[2022 Scheme] [Module-II] [Physics for Electronics Stream]

Module – II
Electrical Conductivity of Solids
Syllabus:
Conductors:
Quantum Free electron Theory of metals: Assumptions, Fermi energy-Fermi factors, variation
of Fermi factors with energy and temperature, Mention of expression for electrical conductivity
Dielectric Properties:
Polar and non-polar dielectrics, Types of Polarization, internal fields in solid, Clausius-
Mossotti equation (Derivation), solid, liquid, and gaseous dielectrics. Application of dielectrics
in transformers, Capacitors, Electrical Insulation. Numerical Problems.
Superconductivity:
Introduction to Superconductors, the Temperature dependence of resistivity, Meissner Effect,
Critical Current, Types of Super Conductors, the Temperature dependence of Critical field,
The BCS theory (Qualitative), High-Temperature superconductivity, SQUID, MAGLEV,
Numerical problems.
Pre requisites: Classical Free Electron Theory.
Self-learning: Dielectrics Basics

Conductors
Free–electron concept
Metal is made up of atoms and these atoms consist of valence electrons, which are
responsible for electrical conduction in the bulk state of the metal. For e.g.: A copper atom
consists of 29 electrons out of which 28 electrons are bound in the 3 shells forms the core and
one electron remaining in the fourth shell is the free valence electron. As a whole an atom is
neutral.
When a large number of copper atoms join to form a metal the boundaries of the
neighboring atoms slightly overlap on each other. Due to this, the valence electrons find
continuity from atom to atom and can move easily throughout the body of the metal, but are
restricted within the boundaries of the solid.

Since each atom contributes equal number of electron, there will be a very large number
of electrons which are free in a metal. Such electrons are called as free electrons and they

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account for the bulk properties of the metal such as electrical conductivity, thermal
conductivity etc. They are also called conduction electrons.

The disconnection of the valence electrons results in a virtual loss of a negative charge
for that atom so that it becomes a positive ion. The array of such ions forms a three-dimensional
structure called a lattice.

Under thermal equilibrium conditions, the free electrons in a solid are in a state of
1 2
random motion. At temperature T, they posess an average kinetic energy given by mvth =
2
3
kT
2

Where vth is the mean thermal velocity.

Basic Terminologies
1. Bound Electrons:
All the valence electrons in an isolated atom are bound to their parent nuclei are called as
bound electrons.

2. Free electrons:
Electrons which moves freely or randomly in all directions in the absence of external
field in a metal.

3. Drift Velocity
The average velocity acquired by the free electron in a particular direction in the
presence of electric field
4. Electric Field (E):
The electric field E of a conductor having uniform cross section is defined as the potential drop
(V) per unit length (L).
i.e., E = V/ L V/m

5. Current density (J): It is defined as the current per unit area of cross section of an imaginary
plane held normal to the direction of the flow of current in a current carrying conductor.

J = I/ A Am-2

6. Relaxation time (τr) The average time in which the drift velocity of an electron decays to
1/e times of its initial velocity is known as relaxation time (where e =2.71 ).It is of the order
10-14 sec

7. Mean Collision time (τ): The average time taken by electrons between two successive
collisions during their random motion is called mean collision time, it is denoted by τ

8. Mean free path (λ):The average distance traveled by electrons between two successive collisions
during their random motion is called mean free path, itis denoted by λ

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Expression for Drift Velocity:

𝑒𝐸
𝑣𝑑 = 𝑚
𝜏

EXPRESSION FOR CURRENT IN A CONDUCTOR

Current flowing through a conductor is given by

𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑 𝐴

A - area of cross section of a conductor,

n- number of free electrons per unit volume in the metal
I - current flowing through the conductor
e- is the charge of electron; vd - drift velocity of the electrons

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

The current density per unit electric field is called as electrical conductivity and
is given by

𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉
𝝈=
𝒎
n- the number of electrons/unit volume; e- charge of electron
τ- mean collision time or relaxation time; m – mass of the electrons

MOBILITY OF ELECTRONS
The mobility of electrons is defined as the magnitude of the drift velocity acquired
by the electrons in a unit electric field.
𝑣𝑑 𝑒𝜏
∴𝜇= =
𝐸 𝑚

RELATION BETWEEN CONDUCTIVITY AND MOBILITY

 = (ne2 τ /m)

 = (ne)(e τ /m)

 = ne

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QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY

In 1928, Arnold Sommerfeld succeeded in overcoming many of the drawbacks of the
classical free electron theory by using Pauli’s exclusion principle and is known as quantum
free electron theory.

The main assumptions of quantum free electron theory are

1. The energy values of the conduction electrons are quantized.
2. The distribution of electrons in the various allowed levels occurs as per Pauli’s
exclusion principle.
3. The electrons travel in a constant potential inside the metal but stay confined within its
boundaries.
4. The attraction between the electrons and the lattice ions and the repulsion between the
electrons are ignored.

