Simpson’s Rule Formula

Simpson’s rule methods are more accurate than the other numerical
approximations and its formula for n+1 equally spaced subdivision is given by:
b

∫ f (x )dx ≈ S n= Δ3x [f (x 0 )+ 4 f (x 1)+2 f (x 2)+4 f (x 3 )+…+2 f ( x n−2)+4 f ( x n−1 )+ f (x n )]

a

Where n is the even number, △x = (b – a)/n and xi = a + i△x

If we have f(x) = y, which is equally spaced between [a, b] and if a = x0, x1 = x0 +

h, x2 = x0 + 2h …., xn = x0 + nh, where h is the difference between the terms. Or we
can say that y0 = f(x0), y1 = f(x1), y2 = f(x2),……,yn = f(xn) are the analogous values
of y with each value of x.

Simpson’s 1/3 Rule

Simpson’s 1/3rd rule is an extension of the trapezoidal rule in which a second-
order polynomial approximates the integrand. Simpson's rule can be derived in the
various ways using Newton’s divided difference polynomial, Lagrange
polynomial, and the method of coefficients. Simpson’s 1/3 rule is defined by:
a

∫ f ( x ) dx= h3 [ ( y 0 + y n ) + 4(¿ y 1+ y 3 + y 5 + …+ y n−1)+2( y 2 + y 4 + y 6 +…+ y n−2 )]¿

b

This rule is known as Simpson’s One-third rule.

Simpson’s 3/8 Rule

Another method of numerical integration is called “Simpson’s 3/8 rule”. It is
completely based on the cubic interpolation rather than the quadratic interpolation.
Simpson’s 3/8 or three-eight rule is given by:
a

∫ f ( x ) dx= 38h [ ( y 0 + y n ) +3(¿ y 1+ y 2 + y 4+ y 5 …+ y n−1)+2( y 3 + y 5 + y 7 + y 9+ …+ y n−2)]¿

b

This rule is more accurate than the standard method, as it uses one more functional
value. For the 3/8 rule, the composite Simpson’s 3/8 rule also exists which is
similar to the generalized form. The 3/8 rule is known as Simpson’s second rule of
integration.
HAVERSINE FORMULA

The Haversine formula calculates the shortest distance between two points on a
sphere using their latitudes and longitudes measured along the surface. It is
important for use in navigation. The haversine can be expressed in trigonometric
function as:
2 θ
have r sine ( θ )=sin ( )
2
d
The haversine of the central angle (which is r ) is calculated by the following
formula:

( dr )=have r sine (Φ +Φ )+ cos (Φ ) cos ( Φ ) haversine (λ −λ )

2 1 1 2 2 1

where r is the radius of the earth(6371 km), d is the distance between two points,
Φ 2 , Φ1 is the latitude of the two points, and λ 1 , λ2 is the longitude of the two
points respectively.
Solving d by applying the inverse haversine or by using the inverse sine function,
we get:

d=rhav ( h )=2 rsin ¿)

−1 −1

Or
−1
d=2rsin ¿