International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM)

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12008-022-01094-7

ORIGINAL PAPER

Computational fluid dynamics analysis on role of particulate shape

and size in erosion of pipe bends
Jashanpreet Singh1 · Harjot Singh Gill2 · Hitesh Vasudev3,4

Received: 17 September 2022 / Accepted: 18 October 2022

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag France SAS, part of Springer Nature 2022

Abstract
This study is performed to investigate the erosive degradation of pipe bends by the action of slurry particles. The purpose of
this research is to better elaborate how the particulate properties namely shape and size, which affect the erosive degradation.
Numerical computation is done using an ANSYS R.21 FLUENT package. The Euler–Lagrange model was adopted in
conjunction with standard k–ε model in order to provide an accurate prediction of erosive rate. For this research, the geometry
of 50 mm diameter and 1.5 m long pipeline was designed in Creo software package. The radius (bend)-to-diameter (pipe) ratio
(r/D) was taken constant as 1.5. During the numerical simulations, the velocity was taken as 5 m/s. It was found that the erosion
of pipe bend increases with decrease in CF value. The pure spherical fly ash (CF  1.0) produced lesser wear than fly ash
having some angularity (CF  0.91). Flow of sand particulate caused a highest erosion rate followed by bottom ash and fly ash.
Graphical abstract

Keywords Erosion rate · CFD · K–ε model · DPM model · 90° bend

1 University Centre for Research & Development, Chandigarh

B Jashanpreet Singh University, Mohali 140413, India
ijashanpreet@gmail.com 2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Chandigarh
B Hitesh Vasudev University, Mohali 140413, India
hiteshvasudev1990@gmail.com; hiteshvasudev@yahoo.in

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1 Introduction
The fast impingement of solid particles is what causes the
process known as erosion wear, which is a kind of surface
degradation [1–5]. When being disposed of, the ash par-
ticles that are flowing through the pipeline transportation
systems feel momentum from the water and collide with
the pipeline wall. This takes place throughout the disposal
process. In tees and bend sections, there is significant ero-
sion wear that causes the pipe wall to suffer severe material
degradation [6–9]. Due to the minimal amount of mainte-
nance that it requires throughout the year, slurry pipelines
are a dependable way of particulate transportation in thermal
power plants [10]. Although erosion testing was traditionally
started with shoot-blasting and abrasion testing prior to the
1970s therefore determining who was the first person to build
an erosion tester is exceedingly difficult [11–13]. The ex-situ
experimentation using pilot plant test loops are employed
for the evaluation of particulate erosion and it have been
reported as time-consuming and expensive in the relevant
research [12, 14, 15]. Since then, several other bench-scale
settings have been devised in order to analyze the solid par-
ticle erosion [13, 16–19]. Researchers [19, 20] stated that a
several parameters can be assessed as influencing factors for
the erosion at experimental conditions matching the actual
conditions. Such parameters are impingement conditions,
slurry type, mass flux, particulate and material type, momen-
tum of particulate, and design and geometry [10, 21–30]. In
addition, a many of these parameters are considered in ero-
sion experiments at ideal environment. The investigation of
these characteristics will make the procedure of conducting
field experiments on erosion more difficult and expensive.
According to the findings of Parent and Li [20], a 19 mm
carbon steel pipe (187 HV) can endure for 4 years at bleak
corrosion environment and for 9 months in severe corrosion
environment. On the other hand, a 19 mm ASTM A1010 steel
pipe (180 HV) can endure for 6 years in any type of working
environment [31]. Although, the stainless steel pipes have
a shorter lifespan in erosive environments, which is due to
the fact that erosive conditions are often more severe than
corrosive environments. In addition, adjusting any and all of
the parameters to match the real circumstances of the job
wastes both time and resources. The use of commercial CFD
(computational fluid dynamics) techniques allowed current
researchers to demonstrate dependability on erosion wear
examinations throughout the twentieth century. Through the
use of numerical simulations, it has been possible to describe
3 Divison of Research and Development, Lovely Professional
University, Phagwara 144411, India
4 School of Mechanical Engineering, Lovely Professional
University, Phagwara 144411, India
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International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM)
the erosion wear triggered by the flow of different substances
inside the pipe. According to the findings of many of the
experts, the erosion wear mechanism that is caused by the
flow of slurry relies on the parameters of the liquid-particulate
flow [32–35]. According to the findings of a select number of
the studies, the design parameters (r/D ratio, the bend curva-
ture, and bend angle) contribute to erosion rate in pipelines
[36–39]. Bend angle plays a crucial role in effectiveness and
performance of pipeline [40]. Material of components also
decides the performance of different machineries [41–45].
Singh et al. [23] conducted a study to test the effect of
design parameters on erosion rate by bottom ash slurry. They
found that the optimum value to minimize the erosion rate
in 90 degree bend is r/D range of 1.6 to 1.7. Singh et al.
[9, 46] tested the erosion rate of 90° pipe bend and ana-
lyzed the effect of influencing parameters like particulate
size and velocity. It was found that the erosion rate increase
with increase in velocity and particulate size. Dixit et al. [47]
carried out CFD simulations to test the head loss in a 90° pipe
bend. They found that the head loss is largely affected by the
velocity than the concentration. Shinde et al. [48] performed
a mathematical study on erosion of Al pipe bend using DPM
model. They used the properties of nano and micro parti-
cles to produce the erosion on bend surface. Results showed
that erosion was dependent on impact angle by particles and
turbulence produced in secondary flow. Hong et al. [49] per-
formed a computational study on erosion by gas–solid flow
in elbow and tee using a DPM model. Results showed that
the erosion in 1.5D elbow was higher as compared to that in
3D elbow. Also, the erosion was located at outer curvature of
the pipe bend. Similar type of finding was done by Li et al.
[50] and Haider et al. [51]. Parkash et al. [52] performed an
erosion wear study on slurry flow through mitre pipe bend.
Results showed that the maximum erosion rate was found at
the extrados (outer curvature) wall near the bend exit. Walker
and Hambe [20] carried out an experimental study and char-
acterize the sand, quartz and silicon carbide in terms of shape
factor. Results showed that the erosion depends on the circu-
larity factor of these particulates.
Literature indicates that erosion wear studies were limited
to the analysis on the effect of particle shape, concentration,
velocity, and r/D ratio. However, no study was carried out
previously based on erosion wear analysis of pipe bend for
the different particulate shapes of different erodent media. In
this context, the current investigation is carried out studied
the solid particle erosion phenomena that happen during the
flow of different particulates inside a 90° pipe bend using a
CFD Code ANSYS FLUENT. The Euler–Lagrange model
was used with a standard k–ε model, and then the discrete
phase model (DPM) for a pipe bend was solved. This allows
the prediction of erosion rate at the wall of pipeline. The effect
of particulate size and shape on erosion rate was assessed by
carrying out the numerical simulations.
International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM)