Energy bands in solids

• The discrete energy level of an atom becomes bands during the formation of solid due
to mutual influence of constituent atoms
• Each band consists of a large number of energy levels which correspond to a range of
energy values.
• The bands are separated by certain gaps called forbidden bands or energy band gaps.
• The electron can occupy only those energy levels which lie within an energy band.
• Because of quantization rules there is a limit on the number of electrons which can fill
an energy band.
• If an energy band contains the maximum quota of electrons, it is said to be filled band
• An empty band or partially filled band provides energy levels to which electrons can
be energized from lower levels or bands.
• In every energy band diagram, there will be a band called valence band below which
all the bands are occupied and above which all the bands are empty.
• The empty band which is immediately above the valence is called conduction band.
• The gap between the valence band the conduction band is called the forbidden band
or energy gap.

FERMI ENERGY:
There are ‘N’ allowed energy levels for free electrons in a metal which are
separated by energy differences that are the characteristics of the material and are quantized.
As per Pauli’s exclusion principle, each allowed energy level can accommodate a maximum of
two electrons with opposite spin. The filling up of the electrons in the energy levels should be
undertaken from the lowest energy level. So, in each energy level there are two electrons one
with spin up and other with spin down. However there are still higher energy levels left vacant.

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“The energy of the highest occupied energy level at zero degree absolute
is called Fermi energy (EF) and the energy level is referred as Fermi level”

At absolute zero temperature i.e. when the metal is not under the influence of any
electrical field or thermal energy, no electrons will be present above the Fermi level. They are
completely empty and those levels below Fermi level are completely filled.

.
Fermi – Dirac statistics:
In a metal, there is large number of free electrons and each of them possesses an energy
corresponding to the energy state of the valence band. Under thermal equilibrium, the free
electrons acquire energy obeying the statistical rule known as Fermi – Dirac statistics. The
electrons are identical particles and indistinguishable particles. Fermi – Dirac statistics permit
the evaluation of the probability of finding electrons occupying energy levels in a certain
energy range. This evaluation is done through a function called the Fermi factor.

Fermi Factor:
At temperatures above absolute zero, the material will be receiving thermal
energy from the surroundings. So the electrons just below the Fermi level absorb the thermal
energy and will occupy the higher empty levels. The electrons occupying energy levels far
below the Fermi level cannot absorb this energy because there are no unoccupied higher
energy levels into which the electrons can come into, when their energies increase by small
amount.
Though such excitations seem to be random the resulting distribution of
electrons in various energy levels after excitation will be systematic. The distribution is
governed by a statistical function when the system is in thermal equilibrium (steady state).
The probability ‘f(E)’ that a given energy state with energy ‘E’is occupied at a
steady temperature is given by
𝟏
𝒇(𝑬) = 𝑬−𝑬𝑭
𝒆 𝒌𝑻 +𝟏
Here f(E) is called Fermi factor.

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“Fermi factor is defined as the probability of occupation of a given energy state

for a material in thermal equilibrium”.

Dependence of Fermi factor on temperature and effect on the occupancy of energy levels:
The probability ‘f(E)’ that a given energy state with energy ‘E’ is occupied at a
steady temperature is given by
𝟏
𝒇(𝑬) = 𝑬−𝑬𝑭
𝒆 𝒌𝑻 +𝟏

The different cases of distribution are as follows;

CASE1: Probability of occupation for E < EF at T = 0K

When T = 0K and E < EF, we have
1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = 𝑒 −∞+1 = 0+1 = 1

∴ f(E) = 1, for E < EF

It means that the energy level is certainly occupied and E < EF applies to all the energy levels
below ‘EF’.

CASE2: Probability of occupation for E > EF at T = 0K

When T = 0K and E < EF, we have
1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = 𝑒 +∞+1 = ∞+1 = 0

∴ f(E) = 0, for E > EF

∴ At T = 0K, all the energy levels above the Fermi level are unoccupied.
Thus, at T = 0K, the variation of f(E) for different energy values, becomes a step function as
shown in the figure below
CASE 3: Probability of occupation at ordinary temperature:
At ordinary temperatures f(E) remains 1 for E << EF, and starts decreasing from
1 as ‘E’ becomes closer to EF as sown in fig.
At E = EF we have,
1 1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = 𝑒 0+1 = 1+1 = 2

∴The value of f(E) becomes ½ at E = EF

Thus, Fermi energy is the most probable energy or the average energy of the electrons
which undergo transitions across the Fermi level at temperature above zero degree absolute.

