NA8/S/HISTX/BP1IENG/TZO/XXIQ oo Rec een ioe oe History Higher level and standard level Paper 1 Friday 9 November 2018 (afternoon) 1 hour Instructions to candidates * Do not open this examination paper until instructed to do so. + The history higher level and standard level paper 1 source booklet is required for this examination paper. + Answer all questions from one prescribed subject using the relevant sources in the source booklet. * The maximum mark for this examination paper is [24 marks]. Prescribed subject Questions 1: Miltary leaders 1-4 2: Conquest and its impact 5-8 3: The move to global war 9-12 4: Rights and protest 13-16 5: Conflict and intervention eee 8818-5201 4 pages © Intemational Baccalaureate Organization 2018-2- N18/3/HISTXIBP 1/ENG/TZOIXX/Q Prescribed subject 1: Military leaders Read sources A to D in the source booklet and answer questions 1 to 4. The sources and questions relate to case study 2: Richard | of England (1173-1199) — Leadership: Rise to power: revolt of Richard | and his brothers against Henry Il (1173-1174). 41. (@) What, according to Source A, were the actions taken by Richard | against Henry II? 13] (©) What does Source B suggest about the nature of medieval leadership? 2] 2. With reference to its origin, purpose and content, analyse the value and limitations of Source C for an historian studying the revolt of Richard | and his brothers against Henry II between 1173 and 1174 4 3. Compare and contrast what Sources A and D reveal about the revolt against Henry II 6] 4, Using the sources and your own knowledge, discuss the view that Henry Il’s insistence on retaining power was the main reason for the revolt of 1173 to 1174. 1) Prescribed subject 2: Conquest and its impact Read sources E to H in the source booklet and answer questions 5 to 8. The sources and questions relate to case study 2: The conquest of Mexico and Peru (1519-1551) — Key events and actors: Francisco Pizarro and the campaign against the Incas; alliances with indigenous populations. 5. (a) Why, according to Source H, was Atahualpa executed? ic) (b) What does Source G suggest about Francisco Pizarro’s initial attack on the Incas? 2 6. With reference to its origin, purpose and content, analyse the value and limitations of Source H for an historian studying Pizarro's campaign against the Incas. [4] Compare and contrast what Sources E and F reveal about the Spanish campaign against the Incas. 6] 8. Using the sources and your own knowledge, discuss the view that it was Inca weakness, rather than Spanish strength that led to the defeat of the Incas by Pizarro. (9-3- NAS/S/HISTXIBP1/ENG/TZO/XXIQ. Prescribed subject 3: The move to global war Read sources | to L in the source booklet and answer questions 9 to 12. The sources and questions relate to case study 1: Japanese expansion in East Asia (1931-1941) — Responses: League of Nations and the Lytton Report. 9. (a) What, according to Source J, was Japan's attitude toward Manchuria/Manchukuo and China? (3) (b) What does Source L suggest about the position of Japan and the League of Nations regarding the Manchurian crisis? 2] 10. With reference to its origin, purpose and content, analyse the value and limitations of Source J for an historian studying Japan's response to the Lytton Report in the early 1930s. [4] 41. Compare and contrast what Sources | and K reveal about Japanese actions in China. (6) 12. Using the sources and your own knowledge, discuss the view that the ineffectual response of the League of Nations was the main factor in encouraging Japanese expansion in China. 19] Prescribed subject 4: Rights and protest Read sources M to P in the source booklet and answer questions 13 to 16. The sources and questions relate to case study 1: Civil rights movement in the United States (1954-1965) — Protests and action: Non-violent protests; Montgomery bus boycott (1955-1956). 43. (a) What, according to Source M, were the reactions to the bus boycott? i] (b) What does Source N suggest about the struggle for civil rights in 1956? 2 14, With reference to its origin, purpose and content, analyse the value and limitations of Source P for an historian studying the Montgomery bus boycott (1955-1956). 4 18. Compare and contrast what Sources O and P reveal about the Montgomery bus boycott. [8] 16. Using the sources and your own knowledge, evaluate the claim that the success of the Montgomery bus boycott represented a turning point in the struggle for African-American civil rights in the period from 1984 to 1965, (1 Turn over-4- N18/S/HISTX/BP1/ENG/TZOXX/Q Prescribed subject 5: Conflict and intervention Read sources Q to T in the source booklet and answer questions 17 to 20. The sources and questions relate to case study 1: Rwanda (1990-1998) — Causes of the conflict: Rwandan Civil War (1990-1993); assassination of Habyarimana and Ntaryamira (1994). 