873-Article Text-3279-2-10-20230313-Đã G P

Vol 9.
No 1_January 2023
TẠP CHÍ
TẠP CHÍ KHOA HỌC ĐẠI HỌC TÂN TRÀO SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL OF TAN TRAO UNIVERSITY
SỐ ĐẶC BIỆT
TẠP CHÍ KHOA HỌC ĐẠI HỌC TÂN TRÀO

SPECIAL ISSUE
ISSN: 2354 - 1431

http://tckh.daihoctantrao.edu.vn/
Tập 9, Số 1 (Tháng 01/2023)

ISSN: 2354 - 1431
Tập 9, Số 1 (Tháng 01/2023)
Vol 9. No 1 (January 2023)
STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPING ENGLISH SPEAKING SKILLS OF FIRST-YEAR

ENGLISH MAJOR STUDENTS AT A HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTION
Uong Thu Hang*, Vu Van Tuan

Hanoi Law University, Vietnam
Email address: thuhanguong.mc@gmail.com
DOI: 10.51453/2354-1431/2022/873
Article info Abstract:

English speaking skills are considered the most important necessity to master
because of the primary mode of international communication. The majority
Received:25/9/2022
of learners find it challenging to be fluent in these skills due to ineffective
Revised: 22/10/2022 strategies. This study investigated the English-speaking strategies employed
by first-year English major students at Hanoi Law University in the 2nd term
Accepted: 30/12/2022 of the academic year 2021-2022. The study used a descriptive quantitative
method with a researcher-made questionnaire for 68 respondents via the
active Google link. The results revealed that students did not identify effective
strategies for improving their speaking skills. They should be equipped with
Keywords: advanced strategies involving how to improve their speaking skills effectively.
This study would help school administrators adjust their program objectives
strategies; English major
and teaching outcomes to amend their existing programs, teachers change their
students; higher education
pedagogical practices, and suggest to students some efficient English-speaking
institution; pedagogical
strategies.
practices; primary
mode of international
communication
94|
Vol 9. No 1_January 2023
TẠP CHÍ
TẠP CHÍ KHOA HỌC ĐẠI HỌC TÂN TRÀO SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL OF TAN TRAO UNIVERSITY
SỐ ĐẶC BIỆT
TẠP CHÍ KHOA HỌC ĐẠI HỌC TÂN TRÀO

SPECIAL ISSUE
ISSN: 2354 - 1431

http://tckh.daihoctantrao.edu.vn/
Tập 9, Số 1 (Tháng 01/2023)

ISSN: 2354 - 1431
Tập 9, Số 1 (Tháng 01/2023)
Vol 9. No 1 (January 2023)
CHIẾN LƯỢC PHÁT TRIỂN KỸ NĂNG NÓI TIẾNG ANH CỦA SINH VIÊN NĂM
THỨ NHẤT CHUYÊN NGÀNH TIẾNG ANH TẠI MỘT CƠ SỞ GIÁO DỤC ĐẠI HỌC
Uông Thu Hằng*, Vũ Văn Tuấn

Đại học Luật Hà Nội, Việt Nam
Địa chỉ email: thuhanguong.mc@gmail.com
DOI: 10.51453/2354-1431/2022/873
Thông tin bài viết Tóm tắt

