Lecture 10: Filtration and membrane

Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

 Understand the fundamentals of filtration.
 Understand the relationship between specific cake resistance and
pressure (compressibility)
 Describe major methods for filtration.
 Calculate filtration problems and understand the techno-
economical analysis of filtration processes.

MCEE 5210_12
Membranes Processes
•A membrane is a selective barrier that permits the separation of certain species
in a fluid by combination of sieving and diffusion mechanisms.
• Separation by means of a semipermeable barrier (membrane) through which
one or more species move faster than another or other species.
•Membranes can separate particles and molecules and over a wide particle size
range and molecular weights.
•Characteristics
- The two products are usually miscible
- The separating agent is a semi-permeable barrier
- A sharp separation is often difficult to achieve

MCEE 5210_13
Why use membranes?
Some really difficult separations:
 finely dispersed solids; density close to liquid phase; gelatinous
particles
 dissolved salts must be removed
 non-volatile organics (e.g. humic substances)
 biological materials: sensitive to the environment
 biological materials: aseptic operation is required
• cannot centrifuge
• cannot sediment

Desirable characteristics of membrane

(1) good permeability,
(2) high selectivity,
(3) chemical and mechanical compatibility,
(4) stability, freedom from fouling, and useful life amenability,
(5) ability to withstand large pressure differences

MCEE 5210_14
Membrane technology
•Early membrane investigators experimented with every type of
diaphragm available to them, such as bladders of pigs, cattle or
fish and sausage casings made of animal gut.

MCEE 5210_15
Market size

Global dialysis market

MCEE 5210_16
Membranes

[Flickr: 21182585@N07/2057883807] [Flickr: 21182585@N07/3574729377]

MCEE 5210_17
Membrane classification

MCEE 5210_18
 Applications of Membrane Processes
• Production of Potable water
• Wastewater treatment and processing of water
• Food and Beverages industry
• Replacement of traditional filtration equipment
• Biological Applications
• Power Generation
• Chemicals Separation
• Medical Applications
• Production of pharmaceuticals
• Separation of a wide variety of emulsion, surfactant, and chelating
mixtures

MCEE 5210_19
 Applications of Membrane Processes

MCEE 5210_20
 Membrane companies

Air Liquide
ITT Corporation
Celgard LLC
Koch Membrane Systems
Culligan International Company
Millipore Corporation
CUNO Incorporated
Nitto Denko Corporation
Degremont SA
Pall Corporation
Dow Chemical Company
Parker Hannifin Corporation
FilmTec Corporation, E.I.
Praxair
DuPont
Siemens Water Tech.
Permeonics
Spectrum Laboratories
GE Water & Process Technologies
Thermax
Ion Exchange India Ltd
Whatman

MCEE 5210_21
Materials for Membranes

• Ceramic membranes:
– Mainly various oxides of alumina, titania or zirconia
– By sol-gel process
• Metal membranes:
– palladium, silver and their alloys
• Carbon membranes
• Glass membranes
– Silicon oxide or silica, SiO2 , by leaching on demixed glasses
• Zeolite membranes
– Ordered porous, narrow pore size

MCEE 5210_22
 Membranes

Ceramic membranes

Zeolite membranes

Glass membranes
Carbon membranes

Metallic membranes
Ref. Internet resources

MCEE 5210_23
Let's formalize some terminology

 Permeate: the material passing through the membrane from feed to

outlet side.
 Retentate: the material retained on the feed-side of the membrane.
 Solute: most often retained on the inside (feed side) of the membrane
and deposited on the membrane wall.
 Solvent: the liquid phase that carries the solute.
 Gel effect: buildup of the solute on the membrane wall to form a high
concentration gradient “gel”.

MCEE 5210_24
More terminology
Semipermeable: partially permeable, e.g. your skin allows certain size
particles in, but not others.
Mass separating agent: the membrane itself.
Energy separating agent: the applied pressure (pressure drop).
Fouling: Irreversible decline in membrane flux due to deposition and
accumulation of submicron particles and solutes on the membrane
surface. Also: Crystallization and precipitation of small solutes on the
surface and in the pores of the membrane.
Rejection: The fraction of solute held back by the membrane. Can be
measured at any point in the process or averaged over the run.
Concentration Polarization: Accumulation of rejected solute on the
membrane surface. Depends on interactions of pressure, viscosity,
crossflow (tangential) velocity, fluid flow conditions, flow channel
conditions and temperatures.
area of open pores
Porosity =
total surface area

MCEE 5210_25
What is flux?

