Test 5 1 | 216 Tue Five-Srven Suet All major theories of child psychology state that children undergo a major change between the ages of five and seven. In classical learning theory, this isa time when the simplest forms of learning give way to learning that involves mote complex mental processes. According to psychologist Jean Piaget, the period from five to seven years old is a transition to operational thought, when children are able to move beyond using only their senses toward using a new set of rational-thinking skills. Because several cognitive changes occur in children between ages five and seven, this period is called the five-seven shift. The shift is biological in nature and involves fundamental growth in the brain and. stabilization of brainwave rhythms into a basically adult pattern, The five-seven shift involves many physical changes, such as the loss of the “baby teeth’” and an inerease in the rates of height acquired and weight gained. By the time they are five years old, children can understand and use symbols. They have developed the ability to use words, gestures, and pictures to stand for “real life” objects, and they are skilled in deploying various symbol systems, such as language or drawing. However, a five-vear-old child is able to focus attention on only one quality of an object ata time, such as the object’s size or shape. The use of symbolization continues to evolve, reaching a peak around the age of seven or eight, when children become capable of concrete operations. When this happens, they can solve problems by using rational thought to make generalizations from their own experience. By the age of seven or eight, a new set of abilities allows children to reason systematically about the world of objects, quantity, time, space, and causality. According to Piaget, this is because an “extra card” is added to the child's mental “computer” during the five-seven shift. The development of operational thought enables the child to appreciate the relations arnong a series uP actions upon objects. For example, the child understands that a scene can be viewed from a different perspective and still contain the same elements. The child also understands that objects can be rearranged and still have the same quantity and that a substance can be changed in shape without rts mass or volume being affected. Piaget discovered the most widely known hallmark of the five-seven shift, an understanding of conservation, the idea that some properties stay the same despite changes in appearance. In one of Piaget’s classic experiments on the conservation of quantity, the experimenter shows children of different ages two straight rows of coins, each with six coins pressed close together, beside each other on a table. The experimenter asks each child subject whether both rows have the same number of coins or whether one row has ‘more. Then the experimenter spreads out the coins of one row to make the Hine look longer. ‘The child must now say whether one row has more coins. Children younger than five years ‘old cannot understand conservation, so they invariably say that the spread-out row has ‘more coins than the other row. Like most age related tasks for children, there are other ways to set up the task. In a similar experiment, water is poured into two identical glasses until the child subject agrees that each contains an equal amount. Then the experimenter pours water from one of these glasses into a tall, hin. glass. AC at point, the child is asked whether vue glass Imes msvie water than the other. Five-year-old children will say that there is more water in the tall, thin glass. When asked why they think that, many will confidently say, “Because its taller.” Older chuldren, however, ate likely to reply, “It 10oks like there's more water in this one because it’s taller, but they're really the same.” Such experiments show a difference between children of five years and children of eight years, The older children can solve the task promptly, easily, under a wide variety of conditions, and without being taught ‘The younger children, even if they are taught about conservation, cannot do what the five-seven shift will do for them naturally: provide them with a more developed brain. ES eee aSGlossary: cognitive: relating to mental processes 39. According to the passage, children between the ages of five and seven typically exper all of the following EXCEPT development of rational thinking => an interest in morality and rules important changes in the braine= an ineroana ia the physical growth rato GP 40, What can be inferred from paragraph 1 about cognitive development during the five-seven shit? @® Mis atime when children start learning in very simple ways. @® tis the most important period in the child's formal education, © Iisa topic of disagreement among child psychologists. It is related to biological developments in the child’s brain. 41. Why does the author mention words, gestures, and pictures in paragraph 27 ® To list things that are used in experiments with children © To give examples of symbols that children can understand © To compare different ways of illustrating a child's experience © Toillustrate the concept of conservation of quantity 42. The word peak in paragraph 2 is closest in ‘meaning to large vocabulary igh point sudden reversal 43, According to the passage, a child who is capable of concrete operations can ‘@® perform tasks that may confuse an adult Ce) install an extra card on a computer © make two rows of coins look the same reason systematically about quantity and space Test 5 44, The word hallmark in paragraph 4 is closest in meaning to characteristic problem ) disadvantage experiment 43, The word each in paragraph 4 refers to @® experiment CB) child Sg age 46. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 4” Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information © fore the uge of five, children think the a line has more coins because they are incapable of understanding conservation. @ Five-year-old children do uot understand the value of money, so they do not care if ‘one line of coins is longer than another. ® Devause of the five-seven shift, children can understand why the longer row of coins is a better example of conservation. ® Even if two tows of coins are different in length, very young children will say that both rows have the same number of coins. 47. In paragraph 5, the author describes an experiment in which water is poured into various glasses in order to ® show now children approach ditticult problems ® recommend an experiment that’éan be done at home © D sive a variation on a classic experiment by Piaget ® suggest an activity for parents and children 27 peelTest 5 48, What can be inferred about children who casily solve the water task described in paragraph 5? ()) They have already experienced the five-seven sh G@) They were taught about the concept of conservation. CE) They had time to practice the task before the experiment. @) They are more intelligent than others of the same age. 49. Look at the four squares, EJ, El, Gl, and [i], which indicate where the following sentence could bbe added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? For instance, when sand is poured back and forth between containers of different sizes and shapes, the quantity of sand does not change. Piaget discovered the most widely known hallmark of the five-seven shift, an under ‘of conservation, the idea that some properties stay the same despite changes in appeara In one of Piaget’ classic experiments on the conservation of quantity, the experimenter sh childron of different ages twa straight raws of eains, each with six coins pressed close together, beside each other on a table. E] The experimenter asks each child subject whether both rows have the same number of coins or whether one row has more, Then the experimenter spreads out the coins of one row 10 make the line Look longer. J The child must now say whether one row hhae more coins. Children younger than five years old cannot understand conservation, so they invariably say that the spread-out row has more coins than the other row. 218Test 5 50, Select the appropriate sentences from the answer choices and match them to the periad before or after the five-seven shift. TWO of the answer ch NOT be used. This question is worth 3 points. Answer Choices Refore the Five-Seven Shift & @ The child's brain waves have rhythms similar le toi ewe @ The child's cognitive development cannot be IG measured scientifically. 4 © The child learns in simple ways and can focus ‘on only one quality a atime, % @® The child knows that the quantity stays the After the x ain Shift same when objects are rearranged. @® Tho child eannot distinguish betwen right Pasta wot X- @ The child can quickly solve problems involving conservation, Fe @® The child is not able to understand the J conservation of quantity. omie=ii Sw Pracnce Tests FoR THE IBT 219Test 5 220 ‘Som QuALITY Soil is a renewable resource, but only on a very lang time ceale, as it takes hundreds or thousands of years for the natural processes of erosion, organic deeay, and accumulation to create soils, Soil quality and the potential to produce crops can vary enormously from region to region and among various soil types. One important factor affecting the productivity of soils over time is agriculture. Top: quality lands are brought into production earlier because of their higher potential to produce food. As more and more land has been brought under agricultural production, the average quality of land has deereased, reducing potential productivity per hectare. Crops deplete soil fertility by consuming nutrients, and this eventually reduces crop yields. Poor management practices lead to soil compaction and soil pollution as well as loss of soil ‘cover. Without proper management and the constant addition of nutrients and energy in the form of fertilizers and irrigation, crop production falls over time. Within the scientific community, there is little doubt that soil quality is diminishing in many areas around the world, Scientists have found that the quality of onc quarter of the ‘world’s soils has experienced some degradation. and the pace of degradation has accelerated over the past 50 years. The loss of soi fertility has caused a slowing in the growth of agricultural productivity. Annual crops tend to degrade soils more than perennial crops, ancl ‘common property lands generally suffer more degradation than private lands. ‘Today, irrigated cropland produces about one-third of the world’s food. Approximately 18 percent of the world’s eropland is irrigated, and scientists project this amount to double bby 2020. Irrigation can inercasc crop yiclds per hectare to two or three times the yields of land watered only by rain, However, there are also some harmful side effects, Besides increasing crop productivity in the short run, irrigation can lead to sharp drops in erop productivity in the long run by causing excessive salt buildup aud ising, water tables. One of the mast critical soil quality problems related to irrigation is the increase in concentration of dissolved salts. This process, salinization, affects an estimated one-fourth of the world’s irrigated cropland. In some places, irrigation water contains as much as 5.9 tons of salt per 1,000 cubic meters. As the water flows over and through the ground, it dissolves salts, inereasing the salinity of the water. Since some crops require 6,000 to 10,000 cubic meters of water per hectare, land can receive tens of tons of salt per hectare. As the waler evaporates, high concentrations of salts such as sodium chloride arc left behind in the topsoil. Salt buildup can stunt erop growth, decrease yields, kill crop plants, and eventually make the land unproductive. ‘A problem that often accompanies salinization in dry regions is waterlogging, which ‘often occurs when farmers apply heavy amounts