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Expression for electrical resistivity and conductivity based on quantum free

electron theory
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜆
𝜎= ( )
𝑚 ∗ 𝑣𝐹
∗
Where, 𝑚 is the effective mass of electron, 𝜆 − 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠; 𝑣𝐹 − is
the Fermi velocity

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Dielectric Properties
Dielectrics
A dielectric is an electrically non-conducing material which provides electrical
insulation between two media (conductors) which are at different potentials, and also serves as
an electrical charge storage aid under certain circumstances.
E.g.: glass, porcelain, wood, rubber or waxed paper.

Electric dipole:
Electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite charges, +q and −q separated by a very small
distance
Examples of electric dipole: - Dipoles are common in nature. Molecules like 𝐻2 𝑂, HCl,
C𝐻3 COOH are electric dipoles and have permanent dipole moments.
Dipole moment:
A dipole moment is the product of the magnitude of the charge and the distance between
the centres of the positive and negative charges in a system. It is denoted by
µ = 𝑞𝑟

Units: C-m or Debye,

Polar and non-polar dielectric materials

Polar dielectric non-polar dielectric

In polar material, the effective centers of In non-polar materials, the effective center
the negative and positive charges in the of the negative charge distribution
molecules do not coincide with each other coincides with the effective center of the
even in the absence of any external field positive charges

Eg : 𝐻2 𝑂, HCl, CO Eg : 𝑂2, 𝐻2 , 𝑁2

Polarization in dielectrics
The Process of formation of dipoles or alignment of already existing dipoles on the

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application of an electric field on the dielectric material is called polarization.

(i) Polarization in the case of non-polar dielectric:

Consider a rectangular slab of a non-polar dielectric material. Let the slab be placed between
two electrodes A & B, between which a uniform electric field E is set up.
Under the influence of the electric field, the positive and negative charges of the various
molecules in it experience pulling forces in opposite directions. As a result, the effective centers
of positive and negative charges get separated till the restoring forces balance the forces due to
the applied field. Due to the separation between the two charge centers, each molecule develops
a dipole moment in the direction of the electric field. Such dipoles are produced throughout the
solid.

Now, inside the body of the dielectric slab, though the polarization charges appear in
every molecule, opposite charges in the neighboring molecules neutralize each other. This kind
of cancellation takes place throughout the body of the material since there are equal amount of
negative and positive charges. However, the charges which are at the end surfaces of the slab
do not find the opposite kind of charges for cancellation as is evident from the figure. Thus the
effect of the applied field is to cause the appearance of net opposing charges at the end faces
of the slab.
(ii) Case of polar dielectric:
In the case of a polar dielectric material, there are permanent dipoles oriented randomly.
Under the influence of the applied electric field, the molecular dipoles experience a torque
which tends to align their dipole moments along the direction of the field. This tendency is
opposed by the thermal agitation inside the material. Between these two opposing events, some
alignment is achieved under sufficiently strong fields. Once the alignment is established, the

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surface charges appear at the ends of the slab in a way similar to the case of non-polar dielectric
materials.
Types of polarization processes
There are three different mechanisms through which electrical polarization can occur in
dielectric materials when they are subjected to an external electric field. Accordingly there are
three main types of polarizations.
They are,
1) Electronic polarization,
2) Ionic polarization
3) Orientational polarization
1. Electronic polarization:
The electronic polarization occurs due to displacement of the positive and negative
charges in a dielectric material owing to the application of an external electric field. The
separation created between the charges leads to development of a dipole moment. This process
occurs throughout the material. Thus the material as a whole will be polarized.

The electronic polarizability, αe for a rare gas atom is given by,

𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 −1)
𝛼𝑒 = ; where N is the number of atoms/unit volume.
𝑁

2. Ionic Polarization:
Ionic polarization occurs only in those dielectric materials which possess ionic bonds
such as in NaCl. When ionic solids are subjected to an external electric field, the adjacent ions
of opposite sign undergo displacement. The displacement causes an increase or decrease in the
distance of separation between the atoms depending upon the location of the ion pair in the
lattice.

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This results in a net dipole moment due to the shifting of electron clouds relative to the nuclei.

3. Orientational Polarization:
Orientational polarization occurs in those dielectric materials which possess molecules
with permanent dipole moment (i.e., in polar dielectrics). The orientation of these molecules
will be random normally due to thermal agitation. Because of randomness in orientation, the
material has net zero dipole moment. But under the influence of an applied electric field, each
of the dipoles undergo rotation so as to reorient along the direction of the field because of
which, the overall cancellation of dipole moments due to randomness does not hold good any
more (Fig. 7). Thus the material itself develops electrical polarization.

The orientational polarization is strongly temperature dependent and decreases with increase
of temperature.
Internal field:
What is internal field? Write an expression for the internal field in case of solid and liquid
dielectrics?
"The internal field, or the local field, is the electric field that acts at the site of any given
atom of a solid or a liquid dielectric subjected to an external electric field. It is defined as “the
resultant of the applied field and the field due to all the surrounding dipoles".