Flux: the (volumetric) or (molar) or (mass) flow per unit time for
1unit of area

transfer rate
 𝐽𝐽 = flux =
transfer area
 e.g. 42 mol � s −1 � m−2
 never simplify the units: write 13 m3 � s −1 � m−2
 you may, and probably should, omit the
brackets: 13m3 � s −1 � m−2
 do not write 13m � s −1

General principle
For a given unit area, we want the highest flux possible (at the lowest
possible cost)

MCEE 5210_26
 Membrane pores

MCEE 5210_27
 Asymmetric Membrane

MCEE 5210_28
 Tortuosity

Tortuosity = Ratio of average length of pore to membrane thickness

MCEE 5210_29
 Pore and Porosity

• Porosity: the ratio of pore

volume to its total volume. It
measure of the size of the 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉𝑺𝑺 𝝆𝝆𝒃𝒃
holes in filter paper that can
𝜖𝜖 = = = 𝟏𝟏 − = 𝟏𝟏 −
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 𝝆𝝆𝑺𝑺
pass through the particles.

MCEE 5210_30
Property method of Impact on membrane performance
Properties of membrane materials
determination
Porosity {surface and Thickness/weight Affects the head loss through the membrane; higher
bulk) measurement porosity results in lower head loss.
Thickness Thickness gauge, Affects the head loss through the membrane; thinner
electron microscopy membranes have lower head loss.

Surface chemistry ATR/FTIR, SIMS, Affects fouling and cleaning by influencing chemical
XPS interactions between the membrane surfaces and
constituents in the feed water.
Chemical and thermal Exposure to chemicals Affects the longevity of the membrane; greater chemical
stability and temperature and temperature tolerance allows more aggressive
extremes cleaning regimes with less degradation of the material.
Biological stability Exposure to Affects the longevity of the membrane; low biological
organisms stability can result in the colonization and physical
degradation of the membrane material by microorganism
Chlorine/ oxidant Exposure to chlorine/ Affects the ability to disinfect the membrane equipment.
tolerance oxidants Routine disinfection prevents microbial growth on the
permeate side of membrane surfaces and prevents
biological degradation of membrane materials (increasing
the longevity of the membrane).
Mechanical durability Mechanical tests Affects the ability of the material to withstand surges due
to operation of valves and pumps.
Internal physical Electron microscopy Affects the hydrodynamics of flow and particle capture.
structure, tortuosity There are no standard procedures for quantifying the
tortuosity or internal structure of membranes
MCEE
cost 5210_31cost Affects the cost of the membrane system.
Properties of membrane materials
Property method of Impact on membrane performance
determination
Retention rating (pore Bubble point, Controls the size of material retained by the membrane,
size or molecular challenge tests making it one of the most significant parameters in
weight cut-off) membrane filtration. Also affects head loss.
Hydrophobicity Contact angle Reflects the interfacial tension between water and the
membrane material. Hydrophobic materials “dislike" water;
thus, constituents from the water accumulate at the liquid-
solid interface to minimize the interfacial tension between the
water and membrane. In general, hydrophobic materials will
be more susceptible to fouling than hydrophilic materials.
Surface or pore Streaming Reflects the electrostatic charge at the membrane surface.
charge potential Repulsive forces between negatively charged species in
solution and negatively charged membrane surfaces can
reduce fouling by minimizing contact between the membrane
and fouling species. In UF, electrostatic repulsion can reduce
the passage of like-charged solutes. Membranes fabricated
of uncharged polymers typically acquire some negative
charge while in operation.
Surface roughness Atomic force Affects membrane fouling; some studies have shown rough
microscopy materials will foul more than smooth materials.

MCEE 5210_32
 Membrane Configurations

MCEE 5210_33
Comparison to rapid granular filtration
o Destabilization is not necessary
• -The void spaces in a membrane filter are much
smaller; particles are literally strained from the water
so destabilization is not necessary.
• No requirement of coagulation, flocculation, and
sedimentation facilities for effective particle
removal.
• Reduce the facilities for chemical storage and
handling and residual-handling and allow membrane
plants to be more compact and automated.
• Furthermore, the more compact installation can
result in considerable cost savings in densely
populated areas or other areas where land costs are
high.
o Performance is not dependent on the feed water quality
• The most significant advantage, however, is that the
filtered water turbidity from membrane filters is
independent of the concentration of particulate
matter in the feed.