47. (a) Why, according to Source Q, was Habyarimana assassinated? BI (0) What does Source R suggest about the situation in Rwanda following the assassination of Habyarimana? a 48. With reference to its origin, purpose and content, analyse the value and limitations of Source Q for an historian investigating the assassination of Habyarimana. (4) 49, Compare and contrast what Sources § and T reveal about the events that followed the assassination of Habyarimana in 1994. (6) 20. Using the sources and your own knowledge, examine the causes of conflict in Rwanda between 1990 and 1994. (9)ce NAB/SIHISTX/BP VENG/TZO/XX/T ) ier Programme du diplome Gea cu History Higher level and standard level Paper 1 — source booklet Friday 9 November 2018 (aftemoon) 4 hour Instructions to candidates * Donot open this source booklet until instructed to do so. + This source bookiet contains the sources required for history higher level and standard level paper 1 + Read all the sources from one prescribed subject, + The sources in this paper may have been edited andior abridged: word additions or explanations are shown in square brackets [ |; substantive deletions of text are indicated by ellipses ... ; minor changes are not indicated Prescribed subject Sources 1: Military leaders A-D 2: Conquest and its impact E-H 3: The move to global war I=L 4: Rights and protest M-P 5: Conflict and intervention Q-T 818-5202 11 pages © International Baccalaureate Organization 2018-2- N18/3/HISTX/BP1/ENG/TZO/XX/T Prescribed subject 1: Military leaders Read sources A to D and answer questions 1 to 4. The sources and questions relate to case study 2: Richard | of England (1173-1199) — Leadership: Rise to power: revolt of Richard | and his brothers against Henry Il (1173-1174), Source A Philip Potter, an author of popular history books, writing in the book Gothic Kings of Britain: The lives of 31 Medieval Rulers, 1016-1399 (2009). Henry Il designated his eldest son, the younger Henry, as the successor to Anjou, Normandy and England, while Richard was granted Aquitaine and the fourth son, Geoffrey, was bequeathed Brittany. Nevertheless, the king refused to relinquish any sovereignty to his heirs and, as they grew older, the lack of independent authority gave cause for rebellion. At Queen Eleanor's urging, Richard joined the insurrection of his older brother. The rebels met in Paris at the court of Louis VII where a formidable alliance was formed ... resulting in the agreement to wage war against Henry Il. In July 1173, the allies invaded Normandy, where Richard gained his first experience in battle. However, the attacks against the Plantagenet crown were inconclusive and in September the monarch offered to reconcile with his sons, proposing generous financial terms but no power. The offer was rejected and the conflict renewed, with Henry Il taking the offensive by mounting an assault against Anjou with a formidable army. As his father succeeded in re-imposing his control over large sections of Poitou, Richard assumed his first independent command to resist his father's attack ... The revolt continued through the summer as Richard's military might deteriorated under the relentless pressure of the Plantagenet [Henry II's] counter-campaign. Finally, on 23 September 1174, at Poitiers he agreed to peace terms, accepting a reduced financial settlement and renewing his homage for Aquitaine. Source B Matthew Paris, an English chronicler and artist, depicts Henry I! (left), Richard | (right) and the younger Henry (in the middle), in the book English History (1250). aN SZ I |NA8/SIHISTXIBPH/ENG/TZOIXXIT Source C William of Newburgh, an historian, writing in the chronicle The History of English Affairs (completed ¢1198). Much of the chronicle was based on the writings of others. ‘The younger Henry, by the advice of the French, devising evil from every source against his father, went secretly into Aquitaine, where his two brothers, Richard and Geoffrey, resided with their mother, and with her connivance [plotting], brought them with him into France. Their father had granted Aquitaine to one and Brittany to the other. Hence the younger Henry believed, from the suggestions of the French, that the people of Aquitaine and Brittany would, because of Richard, support him as would the Bretons under Geoffrey. The younger Henry also allied himself to the count of Flanders—a man of great power and immoderate presumption [arrogance]. The younger Henry gained the count’s support by making great promises with the consent of the king of France {Louis Vil]. Then many powerful and noble persons— in England and in foreign parts—driven by hatred, which until then they had hidden, or persuaded by promises of the vainest kind, began by degrees to desert the father for the son, and to make every preparation for war. Source D David Harris Willson, a professor of history, writing in the acaclemic book A History of England (1972) Henry, it was said, could rule every household but his own. His sons grew up discontented and hostile towards him ... Henry was partly to blame. As a parent, he was indulgent yet controlling, giving his ‘sons titles but