ostÿ 6 9ÿ93ug3
5!"ÿ0'"1ÿ&%ÿÿ#ÿ"%"6&"&")ÿvfÿ$"&%&ÿv%FF6w*uvfÿJF)"$ÿ
The battery consists of two series-connected LG Electronics LiMM-C.F/LGE (Model

x'."yÿ%'ÿ*3ÿw"$$ÿF)$"ÿ+ ".0$1Lÿ.)$"ÿ#%!ÿ'ÿ'")ÿ"",1ÿ&'('&%1ÿÿh*jÿ7ÿ
Name: Vista 2.0 Cell Module Assembly) modules with a rated energy capacity of 5.94 KW h

!ÿ')ÿ'ÿ'")ÿ-$',"ÿÿ2gÿÿ"'&!*ÿ5!"ÿ.ÿ&$$"ÿ')ÿ!"ÿ")ÿ('ÿ')ÿ!"%ÿ
and a rated voltage of 36 V each. The motor controller and other used parts and their

$% ÿ'ÿ#"$$ÿ'ÿ!"%ÿ(''.""ÿ'"ÿÿ(""")ÿ01ÿ!"ÿ+7ÿ"'.ÿ%ÿ". ÿÿ'ÿ

solutions, as well as their parameters, are not presented by the AKO team in terms of a

%I"ÿ&&%*ÿ
unique construction.

ÿ!"ÿ!""%&'$ÿ)"".%'%ÿÿ'&&"$"'%ÿ'ÿ&$' %&'$ÿ."!)$,1ÿ(""")ÿ
For the theoretical determination of acceleration, a classical methodology presented

01ÿf%$$"(%"ÿ82j:ÿ#'ÿ")*ÿ
by Gillespie [39] was used.

5!"ÿ!""6#!""$")ÿ%$%,ÿ-"!%&$"ÿ("")ÿ%ÿ&'$&$'")ÿ'ÿ$$# yÿ
The three-wheeled tilting vehicle speed is calculated as follows:
we ·rr
va = ; (1)
i pp

where we —engine rotations, rad/s;

rr —radius of rotating wheel, m.
ipp —gear ratio.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 5121 5 of 12

In our case, the radius of rotating wheel (rr ) is 0.2579 m and tire deformation coefficient
λ = 0.93.
The traction force of the three-wheeled vehicle is calculated as follows (N):

Me ·i pp ·i pd ·ηtr
Fr = ; (2)
rr

where Me —engine torque, Nm;

ipd —transmission gear ratio (ipd = 1);
η tr —transmission efficiency coefficient.
The radius of rotating wheel diameter is calculated (rr = 0.2579).
The equation of traction balance is as follows:

Fr = Ff ± Fi + Fo + Fj ; (3)

where Ff —rolling resistance force, N;

Fi —uphill resistance force, N;
Fo —air resistance force, N;
Fj —acceleration resistance force, N.
If we are analyzing a case in which the three-wheeled tilting vehicle moves at a
constant speed on a horizontal surface, then the equation of the traction balance is:

Fr = Ff + Fo ; (4)

Rolling resistance force:

F f = Ga · f ; (5)
where f —rolling resistance coefficient depending on the road surface.
In our case, a hard asphalt-concrete surface was chosen (f = 0.016). Air resistance force:

Fo = K ·S·Va2 ; (6)

where K—drag coefficient;

S—front part surface area, m2 .
Front parts’ surface area:
S = 0.6· Ba · Ha ; (7)
where Ba —front axle wheel base, m;
Ha —height, m.
The drag coefficient is usually determined by vehicle producers, but in this case, the
design is created by an AKO team, and coefficient (K) should be determined experimentally.
For this solution wind tunnel were used (Figure 3).
The test chamber is the most important part of the wind tunnel. The dimensions of
the square-shaped test chamber are 0.5 × 0.5 m and 1 m in length, with walls made of
2 mm high-quality clear polycarbonate and a bottom made of 5 mm organic glass. Two
weight scales, mounted at the bottom of the test chamber, were used for measuring vehicle
air resistance and the clamping force of the three-wheeled vehicle, which is expressed in
units of weight (grams). The maximum measured weight of these scales is 0.3 kg, with an
accuracy of ±0.01 g. The chamber has a built-in air flow speed and temperature sensor. The
diffuser is the part connecting the test chamber and the fan. Its shape varies from square to
round (Ø0.720 m).
The air flow rate in the diffuser decreases, and the pressure increases. The speed in the
diffuser must decrease in order to minimize the energy losses. Due to the minimal energy
losses the maximum pressure being guaranteed. The blower fan is mounted at the end of
the wind tunnel. Its impeller is rotated by an electric motor. The electric motor power is
1.8 kW, and it is controlled by a frequency converter with frequencies from 0 Hz to 70 Hz.
 Appl.Sci.
Appl. Sci.2022,
2022,12,
12,5121
x FOR PEER REVIEW 66 of
of 12
12