Kỹ năng nói tiếng Anh được coi là kỹ năng cần thiết quan trọng nhất để sử
dụng thành thạo vì kỹ năng nói được sử dụng làm phương thức giao tiếp
Ngày nhận bài: 25/9/2022
quốc tế chính. Đa số người học thấy khó thành thạo các kỹ năng này do các
Ngày sửa bài: 22/10/2022 chiến lược học dường như không hiệu quả. Nghiên cứu này đã khảo sát các
chiến lược nói tiếng Anh của sinh viên năm thứ nhất chuyên ngành tiếng Anh
Ngày duyệt đăng: 30/12/2022 tại Đại học Luật Hà Nội trong kỳ 2 của năm học 2021-2022. Nghiên cứu sử
dụng phương pháp định lượng mô tả với bảng câu hỏi do nhà nghiên cứu thực
hiện cho 68 người trả lời thông qua bảng trả lời trực tuyến trong ứng dụng
Google. Kết quả cho thấy rằng sinh viên đã không xác định được các chiến
Từ khóa: lược hiệu quả để cải thiện kỹ năng nói của họ. Họ nên được trang bị các chiến
lược nâng cao liên quan đến cách cải thiện kỹ năng nói của họ một cách hiệu
chiến lược, sinh viên chuyên quả. Nghiên cứu này sẽ giúp các nhà quản lý trường học điều chỉnh mục tiêu
ngành tiếng Anh; cơ sở giáo chương trình và kết quả giảng dạy của họ để sửa đổi các chương trình hiện có
dục đại học; thực tiễn sư của họ, giáo viên thay đổi thực hành sư phạm của họ, gợi ý cho sinh viên một
phạm; phương thức chính số chiến lược nói tiếng Anh hiệu quả.
giao tiếp quốc tế
Introduction Russian, and Spanish. In practice, the most popular

number of people using English all over the world keeps
Globalization demands people to exchange with one
increasing. According to Szmigiera [2], there were
another comprehensively without limitation of different
around 1.35 billion people worldwide who spoke English
geologies, religions, races, or languages. To achieve
either natively or as a second language in 2021. English
mutual understanding in communication, there is a need
is learned as a prerequisite subject in school from primary
to use a common language for exchanging information.
to tertiary level [3]. Subjectively, English is commonly
Because of the variety of languages human beings use
referred to as a global language, international language,
for communication, a need to use one language as an
or English. In the circumstances of Vietnam, English is
international means of communication has emerged for
used as a foreign language, not as a second language [4].
ages [1]. Take lingua franca for example, this language
is used as a means of common communication between In reality, the speaking English competence of the
populations speaking vernaculars that are not mutually first-year major HLU students remains a source of
intelligible. However, lingua franca does not come to concern. Many of the first-year major HLU students
communicators’ expectations so the United Nations are still unable to express their ideas, thoughts, and
(UNs) recognizes the current official and 6 working feelings clearly and confidently. They undoubtedly
languages, particularly Arabic, Chinese, English, French, face obstacles that prevent them from being competent
|95
Uong Thu Hang et al/Vol 9. No 1_January 2023| p.94-105
communicators, such as a lack of vocabulary, poor or 2. What major strategies do the participants
unusual pronunciation, and poor grammar [5]. The encounter?
issue is thought to be more than just the methods used. Method
Because the language learner is the most important
Research Design
factor in language learning, it is reasonable to assume
that some issues are with the students themselves. In this study, the author used descriptive quantitative
Learners frequently blame teachers, circumstances, research in the form of a researcher-made questionnaire
and teaching materials for their lack of success in to examine the strategies of first-year major HLU
becoming competent at speaking, when the most students. The questionnaire was fine-tuned well by the
important reason for their lack of success may be found close cooperation with the supervisor for the content
within themselves. The language learning strategies validation. After preparing the research instrument,
used by the learners themselves are one of the aspects the questionnaire was floated to first-year major HLU
involved in the process of developing speaking skills. students using the active Google form due to the
This is how students learn on their own. According outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic. After two weeks,
to Dang [6], being strongly considered part of the 68 participants returned their feedback, the researcher
Eastern culture, the popular philosophy of educational carried out the data screening, and 68 samples were
practices in Vietnam is more associated with absorbing selected for data analysis.
and memorizing than experimenting and producing Research Instruments