little money or power, he sent them to represent him in various parts of his dominions but expected them to be as obedient as paid officials ... The three older brothers, encouraged by their mother Eleanor, were eager to revolt against their father ... Louis Vil of France also encouraged Henry's sons to revolt. The great rebellion of 1173-1174, which included risings in England, Normandy, Brittany and Aquitaine, was managed—or, rather, mismanaged— by Louis. The widespread nature of the revolt made it dangerous. But Henry was supported by the Church, by his great officials, by the smaller tenants in the country, and by the towns. [Also,] his sons were too young to lead so extensive an enterprise, Louis was incompetent and there was little overall planning. Hence, the revolt was put down, as it had arisen, gradually. Louis was driven back to Paris, an invasion of England from Flanders was defeated and Eleanor was captured. Henry forgave his sons and increased their revenues. End of prescribed subject 1 Turn over-4- N18/3/HISTX/BP1/ENG/TZOMXXIT Prescribed subject 2: Conquest and pact Read sources E to H and answer questions 5 to 8. The sources and questions relate to case study 2: The conquest of Mexico and Peru (1519-1551) — Key events and actors: Francisco Pizarro and the campaign against the Incas; alliances with indigenous populations. Source E David Werlich, a professor of Latin American history, writing in the academic book Peru: A Short History (1978). Francisco Pizarro, a veteran conquistador of modest origins, landed in northem Peru with some 180 followers early in 1532. Pizarro led his men to the highland city of Cajamarca where Atahualpa was enjoying nearby mineral baths. Atahualpa’s armies could have defeated the small force of Europeans as they marched through the narrow mountain passes, but he could not comprehend that these few strangers posed a threat to his grand person. On November 16, 1532, Atahualpa accepted an invitation to dine with Pizarro in the city. Entering the central plaza with a retinue [escort] of 5,000 lightly armed men, Atahualpa was boldly attacked and captured by Pizarro and a team of 20 soldiers. While the all-powerful Inca ruler remained in the hands of the Europeans, his subordinates offered ittle resistance .. In July 1833, after receiving dubious information that a large Inca force was preparing to attack Cajamarca, the Spaniards accused Atahualpa of betraying them by ordering the assault and hastily executed him ... [Prior to his execution,] while a prisoner of the Europeans Atahualpa had ordered the ‘execution of his half-brother Huascar and other claimants to the Inca throne so that they could not profit from the monarch’ [Inca’s] distress. At the same time, Atahualpa’s armies continued to destroy many towns that had supported Huascar in the recent civil war. The Spaniards exploited this internal strife. Source F JH Parry, a professor of maritime and Latin American history, writing in the academic book The Age of Reconnaissance (1963). Pizarro’s arrival at Tumbez [Tumbes] on the northem coast of Peru coincided with the final stage of a succession war in which the reigning Inca, Huascar, was defeated and dethroned by his usurping half-brother Atahualpa, who chose as his capital not Cuzco but Cajamarca in northern Peru. Reports of this conflict encouraged Pizarro to march inland to Cajamarca. Here, by means of a surprise attack under cover of a formal conference, the Spaniards succeeded in Killing most of Atahualpa’s retinue [guard] and captured the ruler himself. Aided by surprise, by a favourable political situation, and with a breath-taking boldness that frightened the conquerors themselves, Pizarro and his men decided the fate of the Inca empire in a single afternoon. [Diego de] Almagro, with 200 men, arrived shortly afterwards The Inca forces, deprived of the authority of their ruler, were unable effectively to resist the conquerors’ march. With about 600 men, Cuzco was taken and sacked in November 1533,N18/3/HISTX/BP1/ENG/TZO/XX/T Source G Juan Lepiani, a Peruvian artist, depicts the events of 1532 in the painting The Capture of Atahualpa (c1922-1927). Pos aT aR Source H The Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, a writer born to an Inca princess and a Spanish conquistador, writing an account based on witness testimonies, published posthumously [after the author's death] as The Incas: The Royal Commentaries of the Inca Garcilaso de la Vega 1539-1616 (1617). There were those who said that the prisoner should be put to death without waiting any longer, in order to guarantee both their lives and their seizure of Peru. Others felt that it would be better to send Atahualpa to Spain, because they could not afford to kill so great a king, whatever his offences. The authors of the first proposal prevailed, and it was said that this was thanks to Almagro's followers, who considered that they would receive no share of the spoils of conquest as long as Atahuallpa lived. Finally, Pizarro