2 Mathematical modeling In Eq. 3 and 4, g refers to gravity, the subscript P refers to

the pressure (N/m2 ) on particles at steady conditions. In the
The Euler–Lagrange model was used in conjunction with above equations, the ∇ P( p) is the pressure (Pa) on particulate
standard k–ε turbulence model to provide a precise predic- and calculated by:
tion of erosive rate. The mathematical model was employed
 
through a FLUENT code. In this study, the liquid phase was ∇ P( p)  a p ρ p θ p + 2ρ p 1 + e pp × a 2p .go, pp .θ p (5)
taken as water and discrete phase was selected as a particulate
medium. To solve the governing equations of both the liquid In Eq. 5, the ρ p is the particulate’s physical density
(l) and particulate (p) phases, the time-averaged Navier–S- (kg/m3 ), θ p is the particulate temperature (K) which arises
tokes equation were implemented as initial steps of CFD due to the internal heat developed by the inter-particulate col-
code development. At each and every location on the pipeline lisions, epp is the coefficient of compensations due to elastic
mesh, it was assumed that the liquid-particulate phase was collisions between particles, and gO,pp is the intermolecular
homogeneous. The governing equations for liquid (l) and collision in between particulates, represented as:
particulate (p) phases are written follows.
   1 −1
ax 3
2.1 Governing equations Part 1: Continuity equation go, pp  1 − (6)
ax, max
With the assistance of the continuity equation, the volumetric
fraction of both the particulate (p) phase and the liquid (l) In Eq. 6, term ax,max is the particulates’ maximum packing
phase was determined. The continuity equation is presented fraction.
as follows: In Eq. 3 and 4, symbols τ p and τ l are stress tensors (N/m2 )
for particulate (p) and liquid (l) phases respectively. The val-
∂  
n
  ues of τ p and τ l can be calculated from following equations:
a p ρ p + ∇(al ρl υl )  ṁ pl − ṁ lp (1)
∂t  
p1 2
τ p  a p μ p ∇ ϑ p + ∇ ϑ ptr + a p λ p − μl ∇ ϑ p (7)
3
The values ṁ pl and ṁ lp in Eq. 1 represent the mass conver-
sion rates (in kg/s) from particulate (p) to the liquid (l) phase τ l  al μl ∇ ϑ p + ∇ ϑltr (8)
and from liquid (l) to the particulate (p) phase, respectively.
The density (kg/m3 ) of the particulate (p) phase is termed
as ρ  a p ρ p . The value of the no. of particles (p) varies in In Eq. 3, μ is molecular viscosity (m2 /s) and K pl signifies
range 1–n. Considering an assumption, the volume of both the particulate-liquid exchange coefficient although K pl 
phases was calculated using the Eq. 2, written below: K lp .