of irrigation water in an attempt to prevent salts from accumulating. However, unless the water drains properly, it collects underground ‘and gradually raises the water table closer to the surface, thereby bringing salts to the surface and concentrating them. Saltwater then envelops the fragile root systems of plants, killing the plants and converting fertile fields to wet deserts. This is a particularly serious problem in California’s heavily irrigated San Joaquin Valley, where soils contain a clay layer that prevents water from flowing through the ground. Worldwide, at least oue-tenth of al irrigated land is subject to waterlogging. Another serious soil problem is erosion, the loss of soils from water and wind action. Soil erosion occurs on agricultural land without vegetative cover for protection or because of poor agricultural management. Scientists estimate that topsoil on cultivated land is being lost 16 to 300 times faster than itis being replaced. In many parts of the world, a shift away from traditional agricultural practices is placing greater pressure on the soil, which in turn is causing an increase in suil ciusion sates. Studi in the United States suggest that the loss of just 2.5 centimeters of topsoil reduces corn and wheat yields by 6 percent.Glossary: degradation: loss of quality Si. Acvording to the passage, all of the following, contribute to soil degradation EXCEPT poor agricultural management rotation of annual crops C’) accumulation of salts G) lack of water drainage 52, The word deplete in paragraph 2 is closest in moaning to A) reduce @ attract CS) prepare G create 53. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information mn the highlighted sentence in paragraph 2? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information, ‘@® The scientific study of soils is improving soil quality in many regions worldwide. ® Few people would disagree that soil quality is as diminished as scientists say itis. © The number vf avieutists who specialize in the study of soils has been decreasing. © Most scientists agree that soil degradation is oceurting, iu many pauts Uf the worl. ‘54, What can be inferred from paragraph 3 about annual crops and common property lands? @® They have been part of agriculture for only the past fifty years, ® They ate not considered to be significant causes of soil degradation. © They produce more income than perennial crops and private lands do. ® they may decrease soil fertility and agricultural productivity. 55. According to the passage, which of the following is a serious consequence. of irrigation? Loss of fresh water for drinking B) Decrease in the level of rivers C}) Excessive buildup of salts in the soil CG) Inssvave in the sate UF soil erosion Test 5 ‘56, In what way is salinization a serious problem for agriculture? ‘® Soils with high salt concentrations are destructive to erop plants @® Salinization can lead to soil compaction ‘oF t0 Loss of soil cover. ® Facessive amounts of water are required to prevent salinization, @ Adaing sait to ferttzer raises the operating casts of agriculture 57. The word stunt in paragraph 5 is closest in ‘meaning, to @® speed BY hide CoS cause ©) limit 58. The term waterlogging in paragraph 6 means that AD logs are floating in water water is not available the soil holds too much water DY) salts are removed trom water 59. How are waterlogging and salinization related? @® Salinization oceurs only where waterlogging is a problem, ® Waterlogging raises and concentrates salts near the surface. © Famers add salts to irrigation water as away to fertilize soil @) Both waterlogaing and salinization contribute to soil erosion, 60. The word which in paragraph 7 refers to ® world CBS practices C) pressure soil 22i periTest 5 61. Why does the author mention corn and wheat yields in paragraph 7? Go illustrate the effect of a small amount of erosion CB) To explain why erosion affects only certain erops CE) To describe the result of a shift from traditional practices Co) To show how poor management influences crop yields 62. Look at the four squares, [EV, El, Li, and BI, which indicate where the following sentence could be aided (u thc passage, Where would the sentence bost fit? Unless they are flushed or drained from the soil, th serious problems. buildup may cause a number of One of the most critical soil quality problems related to irrigation 1s the merease in concentration of dissolved salls. This process, salinization, affeets an estimated one-fourth of the world’s irigated erapland In snme places, irrigation water contains as much as 3.5 tons of salt per 1,000 cubic meters. [EJ As the water flows aver and through the ground, it dissolves salts, inoreasing the salinity of the water. EJ Since some crops require 6,000 to 10,000 cubic meters of water per hectare, land can reccive tens of tons of salt per hectare. [Ac the water evaporates, high concentrations of salts such as sodium chloride are left behind in the topsoil. [J Salt buildup can stunt erop growth, decrease yields, kill crop plants, and eventually make the land unproductive. 222Test 5 (63. Read the first sentonce ofa summary of the passage. Complete the aummary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong. in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor passage. This question is worth 2 points Several factors are respi leas in the ible for the degradation of the world’s soils, Answer Choices ® Soils are created through the processes of erosion, organic decay, and accumulation. @ Contamination of the soil from air and water pollution is a growing threat. © Agriculture and poor land management practices decrease the quality of soils over time. @) Irrigation can diminish soil productivity by causing salts and water to accumulate. ® The soils in the San Joayuis Valley contain a clay layer that contributes to wwaterlogging, ® The crosion of topsoil on agricultural lands is a growing problem that affects crop yields. epicei 223