MCEE 5210_34
 Plate and frame press

Plate and frame press (batch)

MCEE 5210_35
 Membrane Configurations

MCEE 5210_36
Module configuration: pressure-vessel configuration

MEMCOR® product, DuPont.

MCEE 5210_37
Module configuration: pressure-vessel configuration
GE product.

Feed-and-bleed mode. semibatch

MCEE 5210_38
 Membrane

MCEE 5210_39
 Membrane configurations

Dead-end filtration Cross flow filtration

MCEE 5210_40
 Comparison of hollow-fiber membrane configurations
Advantages Disadvantages
o Can treat more water at the o Can not be operated
same flux because outside in cross flow mode
fiber has more surface area;
o Less sensitive to presence of
large solids in the feed water
o Large solids in feed
o Less expensive to operate than water can clog lumen
inside out in a cross flow mode o Can treat less water
at the same flux
o Can be operated at high flux
with high-turbidity feed water
because cross-flow velocity
flushes aways solid and
reduces impact of particles
forming cake at membrane
surface

MCEE 5210_41
 Example 10.1
Example 10.1: comparison of outside-in and inside-out filtration.
A Dow Filmtec SFX-2860 membrane module contains 5760 fibers
. The fibers are 1.87 m long with an outsiide diameter of 1.3 mm
and inside diameter of 0.7 mm. Callculate the water production
from one module if the flux is 75 L/(m2h) and the flow direction is
(1) outside in and (2) inside out. Compare the two answers.

MCEE 5210_42
 Example 10.1

1. Compute the product water flow for outside-in flow.

a. Determine the outside surface area per fiber:
𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 𝜋𝜋 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑 ⋅ 𝐿𝐿 = 𝜋𝜋 ⋅ 1.3 × 10−3 × 1.87
= 7.64 × 10−3 m2 ⁄f iber
b. Compute the product water flow:
2
𝐿𝐿 m
𝑄𝑄 = 𝐽𝐽 ⋅ 𝐴𝐴 = 75 2 ⋅ 7.64 × 10−3 ⋅ 5760𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
𝑚𝑚 ℎ fiber
= 3300 L⁄h

MCEE 5210_43
 Example 10.1

2. Compute the product water flow for inside out flow.

a. Determine the inside surface area per fiber:

𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 𝜋𝜋 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑 ⋅ 𝐿𝐿 = 𝜋𝜋 ⋅ 0.7 × 10−3 × 1.87

= 4.11 × 10−3 m2 ⁄f iber

b. Compute the product water flow:

𝑄𝑄 = 𝐽𝐽 ⋅ 𝐴𝐴

𝐿𝐿 m 2
= 75 2 ⋅ 4.11 × 10−3 ⋅ 5760𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
𝑚𝑚 ℎ fiber
= 1780 L⁄h

MCEE 5210_44
 Example 10.1

3. Compare the outside-in and inside-out flow configurations:

𝑄𝑄𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 3300

𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = = = 1.86
𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 1780

We can see that outside-in

modes can treat more
water at the same flux
because of more surface
area.

MCEE 5210_45
Polymeric Membrane Materials

MCEE 5210_46
 Spiral wound – Organic

MCEE 5210_47
Rejection and log removal value

𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃
𝑅𝑅 = 1 −
𝐶𝐶𝐹𝐹
R = rejection, dimensionless
𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃 = permeate concentration, mol/L or mg/L
𝐶𝐶𝐹𝐹 = feed water concentration, mol/L or mg/L

log removal value:

𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = log 𝐶𝐶𝐹𝐹 − log 𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃

𝐶𝐶𝐹𝐹
= log
𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃

MCEE 5210_48
 Example 10.2

Example 10.2: Calculation of rejection and log removal value

During testing of a prototype membrane filter, bacteriophage
concentrations of 107 ml-1 and 13 ml-1 were measured in
the influent and effluent, respectively. Calculate the rejection
and log removal value.