a p (1 + al )μl ρl a p υ p − υl
al + a p  1 (2) K lp  150 + 1.75 (9)
al d 2p dp
where, the value of al and ap are the volume fraction of l and
p phases respectively. In Eq. 9, Symbol d p refers to the diameter of the particulate
phase (μm).
In Eq. 7, λp refers to the bulk viscosity (Pa.s) of particulate
2.2 Governing equations Part 2: Momentum
medium and can be calculated by:
equations
 1
The momentum equations of particulate (p) phase and the 4   θp 2
λ p  a p ρ p d p go, pp 1 + e pp × (10)
liquid (l) phase are described below: 3 π

where, term μp is the particulate medium’s shear viscosity

∂    
al ρl υl + ∇ al ρl υl υl  −al ∇ P(l) + ∇τ l + al ρl g (m2 /s) caused due to the inter-particulate collisions that can
∂t   be calculated by using following equation [32]:
+ K pl υ p − υl (3)
μ p  μ p, col + μ p, kin + μ p, bulk (11)
∂    
a p ρ p υ p + ∇ a p ρ p υ p υ p
∂t where, terms μp,col , μp,kin and μp,bulk refers to the differ-
 
 −a p ∇ P( p) − al ∇ P(l) + ∇τ p + a p ρ p g + K pl υl − υ(4)
p ent viscosities (m2 /s) namely collisional, kinetic, and bulk

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 International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM)

viscosities respectively and calculated by using following 3 Turbulence model

equations:
A standard k-ε model was used to monitor the particulate
 1
4   θp 2 phase over the flow region. Launder and Spalding [53] were
μ p, col  a p ρ p d p go, pp 1 + e pp × (12) the ones that came up with the idea for the basic k-ε tur-
5 π
bulence model. Dissipation rate (ε) and turbulent kinetic
10ρ p d p θ p π  2 energy (k) forms a two-equation model for tracking the tur-
μ p, kin    + a p ρ p d p go, pp 1 + e pp a p
96a p 1 + e pp go, pp bulences during the transportation of particulate phase. The
(13) equations of the basic k-ε turbulence model are based on
p p sin φ empirical and phenomenological considerations, making it
μ p, bulk  (14) a semi-empirical kind of model. Specifically, the flow con-
2 I2 p
ditions in the near-wall area of particulate-liquid medium
where, I 2p refers to the second order-identity of the deviatoric may be solved with more accuracy using the conventional
stress tensor. Symbol ϕ refers the internal friction angle. k-ε model, making it an ideal candidate for the DPM. In
addition, for continuously strained and swirl flows, the RNG
2.3 Coupling scheme k-ε model is adopted [54]. The concept of turbulent viscos-
ity found in the realizable k-ε model [54] is more suited to
By using the Two-way fluid-particle coupling approach, we vortex flows. To calculate the dissipation rate (ε) as well as
were able to successfully couple the two liquid and particu- the kinetic energy of turbulence (k), the subsequent formulas
late phases together. The following equations were used to can be used:
calculate the coupling that exists between the liquid and par-
  
ticulate phases in the x, y, and z directions: ∂ ∂ ∂ μt ∂k
(ρk) + (ρku i )  μ+
  ∂t ∂ xi ∂x j σk ∂x j
p − up
u n+1 n
ρ p − ρl
β n+1
u ln+1 − u n+1
p + gx + ax + G k + G b − ρε − Y M + S K (21)
δt ρp
(15)   
∂ ∂ ∂ μt ∂ε
  (ρε) + (ρεu i )  μ+
υ n+1
p − υp
n
ρ p − ρl ∂t ∂ xi ∂x j σε ∂x j
β n+1
υln+1 − υ n+1
p + gy + ay
δt ρp ε ε2
(16) + C1ε (G k + C3ε G b ) − C2ε ρ + Sε
k k
  (22)
w n+1
p − w np ρ p − ρl
 β n+1 w n+1
p − wp
n+1
+ gz + az
δt ρp
In the above equations:
(17)

In the above equations: • Y M : Compressibility on turbulence:

• S k and S ε : Source terms
• gx , gy , and gz : Gravity in x, y, and z directions. Dewan [54] suggested the of following constants:
• Constants: C 1ε  1.44, C 2ε  1.92 and C 3ε  0.09
g x  gz  0 (18) • Prandtl numbers for ε (σ ε )  1.3
• Prandtl numbers for k (σ k )  1.0
g y  −9.81 m/s (y − axis) (19)
The kinetic energy of turbulence, denoted as Gk (m2 /s2 ),
• up , vp , and wp : Particulate’s velocities in x, y, and z direc- is produced by differences in the mean velocities of the flow,
tions. as written in equation:
• ul , vl , and wl : Liquid’s velocities in x, y, and z directions.
• ax , ay , and az : Acceleration of particulate in x, y, and z ∂u j
G k  −ρu i u j  ut S2 (23)
directions. ∂ xi
• The symbol β stands for the coefficient of thermal expan-
sion, which may be calculated as follows: The modulus of the mean strain rate tensor (S) is defined
  as:
1 ∂ρ
β− (20)
ρ ∂T p S 2Si j Si j (24)

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International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM)

The buoyancy gradient, denoted by Gb , is calculated as speed of particles were derived using Newton’s second law
follows: of motion and are represented by:
ut ∂ T ∂υ p 
G b  βgi (25) ṁ p  F (30)
Pr t ∂ xi ∂t
The Prandtl number (Prt ) in turbulent condition was taken The particulate mass, the relative velocities, and the total
as 0.85 which is a standard value for standard and realizable  forces are all represented by the symbols ṁ p , υ p , and
of the
k-ε models [54]. Gravitational vector is denoted by symbol F, respectively, in the aforementioned equation. It was
gi in above equation. The subscript i denoted the component feasible to create a forecast about the route that the parti-
in the ith direction. Eddy (kinematic) viscosity (ut ) can be cle would travel during the particulate phase by making use
calculated by following correlation: of the Lagrangian frame that solves the force-balance equa-
tion. This allowed for the path that the particle would take
k2 to be determined. A continuous i.e. liquid phase condition
u t  ρCμ (26)
ε was applied so that the equation that was used to express the
overall force could be brought into a state of equilibrium.
From the above equation, the value of k and ε at inlet are
 
calculated by [54]: ∂u p   g ρl − ρ p
 F p υl − υ p + + Fx (31)
∂t ρp
3 2 3/ k 3/2
k  Ur e f Ti , ε  u t Cμ 4 , h  0.07L (27) Utilizing the average of the variable flow-velocity (υ l ) of
2 h
the slurry, we were able to estimate the paths that particles
In the above equation, the h and L are the length scales would take. In the equation that was just presented, the terms
of turbulent and flow configuration respectively. The refer- F x and F p stand for the normal force and the drag force,
ence velocity at pipe inlet is denoted by U ref . The value of respectively, exerted by a particle with a unit mass. The Force
Reynolds number (Ret ) was put in following correlation to F x model incorporates the inclusion of additional forces that
solve turbulence intensity (T i ) in flow: operate on the particle force in response to a variety of unique
conditions. The force F x can be calculated by:
υl ∼ −1/
Ti   0.16 × Ret 8 (28)
Ur e f Fx  FP + FB + FA (32)

In this case, the hydraulic diameter was taken as diameter Pressure gradient force:
of pipeline (i.e. 50 mm) that is being employed in the investi-
gation. In contrast, at the output, k and ε are often assumed to 1 3
FP  πd ∇ P (33)
be zero, and pressure is set to the ambient level [54]. Track- 4 p
ing the unpredictability of particles in a turbulent flow was Buoyancy force:
done using a stochastic model, which is provided by:
1  
υl  υ l + υl (29) FB  π d 3p ρ p − ρl g (34)
6

where υl denotes the turbulent portion of the flow velocity Added mass force:
and υ l denotes the mean of the varying velocities. The tur- 1 d υ p
bulence effect is responsible for the variations in flow speed. FA  − π d 3p ρ p (35)
12 dt
When estimating the distribution of bulk particles, Eq. 29
is used to compute the variations in flow velocity of liquid The drag force on particulate phase (F p ) can be evaluated
across the countless repetitions. by:

3.1 Erosion wear model 18μl C p Re

Fp  × (36)
ρpdp
2 24
The erosion wear was simulated numerically employing a
In Eq. 36, the drag coefficient (C p ) of particles was deter-
DPM scheme for the slurry flow at various CF values and
mined by:
particulate diameters. Through monitoring the particulate in
the flow zone, DPM is able to find a solution to the gener- 24
alized erosion equation. The equations for determining the Cp  1 + 0.15Re0.687 (37)
Re