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Consider a dielectric material either solid or liquid kept in an external uniform

electric field of strength E. In the material let us consider an array of equidistant atomic dipoles
arranged parallel to the direction of the field as shown in fig.

Let the interatomic distance be ‘d’ and dipole moment of each of atomic dipole be μ. Then the
internal field at the site of an atom is given by
1.2𝜇
𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸 + 𝜋𝜀 3
0𝑑

If αe is the electronic polarizability of the atoms, we can write,

𝜇 = 𝛼𝑒 𝐸𝑖
1.2𝛼𝑒 𝐸𝑖
Hence, 𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸 + 𝜋𝜀0 𝑑3

Or
𝐸
𝐸𝑖 =
1.2𝛼𝑒
1−
𝜋𝜀0 𝑑 3

In 3-dimensional cases, the general equation for internal field is expressed as,
𝛾𝑃
𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸 +
𝜀0
where, P is the dipole moment/unit volume for the material, and γ is the proportionality constant
called internal field constant.
In the 3-dimensional case, if it is cubic lattice, then it can be shown that γ = 1/3 in which event,
the internal field is named Lorentz field given by,

𝑃
𝐸𝐿𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑧 = 𝐸 +
3𝜀0
Above equation is known as Lorentz relation.
Clausius – Mossotti relation
Consider an elemental solid dielectric material of dielectric constant 𝜀𝑟
If N is the number of atoms/unit volume of the material, μ is the atomic dipole moment, then
we have,

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Dipole moment/unit volume = 𝑁𝜇 ---------------------- (1)

Here the field experienced by the atoms is the internal field Ei. Hence, if αe is the electronic
polarizability of the atoms, we can write the equation for μ as,
𝜇 = 𝛼𝑒 𝐸𝑖 ---- (2)
Therefore dipole moment/unit volume =𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸𝑖 --------------------------- (3)
But dipole moment/ unit volume is Polarization P
Therefore 𝑃 = 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸𝑖 -------------------- (4)
𝑃
Or 𝐸𝑖 = 𝑁𝛼 -------------------- (5)
𝑒

But 𝑃 = 𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 − 1)𝐸

𝑃
Or 𝐸=𝜀 ---------------- (6)
0 (𝜀𝑟 −1)

For 3-D lattice, internal field is given by

𝛾𝑃
𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸 +
𝜀0
Substituting for Ei and E from Eqs(5) and (6) we have
𝑃 𝑃 𝛾𝑃
=𝜀 (𝜀
+ ------------- (7)
𝑁𝛼𝑒 0 𝑟 −1) 𝜀0

Considering the internal field in the material to be Lorentz field, we have γ= 1/3
1 1 1
= +
𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 − 1) 3𝜀0
1 3+(𝜀𝑟 −1)
=
𝑁𝛼𝑒 3𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 −1)
3𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 +2
=
𝑁𝛼0 𝜀𝑟 −1

By rearranging we have,
𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝜀 −1
= 𝜀𝑟 +2 ------------ (8)
3𝜀0 𝑟

Solid, Liquid and Gaseous dielectrics

Dielectric materials are used in various electrical machines and appliances for their
trouble-free working and to enhance the life time and reliability of the devices. The dielectric
materials are broadly classified into solid, liquid and gaseous dielectrics.

i) Solid dielectrics:
Solid dielectric materials are available in a number of varieties and have number of
applications such as jacketing materials, Moulding materials and filling materials. Ceramics,
glass (toughened glass), fiber glass reinforced plastics and epoxy – resins are used as
mechanically rigid form of insulation (Moulding materials). Dielectrics such as polyethylene

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(PE), polyvinylchloride (PVC), natural and synthetic (ethylene propylene) rubber etc. are used
on the conductor in power cables as jacketing materials for insulations. Polyethylene and paper
are used in capacitors and transformers. Mica and fiberglass based polyethylene tapes are used
in electrical machines.
ii) Liquid dielectrics:
Liquid dielectrics perform a number of functions simultaneously such as
providing insulation between various parts carrying voltage, cooling action by convection of
heat generated during operation of an electrical device, filling of the voids or air gaps etc. These
are mainly used in transformers, switches, circuit breakers etc. Examples for liquid dielectrics
are silicon fluids, transformer oil, viscous vaseline, poly isobutylene, purified water, liquid
nitrogen etc.
iii) Gaseous dielectrics:
A dielectric gas is an insulating material in gaseous state which can prevent
electrical discharge. They act as good insulators and work well as heat transferring media.
By applying an electrical field, the dielectric gases can be polarized. The moisture content in
dielectric gases may alter their properties. Examples of dielectric gases are Ammonia, Air,
Carbon dioxide, sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), Carbon Monoxide, Nitrogen, hydrogen etc.
Generally, air provides insulation between the overhead transmission power lines and the
earth.