The bacterial retention test according to ASTM F838-20

MCEE 5210_49
 Example 10.2

1. Calculate rejection using

𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃 13
𝑅𝑅 = 1 − = 1 − 7 = 0.9999987
𝐶𝐶𝐹𝐹 10

2. Calculate log removal value using:

𝐶𝐶𝐹𝐹 107
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = log 𝐶𝐶𝐹𝐹 − log 𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃 = log = log = 5.89
𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃 13

MCEE 5210_50
 Removal of micro-organism
• REMOVAL OF PROTOZOA AND HELMINTHS
o At least 10 times larger than the retention ratings of MF and
UF membranes.
o Rejection of greater than 7 log (limited by the initial
population) has been observed for both MF and UF
membranes
• REMOVAL OF BACTERIA
o In many studies, bacteria are removed to below the
detection limit by MF and UF
• REMOVAL OF VIRUSES
o The efficiency depends on the virus species and the
membrane.
o For MF, straining, adsorption and cake filtration all
contribute to rejection, and virus rejection can vary from
LRV < 1 to LRV > 4.
o For UF, complete rejection (LRV > 7.2) of MS2
bacteriophage, a model virus with a diameter of about 25
nm, with a 100,000-Da UF membrane but LRV < 1 with a 100,000-Da; dH = 21 nm
500,000-Da UF membrane. 500,000-Da; dH = 46 nm

MCEE 5210_51
Filtration process

Feed Retentate

Permeate

MCEE 5210_52
Filtration process
driving force
𝐑𝐑𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟 =
resistance

• Gravity
– Hydrostatic pressure
– Free filtering materials
• Vacuum
– Downstream pressure below atmospheric
– Rotary drum, moving belt, disc filters
• Pressure
– Pumps or compressed gas
– Plate and frame, leaf
• Centrifugal Force
– Perforated bowl centrifuge, peeler centrifuge

MCEE 5210_53
Filtration process

Lc
suspension
Lm

filter cake
membrane
MCEE 5210_54
Filtration theory

• Darcys law (pore flow model)

Pores are large and fixed and connected.

ℎ𝐿𝐿 Δ𝑃𝑃
𝑄𝑄 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 −
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
Q = flow rate of liquid through the porous medium
A = cross-sectional area perpendicular to flow,
hL = head loss over a horizontal length, L

𝑄𝑄 Δ𝑃𝑃
𝐽𝐽 = =
𝐴𝐴 𝜇𝜇𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚

MCEE 5210_55
Example 10.3
Example 10.3: Calculation of membrane resistance coefficient
A microfiltraion membrane is tested in a laboratory by filtering clean, deionized water
and the flux is found to be 850 L/m2h at 20°C and 0.9 bar transmembrane pressure.
Calculate the membrane resistance coefficient. (The dynamic viscosity of water at 20°C
is 1.00 x10-3 kg/(ms))

MCEE 5210_56
Example 10.3

Δ𝑃𝑃 0.9 × 105 11 𝑚𝑚−1

𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = = −3 = 3.81 × 10
𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 10 × 850 × 10−3 ⁄3600

MCEE 5210_57
Temperature and pressure dependence
𝜇𝜇𝑚𝑚
𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠 = 𝐽𝐽𝑚𝑚
𝜇𝜇𝑠𝑠

𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠 = 𝐽𝐽𝑚𝑚 1.03 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 −𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚

𝐿𝐿
𝐽𝐽𝑚𝑚 = 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 2
𝑚𝑚 ⋅ ℎ
𝐿𝐿
𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠 = 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 20𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶
𝑚𝑚2 ⋅ ℎ
𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠
𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
Δ𝑃𝑃
𝐿𝐿
𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠𝒑𝒑 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 20𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶
𝑚𝑚2 ⋅ ℎ ⋅ 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

MCEE 5210_58
Example 10.4
Example 10.4: calculation of specific flux

A membrane plant has a measured flux in March of 80 L/m2h at

0.67 bar and 7°C. Four months later, in July, the measured flux
is 85 L/m2h at 0.52 bar and 19°C. Has a change in specific flux
occurred? What is the change in percentage? Has fouling
occurred?

