Engineering Geology 262 (2019) 105336

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Engineering Geology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enggeo

Sinkhole occurrence monitoring over shallow abandoned coal mines with T

satellite-based persistent scatterer interferometry
⁎
Agnieszka A. Malinowskaa, , Wojciech T. Witkowskia, Ryszard Hejmanowskia, Ling Changb,
Freek J. van Leijenc, Ramon F. Hanssenc
a
AGH University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Mining Surveying and Environmental Engineering, Department of Mining Areas Protection, Geoinformatics and
Mining Surveying, Al. A. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Krakow, Poland
b
University of Twente, ITC, Hengelosestraat 99, 7514 AE Enschede, the Netherlands
c
Delft University of Technology, Department of Geoscience and Remote Sensing, Stevinweg 1, 2628 CN Delft, the Netherlands

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Unexpectedly occurring sinkholes caused by shallow submerged voids are one of the key problems of intensively
Sinkholes built-up post-mining areas. Five percent of Poland’s territory is still under the influence of post-mining de-
Hazards formation. Impending sinkholes, which tend to develop randomly over very large areas, cannot be detected by
InSAR using traditional geophysical methods. Moreover, geodetic measurement methods like Global Positioning System
Early warning
(GPS) analyses, tachymetry, laser scanning, or photogrammetry may be useful only for the registration of the
dimensions and locations of sinkholes that have already occurred. Here, we investigate an area in Upper Silesia,
Poland, where 345 sinkholes were recorded over a period of more than 20 years (1992–2013). Most of the events
occurred in intensively built-up areas, and thus, these sinkholes posed a direct threat to the population. In the
test area, 11 sinkholes were detected with a maximum depth of 16 m and maximum dimension of 25 m. The root
cause of sinkhole formation was the collapse of post-mining shallow voids. We used satellite radar technology to
detect and monitor ground movements potentially associated with the impending sinkholes. The findings
showed that the application of Persistent Scatterer Interferometry can support the identification of zones where
sinkholes will occur, given adequate spatio-temporal sampling. A stack of Envisat Synthetic Aperture Radar
(SAR) images acquired between March 2003 and August 2010 was used in the analysis, and the results con-
firmed that precursory ground movements were detectable at an early stage of sinkhole development. The land
subsidence rate observed prior to sinkhole collapse was not constant in time. Accelerated ground movements
within 100 m of an observed sinkhole were detected. We conclude that satellite measurements may provide
significant support in the early identification of areas prone to sinkhole occurrence.

1. Introduction
Sinkholes, related to underground shallow mining, pose a sig-
nificant hazard in populated areas. Practically everywhere around the
world, many shallow mines have been abandoned without the im-
plementation of appropriate engineering measures to prevent undesired
post-mining effects as a consequence of hydrogeological and physical
dynamics(Jones and Blom, 2014; Kotyrba and Kortas, 2016; Zhou,
1997). Typically, to reduce post-mining risk, geodetic monitoring of
ground deformation is performed, such as by using leveling, Global
Positioning System (GPS) analyses, and tachymetry (Hejmanowski
et al., 2008; Muntean et al., 2016; Zhou et al., 2014). Such techniques
are limited, however, in that the measurements are time consuming.
Moreover, the area of measurement coverage is limited and the costs
remain high. Consequently, one typically needs to know in advance
where and when a sinkhole will form in order for these techniques to be
effective, which inherently contradicts the objective of a detection tool.
This necessitates a strong dependence on expert knowledge when
aiming for the prediction of potential sinkhole occurrence sites, e.g. in
relation to mining operations, susceptible geology, and land develop-
ment (Malinowska and Dziarek, 2014; Malinowska and Hejmanowski,
2016). For example, expert knowledge has been applied for sinkhole
evaluations in karst evaporate areas (Gutierrez et al., 2008). In order to
identify the areas prone to sinkhole formation, appropriate doc-
umentation is needed, e.g., maps, geophysical research data, geo-
graphic information system (GIS) analysis results, and hydrogeological

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: amalin@agh.edu.pl (A.A. Malinowska).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2019.105336
Received 8 December 2018; Received in revised form 10 October 2019; Accepted 11 October 2019
Available online 19 October 2019
0013-7952/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
A.A. Malinowska, et al. Engineering Geology 262 (2019) 105336

Fig. 1. Location of the area of interest including the observed sinkholes, which are indicated by yellow pins. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this
figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article).