Themaximum
The diffuser isgenerated
the part connecting
airflow ratethe test chamber and
is approximately the fan.
22 m/s. TheItsfan
shape
flow varies from
at 60 Hz is
19,000 3
squaremto/h,
round
and(Ø0.720 m). speed is 1715 min .
the impeller − 1

Figure3.3.Wind
Figure Windtunnel.
tunnel.

During
The air the
flowexperimental testing, decreases,
rate in the diffuser the scaled-down
and the(1:16) model
pressure of the three-wheeled
increases. The speed in
tilting vehicle (Figure 4) was placed in the test chamber to
the diffuser must decrease in order to minimize the energy losses. Dueidentify the air resistance. During
to the minimal
the tests, the data were recorded at 9 frequency values, with different,
energy losses the maximum pressure being guaranteed. The blower fan is mounted increasing fan speeds
at the
from 30 the
Hz wind
to 70 Hz. During the tests, ◦
end of tunnel. Its impeller is the air flow
rotated by anrate (m/s),motor.
electric temperature ( C), three-
The electric motor
wheeled
power isair 1.8resistance
kW, and it force (N), and clamping
is controlled force (N)
by a frequency were recorded.
converter For morefrom
with frequencies accurate
0 Hz
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 12
results,
to 70 Hz. The maximum generated airflow rate is approximately 22 m/s. The fan flowin
the experiments were repeated for 4 cycles. The obtained data are presented at
Table
60 Hz2.is 19,000 m3/h, and the impeller speed is 1715 min−1.
During the experimental testing, the scaled-down (1:16) model of the three-wheeled
tilting vehicle (Figure 4) was placed in the test chamber to identify the air resistance. Dur-
ing the tests, the data were recorded at 9 frequency values, with different, increasing fan
speeds from 30 Hz to 70 Hz. During the tests, the air flow rate (m/s), temperature (°C),
three-wheeled air resistance force (N), and clamping force (N) were recorded. For more
accurate results, the experiments were repeated for 4 cycles. The obtained data are pre-
sented in Table 2.

Figure4.4.Three-wheeled
Figure Three-wheeledtilting
tiltingvehicle
vehiclemodel
modelin
inaawind
windtunnel.
tunnel.

Table 2. Air resistance measurements results.

Air Resistance
Cycle Test Number Hz Wind Speed, m/s Air Temperature, °C Clamping Force, N
Force (Fo), N
1 30 10.6 15.6 1.2 20.2
2 35 11.9 15.6 6.8 27.1
3 40 13.3 15.6 7.8 33.6
4 45 14.7 15.3 9.5 38.8
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 5121 7 of 12

Table 2. Air resistance measurements results.

Cycle Test Number Hz Wind Speed, m/s Air Temperature, ◦ C Clamping Force, N Air Resistance Force (Fo ), N
1 30 10.6 15.6 1.2 20.2
2 35 11.9 15.6 6.8 27.1
3 40 13.3 15.6 7.8 33.6
4 45 14.7 15.3 9.5 38.8
1 5 50 15.9 15.1 10.6 51.9
6 55 16.1 15.6 12.8 56.9
7 60 16.9 15.7 23.6 60.9
8 65 17.6 15.5 26.4 62.6
9 70 18.3 15.6 27.8 64.5
1 30 9.2 15.4 5.8 11.9
2 35 11.3 14.5 2.2 17.4
3 40 12.9 13.6 7.5 24.2
4 45 13.4 13.3 15.8 33.4
2 5 50 15.3 13.1 13.6 38.5
6 55 15.9 12.9 20.7 47.6
7 60 16.7 12.7 24.6 56.2
8 65 17.2 12.6 26.3 64.4
9 70 17.4 12.7 25.8 66.7
1 30 9.3 13 4.8 12.1
2 35 10.9 12.9 9.1 19.3
3 40 12.4 13 11.3 26.4
4 45 14.1 13 9.8 34.8
3 5 50 15 12.4 14.5 41.8
6 55 15.7 12.3 22.4 49.5
7 60 17 12.6 24.8 57.4
8 65 17.3 12.5 26 62.8
9 70 18,5 14.7 28 64.4
1 30 9.7 14.3 8.5 12.9
2 35 11 14.3 9.5 17
3 40 12.3 15 10.6 24.4
4 45 13.6 14.6 14.2 29.6
4 5 50 14.6 14.6 13.3 40.9
6 55 15.9 15.5 23.5 43.6
7 60 17.2 14.2 22.9 56.6
8 65 17.6 14.4 26.9 60.6
9 70 18.1 14.9 29.8 62.5

