Astable Multivibrators: A Primer

An astable multivibrator is a core component within the realm of electronic circuit design.
It’s a type of oscillator that oscillates between two voltage levels without any external
triggering, hence its name: ‘Astable,’ which means ‘not stable’ in the absence of external
input.

Working Principle of Astable

Multivibrators
The basic principle behind astable multivibrators involves the charging and discharging of
capacitors through resistors, which create a feedback mechanism. This process generates
a periodic waveform, commonly a square wave or a pulse, that oscillates indefinitely until
the power is cut off.

Components of an Astable Multivibrator

1. Resistors: These are key to controlling the charging and discharging time of the
capacitor, which in turn determines the output frequency of the oscillation.
2. Capacitors: These store and release electrical energy, creating the charging and
discharging cycles that drive the multivibrator’s oscillations.
3. Transistors: Act as electronic switches to control the direction of current flow, thus
enabling the switching between two states of the multivibrator.
These components work together, leveraging the properties of RC (Resistor-Capacitor)
networks and transistor switching, to create a stable, predictable oscillation without the
need for any external input signal.

Astable Multivibrator Circuit Design

In a typical astable multivibrator design, two transistors are cross-coupled in such a way
that the output from one feeds into the other. This arrangement ensures that the transistors
are alternately switched on and off, driving the cyclical behavior. The combination of
resistors and capacitors forms a timing network, which determines the period of oscillation.

The output frequency of an astable multivibrator can be calculated using the formula:

f = 1 / T = 1.44 / ((R1 + 2R2) * C1)

Here, R1, R2 are the resistors and C1 is the capacitor. The ‘1.44’ is a constant derived
from the natural logarithm base (e), showing the integral role of exponential growth in the
circuit’s function.
Applications of Astable Multivibrators
Astable multivibrators have widespread usage across a variety of domains…

Applications of Astable Multivibrators

1. Communication Systems: Astable multivibrators are often used in frequency
generation and modulation, key aspects of radio and telecommunication systems.
2. Timing Circuits: The predictable oscillations of an astable multivibrator make it
ideal for use in timing and control circuits.

3. Testing Equipment: In electronic testing equipment, these circuits can serve as

signal generators to provide inputs for device testing.
4. Alarm Systems: The multivibrators are also used in alarm systems, where a
continuous signal is needed.
5. Power Supplies: They are commonly found in switching power supplies, where they
act as oscillators.

Astable Multivibrators vs. Monostable

and Bistable Multivibrators
Besides astable multivibrators, two other types exist: monostable and bistable
multivibrators. Monostable multivibrators have one stable state and require an external
trigger to change states temporarily. Bistable multivibrators, also known as flip-flops,
have two stable states and require external triggers to switch between them. In contrast,
the astable multivibrator oscillates between its two states without any external trigger,
providing a continuous square wave output.
First-Order Active Filters
A first-order active filter is an electrical circuit that modifies the frequency
response of an input signal using active components like op-amps and passive
components like resistors and capacitors. These filters highlight or attenuate
specific frequency components, while others pass through untouched. The
term “first-order” refers to the filter’s transfer function, which is a mathematical
representation of how it handles incoming signal frequency components.

Roll-Off Rate

First-order filters have a roll-off rate of 6 dB per octave, meaning the filter’s
gain (or attenuation) changes by 6 dB for every doubling (or halving) of
frequency. This results in a relatively gradual transition between the passband
(where frequencies are allowed to pass) and the stopband (where frequencies
are attenuated).

First-order filters cause a frequency-dependent phase shift in the signal,

impacting phase relationships between frequency components. These simple,
frequency-dependent filters require only one reactive component, typically a
capacitor, in addition to resistors and op-amps.

Applications

First-order active filters are used in audio systems for tone control, signal
conditioning, and removing high-frequency noise. They have lower order and
gradual roll-off, allowing smoother transitional behavior between passband and
stopband, reducing unwanted artifacts in applications with moderate frequency
selectivity.