Fig. 2. Sinkhole caused by an old shaft collapse at a playground in Sosnowiec (http://www.twojezaglebie.pl/zapadliska-juz-nam-nie-groza-wug-zinwentaryzowal-

wyrobiska-w-zaglebiu- jest-ich-prawie-700-72376).

Table 1
List of observed discontinuous deformations between 1992 and 2013 [Zie, 2015; Bol, 2015].
Type of deformation Size of deformation [m] Number of cases

Surface 72% Cover-collapse sinkholes 30% Small (diameter d < 3.0) 15% 52
Medium (diameter 3.0 < d < 6.0) 11% 38
Large (diameter d > 6.0) 4% 14
Cover- subsidence sinkholes 42% Small (diameter d < 3.0) 11% 38
Medium (diameter 3.0 < d < 6.0) 26% 90
Large (diameter d > 6.0) 5% 17
Linear 28% Earth fissures 28% Small (crack width w < 0.05) 20% 69
Total 100% 100% 100% 345

observations. Unfortunately, such a priori knowledge is generally not
available everywhere on Earth. For sinkhole-prone areas, the locations
of most sinkholes remain uncertain until they unveil themselves
through the process of sinkhole collapse (Galve et al., 2009).
Satellite Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry (InSAR) techni-
ques (Berardino et al., 2003; Bovenga et al., 2006; Ferretti et al., 2000,
2001; Hanssen, 2001; Jones and Blom, 2014; Wasowski and Bovenga,
2014; Yerro et al., 2014) can complement conventional geodetic tech-
niques in various applications. In the context of sinkhole detection and
monitoring, attractive features of multi-temporal InSAR are the capa-
city for frequent and systematic updates, millimeter-level precision in
detecting displacements, and relatively dense networks of points that
do not require pre-installed benchmarks. Lately, ex post facto studies
have shown that sinkhole collapse is preceded by small vertical

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A.A. Malinowska, et al. Engineering Geology 262 (2019) 105336

Fig. 3. Database structure developed in a geographic information system (GIS). The database contains information about mining, geological and hydrogeological
conditions, and registered sinkholes (Bol, 2015; Zie, 2015).

Fig. 4. Geological map of the study area. The registered sinkholes between 1992 and 2013 are marked with the red and pink diamond symbols (after CBDG, 2016;
Bol, 2015; Zie, 2015). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article).

deformations above the cavity location (Atzori et al., 2015; Baer et al.,
2002; Chang and Hanssen, 2014; Holley et al., 2016; Intrieri et al.,
2015; Kim et al., 2016; Muntean et al., 2016; Rucker et al., 2013;
Theron and Engelbrecht, 2018). Presently, satellite data availability
and accessibility are improving continuously. However, coherent InSAR
observations cannot be guaranteed a priori, and feasibility of use will
depend strongly on land cover and land use. In order to assess the
feasibility of using InSAR for sinkhole detection and monitoring in a
particular region, one needs to evaluate the density of coherent
scatterers on a case-by-case basis.
Here, we aim to explore this feasibility in an area in Poland by
performing a case study over one of the rare areas where an extensive
database of sinkholes spanning 21 years is available.
The paper is structured as follows. In Section 2, the area of interest
is characterized. The observed sinkholes and geological, hydrological,
and mining settings are described. The implemented methodology for
ground movement observations is introduced in Section 3. The results
of the observations of ground movements are correlated with the