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 International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM)

The relative Reynolds number is denoted by the symbol was developed in ANSYS R21.0 software using FLUENT
Re in the Eq. 37. The value of Re was calculated in order to tool. The geometry of pipeline is shown in Fig. 1(a). Length
account for the forces of inertia and viscosity. The Re can be of pipeline lies in range 20–50 times of diameter which
determined by following equation: allows the flow to be fully developed [32, 58–60]. The radius
(bend)-to-diameter (pipe) ratio (r/D) was taken constant as
ρl d p υ p − υl 1.5. Effect of r/D on erosion rate was analyzed in previous
Re  (38)
μl study [23]. Mild steel properties were used for the pipe bend
due to its adaptability over long range pipelines in the indus-
Inertia force is calculated by: try. Its density was taken as 7850 kg/m3 while defining the
 2 material. The density of erodent and water is mentioned in
Finer tia  ρl υ p − υl (39) Table 1. These three different particulates were used to ana-
lyze the role of their shape and size on erosion rate of bend.
Viscous force is calculated by: The particulate diameter was varied from 100 to 400 μm
to analyze the effect of particulate size on erosion rate. The
μl υ p − υl
Fviscous  (40) flowing velocity was kept constant 5 m/s. Influence of flow
dp velocity was analyzed in previous study [46]. Fluent code
was run on Windows-based Intel® Core™ i5 CPU M480
The following correlation was observed by researchers to
machine having 2.67 GHz processing unit and 8 GB RAM.
assess the erosion rate on the pipe caused by particle impinge-
ments [55, 56]:
 

n   b υ
m p C d p . f (α).υl l
p1
Er  (41) 5 Parametric variations
A
In this context, b, f , and C refer to erosion constants, and The simulations were carried out to study the effect of random
the values 0, 1, and 1.810–9 were chosen for them [57]. particulate’s CF value on erosion rate. The simulations were
conceded for equisized and multisized particulate slurry. The
CF values for particulate having size range < 300 μm were
4 CFD Simulation taken from a previous study, as tabulated in Table 1. The
equisized particulate range represents the particulate diame-
4.1 Flow domain and geometry ter of majority of particles that lies in a particle size range.
For this purpose, the CF values were selected for different
The geometry of 50 mm diameter and 1.5 m long pipeline was particle size ranges based on a previous study [61], illustrated
designed in Creo software package. The numerical model in Table 2.

Table 1 Properties of different

materials S. No Material Density (kg/m3 ) Roughness (mm) CF value [61] Average particulate
diameter (μm) [61]

1 Mild steel 7850 0.5 – - – -

2 Sand 2667 – - 0.637 195
3 Fly ash 2259 – - 0.908 83
4 Bottom ash 2081 – - 0.712 125
5 Water 1000 – - – - – -

Table 2 CF values of equi-sized

erodent particles [61] S. No Particles Particle size ranges

< 75 µm 75–106 µm 106–150 µm > 150 µm

1 Fly ash 0.91 (30.9 μm) 0.80 (89.3 μm) 0.75 (120.4 μm) 0.73 (184.5 μm)
2 Bottom ash 0.78 (55.3 μm) 0.61 (93.6 μm) 0.56 (134.1 μm) 0.54 (215.4 μm)
3 Sand 0.76 (45.6 μm) 0.65 (93.4 μm) 0.63 (121.7 μm) 0.53 (257.8 μm)

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International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM)

Fig. 1 a Geometry of pipeline, b Tetrahedron mesh, and c named section for contours

6 Domain discretization Table 3 Assumptions for DPM Model

S. No Description Value
The pipe was segmented into a large number of small pieces
so that the flow behavior could be correctly evaluated at each 1 Injection Inlet surface
portion of the pipe. Figure 1(b) illustrates the systematically 2 Coefficients of normal 0.993, -0.0307, 4.75 ×
meshed domain of the 90-degree pipe bend in question. For reflection 10–4 , -2.61 × 10–6
the purpose of refining the solution closer to the wall area, 3 Coefficients of tangential 0.998, -0.029, 6.43 ×
the inflation layer was developed with a growth rate of 20%. reflection 10–4 , -3.56 × 10–6
During the process of inflation, a total of ten layers were 4 Velocity function 2.6
produced, each having a wall y + value of thirty. In this par- 5 Diametric function 1.8 × 10–9
ticular piece of research, the domain was segmented into 6 Convergence criteria 10–3
46,812 tetrahedral components.