MCEE 5210_59
Example 10.4

1. Calculate the specific flux in March.

a. Calculate the flux in March at a standard temperature of 20°C

𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠 = 𝐽𝐽𝑚𝑚 1.03 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 −𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 = 80 × 1.03 20−7 = 117 𝐿𝐿⁄𝑚𝑚2 ℎ

b. Calculate the specific flux in March:
𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠 117 2
𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = = = 175 𝐿𝐿⁄(𝑚𝑚 ℎ𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏�
Δ𝑃𝑃 0.67

MCEE 5210_60
Example 10.4

2. Calculate the flux in July at a standard temperature of 20°C

𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠 = 𝐽𝐽𝑚𝑚 1.03 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 −𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 = 85 × 1.03 20−19 = 87.6 𝐿𝐿⁄𝑚𝑚2 ℎ

b. Calculate the specific flux in July:

𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠 87.6 2
𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = = = 168 𝐿𝐿⁄(𝑚𝑚 ℎ𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏�
Δ𝑃𝑃 0.52

MCEE 5210_61
Example 10.4

Calculate the percent loss of performance due to fouling

168
1− = 4%
175

4% loss of flux due to fouling

MCEE 5210_62
Filtration theory

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑄𝑄 Δ𝑃𝑃
𝐽𝐽 = = =
𝐴𝐴 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐴𝐴 𝜇𝜇𝑹𝑹
Lc
As the total resistance is proportional to
the viscosity of the fluid, we can write:
Lm

R = 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 + 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = 𝜇𝜇 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐′ 𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 + 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚

′
𝐿𝐿

Assuming the 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐′ = 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚

′
= 𝛼𝛼
R = 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 + 𝐿𝐿

where R is the resistance to flow through the filter, µ is the viscosity of the fluid, R’(or
α) is the specific resistance of the filter cake and membrane respectively, Lc is the
thickness of the filter cake and L is the fictitious equivalent thickness of the filter cloth
and pre-coat, A is the filter area, and ∆P is the pressure drop across the filter.

MCEE 5210_63
Filtration theory

If the rate of flow of the liquid and its

solid content are known and assuming
that all solids are retained on the filter,
the thickness of the filter cake can be
Lc
expressed by: Lm
V
Lc = 𝑤𝑤
𝐴𝐴
where w is the fractional solid content per unit volume of liquid, V is the volume of fluid
that has passed through the filter and A is the area of filter surface on which the cake
forms. The resistance can then be written

𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
R = 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 + 𝐿𝐿
𝐴𝐴

MCEE 5210_64
Filtration theory

Lc
Lm

dV Δ𝑃𝑃 Δ𝑃𝑃
= =
𝐴𝐴 dt 𝑅𝑅 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 + 𝐿𝐿
𝐴𝐴

This equation may be regarded as the fundamental equation for

filtration. It expresses the rate of filtration in terms of quantities
that can be measured, found from tables, or in some cases
estimated.

MCEE 5210_65
Constant rate filtration
In the early stages of a filtration cycle, it
frequently happens that the filter resistance
is large relative to the resistance of the filter
cake because the cake is thin. Under these
circumstances, the resistance offered to the
Lc
flow is virtually constant and so filtration
proceeds at a more or less constant rate. Lm

V Δ𝑃𝑃
=
A t 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 + 𝐿𝐿
𝐴𝐴

or
𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 V 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
Δ𝑃𝑃 = + 𝐿𝐿
A t 𝐴𝐴

MCEE 5210_66
Constant pressure filtration
Once the initial cake has been built
up, and this is true of the greater
part of many practical filtration
operations, flow occurs under a Lc
constant-pressure differential. Lm
Under these conditions, the term
∆P is constant and so 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 + 𝐿𝐿 dV = Δ𝑃𝑃 ⋅ 𝐴𝐴 ⋅ dt
𝐴𝐴
𝑤𝑤𝑉𝑉 2
𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 + 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = Δ𝑃𝑃 ⋅ 𝐴𝐴 ⋅ t
2𝐴𝐴
𝑡𝑡 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 𝑉𝑉 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 It covers a situation that is frequently found in a
= + practical filtration plant. A filtration graph can be
𝑉𝑉 2Δ𝑃𝑃 𝐴𝐴 Δ𝑃𝑃
plotted of t/(V/A) against (V/A).
𝐴𝐴
MCEE 5210_67
Example 10.5
EXAMPLE 10.5. Volume of filtrate from a filter press
A filtration test was carried out, with a particular product slurry, on a laboratory filter press
under a constant pressure of 340 kPa and volumes of filtrate were collected as follows:

Filtrate 20 40 60 80
volume (kg)
Time (min) 8 26 54.5 93
The area of the laboratory filter was 0.186 m2. In a plant scale filter, it is desired to filter a
slurry containing the same material, but at 50% greater concentration than that used for the
test, and under a pressure of 270kPa. Estimate the quantity of filtrate that would pass
through in 1 hour if the area of the filter is 9.3 m2.