decided to have Atahualpa put to death in order to be freed of the responsibilities that his captivity entailed, and also to resume his conquests without further obstacles. Atahualpa was tried for the death of Huascar, and it was also proven that he had wanted to massacre the Spaniards. Atahualpa denied everything to the very end, arguing that he would have been quite incapable of plotting, as they accused him of doing, in his prison cell. He was baptized, then garrotted [strangled], after which he was given a Christian burial, conducted with great ceremony. End of prescribed subject 2 Turn over-6- N18/3/HISTX/BP1/ENG/TZO/XX/T Prescribed subject 3: The move to global war Read sources | to L and answer questions 9 to 12. The sources and questions relate to case study 1 Japanese expansion in East Asia (1931-1941) — Responses: League of Nations and the Lytton Report. Source | The Lytton Report (4 September 1932). Without declaration of war, a large area of what was indisputably Chinese territory has been forcibly seized and occupied by the armed forces of Japan and has, in consequence of this operation, been separated from and declared independent of the rest of China. The steps by which this was accomplished are claimed by Japan to have been consistent with the obligations of the Covenant of the League of Nations, the Kellogg-Briand Pact and the Nine-Power Treaty of Washington, all of which were designed to prevent action of this kind ... The justification has been that all the military operations have been legitimate acts of self-defence, the right of which is implicit in all the muttlateral treaties mentioned above, and was not taken away by any of the resolutions of the Council of the League. Further, the administration which has been substituted for that of China in Manchuria is justified on the grounds that its establishment was the act of the local population, who spontaneously asserted their independence, severed all connection with China and established their own government. Such a genuine independence movement, itis claimed, is not prohibited by any international treaty or by any of the resolutions of the Council of the League of Nations. Source J Chokyuro Kadono, a leading Japanese businessman and commentator, who had significant interests in Manchuria and China, writing in the article “A Businessman's View of the Lytton Report” in the Japanese magazine Gaiko Jiho (November 1932). As has been officially declared by the Imperial Government more than once, Japan has no territorial ambitions in Manchuria. Japan has given formal recognition to Manchuria as an independent state [Manchukuo], assuring it full opportunity for growth and organization ... At the same time, Japan hopes thereby fo rescue Manchukuo from the destruction caused by China's internal disorders and give it opportunity to attain free development, so that it may be able to play its part in easing the world’s economic difficulty by offering a very safe and valuable market in the Far East. This aspect of Japan’s policy should have been quite clear to the Lytton Commission. But unfortunately, the Lytton Report makes an altogether inadequate estimate of Manchuria's economic value, and entirely fails to do justice to the previously mentioned motive of Japan in recognizing Manchukuo ... Japan is fully prepared, in view of the position she rightly occupies among the nations of the world, to do her best to support China in her work of unification and reconstruction to the end that peace may thereby be assured in the Far East. This aspect of Japan's policy should have been quite clear to the Lytton CommissionN18/S/HISTX/BP1/ENG/TZO/XX/T Source K Rydichi Tobe, a professor of the history of modern Japan, writing in the chapter “The Manchurian Incident to the Second Sino-Japanese War’ in the Japan—China Joint History Research Report (2011). The Guangdong [Kwantung] Army continued its advance into Chinese territory ... To serve as head of the new state, the Japanese took the deposed Chinese emperor Puyi out of Tianjin under cover of riots that the Japanese staged in the city and brought him to Manchuria. Japan's position that it acted in self-defence to protect its own interests thus began to lose credibility, and the League of Nations grew increasingly suspicious. On October 24 [1931], the League Council voted for the withdrawal of Japanese troops by a specific deadline, but Japan's opposition alone defeated the resolution. Finally, with Japan's agreement, the League Council decided on December 10 to send a commission to the scene to investigate, and deferred any decision unti the investigation was completed ... the [resulting] Lytton Report refused to recognize the Guangdong Army's actions following the Manchurian Incident as. legitimate self-defence, nor did it accept the claim that Manchukuo had been born from a spontaneous independence movement. Source L Bernard Partridge, a cartoonist, depicts the response of the League of Nations to the Manchurian crisis in the cartoon “The Command Courteous" for the British magazine Punch (12 October 1932). The wording on the woman's cap is “League of Nations’, on the newspaper, “Lytton Report”, on the dog, “Japan” and the bone, ‘Manchuria’. The caption is “League of Nations, ‘Good dog—drop it!”