guarantee a fully developed flow, which increases particle

7 Boundary conditions
Injections were defined from inlet face of pipeline. Parti-
cles collide with the bend-wall elastically owing to the usage
of the specified momentum compensation coefficients in
the normal and tangential axes. Table 3 highlights the few
assumptions are made for the discrete phase model. The
concentration of particulate in liquid was kept 10 vol.%.
The injections of particulate medium were applied as ‘at
a surface’. The impingement function was taken as piece-
wise linear profile. The details of impingement function are
summarized in Table 4. The domain’s computation relied on
three boundary conditions: a velocity intake, a low pressure
outflow, and a no-slip condition. Inlet boundary conditions
homogeneity in the slurry volume and creates velocity con-
tours for particulate and liquid phases throughout the elbow’s
area. The surface roughness was chosen as 0.5 mm and no-
slip condition acts on it. At the horizontal outlet of a bend
measuring 1.5 m in length and featuring a similar grid pattern,
a boundary condition was imposed. A SIMPLEC algorithm
approach was adopted to link the pressure term with the
velocity term.
8 Grid Independency test
To ensure the independence of the mesh, a qualitative grid
independency test is executed. Coarse and finer meshes are

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 International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM)

Table 4 Impingement function’s specification

Points 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Angle 0 20 30 45 90 135 150 160 180

Values 0 0.8 1 0.5 0.4 0.5 1 0.8 0

Fig. 2 Present numerical model results versus with Wallace et al. [62] Fig. 3 Erosion rate of different multisized particulate of different CF
model results values

is described below.
available in ANSYS R21.0. Bottom ash slurry with a 162 μm
2 V f cos α × sin 2α 2 V f sin α
1 2 2 1 2 2
diameter and a volumetric concentration of 10% was used in
the simulations. The injections were developed at a speed of E + {α ≤ 18.5◦ }
γCutting σ De f or mation
2 m per second. When starting off, we set n  6 mm for our (42)
cell size and so had 24,765 elements. Erosion in a mild steel
2 V f sin α 2 V f cos α
1 2 2 1 2 2
elbow was studied, and the quality of the mesh used to protect  
E + α > 18.5◦ (43)
it was assessed. The difference between coarse and fine mesh γCutting σ De f or mation
was 1.29 percent. A change in cell size was implemented to
reduce the gap in performance between the coarse and fine The γ Cutting and σ Deformation are wear coefficients. Their
mesh settings. Next generations used a cell size of 5 mm, values are taken as: γ Cutting  33,316.9 and σ Deformation 
which yielded 46,812 components. Reducing the cell size to 77,419.7. When comparing this model to the one developed
5 mm reduced the variance to 0.57 percent. Cell size was by Wallace et al. [62], it was found that there was a high
adjusted to 4 mm in the subsequent generations (i.e. 84,524). degree of consistency. The current findings are consistent
Though the variance was reduced to 0.29 percent by using a 4- with an analytical standard deviation of ± 3.59%.
mm cell size, the operating system’s performance suffered as
a result. Therefore, the cell size may possibly not be reduced
down below 4 mm in order to prevent late iterations. 10 Results and discussion

10.1 Effect of circularity factor (CF) on erosion rate:

9 Validation of the numerical model
In Fig. 2, a comparison between the results from present
study and the analytical results derived from the model given
by Wallace et al. [62]. A range of velocities, from 0.5 to
2.5 m/s, were used to both the simulation and the analysis to
get a close match. A model developed by Wallace et al. [62]
multisized particles (< 300 m)
At start, the simulations were conceded out to study the effect
of particulate’s CF value on erosion rate. A separate simu-
lation was carried out for the CF  1.0 which was a case
of fully spherical fly ash only. Figure 3 illustrates the ero-
sion rate of different multisized particulate of different CF
values. As per observation, the DPM computed erosion rate

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International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM)

Fig. 4 DPM Erosion rate (kg/m.2

s) contours for the flow of a Fly
ash (CF  0.91), b Pure spherical
fly ash (CF  1.0), c bottom ash
(CF  0.712), and d sand (CF 
0.637)

was high for the sand particulate whereas least for the fly ash
slurry. Pure spherical fly ash particles (CF  1.0) produces
the lesser erosion as compared to fly ash particles having dis-
torted spherical shape (CF  0.91). Moreover, bottom ash
particulate have lesser CF value therefore produces a lesser
erosion wear than sand. Sand particles have generally coni-
cally edges and lesser circularity (CF) [61]. In case of pipe
bend, it was observed that the sand particulate produced high
erosion which is also an experiment research finding in case
of materials [61].
Figure 4 shows the DPM erosion rate (in kg/m2 s) contours
for the flow of fly ash (CF  0.91), pure spherical fly ash (CF
 1.0), bottom ash (CF  0.712), and sand (CF  0.637).
In Fig. 4(a, b), it can be visualized that the erosion contours
are similar in case of similar in case of pure spherical fly
ash (CF  1.0) and fly ash having CF  0.91. Bottom ash
particulate produced higher erosion than fly ash (Fig. 4c).