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A.A. Malinowska, et al.
Fig. 5. Hydrological cross-section (after Wagner and Chmura, 2002).
development of sinkholes in the area of interest in Section 4. A proposal
for conducting a statistical analysis of the acceleration of surface dis-
placements as a function of distance from the sinkhole is also presented
in Part 4. Section 5 concludes the paper.
2. Geological setting
The area of interest is located in the Upper Silesian Region, in the
southern part of Poland, which has been an important mining region for
centuries. The investigation was conducted in the Holdunow area,
which is a district of Ledziny town and Laziska Gorne town (see Fig. 1).
The population of both towns is around 39,200 people (CSO, 2016).
Hard coal has been mined in the region since the 17th century, with
commercial mining starting around 1750. Currently, 30 underground
hard coal mines are operating in that region, and these produce around
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Engineering Geology 262 (2019) 105336
66 million tons of hard coal per year (CBDG, 2016). While the depth of
mining was less than 50 m at the beginning of the exploitation, the
currently productive hard coal seams are located more than 800 m
below the ground surface. Consequently, the old shallow mining works
(caves, drifts, shafts) impose a significant collapse hazard, and in par-
ticular, the densely built-up area in Upper Silesia is at risk. Every year
numerous sinkholes occur unexpectedly in urban areas (see e.g. Fig. 2)
(Bol, 2015; Zie, 2015).
2.1. Registered sinkholes
According to the Polish Geological and Mining Law, every mining-
related sinkhole has to be registered by the associated mining company,
and the dimension of a sinkhole has to be measured by a traditional
geodetic survey. In the area of interest, the following two types of
A.A. Malinowska, et al.
Fig. 6. Geological profile (after Jureczka et al., 2003).
Fig. 7. 3D map of the underground mine works, together with the tectonic faults.
surface sinkholes occur: cover-collapse and cover-subsidence sinkholes.
Cover-collapse sinkholes typically develop suddenly and may cause
significant damage to surface structures; these also may pose a risk to
people. Cover-subsidence sinkholes occur gradually and their damaging
impact to the surface is usually less severe (Reddish and Whittaker,
1989). A third type of deformation is known as earth fissures (see
Table 1). When a collapse or subsidence sinkhole occurs, its width and
depth is measured and registered in a database (Bol, 2015; Zie, 2015).
Furthermore, information about the potential cause of the sinkhole is
recorded. The mining company is also responsible for the reclamation
of the sinkhole and damage compensation. Years of mining operations
in the area, by the same mining operator, have contributed to a sub-
stantial database of sinkholes and a relatively good understanding of
the mining and geological conditions. This database contains the fol-
lowing four feature classes: (i) information about the observed sink-
holes, and characteristics of the (ii) geological, (iii) mining, and (iv)
hydrogeological conditions (see Fig. 3).
The first sinkhole was observed in the area of interest in 1992. After
that event, mining companies developed a systematic registration
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Engineering Geology 262 (2019) 105336
system for the sinkholes. For this study, the mining company provided
access to the records of sinkholes observed from 1992 to 2013. During
these 21 years around 70 sinkholes occurred in Ledziny, and around
275 sinkholes occurred in Laziska Gorne (Bol, 2015; Zie, 2015). The
majority of the sinkholes were classified as cover-collapse or cover-
subsidence sinkholes (Table 1).
The diameter of the sinkholes varied from 0.5 to 8 m. The majority
of the cases was classified as small or medium, and only9% of the
sinkholes was classified as a “large” with a diameter exceeding 6 m.
(Bol, 2015; Zie, 2015).
2.2. Geological, hydrological, and mining settings
The Ziemowit and Boleslaw Smialy underground coal mines are
located in the main part of the Upper Silesian Coal Basin (Rozkowski,
2003). In the area of interest there are four geological formations in-
cluding the Upper Carboniferous, Neogene, Middle Triassic, and Qua-
ternary (Wagner and Chmura, 2002). The shallowest Quaternary strata
consist of fine-grained sands, gravels, and conglomerates, with sandy
A.A. Malinowska, et al. Engineering Geology 262 (2019) 105336