Second-Order Active Filters

A second-order active filter is an electrical circuit that modifies the frequency
response of an input signal utilizing operational amplifiers, reactive
components, and resistive components. It emphasizes or attenuates specific
frequency components while allowing others to pass through unaffected. The
word “second-order” denotes the transfer function, a second-degree
polynomial in the frequency variable, which denotes the mathematical
representation of the frequency components of the input signal by the filter.
Roll-Off Rate

In comparison to first-order filters, second-order filters have a sharper roll-off

rate. They reduce frequencies by 12 dB per octave, which makes the shift
between the passband and the stopband more noticeable.

Second-order filters provide better selectivity in passing desirable frequencies

while providing more attenuation of undesired frequencies due to their higher
order. They are therefore appropriate for uses that call for precise frequency
control.

They introduce a phase shift in signal, pronounced near cut-off frequency, and
are more complex to design and implement than first-order filters due to the
use of reactive components and resistors.

Applications

Second-order filters have larger Q factors and resonance at certain

frequencies, which makes them excellent for oscillator and audio equalization
circuits. They are helpful in audio processing, communication systems, and
control systems due to their increased attenuation, sharper roll-offs, and
improved selectivity.

Distinguishing Factors
Aspects Difference Between Them

1. Roll-Off Rate The roll-off rate is the crucial difference between first-order and second-order acti

ve filters. In comparison to a first-order filter, a second-order filter may attenuate

frequencies more quickly as frequency increases because of its higher roll-off rate.

2. Attenuation and Selectivi Due to their steeper roll-off, second-order filters provide more control over signal

ty processing. This corresponds to enhanced selectivity in passing desirable frequenc

ies and better attenuation of undesired frequencies.

3. Phase Shift In comparison to second-order filters, first-order filters introduce less phase shift i

nto the passband. This phase shift may be significant in applications, such as audio

systems, where maintaining signal phase relationships is essential.

4. Components Complexity Second-order filters are a little more difficult to design and execute than first-orde

r filters because they employ more components (two reactive components) than fi

rst-order filters. Nevertheless, this complexity frequently results in better perform

ance.

5. Resonance and Q Factor Resonance is a property of second-order filters that can be useful in systems like o

scillator circuits or audio equalization. For second-order filters, the Q factor, which

measures the quality of resonance, is greater.

6. Transient Response Due to their more straightforward construction, first-order filters typically offer a

quicker transient response. This might be helpful in situations where it’s importan

t to correctly follow quick changes in input signals.

Voltage Controlled Oscillators (VCOs):
An In-Depth Look
Voltage Controlled Oscillators, widely known as VCOs, are an integral part of various
electronic devices we use daily. Their versatility is evident as they are essential
components in radio frequency synthesizers, function generators, and phase-locked loops
(PLLs), just to mention a few.

Understanding VCOs
A Voltage Controlled Oscillator is an oscillator whose frequency of operation is determined
by the input voltage. This unique capability is a key characteristic that defines their function
in numerous electronic devices. A change in input voltage causes a corresponding change
in oscillation frequency, making VCOs fundamentally frequency modulators.

Types of VCOs
1. Sine Wave Oscillators: This type generates a sinusoidal output waveform. It is used
in applications where a clean, harmonic-free signal is required. Its main
disadvantage is a limited frequency range.
2. Square Wave Oscillators: These produce a square wave output signal. Their main
advantage is their ability to operate over a wide frequency range, but they often
contain harmonic distortion.
3. Sawtooth Wave Oscillators: Known for generating a sawtooth waveform, these are
typically used in the timebase circuits of oscilloscopes and television systems where
a linear sweep is necessary.

Operating Principle of VCOs

The operating principle of a VCO can be broadly divided into three steps. Firstly, a DC
control voltage is applied. This voltage changes the internal reactance of the VCO – which
could be the capacitance in a varactor diode or the inductance in a varactor-tuned inductor.
Secondly, this change in reactance alters the resonant frequency of the VCO’s internal LC
(inductor-capacitor) or RC (resistor-capacitor) circuit. Finally, the VCO generates an
oscillating output signal at this new frequency. The frequency of the output signal directly
corresponds to the magnitude of the applied control voltage.