. THE COMMAND COURTEOUS. End of prescribed subject 3 Turn overNAS/S/HISTX/BP1/ENG/TZOIXX/T Prescribed subject 4: Rights and protest Read sources M to P and answer questions 13 to 16, The sources and questions relate to case study 1 Civil rights movement in the United States (1954-1965) — Protests and action: Non-violent protests; Montgomery bus boycott (1955-1956). Note: In sources M and P the word “negro” is used to reflect the place and time of the original material. Today, in many countries, the word is no longer in common usage. Source M “White Citizens’ Councils”, an online article from the Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute at Stanford University in the US. (date unknown), In 1954, white segregationists throughout the South had created White Citizens’ Councils (WCCs) Martin Luther King faced WCC attacks as soon as the Montgomery bus boycott began, and was a target of these groups throughout his career. In January 1956, a month after the start of the boycott, the mayor of Montgomery joined the WCC, publicly declaring “I think every right-minded person in Montgomery, Alabama and the South should do the same. We must make certain that negroes are not allowed to force their demands on us” By the next month WCC membership had doubled. The WCC attempted multiple strategies to stop the boycott, from prosecuting the boycott organizers to pressuring insurance agencies throughout the South to cancel policies for church-owned vehicles. King appealed to President Eisenhower to investigate violence carried out by WCC members against the boycott organizers whose homes were bombed The attorney general {the US government's chief lawyer] responded to King’s appeal, writing that "the activities of the White Citizens’ Council do not appear to indicate violations of federal criminal statutes.” Source N Laura Gray, an artist and member of the Socialist Workers’ Party, depicts the struggle for civil rights during the Montgomery bus boycott in the cartoon “Freedom is Rising in the South’ in the US magazine The Militant (26 March 1958). Freedom is Rising in the SouthNA18/S/HISTX/BP1/ENG/TZOIXX/T Source 0 Jamie Wilson, a professor of history, writing in the student reference book The Civil Rights Movement (2013). The boycott was an overwhelming success ... Ministers and activists formed the Montgomery Improvement Association to direct the protest, coordinate transportation for boycotters, garner [gain] support from individuals and organizations in and out of the state, and enter into negotiations with the bus company and city officials. Reverend Martin Luther King Jr was elected president of the organization ... His acceptance of the position was the beginning of his career as a civil rights leader The mayor and the city officials claimed that the separation of the races was ordained [ordered] by God and social custom, and white Montgomerians retaliated against the boycotters with harassment and violence .... When they were not taunted by white residents on their way to and from work, black boycotters were harassed by telephone ... Police officers stopped, fined, and arrested car pool drivers on trumped-up [invented] charges. The boycott ended after 381 days and was a key victory in the Civil Rights Movement. Local people, the educated and uneducated, the wealthy and the poor, demonstrated to people around the country, especially to those in other southern cities, that African Americans could organize themselves to abolish a system that had oppressed them for decades, Source P Robert Graetz's letter to the editor of the US current affairs magazine Time (22 December 1955). Dear Sir: | am writing this letter to you, because | have long been impressed with the fair and unbiased treatment you give in your news stories. There is a story in the making here in Montgomery. | am referring to the protest which negroes (and many whites) of Montgomery are making against the local bus company ... The local newspapers have consistently printed one-sided stories about developments in this protest. They have at times omitted [left out] relevant facts that would have put a much more favorable light on what the negroes are asking for. 1am a white Lutheran minister, serving a negro congregation. | cannot even give my own church members a ride in my car without fear of being stopped by the police and accused of running a taxi... Ifyou want a good look at the way a one-way press and a one-race police force band together to discredit fifty thousand people who are tired of being treated like animals on the city buses ... then | urge you to send a reporter to Montgomery as soon as possible. ... | respectfully request that the contents of this letter be kept confidential