Table 2 the Boleslaw Smialy coal mine, the water inflow reaches
Set of Envisat SAR images used in the investigation (time period 2003–2010) 23.5 × 103 m3/day (Bol, 2015; Zie, 2015). Consequently, the natural
The Perpendicular Baseline is given with respect to the so-called master image hydrogeological balance in the Carboniferous layer is disturbed. This
acquired at 2007/04/18. disturbance originates in a regional depression cone in the Carboni-
No. Dates (yyyy/mm/dd) Perpendicular baseline [m] ferous aquifer. As the result of the constant lowering of the water head
in the Carboniferous formations, pressure inside the aquifer has been
1 2003/03/05 −600
steadily decreasing. The reduction of pressure in this layer has led to its
2 2003/04/09 408
3 2003/10/01 154
compaction, which has resulted in very slow ground subsidence
4 2003/12/10 −281 (Hejmanowski et al., 2008; Loupasakis et al., 2014; Wolkersdorfer and
5 2004/01/14 465 Thiem, 2006). This observed subsidence, caused by aquifer compaction,
6 2004/04/28 −145 has not exceeded 1 cm/year (Zie, 2015). Another aspect of water in-
7 2004/08/11 30
filtration is its contribution to possible sinkholes and earth fissure oc-
8 2004/10/20 654
9 2005/02/02 −22 currence. The hydraulic contact between the Quaternary strata and the
10 2005/04/13 253 layers above may contribute to the transport of the grains from the
11 2005/07/27 617 upper to the lower layers. This process may cause mechanical suffosion,
12 2005/11/09 745
which increases especially during wet periods. Commercial mining has
13 2005/12/14 286
14 2006/06/07 −238
been active since 1940, where hard coal was primarily extracted at
15 2006/09/20 −816 shallow depths (50–60 m) (see Fig. 5). The underground coal mining
16 2006/10/25 −215 operations were carried out by taking into account the complex tectonic
17 2007/01/03 723 conditions. Due to the considerable fault offsets, the mining panels were
18 2007/02/07 −46
located in the spaces among the faults (see Fig. 7).
19 2007/04/18 0
20 2007/05/23 120 The mining activities took place over different depths, and the
21 2007/06/27 156 geometry of mining panels was complicated because of the numerous
22 2007/08/01 155 faults that increased tensions considerably, thus causing cracks in rock
23 2007/11/14 520 masses. The overburden, influenced by years of rock mass deformation,
24 2008/02/27 −104
25 2009/02/11 39
was cracked and weakened. This increased the susceptibility to water
26 2009/04/22 −16 infiltration through the rock masses. This complex geological and
27 2010/05/12 313 mining situation creates favorable conditions for sinkholes occurrence.
28 2010/06/16 435
29 2010/07/21 −86
3. Methodology
30 2010/08/25 82