knowledge. Therefore, the practice of speaking skills
The study used the researcher exploited the
is not really effective if students just learn from school
researcher-made questionnaire including two parts,
without usual practice, so they really need to use more specifically part I consisted of 5 questions about
strategies to improve their English-speaking skills by the demographic information of the respondents,
themselves. Students learning strategies are actions and part II consisted of 22 closed questions and
they take to improve their learning [7]. Seeking out one open question, these questions focused on 3
conversation partners, asking for corrections, and kinds of strategies that students used for developing
practicing out loud are some of the learning strategies speaking skills. In particular, strategies to practice
used by students to improve their speaking abilities. speaking skills had 5 questions. Strategies to engage
Thus, learning strategies are one of the most important in conversation involved 5 questions. Speaking skills
factors in determining how and how well learners for not finding a word or expression involved 7
learn a foreign language. It was found that, in order to questions. The 22 questions asked the respondents to
enhance their progress in developing speaking skills, choose 4 options after each question. The researcher
many students used a variety of different strategies, and collaborated with the supervisor to construct 40 raw
each student at a different level used different language questions, based on the criteria of attitudinal questions
learning strategies that they thought were beneficial to [10]. Then, the questionnaire underwent a dry run with
them. The studies written by Gu and Johnson (1996) 30 volunteered students for the liability of the content
(cited in [8]) and O’Malley and Chamot [9] also have of the questionnaire objectives. The results of the
proved that successful learners use a greater variety of pilot study were shortlisted to the acceptable internal
strategies and use them in ways that help the student consistency of Cronbach’s alpha (0.8 > α ≥ 0.7). The
complete language tasks more successfully. Hence, final questionnaire included 22 closed questions.
the researcher is interested in conducting this research Participants
to know what strategies are used by first-year major
This study aimed at the first-year students at Hanoi
HLU students to develop their speaking skills through
Law University (HLU) with course 46 including 127
the Covid-19 pandemic. The research aims to seek the
first-year legal English major students total, who
answers to the following questions as follows:
finished basic English-speaking course 1 during the
1. What strategies are used by first-year English second term of the academic year 2021-2022. The
major students during the Covid-19 pandemic to researcher used Slovin’s formula to determine the
develop their speaking skills? number of participants serving as subjects of the study.
96|
Although the expected number was 96 out of 127 first- of a low response rate (less than 50 percent), another
year legal English major students, 68 of them willingly email was sent to the respondents as a gentle reminder.
participated in the survey by returning their responses After the due date and getting the expected samples,
via the active Google form. the researcher started to implement the data screening
process. Following this, there were total 68 relevant
Procedures of data collection
responses were selected for the analysis of data using
After preparing a proper questionnaire, the IBM SPSS v.25 for data treatment.
researcher forwarded a letter of request asking
Data collection and analysis
permission from the dean of legal English faculty to
conduct the study. When obtaining the approval, the The frequency statistics were used to address
researcher sent the questionnaire to the respective the demographic information in Part 1. Descriptive
respondents by email addresses provided by counseling statistics were employed to deal with 22 closed
teachers of course 46. The respondents were requested questions with the Likert interval scales, such as very
to return the questionnaire 10 days after the date of low (1.0 – 1.75), low (1.76 – 2.5), high (2.51 – 3.25), and
sending emails. The letter from the researcher attached very high (3.26 – 4.0). For question 23, the information
to the email explained the objectives and relevance of was treated with frequency statistics, too. In addition,
the study, assured the respondents of anonymity, and an independent sample T-test was also employed to
compare the difference among gender in regard to the
gave them the option of not participating in the study
strategies for developing English speaking skills.
if they wished. A contact number was also provided
in case a respondent had any questions. In the case Results and Discussion
Strategies 1. Strategies to practice speaking
Table 1. Strategies applied by K46 Legal English majors at HLU
to practice speaking skills through the Covid-19 pandemic
I use this strategy and

This strategy doesn’t
this strategy but am
strategy and would

I have never used
I have tried this

interested in it
use it again
fit for me
like it
N
1. Strategies to practice speaking skills