Using Formula (6), the drag coefficient (K) was calculated at different speeds in the
wind tunnel: 50 Hz—0.0968; 55 Hz—0.100; 60 Hz—0.103; 65 Hz—0.106; 70 Hz—0.102. The
average of the drag coefficient is 0.102, which was used for the following calculations.
The dynamic characteristic of a vehicle is called the graphical dependence between
the dynamic factor (D) and the speed (va ) of the vehicle. The dynamic factor is calculated
according to the formula:
Fr − Fo
D= ; (8)
Ga
The acceleration of the vehicle (m/s2 ) is calculated, assuming that the vehicle with
the driver accelerates on a horizontal road (i = 0) with a hard asphalt–concrete surface
(f = 0.016) in the absence of wheel slip, according to the formula:

D− f
j= · g; (9)
δ

where g—gravity acceleration, 9.81 m/s2 ;

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 5121 8 of 12

δ—coefficient estimating the rotating masses of vehicle.

δ = 1.05 + 0.07·i2pd ; (10)

In our case, the internal combustion engine is changed in an electric motor, so we must
use δ = 1.
All previous dynamic parameters are calculated according to Formulas (1)–(10) and
are presented in Table 3.

Table 3. Calculated three-wheeled tilting vehicle theoretical dynamic characteristics.

Parameter Values
va , m/s 3.55 7.09 10.64 14.19 17.74 21.28 24.83
Fr , N 1142.66 1142.66 1142.66 1142.66 1127.625 962.24 902.1
Fo , N 1.22 4.88 10.98 19.50 30.48 43.90 59.73
D 0.2394 0.2386 0.2374 0.2356 0.2301 0.1926 0.1767
j, m/s2 2.19 2.18 2.17 2.15 2.10 1.73 1.58

2.2. Experimental Determination of Acceleration

An aircraft runway was chosen to conduct the experimental field tests. To determine
the acceleration, two different accelerometers (Dragy GP Meter and Vernier Wireless
Dynamic Sensor), which were mounted on a three-wheeled vehicle center part were used.
Measurements were performed while the vehicle was accelerating with two acceleration
measurement devices; one of them was used for filming and measuring (Dragy GP Meter),
and the Vernier Wireless Dynamic Sensor was used for measuring and using data for
analysis. Obtained acceleration data are presented in Figures 5 and 6, which presents a test
drive for acceleration measurements. Filtered data were obtained using the Butterworth
second-order low-pass filter, which is usually used for the filtering of electric signals. The
noise in the obtained data is related to the sensitivity of the measuring equipment, which
was used for the determination of the three-wheeled vehicle acceleration (Figures 5 and 6).
Test drive took 9.5–10 s, because the main goal was to determine the acceleration values
of the three-wheeled tilting vehicle and use them for verification of the theoretical calculation.
The obtained acceleration data (Figures 5 and 6) show similar results in both tests:
the maximum accelerations are in the time period from 1.4 s to 4.5 s, after which it varies
from 2.18 m/s2 to 2.4 m/s2 . To precisely analyze these accelerations, we need to eliminate
the 1.3 s (beginning) and 1.4 s (end) time periods, which were when the three-wheeled
tilting vehicle started and ended acceleration process, because measuring devices are very
sensitive and since it takes 1.3 s at the beginning to reaching the acceleration. The same is
true at the end, when the three-wheeled vehicle is not accelerating. Another aspect is that
when acceleration measurements were filtered, we also eliminated the maximum values
at 4.2 s, when it reached more than 7 m/s2 (Figure 5) and more than −2 m/s2 . These
discrepancies were found in both experimental results and were possibly caused by the
accelerometer being too sensitive, which in the same place gave values of acceleration that
were different and too big.
Comparing the experimental and calculated acceleration results shows that the maxi-
mum range of accelerations at the beginning, from 1.3 s to approximately 4.5 s, were similar
(Figures 7 and 8). The calculated accelerations values (Table 3) were synchronized with
driving speed data obtained from the Dragy GP Meter accelerometer. In this synchronizing
stage, the time periods were converted from the driving speed range presented in Table 3
and the data obtained from the Dragy GP Meter accelerometer.
 (Figures 5 andwas
ment, which 6). used for the determination of the three-wheeled vehicle acceler
Test 5drive
(Figures took 9.5–10 s, because the main goal was to determine the acce
and 6).
valuesTest
of the three-wheeled
drive tilting
took 9.5–10 s, vehicle
because the and
mainuse them
goal wasfor
to verification
determine theof the the
acceler
calculation.
values of the three-wheeled tilting vehicle and use them for verification of the theor
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 5121 9 of 12
calculation.