Persistent Scatterer Interferometry (PSI) is an effective technique to

clays and clay intercalations. In the areas where sinkholes were ob-
served, sandstones and conglomerates prevail (see Fig. 4). Additionally,
the weak and porous Quaternary strata have been conducive to me-
chanical suffosion, while water infiltration has weakened the structure
of geological layers, thus leading to sinkhole formation.
Due to the hydrogeological conditions, sands and gravels foster a
hydraulic connection between the Quaternary strata and those lying
below (Neogene, Triassic, and Carboniferous layers) (see Fig. 5). This
may be influencing terrain subsidence related to aquifer dewatering
(CBDG, 2016; Wagner and Chmura, 2002).
Below the Neogene sediments there are mainly layers of clays with
sandstone inserts, sands, and gravels. The porous material in these
strata creates favorable conditions for water migration to the Middle
Triassic formation below (see Fig. 6). These Middle Triassic sediments,
which consist of limestone, marl, and dolomites, are significantly
eroded. Numerous cracks and vertical joints disrupt the continuity of
these layers, and this increases water inflow to the Carboniferous se-
diments located directly below these strata (see Figs. 5 and 6).
Carboniferous strata consist of mudstone and sandstone with nu-
merous coal seams or sandstone and conglomerates with claystone. The
thickness of coal seams varies from a few meters to 10–15 m. Aquifers
of the Carboniferous layers consist of sandstone and conglomerate
layers. The water infiltrates the aquifer through outcrops in the
Carboniferous layers and porous media in the Neogene, Triassic, and
Quaternary layers above (see Fig. 6) (Rozkowski, 2003; Wagner and
Chmura, 2002). Tectonic disturbances and cracks in the aquifers impose
unidirectional water migration from the surface to the Carboniferous
layers. This stratum is the most significant aquifer in the region. The
natural water migration is supported by artificial drainage, which oc-
curs as a result of water pumping, which in turn is the result of mineral
exploitation. The Ziemowit and Boleslaw Smialy underground mines
extract substantial amounts of water from this aquifer. For the Zie-
mowit coal mine, the water inflow reaches 41.7 × 103 m3/day, and for
measure the kinematic motion of objects on the Earth’s surface (Ferretti
et al., 2000, 2001). The technique is based on Synthetic Aperture Radar
(SAR) imagery, which is acquired by Earth-orbiting satellites. The sa-
tellites transmit radar signals to the Earth, which are reflected back to
the satellite. Both the strength of this reflection (i.e., amplitude) and the
state of the phase cycle of the received radar wave are recorded. In
cases where the reflection is consistent over time, i.e., the amplitude
values are rather stable over time and the noise level of the recorded
phase is consistently low, the kinematic motion—deformation time
series of the reflection points—can be estimated. These consistent re-
flection points are known as Persistent Scatterers (PS).
The spatial density of PS is extremely dependent on land cover and
the shape, size, and orientation of structures, which typically give
heterogeneous spatial sampling results, namely, data that are high in
built-up areas and low over more natural environments. The temporal
interferometric sampling is typically 6, 11, 12, or 24 days for the cur-
rently operational satellite missions, while a combination of sensors and
orbits can bring the actual revisit frequency down to a near-daily level.
The estimates in the PS deformation time series typically have a
precision on the order of millimeters. This high precision allows for the
detection of subtle motions of the ground, and potentially the early
detection of developing sinkholes. Satellite SAR acquisitions started in
1992, and currently there are 15 active SAR satellites in orbit. The
existing archive of data allows for the analysis of ground motion in
retrospective. By using the current satellite systems, continuous mon-
itoring is possible. Here, we performed an analysis based on historic
data to demonstrate the potential of the approach.
3.1. SAR data used
The study was carried out by using SAR data acquired between 2003
and 2010 over Ledziny, Poland, by the ENVISAT satellite. The 30
available images are listed in Table 2.
The effective spatial separation of the satellite orbits at the time of

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A.A. Malinowska, et al. Engineering Geology 262 (2019) 105336

Fig. 8. Location of sinkholes selected for the detailed analysis.

Table 3
List of basic information about sinkhole chosen for the detailed analysis [Zie, 2015].
ID Date of sinkhole occurrence Sinkhole dimension width [m] depth [m] area [m2] Other information Type of sinkhole

1/2005 2005-06-30 0.5 × 1.4 0.6 0.7 garden collapse sinkhole

1/2006 2006-03-28 0.6 × 1.0 0.4 0.6 road collapse sinkhole
2/2006 2006-08-16 2.0 × 0.9 1.4 1.8 between buildings collapse sinkhole
3/2006 2006-10-30 0.8 × 0.45 2.5 0.36 between buildings collapse sinkhole
1/2007 2007-11-06 0.6 × 1.0 0.6 0.6 on both sides of street collapse sinkhole
1/2008 2008-07-04 1.0 × 1.0 1.5 1 on both sides of street collapse sinkhole
2/2008 2008-12-05 0.7 × 0.5 2.0 0.35 garden, sidewalk subsidence sinkhole
5/2010 2010-05-17 0.5 × 1.5 2.0 0.75 backyard, 2.5 m from building collapse sinkhole
6/2010 2010-05-18 4.0 × 4.0 25.0 16 road and corner of fence subsidence sinkhole
7/2010 2010-05-22 0.5 × 2.0 1.0 1 car-park collapse sinkhole
8/2010 2010-05-30 3.0 × 2.0 2.0 6 Road collapse sinkhole