123

Fig. 5 Velocity magnitude (m/s)
contours for the flow of a Fly ash
(CF  0.91), b Pure spherical fly
ash (CF  1.0), c bottom ash (CF
 0.712), and d sand (CF 
0.637)
Erosion rate’s magnitude was highest in case of sand par-
ticles whereas in contours the eroded area seems wider, as
illustrated in Fig. 4(d). This specifies the sharp edge sand par-
ticulate strike rapidly to the pipe bend sites and caused a high
material loss. The erosion was occurred at the outer curvature
of the pipe bend which showed a good agreement with the
previous studies [23, 46]. Another phenomenon work behind
the erosion of outer curvature is that the particulate exerts
the moment of inertia and strike to outer curvature therefore
the impact angle function f(α) comes into play. The parti-
cles striking to the outer wall of bend eroded in different
amount at different angles. Experimental proof of erosion
rate with result to impact angle function has been presented
by researchers [63–67].
123
International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM)
10.2 Velocity magnitude
The particulate flowing through water exert different turbu-
lences as a result the velocity magnitude changes at different
regions. In this study, the effect of the particulate flow on
velocity magnitude at pipe inlet, bend inlet, bend outlet and
pipe outlet is investigated. The velocity magnitude contours
produced after numerical simulations are shown in Fig. 5.
It is observed that velocity slightly become lower while the
CF value was decreased in from 1.0 to 0.91 in case of fly
(in Fig. 5a and 5b). However, the velocity magnitude further
decreases with decrease in CF value of particulates, as rep-
resented in Fig. 5(c,d). This occurred due to the increase in
percentage of turbulence. Angularity of particles disturbs the
flow of liquid therefore the decrease in velocity magnitude.
Another observation from Fig. 5 is that the high velocity
International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM)

Fig. 6 Contours of turbulent

intensity (%) on wall for the flow
of a Fly ash (CF  0.91), b Pure
spherical fly ash (CF  1.0),
c bottom ash (CF  0.712), and
d sand (CF  0.637)

Fig. 7 Contours of turbulent intensity (%) at bend inlet & outlet for a Fly ash (CF  0.91), b Pure spherical fly ash (CF  1.0), c bottom ash (CF
 0.712), and d sand (CF  0.637)

magnitude inside the pipe wall was concentric at bend inlet
as well as inlet and outlet of pipeline. Although high velocity
magnitude region shifts from concentric to outer curvature
of pipe wall at bend outlet. This happens due to moment of
inertia acting on particulate [34, 38].
10.3 Turbulence intensity
The turbulence intensity (TI) contours produced for pipe wall
after numerical simulations are shown in Fig. 6. Figure 6
clearly indicates that the turbulence intensity was higher at
inner curvature of the pipe bend and lowers at outer curva-
ture of the pipe bend. No turbulence was detected at the bend
inlet. Moreover, it is impossible to accurately observe the
turbulence intensity inside wall region. To observe the tur-
bulence intensity inside the pipe, the contours were obtained
at pipe bend’s inlet and outlet, as shown in Fig. 7. The tur-
bulence intensity (%) decreases with decrease in CF value.
The turbulence intensity seems shifted to outer curvature in