Figure
Figure5.
5. First testacceleration
First test acceleration results
results with
with and and the
without without
filter. the filter.
Figure 5. First test acceleration results with and without the filter.

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 12

with driving speed data obtained from the Dragy GP Meter accelerometer. In this syn-
chronizing stage, the time periods were converted from the driving speed range presented
in Table
Figure 3 and test
6. Second the acceleration
data obtained from
results withthe
andDragy GP
without theMeter
filter. accelerometer.
Figure
Figure6.6.Second
Secondtest
test acceleration results with
acceleration results withand
andwithout
withoutthe thefilter.
filter.

Theobtained
The obtained acceleration
acceleration data data (Figures
(Figures55and and6)6)show
showsimilarsimilarresults
resultsin in
both
bo
themaximum
the maximum accelerations
accelerations are in in the
the time
timeperiod
periodfromfrom1.4 1.4s stoto4.5
4.5s, s,
after which
after which it v
from2.18
from 2.18m/sm/s to
22 to 2.4
2.4 m/s . To precisely
2
2 precisely analyze
analyzethesetheseaccelerations,
accelerations,we we need
needto to
elim
el
the 1.3 s (beginning) and 1.4 s (end) time periods, which
the 1.3 s (beginning) and 1.4 s (end) time periods, which were when the three-w were when the three-wh
tiltingvehicle
tilting vehiclestarted
started andand ended
ended acceleration
accelerationprocess,
process,because
becausemeasuring
measuring devices
devices are
sensitiveand
sensitive andsince
since itit takes
takes 1.3
1.3 ss at
at the
the beginning
beginningtotoreaching
reachingthe theacceleration.
acceleration. The sa
The
trueatatthe
true theend,
end, when
when the the three-wheeled
three-wheeled vehicle vehicleisisnot
notaccelerating.
accelerating.Another Another aspect
aspeci
when acceleration measurements were filtered, we also
when acceleration measurements were filtered, we also eliminated the maximum eliminated the maximum v
atat4.2
4.2 s, when it reached more than 7 m/s 2(Figure 5) and more than −2 m/s . These dis
2 2
s, when it reached more than 7 m/s (Figure 5) and more than −2 m/s2. These
ancies were found in both experimental results and were possibly caused by the
ancies were found in both experimental results and were possibly caused by th
erometer being too sensitive, which in the same place gave values of acceleration that
erometer being too sensitive, which in the same place gave values of acceleration th
different and
Figure7.7.First
First too acceleration
test’s
test’s big. results compared with calculated results.
Figure
different and tooacceleration
big. results compared with calculated results.
Comparing the experimental and calculated acceleration results shows that the
Comparing the experimental and calculated acceleration results shows that t
imum range of accelerations at the beginning, from 1.3 s to approximately 4.5 s, were
imum range of7 accelerations
ilar (Figures at the beginning,
and 8). The calculated from 1.3
accelerations s to (Table
values approximately 4.5 s, w
3) were synchro
ilar (Figures 7 and 8). The calculated accelerations values (Table 3) were synch
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 5121 10 of 12
Figure 7. First test’s acceleration results compared with calculated results.

Second test’s
Figure8.8.Second
Figure test’s acceleration
accelerationresults
resultscompared with
compared calculated
with results.
calculated results.