the acquisitions, the so-called perpendicular baseline, is given in the Ledziny where sinkholes occurred from 2003 to 2010. Fig. 8 indicates
table with respect to the reference/master SAR image (April 18, 2007). the location of 11 sinkholes. Two sinkholes were classified as cover-
subsidence sinkholes, while the others were of the cover-collapse type,
3.2. Observed sinkholes in the area of interest vs. SAR image availability as listed in Table 3.

By using the SAR data stack, we investigated the residential area of

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A.A. Malinowska, et al. Engineering Geology 262 (2019) 105336

Fig. 9. Set of selected PS points from descending Envisat acquisitions between 2003 and2010. Sinkholes that occurred during this period are indicated by the purple
diamonds. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article).

Fig. 10. Number of PS points within a circle with a radius in the vicinity of the collapsed sinkholes showing linear deformation rates between +5 and−15 mm/year
and a coherence > 0.55.

3.3. PSI processing
The standard PSI processing consists of two steps. First, an inter-
ferometric data stack is created, where interferograms are formed by
aligning all SAR images to a common grid and computing the phase
differences in space and time by using Doris software (Kampes, 1999;
Kampes et al., 2003). By using a digital elevation model obtained by the
Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) (Farr et al., 2007), the phase
contribution by the topography is computed and removed. The re-
maining differential phase is the sum of the residual topographic phase,

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A.A. Malinowska, et al.
Fig. 11. All registered sinkholes in the area of interest are marked with a diamond symbol (the two sinkholes that were analyzed are marked with a pink color). The
values of coherence of the images correspond to the size of PS points. The linear velocity of displacement is marked by colors ranging from blue to red. (For
interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article).
Fig. 12. The course of accelerating LOS displacements estimated by a second-
degree polynomial function; these data were observed before the sinkhole oc-
curred in that area (cf. Fig. 11).
possible errors in the orbit parameters of the satellite, atmospheric
signal delays, deformation of the surface, and scattering noise (Bamler
and Hartl, 1998; Hanssen, 2001).The second step is to detect coherent
scatterers (PS) for which the deformation time series can be estimated
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Engineering Geology 262 (2019) 105336
by using the Delft implementation of PSI (DePSI) software (Kampes,
2005; van Leijen, 2014). The effects of atmospheric signal delay and
orbital errors are estimated and removed by temporal and spatial filters.
Together with the deformation signal, the residual height of the parti-
cular PS is estimated, which allows for the geolocation of the PS, thus
aiding in the interpretation of the results with respect to localized
sinkhole phenomena. The quality of the estimated deformation time
series is indicated by the temporal coherence. This estimator describes
the goodness-of-fit of the deformation time series with respect to the
predefined deformation model used, which was a linear steady-state
model. An estimated coherence value of 1 corresponds to a perfect fit,
whereas a value of zero corresponds to a very poor fit.
4. Results
The DePSI results were analyzed to assess the feasibility of using PSI
for early warning signal detection preceding sinkhole formation. The
following two necessary conditions were assessed and evaluated: (i) the
detectability of sinkholes in terms of spatial PS coverage and (ii) the
detectability of anomalous temporal behavior in the PS time series. The
first condition was evaluated by using the density of PS with respect to
the sinkhole locations in this case study. If representative PS were found
in the vicinity of known sinkholes, we evaluated ex post facto whether
the associated PS time series showed a different temporal trend com-
pared to PS, which were further away from the sinkholes. For an early
warning system, ideally both conditions should be fulfilled, with suf-
ficient precision.
While single case studies will never be conclusive for making gen-
eric statements on the detection feasibility for sinkholes in other loca-
tions, we argue that building up empirical case study experience is
invaluable for making assessments on more generic situations.
A.A. Malinowska, et al. Engineering Geology 262 (2019) 105336

Fig. 13. The registered sinkholes in the area of interest are marked with diamond symbols. Two of these sinkholes, which are marked in pink, were the subject of the
detailed investigation. The values of coherence of the images correspond to the size of PS points. The linear velocity of displacement is marked by colors ranging from
blue to red. The areas of investigation were divided into buffer zones created around the investigated sinkholes. The radius of the buffer zones ranged from 50 to
300 m. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article).