Application of Dielectrics
1. Transformers.
A transformer consists of two insulated conducting coils wound on an insulated core.
In case of high voltage transformers, further insulation is provided between the individual
windings of the coils and also between the core and the coils. This insulation is provided
by using mica, paper or cloth. To fill the air gaps paper used is impregnated with varnish
or wax.

In high voltage transformers, the ionization of the air in air gaps leads to excessive
heating which damages the insulation. This effect is known as corona. Mica is used to
guard against corona. In very high voltage transformers, a kind of mineral oil known as
transformer oil is used which helps not only in guarding against corona but also to keep
the transformer cool.

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2. Electrical Insulation
All dielectric materials are insulators as there are no free charges in them. Insulators
are mainly used in applications where the prevention of the flow of electric charges is
required. Electrical insulators are used mainly as parts of electrical equipment.
For example, the electrical wires which transfer electricity through households, are
covered with insulating material to prevent any safety hazards. The electrical plugs have
an insulated covering to prevent electricity flowing from the metal socket (conductor) to
your body (also a conductor) by stopping the flow of electrons. Polymers have been found
to be suitable insulating jackets to the conductors. Polyethylene (PE), polyvinylchloride
(PVC), natural and synthetic (ethylene propylene) rubber is used on the conductor in power
cables.

3. Dielectric in Capacitors:
The presence of a dielectric in the gap of a parallel-plate capacitor increases the total
capacitance. The equation that predicts this behaviour is
𝐶𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 = 𝑘𝐶𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐
The dielectric constant, k, is a property of the specific dielectric which indicates how
much the capacitance increases when a given dielectric is used.
The increase in the capacitance of the capacitor due to the dielectric is due to the
decrease in the electric field inside the capacitor by a factor of the dielectric constant. Due to
polarization of the dielectric an additional electric filed is created that points in the opposite
direction to the applied field, resulting in a reduction in the electric field between the plates of
the capacitor.
The capacitance of a capacitor is given by
𝑄
𝐶=
𝑉
When the filed between the plate decreases, voltage also decreases and hence the capacitance
increases.

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Important points:
1. Dielectric constant(𝜺𝒓 𝒐𝒓 𝑲): The ratio of permittivity of a medium to permittivity of free
space is known as dielectric constant.
2. Electric Dipole: Two equal and opposite charges separated by small distance constitutes an
electric dipole.
3. Dipole moment (µ): The product of magnitude of the charge (q) constituting the dipole and
distance (d) of separation between the charges is called dipole moment.
𝝁 = 𝒒𝒅 (Cm)
4. Polarization (P): The dipole moment acquired by a dielectric material per unit volume is
called polarization.
𝑃 = 𝜀0 𝜒𝐸 where 𝜒 is electric susceptibility of the material.

5. Relation between Polarization and dielectric constant:

𝑃 = 𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 − 1)𝐸 where E is the applied electric field.
6. Polarizability(𝜶):
It is defined as the dipole moment per unit electric field.
𝜇
𝛼=𝐸

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SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
The phenomenon of superconductivity was discovered by Kemerling Onnes in 1911,
when he was measuring the resistivity of mercury at low temperature. He observed that the
electrical resistivity of pure mercury drops to zero at 4.2K. The material has passed into a new
state called the superconducting state.
The materials that show this behavior of zero electrical resistance are called
superconductors. The temperature at which a material attain superconductivity is called
critical temperature ‘Tc’.
Superconductors have the ability to conduct electricity without the loss of energy.
Superconductivity is applied to many diverse areas such as medicine, theoretical and
experimental science, military, transportation, power production, electronics, and many other
areas. With the discovery of high-temperature superconductors, which can above liquid
nitrogen temperatures (77 K), superconductivity is now well within the reach of scientists.

Temperature Dependence of resistivity of Superconductors:

An increase in temperature of a material, will increase the thermal agitation of ions

about their mean positions, which reduces the mean free path of electrons and hence an increase
in its resistance. On the other hand, as the temperature decreases, the thermal agitation
decreases which reduces the resistance as shown in the figure. The resistance of a
superconductor in the non- superconducting state decreases with decrease in temperature up to
a particular temperature ‘Tc’. At ‘Tc’, the resistance abruptly drops to zero. Tc is called the
critical temperature and signifies the transition from the normal state to the superconducting
state of the material. The critical temperature is different for different superconductors.

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Effect of Magnetic Field on Superconductivity:

A sufficiently strong magnetic field can destroy superconductivity in a sample. The
field at which superconductivity is destroyed is called the critical magnetic field.

“The minimum magnetic field required to switch a material from its superconducting state to
its normal state is called critical field (Bc or Hc)”.