123

Fig. 8 Velocity vectors for spherical fly ash (CF  1.0)
TI contours at bend outlet. This happens due to swirl in flow
after striking to outer curvature.
10.4 Velocity vectors
The velocity vector images for fly ash (CF  1.0) at pipe
inlet/outlet and bend inlet/outlet after numerical simulations
Fig. 9 Velocity vectors at bend’s inlet & outlet: a Fly ash (CF  0.91), b bottom ash (CF  0.712), and c sand (CF  0.637)
123
International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM)
are shown in Fig. 8. It can be visualized that the velocity
vectors seems straight in case pipe inlet and outlet whereas
at bend inlet, vectors also shows almost straight faced. At
bend outlet, a clear circulation can be seen at the bend outlet
the vectors show circulation of flow from outer curvature
to towards center of pipe. Similar type of phenomenon is
observed in case of Fly ash (CF  0.91), bottom ash (CF 
0.712), and sand (CF  0.637), as shown in Fig. 9. Such type
of phenomenon was also observed in previous studies [34,
38].
10.5 Particle tracks
The particles were tracked by using the ANSYS post pro-
cessing tool. In the particles tracing images (Fig. 10), the
particles can be seen striking to the outer curvature of pipe
bend. The particle–wall as well as the particle–particle col-
lision phenomenon confirms the fact and finding given in
above sections.
10.6 Effect of circularity factor (CF) on erosion rate:
equisized particles (< 355 μm)
Figure 10 illustrates the erosion rate of equisized particu-
lates of different CF values. Similar observation was found
in case of equisized particles as observed in multisized par-
ticles. DPM computed maximum erosion rate follows the
order: Spherical fly ash < Fly ash having some angularity <
International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM)
Fig. 10 Particles tracking of a Fly ash (CF  0.91), b Pure spherical fly
ash (CF  1.0), c bottom ash (CF  0.712), and d sand (CF  0.637)
Fig. 11 Erosion rate of different equisized particulate of different CF
values
Bottom ash < Sand. In Fig. 10, it is also found that the erosion
rate augments at similar phase with the decrease in CF values.
However, the bottom ash showed higher augmentation than
fly ash with the decrease in CF values. On the other hand,
the erosion augmentation for bottom ash drops as approaches
towards lower CF value. This happens because high angular-
ity particles (low CF) lose their conical edges during erosion
and gains circularity. Such type of phenomenon is discussed
in many studies [21, 25, 27, 68, 69]. Another observation
from Fig. 10 is rise in erosion rate with growth in particulate
size. This was also proved in previous studies [32, 33, 38,
58].(Fig. 11)
Fig. 12 Effect of r/D ratio on erosion rate of different multisized par-
ticulate of different CF values
10.7 Effect of CF value on design of pipe bend
The erosion wear of pipe bend of different radius-to-diameter
(r/D) ratios for different erodent of different CF values is
shown in Fig. 10. It was found that the erosion rate was
affected by the design parameters. The erosion by particulate
having higher CF values influenced lesser as compared to
the particles with higher CF values. This occurs due to fact
that the smoother shaped particles generate lesser turbulences
in fluid flow as compared to the angular particles. Hence,
the pipe bend can be manufactured on the basis of type of
particles and CF values (Fig. 12).
10.8 Scope of present work and future prospective
This study can also be important for the machinery applica-
tions such as slurry pump, flow meters, transducers, slurry
tank, etc. The mathematical model and equations used in
present study are relevant to the other problems. So, this
study could be beneficial for the FLUENT code generation
for other problems. Moreover, the failure of pipe bend tends
towards the downtime of the slurry conveying circuit there-
fore the efficiency and economy of the overall plant also
affected due to bend failure. For the future purpose of study,
the SS316L and SS304 steel can be used as a pipe bend mate-
rial. The experimental erosion wear analysis of SS316L and
SS304 has been widely studied in the many studies as a pump
material [24–26, 70]. Future studies can be focused on the
erosion wear stainless steel pipe bend [71, 72]. The paramet-
ric optimization can be done to validate the experimental part
of the study [73–80]. This approach has already been used
with other applications [81–84].
123

11 Conclusions
In this study, an investigation was done on erosive degrada-
tion of pipe bends by the action of slurry particles. Numerical
computation is done using an ANSYS R.21 FLUENT pack-
age. The Euler–Lagrange model was adopted in conjunction
with standard k–ε turbulence model to provide a precise pre-
diction of erosive rate. The present numerical model results
were consistent with an analytical standard deviation of ±
3.59% with Wallace et al. [62] model. From present simu-
lations results, the following are the conclusions from this
study:
• The circularity of the particulate is directly associated to
the erosion rate of bend.
• Erosion rate of bend increases with decrease in CF value.
• Flow of sand particulate caused a highest erosion rate fol-
lowed by bottom ash and fly ash.
• Pure spherical fly ash particles (CF  1.0) produces the
lesser erosion as compared to fly ash particles having dis-
torted spherical shape (CF  0.91).
• Intense erosion was occurred at the outer curvature of the
pipe bend.
• The velocity magnitude decreases with decrease in CF
value of particulates.
• Turbulence intensity was higher at inner curvature of the
bend and lowers at outer curvature of the pipe bend.
• The turbulence intensity decreases with decrease in CF
value. The high turbulence intensity region seems shifted
to concentric at bend inlet to outer curvature at bend outlet.
• Velocity vectors seem straight in case pipe inlet and outlet
whereas at bend inlet, vectors also show almost straight
faced. At bend outlet, a clear circulation can be seen at the
bend outlet the vectors show circulation of flow from outer
curvature to towards center of pipe.
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