Fig. 14. Time series for seven additional PS points at distances of 100 to 300 m from the zone prone to sinkhole occurrence. The linear velocity could have been due
to aquifer dewatering.

4.1. Detection of sinkhole locations in relation to spatial sampling
To assess the detectability of new sinkhole locations for this parti-
cular region, it will be unlikely to find a few PS exactly above the center
of a sinkhole that is still developing. We can only assume that the closer
that scatterer is to the sinkhole center, the more likely it is that the
scatterer may exhibit early deformational warning signs before the
collapse. Consequently, sufficient density of PS is a first necessary re-
quirement in relation to the potential detectability. As the density of PS
is inversely proportional to the desired level of quality, a selection of PS

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A.A. Malinowska, et al.
Fig. 15. The acceleration of the deformation process as the second derivative of the approximated time series function. For the PS points time series, a second-order
polynomial was used. Results are presented for the PS points with a coherence higher than 0.55 (34 PS points within a 300 m buffer). The acceleration of the
deformation process corresponds to the size of the PS points.
is made on quality. Here, a coherence threshold of 0.55 was applied.
The resulting linear deformation rates of the selected PS are visualized
in Fig. 9. These results show a heterogeneous point density with varying
deformation rates, of which a subset was anomalous relative to the
corresponding surroundings, even though not directly at the location of
already collapsed sinkholes. This was expected in this visualization, as
we did not expect rates that would be anomalous over the entire time
domain but ones showing typically changing behaviors over a short
period of time.
The selected PS locations were compared with the position of the
observed sinkholes. Around each of the 11 collapsed sinkholes, PS
points were found within circular buffer zones with a radius between 50
and 300 m (see Fig. 10). Within a radius of 100–150 m, the majority of
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Engineering Geology 262 (2019) 105336
Fig. 16. The acceleration of the deformation process as function of
distance to the sinkhole. The acceleration calculated from the
second derivative is marked with blue dots with an approximation
polynomial (green line) and a 95% confidence region (red). The
substantial range of acceleration ground movement is presented
by the dashed red line. (For interpretation of the references to
colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web
version of this article).
sinkholes had up to12 PS points surrounding them. Within a radius of
150 m, only 2 out of the 11 known sinkholes did not have a single PS in
their vicinity, while the others had on average 6 PS within their vici-
nity. Given the size of the collapsed area (see Table 3), sinkhole collapse
areas needed to be accompanied by a wider subsidence depression to be
detectable.
In the following, we will discuss the changes in the temporal be-
havior of the PS related to the collapsed sinkholes.
4.2. Analysis of ground deformation around sinkholes
Apart from sufficient point density, anomalous temporal behavior
could also be an indicator for potential future sinkhole locations. The
A.A. Malinowska, et al.
number of sinkholes in this database satisfying these conditions was
limited, which is why we focused on an area of 2 km2 where two
sinkholes occurred in 2007 and 2008. They occurred exactly in the
same place within an interval of one year (no. 1/2007 and 1/2008). We
studied the temporal behavior of five PS points within 100 m from these
sinkholes (see Fig. 11). The distances of the PS to the two sinkholes 1/
2007 and 1/2008 were 25, 50, 78, 80, and 85 m, and their coherence
values were 0.48, 0.56, 0.74, 0.52, and 0.65, respectively.
The PS deformation time series in the satellite line of sight (LOS)
direction between September 2003 and August 2010 are shown in
Fig. 12. While phase unwrapping cannot be completely conclusive for
such potentially fast pre- and post-sinkhole motions, the comparable
movement of the PS showed acceleration in the area around the sink-
holes. The acceleration of the ground movements started just before the