MCEE 5210_68
Example 10.5
Filtrate 20 40 60 80
volume (kg)
Time (s) 480 1560 3270 5580
V/A (l/m2) 107.5 215 323 430
t/(V/A) (sm2 4.47 7.26 10.12 12.98
kg -1)

From the graph, we find that the slope of the

line is 0.0265, and the intercept 1.6.

𝑡𝑡 𝑉𝑉
= 0.0265 + 1.6
𝑉𝑉 𝐴𝐴
𝐴𝐴

MCEE 5210_69
Example 10.5
𝑡𝑡 𝑉𝑉
= 0.0265 + 1.6
𝑉𝑉 𝐴𝐴
𝐴𝐴
𝑡𝑡 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 𝑉𝑉 𝐾𝐾′
= +
𝑉𝑉 Δ𝑃𝑃 𝐴𝐴 Δ𝑃𝑃
𝐴𝐴
𝐾𝐾𝑤𝑤1 𝐾𝐾 ′
= 0.0265 = 1.6
Δ𝑃𝑃1 Δ𝑃𝑃1

MCEE 5210_70
Example 10.5

𝑡𝑡 𝐾𝐾𝑤𝑤2 𝑉𝑉 𝐾𝐾′
= +
𝑉𝑉 Δ𝑃𝑃2 𝐴𝐴 Δ𝑃𝑃2
𝐴𝐴
𝑡𝑡 Δ𝑃𝑃1 𝑤𝑤2 𝑉𝑉 1.6Δ𝑃𝑃1
= 0.0265 +
𝑉𝑉 𝑤𝑤1 Δ𝑃𝑃2 𝐴𝐴 Δ𝑃𝑃2
𝐴𝐴
Δ𝑃𝑃1 340 w2 150
= =
Δ𝑃𝑃2 270 w1 100

2 2
Δ𝑃𝑃1 𝑤𝑤2 𝑉𝑉 1.6Δ𝑃𝑃1 𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉
𝑡𝑡 = 0.0265 + = 0.5 + 2.0
𝑤𝑤1 Δ𝑃𝑃2 𝐴𝐴 Δ𝑃𝑃2 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴

MCEE 5210_71
Example 10.5
To find the volume that passes the filter in 1 h which is 3600s,
that is to find V for t = 3600
2
𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉
3600 = 0.5 + 2.0
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴

and solving this quadratic equation, we find that

𝑉𝑉
= 250 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚−2
𝐴𝐴
and so the slurry passing through 9.3 m2 in 1 h would be:
𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉 = ⋅ 𝐴𝐴 = 250 ⋅ 9.3 = 2325 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝐴𝐴

MCEE 5210_72
 Compressibility of cake
• With some filter cakes, the specific resistance varies with the pressure drop across
it. This is because the cake becomes denser under the higher pressure and so
provides fewer and smaller passages for flow.
• The effect is spoken of as the compressibility of the cake. Soft and flocculent
materials provide highly compressible filter cakes, whereas hard granular materials,
such as sugar and salt crystals, are little affected by pressure. To allow for cake
compressibility the empirical relationship has been proposed:

𝛼𝛼 = 𝛼𝛼 ′ Δ𝑃𝑃 𝑠𝑠

• where α is the specific resistance of the cake under pressure P, ∆P is the pressure
drop across the filter, α' is the specific resistance of the cake under a pressure drop
of 1atm and s is a constant for the material, called its compressibility.

MCEE 5210_73
Filtration theory

dV Δ𝑃𝑃 Δ𝑃𝑃
= = Lc
𝐴𝐴 dt 𝑅𝑅 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 + 𝐿𝐿
𝐴𝐴 Lm

The filter resistance is much less than the cake resistance Rc>>Rm;

dV Δ𝑃𝑃 Δ𝑃𝑃
= =
𝐴𝐴 dt 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝜇𝜇𝛼𝛼 ′ Δ𝑃𝑃 𝑠𝑠
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴

MCEE 5210_74
Filtration theory

dV Δ𝑃𝑃 Δ𝑃𝑃
= =
𝐴𝐴 dt 𝑅𝑅 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 + 𝐿𝐿
𝐴𝐴
We can change this to

dt 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 𝜇𝜇𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚
= 𝜇𝜇 2
+
dV Δ𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴 Δ𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
Or
dt 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 𝜇𝜇𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚
= 𝜇𝜇 2 2
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 +
d ρV ρ Δ𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴 ρΔ𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃

MCEE 5210_75
Filtration theory
dt 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 𝜇𝜇𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚
= 𝜇𝜇 2 2
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 +
d ρV ρ Δ𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴 ρΔ𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
Slope Intercept
dt/dw vs w for 5 PSI

0.5 y = 0.0031x + 0.0473

0.4 R2 = 0.8251
dt/dw (s/g)

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Weight (g)

MCEE 5210_76
 Filtration theory

dV Δ𝑃𝑃 Δ𝑃𝑃
= = Lc
𝐴𝐴 dt 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ′ 𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
𝜇𝜇𝛼𝛼 Δ𝑃𝑃
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴
Lm

When the filter cake is incompressible, S=0

dV Δ𝑃𝑃
=
𝐴𝐴 dt 𝜇𝜇𝛼𝛼 ′ 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
𝐴𝐴
When the filter cake is very compressible, S=1.0
dV 1
=
𝐴𝐴 dt 𝜇𝜇𝛼𝛼 ′ 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
𝐴𝐴
MCEE 5210_77
Filtration theory
In general, we have:
dV Δ𝑃𝑃1−𝑠𝑠
=
𝐴𝐴 dt 𝜇𝜇𝛼𝛼 ′ 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
𝐴𝐴
Many empirical formula are used to calculate the specific cake resistance of compressible
cakes. Almy and Lewis empirical formula is mostly used.

𝛼𝛼 = 𝛼𝛼0 −Δ𝑃𝑃 𝑛𝑛

Here, 𝛼𝛼0 and n are empirical constants. n is called compressibility constant whose value
is zero for incompressible cake. The value of n ranges between 0.1 and 0.8. The values can
be found experimentally by plotting a graph between α and ∆P.
Another formula given by Ruth as follows;

𝛼𝛼 = 𝛼𝛼0′ 1 + 𝛽𝛽 −Δ𝑃𝑃 𝑛𝑛′

Here, α′0 , β, and n’ are empirical constants obtained experimentally.

MCEE 5210_78
Filtration theory

ln α α = α o (∆P )s
ln α = ln α o + s ln (∆P )
s
 ∆P 
α = α o 1 + 
ln ΔP  Po 

∆P alpha ln(p) ln(α)

5 0.785E+10 1.609438 22.78378
15 1.06E+10 2.70805 23.08412
25 1.39E+10 3.218876 23.35515

MCEE 5210_79
Filtration theory

Ease of Separation Average Specific Cake Resistance (α), m/kg

Very Easy 1x109
Easy 1x1010
Moderate 1x1011
Difficult 1x1012
Very Difficult 1x1013

MCEE 5210_80
Fouling
 Process feed pretreatment is important. e.g. in bio area:
prefiltration, pasteurisation to destroy bacteria, or adjust pH
to prevent protein precipitation
 Backflushing mostly restores permeation rate (opens pores)
 Can also use pulsated/oscillating feed flows
 Consider adding tube inserts

MCEE 5210_81
Filtration theory

Δ𝑃𝑃 Δ𝑃𝑃
𝐽𝐽 = =
𝜇𝜇(𝑅𝑅𝑀𝑀 + 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝑅𝑅ℎ𝑟𝑟 + 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � 𝜇𝜇(𝑅𝑅𝑀𝑀 + 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 + 𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝 �

𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, 𝑚𝑚 − 1

𝑅𝑅ℎ𝑟𝑟 = ℎ𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅𝒄𝒄𝑟𝑟 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

MCEE 5210_82
 Backflushing Membrane

MCEE 5210_83
Example 10.5
Example 10.5: Calculation of resistance
The Microfiltration membrane in Example 10.3 is used under full-
scale conditions in a water treatment facility, producing a flux of 84
L/ m2h at 1.1 bar just before cleaning and 106 L/m2h at 0.52 bar
immediately after cleaning, both at a standard temperature of 20°C.
Calculate values for the membrane resistance coefficient,
irreversible fouling resistance coefficient, and chemically reversible
fouling resistance coefficient (assuming the hydraulic resistance is
negligible).