Bc depends on the material and temperature. The variation of the critical field Bc with
temperature is as shown below. At any temperature T>Tc, the material remains
superconducting until a corresponding critical field is applied. When the magnetic field exceeds
the critical value, the material goes into the normal state. The critical field decreases
progressively with increasing temperature. The dependence of critical field on temperature is
according to the relation
𝑇 2
𝐵𝑐 (𝑇) = 𝐵0 [1 − (𝑇 ) ]; Where 𝐵0 → critical field at 0K.
𝑐

Here Tc → the critical temperature or normal superconducting transition temperature in the

absence of the magnetic field.

Meissner Effect:
A superconductor will not allow a magnetic field to penetrate its interior when kept in
a magnetic field i.e., it expels the magnetic flux out of its body when it is cooled below the
critical temperature and thus becomes a perfect diamagnet.
" The phenomenon of expulsion of magnetic lines of force from the interior of a
superconductor when it is cooled below its critical temperature Tc in a magnetic field is called
Meissner Effect”. This means that the magnetic induction (B) is zero inside the
superconductor.

Thus, a superconductor is a perfect diamagnetic material. When the temperature of the

material is raised above Tc, the flux suddenly starts penetrating the specimen at T = Tc, as a
result of which the material returns to the normal start. Thus, Meissner Effect is reversible

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[2022 Scheme] [Module-II] [Physics for Electronics Stream]

Types of Superconductors:
Superconductors are divided into two classes depending on the way in which
the transition from superconducting state to normal state occurs when externally applied
magnetic field exceeds the critical field Bc. They are,
1. Type – I superconductors
2. Type – II superconductors

Type – I superconductors:
In Type- I superconductors, the transition from superconducting state into
normal state takes place abruptly at the critical field Bc. For magnetic fields B>Bc, the material
is a perfect diamagnetic and completely expels the magnetic lines of force from the interior.
The magnetic field inside the sample is 𝐵 = 0 = 𝐵𝑎 = 𝜇0 𝑀 where 𝐵𝑎 is the applied field and
M is the magnetization of the sample. In this state −𝜇0 𝑀 = 𝐵𝑎

In the superconducting state it completely expels the magnetic lines of force

from its interior. The magnetic moment grows in proportion to the external field and then

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[2022 Scheme] [Module-II] [Physics for Electronics Stream]

abruptly drops to zero at the critical field Bc. Such materials which abruptly change from
superconducting state to normal state at a single critical magnetic field are called type I-
superconductors. Very pure samples of lead, mercury and tin are examples of Type I
superconductors
Type – II Superconductors:
These superconductors are characterized by two critical magnetic fields
𝐵𝐶1 and 𝐵𝐶2. Up to 𝐵𝐶1the material is a perfect diamagnetic and expels the magnetic flux
completely from its interior (Meissner Effect). When applied field reaches the value 𝐵𝐶2, it
loses its superconductivity and becomes a normal material.

Between𝐵𝐶1 and𝐵𝐶2, the sample is in a mixed or vortex state having both

properties of normal conductor and a superconductor. In this state the sample continues to
exhibit zero resistivity but allows the magnetic flux in regular array of flux tubes each carrying
ℎ
a flux quantum 𝜑0 = 2𝑒. These superconductors have negative magnetic moment which varies
with the applied magnetic field. Magnetic moment increases with magnetic field up to 𝐵𝐶1,
then decreases and vanishes completely at 𝐵𝐶2. Materials which exhibit Meissner state below
a critical field 𝐵𝐶1 , a mixed state between the critical fields 𝐵𝐶1and 𝐵𝐶2, a normal state above
𝐵𝐶2 are called Type– II superconductors. Alloys of Niobium, silicon and ceramic
superconductors, YBa2Cu3O7 (YBCO) and Bi2CaSr2Cu2O9 are Type – II superconductors.

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[2022 Scheme] [Module-II] [Physics for Electronics Stream]

BCS Theory: (Bardeen, Cooper, Schrieffer Theory):

The basic features of the theory are

1. Electron – lattice interaction

2. Formation of electron pair bound state known as cooper pair state
3. Normal metallic state with free single electron becoming unstable

During the flow of current in a superconductor, when an electron comes near a positive
ion core of the lattice, it experiences an attractive force. As a result, the ion core gets
displaced/distorted towards the electron creating a region of enhanced positive charge. This
region attracts another nearby electron, which reduces the energy of the electron. This is
equivalent to an attractive force between two electrons through the lattice. The attractive force
is showed to be maximum if the two electrons have equal and opposite spins and momentum.
Such electrons are weakly bound together forming a pair called Cooper pair.

Cooper pair is a bound pair of electrons formed by the interaction between the
electrons with opposite spin and momenta in a phonon field.