The calculated accelerations, presented in Figures 7 and 8, were converted simi-

The calculated accelerations, presented in Figures 7 and 8, were converted similarly
larly for these time periods as those mentioned above according to the synchronized data:
for these time
1.31–2.34 periods
s—2.19 m/s2 ; as those mentioned
2.35–3.38 s—2.18 m/s2above according
; 3.39–4.42 to the
s—2.17 m/s synchronized
2 ; 4.43–5.46 s—2.15data:
m/s2 ;1.31–
2.34 s—2.19
5.47–6.50 m/sm/s
s—2.1
2; 2.35–3.38 s—2.18
2 ; 6.51–7.54 s—1.73 m/s 2
m/s; 3.39–4.42
2 ; 7.55–8.58s—2.17
s—1.58 m/s
m/s2;. 4.43–5.46 s—2.15 m/s ;
2 2

5.47–6.50
The s—2.1 m/s2; after
time period 6.51–7.54 s—1.73
4.5 s is visible;m/s 2; 7.55–8.58 s—1.58 m/s2.
according to the compared data, the difference
The time
between period after
the calculated and4.5
thes measured
is visible; data
according to theand
is growing, compared
experimentdata,onthe
thedifference
test
drive should
between be repeated,and
the calculated or accepted,
the measuredbecause the is
data difference
growing,between the measured
and experiment onandthe test
calculated data is approximately 0.5 m/s 2.
drive should be repeated, or accepted, because the difference between the measured and
calculated data is approximately 0.5 m/s2.
3. Results and Discussion
The presented
3. Results determination and evaluation of the three-wheeled tilting vehicle made
and Discussion
by the AKO team reveals dynamic characteristics that can help to improve future versions
of it,The presented
especially determination
versions and evaluation
using other electric motors andofa control
the three-wheeled
algorithm. tilting vehicle
made Using
by thea AKO team reveals
three-wheeled vehicledynamic characteristics
scaled-down model (1:16)that
andcan helptunnel,
a wind to improve
the dragfuture
versions of it,
coefficient (K especially
= 0.102) wasversions usingexperimentally,
determined other electric which
motorswasandused
a control
for thealgorithm.
dynamic
Using a three-wheeled vehicle scaled-down model (1:16) and a wind tunnel, the drag
calculations.
The vehicle
coefficient max speed
(K = 0.102) (vmax = 24.83experimentally,
was determined m/s) and rangewhich
of acceleration,
was usedwhich varied
for the dynamic
2 2
from 2.19 m/s to 1.58 m/s , were obtained according to three-wheeled tilting vehicle
calculations.
body’s
Thedimensions
vehicle max and the electric
speed (vmax = motor (HPM-2000)
24.83 m/s) used.
and range of acceleration, which varied from
The case was analyzed in which the three-wheeled vehicle moved at constant speed
2.19 m/s2 to 1.58 m/s2, were obtained according to three-wheeled tilting vehicle body’s di-
on a horizontal surface with traction force (Fr ) varying from 1142.66 N to 902.1 N and an air
mensions and the electric motor (HPM-2000) used.
resistance force (Fo ) of 1.22 N–59.73 N, when the speed changed accordingly from 3.55 m/s
to 24.83 m/s.
The calculated accelerations values, which were synchronized with driving speed
data obtained from the Dragy GP Meter accelerometer and compared with experimentally
obtained acceleration results, show that the max acceleration range at the beginning, from
1.3 s to approximately 4.5 s, was similar (difference in all the ranges is smaller than 0.5 m/s2 ).
By comparing the time period after 4.5 s, it is determined that, according to the
compared data, the difference between the calculated and the measured data is growing,
and experiment of the test drive should be repeated or accepted because the difference
between the measured and calculated results differs by no more than 0.5 m/s2 . This
difference might be affected by the fact that accelerometer data are too sensitive and by the
used second-order low-pass Butterworth filter that was used, which, after 4.5 s needed to
filter a wide range of acceleration data.

4. Conclusions and Future Research

The obtained results show that this method of determining dynamic characteristics is
accurate enough for validating and performing the selection of powertrain components for
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 5121 11 of 12

the three-wheeled tilting trike being developed. The powertrain components of the new
P150 model prototype were selected according to this method.
The next step for the research will be to determine the aerodynamic three-wheeled
vehicle’s dynamic characteristics using other (more powerful) electric motors and by com-
bining control algorithms to reach better dynamic characteristics such as acceleration, top
max speed, etc. Another study should include experimental driving tests and calculations
involving tilting the three-wheeled tilting vehicle at different angles.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, D.N.; Investigation, D.N. and A.P.; Writing—original

draft, D.N. and A.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data available on request due to data file size.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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