MCEE 5210_84
Example 10.5

Δ𝑃𝑃 0.9 × 105 11 −1

𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = = −3 −3
= 3.81 × 10 𝑚𝑚
𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 10 × 850 × 10 ⁄ 3600

Δ𝑃𝑃 0.52 × 105 11 𝑚𝑚−1

𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 + 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = = −3 = 17.71 × 10
𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 10 × 106 × 10−3 ⁄3600
Determine the chemically reversible fouling, Prior to cleaning,
three components of resistance are present.
Δ𝑃𝑃 1.1 × 105
𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 + 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = = −3
𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 10 × 84 × 10−3 ⁄3600

𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 2.94 × 1012 𝑚𝑚−1

MCEE 5210_85
 Membrane Fouling
 Biomass coats the outer layer of membranes
 Finer particles may penetrate the inner pores  increase in pressure loss
 Periodic more aggresive cleaning may be needed to maintain filtration
capacity.

MCEE 5210_86
 Membrane cleaning examples
1) Course bubble aeration: Air bubbles rise between vertically
oriented fibers. Fibers agitate against one another  Mechanical
scouring
2) Filtration is interrupted at every 15-30 minutes. Membrane fibres
are backwashed with permeate for 30 – 45 sec.
Chlorine is added to back flush water (<5 mg/L) to
inactivate and remove microbes that colonize on the outer
membrane surface.
3) Maintenance clean  ~ 3 times / week
Backwash with strong sodium hypochlorite (100 mg/L) or citric acid
for 45 min, then with permeate.
Downtime ~75 min for cleaning.

MCEE 5210_87
 Membrane external cleaning example

o 3-6 months
o Casettes are taken out of the bioreactor and submerged
in high concentration chlorine solution bath (1500 –
2000 mg/L) for 24h
o Pressure drop across the membranes is monitored to
indicate fouling problems and cleaning needs.
o ~60 kPa pressure drop  needs recovery cleaning
o Spare membranes are installed during recovery
cleaning.

MCEE 5210_88
 Potential for Membrane based Applications
• Municipalities in Europe are increasingly employing membrane separation systems to
ensure supply of pure drinking water. Moreover, in view of stringent environment
regulations, there has been significant increase in the deployment of membranes in
wastewater treatment systems.
• Rising demand for pure water is expected to boost market growth in Asia-Pacific.
India is considered one of the more lucrative and bigger markets for membrane
separation technologies in Asia-Pacific.
• With rapid advancements and development of novel technologies, there has also been
significant rise in application areas for membrane technology in recent times in China.
Reverse osmosis is one of the fastest growing segments primarily on account of
growing adoption of water desalination and its ability to achieve very high levels of
purity cost-effectively and efficiently.
• The Middle East has emerged as the most promising market for seawater desalination
thereby offering significant prospects for reverse osmosis.

MCEE 5210_100
 Advantages of Membrane Processes
• High Surface area
• Very much useful when mixtures of similar chemical compounds to be separated
• Separation of mixtures of thermally unstable components (since no heating is
needed). Also HT equipments are not required
• In conjunction with conventional separation methods (Separation of azeotropic
mixtures before feeding them to a distillation column)
• When conventional method doesn’t work, membranes are useful
• Huge & Complex machineries are not required
• Complex instrumentation is not required
• The method does not require constant attention
• Energy savings
• No Phase change or Interphase Mass Transfer
• No re-separation is required like Extraction, Leaching etc
• Whenever technology is new profit margin is higher

MCEE 5210_101
 Limitation of Membrane Processes
• Membranes are highly selective
• Membranes are expensive
• Low Flux
• Membrane preparation is complex
• Narrow Operating conditions
• Upper Solid limit is lower (i.e. RO can be used for low solute conn)
• Certain solvents can quickly and permanently destroy the membrane
• Certain colloidal solids, especially graphite and residues can permanently foul
the membrane surface
• The mechanical energy requirement is higher
• Difficult to Separate Highly Viscous Liquids
• Poor Cleaning

MCEE 5210_102
Take home message
• The separation of solids from a suspension in a liquid by means
of a porous medium or screen which retains the solids and
allows the liquid to pass is termed filtration.
• In general, the pores of the medium are larger than the particles
which are to be removed, and the filter works efficiently only
after an initial deposit has been trapped in the medium .
• Filtration depends on a combination of physical and chemical
operations, with adsorption being the most important.
• The volume of backwash water should not exceed 6% of the
total water produced.

MCEE 5210_103