until such time as they have been verified [checked] by you. Sincerely yours, Robert Graetz End of prescribed subject 4 Tum over-10- N18/3/HISTX/BP1/ENG/TZO/XX/T Prescribed subject 5: Conflict and intervention Read sources Q to T and answer questions 17 to 20. The sources and questions relate to case study 1 Rwanda (1990-1998) — Causes of the conflict: Rwandan Civil War (1990-1993); assassination of Habyarimana and Ntaryamira (1994) Source Q Fergal Keane, an award-winning journalist working for the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), who reported from Rwanda in July 1994, writing in the book Season of Blood: Rwandan Journey (1996). Under huge intemational pressure Habyarimana signed the [Arusha Peace] accords ... Habyarimana was coming to terms—albeit unwillingly—with the reality: either share power or face war with the RPF [Rwandan Patriotic Front] and international isolation. The Arusha Peace Accords were to be his death warrant. The extremists and the men who had grown rich during the days of the one-party state were not about to see their privilege disappear ... It was time to install a more reliable man. On the evening of 6 April [1994], as Habyarimana was returning from a session of negotiations at Arusha, two missiles were fired at his jet as it landed at Kigali International Airport. The most likely explanation—one disputed by Hutu extremists and their French supporters—is that soldiers of the presidential guard based next to the airport fired the missiles. There is another theory that members of the French military or security services, or mercenaries in the pay of France, shot down the aircraft. Although no firm proof has been produced, there are senior figures in the Belgian security services who think the French may have wanted rid of Habyarimana, believing he was about to hand the country over to the RPF. Source R French soldier escorts a convoy of Europeans to the airport in Kigali for evacuation (12 April 1994),== N18/S/HISTXIBP1/ENG/TZOIXX/T Source S Timothy Longman, a professor of African Studies, writing in the essay “An overview of the Rwandan Genocide’, in the book for students Perspectives on Modern World History. The Rwandan Genocide (2010). The assassination of Habyarimana was the spark that set the plans for genocide in motion. Within hours ofthe crash, members of the presidential guard and ather elite troops—carrying hit lists composed of the names of persons perceived to be RPF sympathizers, including prominent Tutsi and Hutu opposition politicians and civil society activists—were spreading throughout the capital. On April 7 [1994], the presidential guard assassinated the Prime Minister Agathe Uwilingiyimana, a moderate Hutu, along with {en Belgian UN troops who had been guarding her. On the first day of the genocide, death squads also killed several cabinet ministers, justices of the constitutional court, journalists, human rights activists and progressive priests. For several days, the murderouss attacks took place primarily in Kigali and were focused on prominent individuals, both Hutu and Tutsi, perceived to be opponents of the regime. The international community at this initial stage of the genocide, construed the violence in Rwanda as an ethnic uprising, a spontaneous popular reaction to the death of the president. Source T Samantha Power, a professor of Practice of Global Leadership, writing in the academic book A problem from hell. America and the age of genocide (2007). Within hours of Habyarimana’s death, armed Hutu took command of the streets of Kigali. Dallaire quickly grasped that supporters of a Hutu-Tutsi peace process were being targeted ... Dallaire was especially concerned about Prime Minister Uwilingiyimana ... Just after dawn on April 7 [1994], five Ghanaian and ten Belgian peacekeepers arrived at her home ... Uwilingiyimana managed to slip with her family into another compound .... But the militiamen hunted them down .... Hutu gunmen in the presidential guard that day systematically tracked down and eliminated nearly all of Rwanda's moderate politicians ... In keeping with a prior plan, Hutu soldiers captured the peacekeepers at Uwilingiyimana’s home, took them to a military camp, led the Ghanaians to safety, and then killed and savagely mutilated the Belgians. A fever descended upon Rwanda. Lists of victims had been prepared ahead of time. That much was clear from the Radio Mille Collines broadcasts, which read the names, addresses and license plate numbers of Tutsi and moderate Hutu ... In response to the initial killings by the Hutu government, ‘Tutsi rebels of the Rwandan Patriotic Front, stationed in Kigali under the recent peace accord, surged out of their barracks, resuming their civil war against the Hutu regime. But, under the cover of that war, there were early and strong indications that systematic genocide was taking place. From 7 April onward, the Hutu-controlled army and militias worked together to wipe out Rwanda’s Tutsi End of prescribed subject 5