Applications of VCOs
 VCOs are commonly used in synthesizers to generate different musical notes. By
varying the control voltage, the oscillator produces sounds of varying pitch.
 They are essential in radio frequency synthesizers and are used in the modulation
and demodulation processes in both analog and digital communication systems.
  VCOs are fundamental to Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) circuits, a system that
synchronizes an oscillator’s phase to the phase of an input signal, widely used in
radio, computer, and telecommunications systems.

Design Considerations for VCOs

Designing a VCO requires careful consideration of various parameters. The first of these is
frequency range, which refers to the span of frequencies that the VCO can generate. This
is typically determined by the control voltage. Frequency stability is another crucial factor,
as the generated frequency should remain stable against fluctuations in environmental
factors like temperature and power supply voltage. Furthermore, the linearity of the
frequency versus control voltage is an essential characteristic that ensures the
predictability and repeatability of the VCO’s operation.

VCOs in Modern Technology

In today’s digital age, VCOs have found a significant role in state-of-the-art technology.
They are a key component in Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) systems used in
satellite and mobile communication. In digital systems, VCOs are often integrated into
Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) circuits for clock generation and recovery. Moreover, VCOs are
now widely used in data conversion systems like Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADCs) and
Digital-to-Analog Converters (DACs)
Phase Locked Loop Working with
Applications
The phase-locked loop is one of the basic blocks in modern electronic systems. It is
generally used in multimedia, communication and in many other applications. There are
two different types of PLL’s – linear and nonlinear. The nonlinear is difficult and
complicated to design in the real world, but the linear control theory is well modeled in
analog PLL’s. The PLL has proved that a linear model is sufficient for most of the
electronic applications.

What is a Phase-Locked Loop?

A phase-locked loop consists of a phase detector and a voltage controlled oscillator. The
output of the phase detector is the input of the voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) and
the output of the VCO is connected to one of the inputs of a phase detector which is
shown below in the basic block diagram. When these two devices are feed to each other
the loop forms.

Block Diagram And Working Principle of PLL

The phase-locked loop consists of a phase detector, a voltage controlled
oscillator and, in between them, a low pass filter is fixed. The input signal ‘Vi’ with an
input frequency ‘Fi’ is conceded by a phase detector. Basically the phase detector is a
comparator that compares the input frequency fi through the feedback frequency fo. The
output of the phase detector is (fi+fo) which is a DC voltage. The out of the phase
detector, i.e., DC voltage is input to the low pass filter (LPF); it removes the high-
frequency noise and produces a steady DC level, i.e., Fi-Fo. The Vf is also a dynamic
characteristic of the PLL.
The output of the low pass filter, i.e., DC level is passed on to the VCO. The input signal
is directly proportional to the output frequency of the VCO (fo). The input and output
frequencies are compared and adjusted through the feedback loop until the output
frequency is equal to the input frequency. Hence, the PLL works like free running,
capture, and phase lock.

When there is no input voltage applied, then it is said to be a free-running stage. As soon
as the input frequency applied to the VOC changes and produces an output frequency
for comparison, it is called a capture stage. The below figure shows the block diagram of
the PLL.

Phase-Locked Loop Detector

The phase-locked loop detector compares the input frequency and the output frequency
of the VCO to produces a DC voltage which is directly proportional to the phase
distinction of the two frequencies. The analog and digital signals are used in the phase-
locked loop. Most of the monolithic PLL integrated circuits use an analog phase detector
and the majority of phase detectors are from the digital type. A double balanced mixture
circuit is used commonly in analog phase detectors.

Applications of Phase-Locked Loop

 FM demodulation networks for FM operations
 It is used in motor speed controls and tracking filters.
 It is used in frequency shifting decodes for demodulation carrier frequencies.
 It is used in time to digital converters.
 It is used for Jitter reduction, skew suppression, clock recovery.
LM723 Variable Voltage Regulator
Voltage regulators are used to getting a stable fixed output voltage. LM723 IC is also a
voltage regulator but it can generate a variable voltage which can be adjusted in a range
of 3V to 37V. It is basically used in the series regulator application. Although it offers a
150mA output current. But we can get an excessive current of up to 10A for driving the
load by connecting a bypass transistor externally. The maximum input voltage supply is
40V.