1. Practice saying new expressions to 68 Frequency 14 36 18
myself. Percent 20.6 52.9 26.5
Std. Deviation .689
2. Practice new grammatical structures in 68 Frequency 12 44 12
different situations to build my confidence Percent 17.6 64.7 17.6
level in using them. Std. Deviation .599
3. Think about how a native speaker might 68 Frequency 8 46 14
say something and practice saying it that Percent 11.8 67.6 20.6
way Std. Deviation .566
4. Follow and duet English challenges with 68 Frequency 14 39 8 7
some Tik Tok channels Percent 20.6 57.4 11.8 10.3
Std. Deviation .856
5. Try to write a paragraph or an essay about 68 Frequency 14 54
some topics, and then practice speaking it by Percent 20.6 79.4
myself or in front of the mirror Std. Deviation .407
|97
For the strategy to practice speaking skills through them. This data proves that the percentage of HLU first-
the Covid-19 pandemic, the author has given a total year English language students who know this strategy
of 5 questions related to specific strategies. Question is quite large, but they do not bother to apply it to develop
number 1 is also the first strategy, which is the strategy their English-speaking skills. We know, the technology
“Practice saying new expressions to myself.”, we find era is growing, especially during this Covid-19
that according to the survey data statistics, the majority pandemic, and social platforms are being applied more
of students (52.9%) majoring in English language widely than ever. Even learning and teaching at schools
first-year HLU knew, interested but never applied. In have to switch to online methods. And now, the social
addition, only 26.5% of the survey participants said network Tik Tok is emerging as a place to entertain
that they had used this strategy and would continue and provide a lot of different information, including
to use it, and 20.6% of the respondents thought that sharing and teaching. That’s why this survey mentioned
this strategy was not suitable for them. No one even strategy 4: “Follow and duet English challenges with
chose the answer “I use this strategy and like it”. This some Tik Tok channels”. The results obtained with
shows that the number of first-year major students at this strategy have changed compared to the previous
HLU who know this strategy was quite large, proving
strategies. Most of the students participating in the
that this was a popular and effective strategy for many
survey knew and were interested in this strategy but
people. However, in reality, HLU English language
had never applied it (accounting for 57.4%), of which
first-year students did not often apply or love it to
20% thought this was an inappropriate strategy, and
develop speaking skills during the Covid-19 pandemic.
11.8% had applied and would continue to apply this
Next, in response to question number 2, which
strategy to develop English speaking skills. We had
is also related to the strategy of practicing speaking
10.3% of the students who responded that they applied
skills, which is the strategy “Practice new grammatical
and enjoyed the duet English challenges with some Tik
structures in different situations to build my confidence
Tok channels strategy.
level in,” I discovered that, according to the data
statistics survey, the majority of students (64.7%) Obviously, although this Tik Tok platform is
majoring in English first-year HLU knew, interested, growing stronger and more widely, there are many
but never apply. The percentage of students who had channels on Tik Tok that offer great foreign language
used and would continue to use this strategy, as well challenges and have many levels for viewers to do, but
as the percentage of students who believed it was
in reality. The number of first-year HLU majors who
not appropriate for them, is 17.6%. No one selected
actually applied or loved it was very small, even though
the response “I use this strategy and love it.” This
they knew this popular strategy. The final strategy
demonstrates that a large number of HLU first-year
of part 1: Strategies to practice speaking skills are
majors are familiar with this strategy, showing that it
proposed: “Try to write a paragraph or an essay about
is a popular and effective strategy for many people.
some topics, and then practice speaking it by myself or
However, first-year HLU English students still did not
in front of the mirror”. Although this was a very popular
frequently use or enjoy it to develop speaking skills
strategy and helped students practice self-confidence
during the Covid-19 pandemic.
while studying, we can see that the vast majority of
With the third strategy: “Think about how a native our first-year HLU majors did not apply, use or like the
speaker might say something and practice saying it strategy. This percentage accounts for 79.4% of survey
that way”, the results are similar to the above strategy. participants who are interested but never apply it, the
The majority of students participating in the survey remaining 20.6% did not find this strategy suitable.
(64.7%) had never used this strategy even though they
Strategies 2. Strategies to engage in conversation
knew and were interested in it. The remaining 20.6%
of survey respondents had been using the strategy and Covid-19 is a serious pandemic all over the world.
would continue to accompany this strategy to develop Because of the Covid-19 pandemic, the closure of
English speaking skills during the Covid-19 pandemic. schools and the use of social networking platforms for
However, still up to 11.8% of the first-year English learning and teaching are growing. Therefore, more
majors at HLU felt this strategy was not suitable for and more students, students, and teachers are interested
98|
in online courses or classes, learning and teaching their English speaking skills. Table 2 below shows
English. And that’s also why the survey included two strategies to engage in conversation of K46 major
strategies related to social media platforms (question 6 students related to social media platforms to develop
and question 7) to help first-year HLU majors develop speaking skill through the Covid-19 pandemic.
Table 2. Strategies to engage in conversation of K46 major students related to social media platforms to
develop speaking skill through Covid-19 pandemic
This strategy doesn’t fit for me
I have never used this strategy
I have tried this strategy and
I use this strategy and like it