sinkhole collapsed and was affected by other sinkholes as well. Cu-
mulative accelerating LOS displacements of 38 to 57 mm were observed
for four PS (4784, 4655, 4656, 4357), while a fifth one (4639) subsided
linearly over 115 mm (LOS) over the same period. While the increase in
velocity before the sinkhole occurrences in 2007 and 2008 was rela-
tively small, the acceleration after 2008 may have been a precursor for
the sinkholes that followed after the satellite time series, as supported
by the 18 other sinkholes that occurred from 2011 until 2013 (see
Fig. 11).
In principle, there could have been a multitude of potential me-
chanisms driving the observed deformation, as demonstrated by the
differences in temporal behavior. Apart from rising cavities, aquifer
compaction is known to occur in the area. We investigated another
seven PS points in the area (see Fig. 13) at distances between100 and
300 m away from the zone prone to sinkhole occurrence. The additional
PS points were selected randomly from the points with a coherence
higher than 0.6 and linear velocity higher than −3 mm/year.
The movement of these points could be described with a linear
steady-state model, although data gaps in 2008 and 2009 increased the
risk of undetected accelerations due to unresolved phase ambiguities
(see Fig. 14). A potential explanation for the observed subsidence is
rock compaction in relation to water drainage. In the case of coal mines
with excessive water inflow, such as Ziemowit, surface subsidence is a
known consequence of water pumping. The slow linear character of the
ground movement is typical for subsidence originating from aquifer
compaction. The velocity of the points was constant and less than 1 cm/
year.
4.3. The potential for warning signals detection of sinkhole development
based on persistent scatterer interferometry
Based on the obtained results from Sections 4.1 and 4.2, both ac-
celerations (potential warning signals) and steady-state behavior (po-
tential false negative signals) were analyzed. The PS time series were
modeled by a second-order polynomial function, and the maximum
value of its second derivative was used to assess the acceleration. These
acceleration estimates are visualized for each PS in map view in Fig. 15
and as a function of distance tothe sinkhole in Fig. 16.Both figures show
a clear correlation between the acceleration estimates and the region
exhibiting a multitude of (future) sinkholes in 2011–2013.A maximum
acceleration value of −4.4 mm/y2 was observed, and the acceleration
substantially decreased in that region. Based on recognition of PS points
with high acceleration, the region prone to sinkhole occurrence was
identified.
Although the spatial density of PS was rather haphazard and in-
sufficient for drawing far-reaching generic conclusions, the combina-
tion with the increased acceleration rates seemed to match with the
occurrence of future sinkholes. Therefore, the results sustained the
hypothesis that early detection may be possible, and with the advent of
more high-resolution and/or frequent-repeat SAR missions, the PS
density will improve.
12
Engineering Geology 262 (2019) 105336
5. Conclusion
This study indicates that precursors of sinkhole formation may be
observable by using the Persistent Scatterer Interferometry (PSI) tech-
nique. For PS points within a radius of 100 m to the sinkhole center, an
acceleration of PS point movement can be indicative of a future sink-
hole collapse. Thus, the density of coherent points should be higher
than 1 point per 30,000 m2. Although this case study represents a rare
occasion where substantial information was available on sinkhole oc-
currence and characteristics, it is representative only for the specific
geological conditions of the region. Yet, the results should be con-
sidered as supportive evidence for the potential operational application
of PSI as a future sinkhole warning methodology. Future research into
the sinkhole occurrence phenomenon should focus on optimizing the
monitoring methodology and the use of new high-resolution and fre-
quent-repeat satellite missions.
Declaration of Competing Interest
None.
Acknowledgments
This research was financed by the National Science Center Poland,
Grant No. UMO-2014/15/B/ST10/04892.
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