LM723 Pin Configuration Diagram

It is available in three packages such as 14-pin DIP, 10-pin TO-100, and NAJ0020A
package. But the pin layout is the same for all packages. This picture shows a pinout
diagram with brief details of each pin.

LM723 Voltage Regulator Features

The important features of this IC are:

 It is an adjustable voltage regulator which operates in both positive or negative

supply operation.
 Voltage can be adjusted from 2V to 37V.
 The maximum input voltage is 40V.
 Output current is 150mA without an external pass transistor. It can be increased to
10A by adding transistors externally.
 It has a low standby current gain, very low-temperature drift, and high ripple
rejection.
 The load and line regulation is 0.03% and 01%.
 It has a built-in fold back current limiting.
 Its performance is ensured over -55 °C to +125 °C.
Where to use it?
Due to its small size and lower cost, it is used in a wide variety of applications. It can be
used as a series, shunt, linear, switching and floating regulators. Its wide voltage range,
low noise, and extreme flexibility make it highly suitable for use in series voltage regulation
applications.

LM723 Working Principle

An input voltage is applied to the PIN12 of LM723 to get a constant and regulated output
voltage at Pin6. This voltage is then fed back by connecting a resistor and a capacitor to
the non-inverting pin of the IC. The two voltages at the inverting and non-inverting pin are
compared. If the voltage at pin5 is greater than pin4 then the current will flow from the
collector to emitter of a series pass transistor and we can get the output voltage.

Simple Application Circuit

LM723 Applications
 Basic high and low voltage regulators can be designed by connecting appropriate
external components with this IC.
 Linear, switching and floating regulators
 Series and shunt regulators.
Op Amp Voltage Regulators:
Voltage Follower Regulator – Refer once again to the Op Amp Voltage Regulators
circuit in Fig. 17-11. The complete error amplifier has two input terminals at the bases of
Q5 and Q6 and one output at the collector of Q2, Transistor Q6 base is an inverting input
and Q5 base is a noninverting input. The error amplifier circuit Is essentially an operational
amplifier. Thus, IC operational amplifiers with their extremely high open-loop voltage
gain are ideal for use as error amplifiers in dc voltage regulator circuits. Normally, an
internally compensated op-amp (such as the 741) is quite suitable for most voltage
regulator applications.

A simple voltage follower regulator circuit is illustrated in Fig. 17-16. In this circuit, the
op-amp output voltage always follows the voltage at the noninverting terminal,
consequently, Vo remains constant at VZ. The only design calculations are those required
for design of the Zener diode voltage reference circuit (R1 and D1), and for the
specification of Q1.

Adjustable Output Regulator:

The circuit in Fig. 17-17 is that of a variable-output, highly stable de voltage regulator. As
shown already in transistor circuit, the reference diode in Fig. 17-17 is connected at the
amplifier noninverting input, and the output voltage is divided and applied to the
inverting input. The operational amplifier positive supply terminal has to be connected
to regulator supply voltage. If it were connected to the regulator output, the op-amp
output voltage (at Q2 base) would have to be approximately 0.7 V higher than its positive
supply terminal, and this is impossible.
Design of the regulator circuit In Fig. 17-17 involves selection of R1 and D1, design of the
voltage divider network (R3, R4, and R5), and specification of transistors Q1 and Q2. Clearly,
an op-amp voltage regulator is more easily designed than a purely transistor regulator
circuit.

Current Limiting with an Op-amp Regulator:

When a large output current is to be supplied by an operational amplifier voltage

regulator, one of the current limiting circuits described already may be used with one
important modification. Figure 17-19 shows the modification. A resistor (R13) must be
connected between the op-amp output terminal and the Junction of Q2B and Q7C.
When an overload causes the regulator output voltage to go to zero, the op-amp output
goes high (close to VS) as it attempts to return Vo to its normal level. Consequently,
because the op-amp normally has a very low output resistance, R13 is necessary to allow
IC7 to drop the voltage at Q2 base to near ground level. The additional resistor at the op-
amp output is calculated as R13 ≈ VS/IC7. Resistor R13 must not be so large that an excessive
voltage drop occurs across it when the regulator is supposed to be operating normally.