A wave function could be associated with a cooper pair which extends over a large
volume with finite value for its amplitude. As a result, the wave functions associated with
similar cooper pair starts overlapping. This leads to a union of vast number of cooper pairs in
which, motion of one is aided by the other. The binding energy of electrons in a cooper pair is
high enough to prevent the pair from being separated by scattering. Hence cooper pairs
propagate through the material without resistance or conductivity becomes infinity.

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[2022 Scheme] [Module-II] [Physics for Electronics Stream]

Applications:
1. Maglev Vehicles:
Magnetically levitated vehicles are called Maglev Vehicles. The magnetic
levitation is based on Meissner effect. The vehicle is set afloat above a guide way and
hence friction is completely eliminated. Thus, great speeds could be achieved with very
low energy consumption.

The vehicle consists of a superconducting magnet built into its base. There is an
aluminium guide way over which the vehicle will be set to float by magnetic levitation.
The magnetic levitation is brought about by enormous repulsion between two highly
powerful magnetic fields. One is produced by the superconducting magnet and the other
one by the electric current in the aluminium guide way. The currents in the guide way
not only produce the necessary magnetic field to levitate the vehicle, but also help in
propelling the vehicle forward. Because of less friction, a maglev vehicle can move
with a speed more than 400km/hr.

2. SQUID:
SQUID is the acronym for "Superconducting Quantum Interference
device".
The SQUID consists of two Josephson junctions arranged in a superconducting
ring[𝑓𝑖𝑔(𝑎)]. A current applied to the SQUID, divides between the junctions. The
cooper pairs constituting super current, tunnel through the junction. A magnetic field is
applied to the ring. It changes the quantum mechanical phase difference across each of
the junctions. These phase changes affect critical current (maximum current through
the junction) of the SQUID.

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[2022 Scheme] [Module-II] [Physics for Electronics Stream]

A progressive increase or decrease in the magnetic field causes the critical

current to oscillate between a maximum value and a minimum value[𝑓𝑖𝑔(𝑏)]. The
maximum occurs when the flux administered to the SQUID is equal to zero or an
integral number of flux quanta. It is minimum for half integral number of flux quanta.

The net current through the SQUID due to the interference of the currents from the two
junctions is given by
𝟐𝝅𝒆𝜱 𝒉
𝑰 = 𝑰𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( ), where 𝚽 = 𝐧𝚽𝟎 , 𝜱𝟎 =
𝒉 𝟐𝒆

A change in the flux threading the ring manifests itself in a change in the
current and hence in the voltage across the device (fig(c)). This change in voltage
can be measured to high precision. The accurately measured change in voltage
can be translated into a measurement in change of flux to an accuracy of 10-15T.

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[2022 Scheme] [Module-II] [Physics for Electronics Stream]

High – Temperature Superconductors:

Materials are found to become superconductors when they are cooled to very
low temperature of about 15K or less. These low transition temperature
superconductors have very limited applications. In 1986, a class of new compounds
where discovered which shows superconductivity at 30K. This was followed by a group
of materials which lost their resistivity at high temperature above 77K, which is the
boiling point of nitrogen. The materials which have a transition temperature above
77K are called high – temperature superconductors.
The new superconductors are all of Type - II and have high Bc2 values and are
different types of oxides of copper and bear a particular type of crystal structure called
Perovskite crystal structure. These are ceramic materials consisting of layers of oxide
sandwiched between layers of the other metal oxides. Such complex structure is made
up of one atom of rare earth metal, 2 barium atoms, 3 copper atoms and 7 oxygen atoms
and is called 1-2-3 superconductors. These are brittle and difficult to make into wires,
cannot carry high current and tend to be unstable over long periods. These difficulties
prevented the wide use of new superconductors. The use of liquid nitrogen for reducing
temperature of the material has reduced the of cooling enormously.

Distinguish between Type-1 and Type-2 superconductors

Type-1 superconductor
• They are also called as Soft Superconductor.
• Their critical field and transition temperature are low.
• They exhibit complete Meissner’s.
• The change of state from normal to superconductivity and vice-versa is abrupt.
• Examples: Zn, Pb, Hg, Al, In, etc.
Type-2 superconductor
• They are also called as Hard Superconductor or non-ideal superconductor.
• They exhibit incomplete Meissner’s effect.
• Their critical field and transition temperature are high.
• The change of state from normal to superconductivity and vice-versa is
gradual.
• This superconductor exhibits incomplete Meissner’s effect in the vortex
region.
• Examples: Nb3Al, NbTi, etc.

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[2022 Scheme] [Module-II] [Physics for Electronics Stream]

Problems
1. Calculate the probability of an electron occupying an energy level 0.04 eV
above the Fermi level at 400 K in a material.
Solution:
Given, T = 400K,
To find f(E) = ?
Above the Fermi Level, 𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 = 0.04𝑒𝑉
We have
1
f (E) = E − EF

e kT
+1
1
𝑓(𝐸) = 0.04×1.6×10−19
1+ 𝑒 1.38×10−23 ×400

𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟖

2. Calculate the Fermi velocity and mean free path for conduction electrons in
Al, given that its Fermi energy is 11.63 eV and relaxation time for free
electrons is 7.3 × 10−15 𝑠.
Solution:
Given: 𝐸𝐹 = 11.63 𝑒𝑉, 𝜏 = 7.3 × 10−15 𝑠
To find; 𝑣𝐹 =? 𝜆𝐹 =?
We have
𝑚𝑣𝐹2
𝐸𝐹 =
2

2𝐸𝐹
𝑣𝐹 = √ 𝑚

2 × 11.63 × 1.6 × 10−19

𝑣𝐹 = √
9.1 × 10−31
𝟐. 𝟎𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎/𝒔

3. Find the temperature at which there is 1% probability that a state with energy
0.5 eV above Fermi energy is occupied.
Solution:
1
Given: f(E) = 1% = 100
Above the Fermi Level, 𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 = 0.5 𝑒𝑉
To find, T =?
We have
1
f (E) = E − EF

e kT
+1
1 1
= 0.5×1.6×10−19
100
1 + 𝑒 1.38×10−23 ×𝑇
𝑻 = 𝟏𝟐𝟔𝟏 𝑲

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[2022 Scheme] [Module-II] [Physics for Electronics Stream]

4. A superconducting tin has a critical temperature of 3.7 K at zero magnetic

field and a critical field of 0.0306 T at 0 K. Find the critical field at 2 K.
Given:
𝑇𝑐 = 3.7 𝐾; 𝐵0 = 0.0306 𝑇 𝑎𝑡 0𝐾
𝐵𝑐 (𝑇) =? 𝑎𝑡 𝑇 = 2𝐾
We have
𝑇 2
𝐵𝑐 (𝑇) = 𝐵0 [1 − ( ) ]
𝑇𝑐
2 2
= 0.0306 [1 − ( ) ]
3.7
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟔 𝑻

5. Critical magnetic field of Niobium is 105 𝐴/𝑚 at 8K and 2 × 105 𝐴/𝑚 at 0 K.

Calculate the critical temperature of Niobium.
Given:
𝐵𝑐 (𝑇) = 105 𝐴/𝑚 at T = 8K, 𝐵0 = 2 × 105 A/m at 0K. 𝑇𝑐 =? 𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒
We have
𝑇 2
𝐵𝑐 (𝑇) = 𝐵0 [1 − ( ) ]
𝑇𝑐
5 5
8 2
10 = 2 × 10 [1 − ( ) ]
𝑇𝑐
𝑻𝒄 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟑𝟏 𝑲

6. The Electronic polarizability of Krypton gas is 3.54 × 10−40 𝐹𝑚2 . If the gas
1025 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
contains 2.7 × at NTP calculate the dielectric constant of Krypton.
𝑚3
Solution:
Given:
Electronic polarizability 𝛼𝑒 = 3.54 × 10−40 𝐹𝑚2
Number of atoms per unit volume, 𝑁 = 2.7 × 1025 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠/𝑚3
Dielectric constant, 𝜀𝑟 = 𝐾=?
We have
 ( − 1)
e = 0 r
N
Substituting the given values,
8.854×10−12 (𝜀𝑟 −1)
3.54 × 10−40 = 2.7×1025
Simplifying, we get
𝛆𝐫 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟎𝟖

7. An elemental solid dielectric material has polarizability 7 × 10−40 𝐹𝑚2.

Assuming the internal field to be Lorentz field, calculate the dielectric
constant for the material if the material has 3 × 1028 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠/𝑚3.
Solution:
Electronic polarizability 𝛼𝑒 = 7 × 10−40 𝐹𝑚2

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[2022 Scheme] [Module-II] [Physics for Electronics Stream]

Number of atoms per unit volume, 𝑁 = 3 × 1028 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠/𝑚3

Dielectric constant, 𝜀𝑟 =?
Since, the internal field is Lorentz field we can apply Clausius - Mossotti
equation given by
N e  r − 1
=
3 0 r + 2
3×1028 ×7×10−40 𝜀 −1
= 𝜀𝑟 +2
3×8.854×10−12 𝑟
𝜺𝒓 =12.33

8. Find the polarization produced in a dielectric medium of relative permittivity

15 in the presence of an electric field of 500 V/m.
Solution:
Given:
Relative permittivity = Dielectric constant, 𝜀𝑟 =15
Electric field, E = 500 V/m
Polarization, P = ?
We have,
P =  0 ( r − 1)E
Substituting we get,
𝑃 = 8.854 × 10−12 × (15 − 1)500

P= 𝟔. 𝟏𝟗𝟕𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝑪/𝒎−𝟐

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