but am interested in it
would use it again

N
2. Strategies to engage in conversation

6. Seek out opportunities to talk with 68 Frequency 21 41 6
native speakers by joining some Speaking Percent 30.9 60.3 8.8
English group on Facebook or Instagram Std. Deviation .595
7. Seek out opportunities to talk with 68 Frequency 52 12 4
native speakers by buying some online Percent 76.5 17.6 5.9
speaking courses Std. Deviation .575
First, strategy 6: “Seek out opportunities to talk speaking skills during this Covid-19 pandemic. Next,
with native speakers by joining some Speaking English with digital strategies “7. Seek out opportunities to talk
group on Facebook or Instagram” has obtained the with native speakers by buying some online speaking
following results: 60.3% of students surveyed said that
courses”, most of student agreed that this strategy was
this strategy was interesting but they had never applied
not suitable for them (76.5%). There was only 5.9%
it, 30.9% of the students thought that this strategy was
not suitable, and there was only 8.8% of the students of respondents choosing “I have tried this strategy and
who participated in the survey had used it and would would use it again”, and nobody found that this strategy
continue to apply this strategy to develop English was interesting enough for them to like and use it again.
Table 3. Other strategies to engage in conversation of K46 major students related
to develop speaking skill through the Covid-19 pandemic
strategy and would

I have never used
I have tried this

interested in it
use it again
fit for me
like it

Frequency 51 13 4
8. Initiate conversations in the target
68 Percent 75.0 19.1 5.9
language as often as possible
Std. Deviation .580
Frequency 19 40 9
9. Direct the conversation to familiar
68 Percent 27.9 58.8 13.2
topics
Std. Deviation .629
|99

strategy and would

I have never used
I have tried this

interested in it
use it again
fit for me
like it
N
Frequency 14 48 6
10. Plan out in advance what I want
68 Percent 20.6 70.6 8.8
to say
Std. Deviation .533
Frequency 13 48 3 4
11. Ask questions as a way to be
68 Percent 19.1 70.6 4.4 5.9
involved in the conversation
Std. Deviation .690
Frequency 10 47 11
12. Anticipate what will be said based
68 Percent 14.7 69.1 16.2
on what has been said so far
Std. Deviation .560
Frequency 8 41 11 8
13. Try topics even when they aren’t
68 Percent 11.8 60.3 16.2 11.8
familiar to me
Std. Deviation .826
Frequency 42 17 9
14. Encourage others to correct errors
68 Percent 61.8 25.0 13.2
in my speaking
Std. Deviation .723
According to the result from Table 3 above, statement during the Covid-19 pandemic (accounting for 69.1%
“8. Initiate conversations in the target language as often of students for strategy number 12, and accounted for
as possible”, and “14. Encourage others to correct errors 70.6% for both strategy number 10 and number 11).
in my speaking” got quite similar results, with most Especially for statement number “13. Try topics even
of the students participating in the survey responded when they aren’t familiar to me”, the number of first-
that this strategy was not suitable (both accounting for
year English majors HLU thought it was a strategy that
more than 60%), and no students actually applied those
did not suit to them was equal to the number of people
strategies and love them all with the number strategies
survey respondents thought that it was a very interesting
“10. Plan out in advance what I want to say”, “11. Ask
strategy and they used it (both 11.8%). However, the
questions as a way to be involved in the conversation”
and “12. Anticipate what will be said based on what majority of K46 major students still thought that they
has been said so far” also had similar results. The vast were interested in this strategy but had never used it
majority of students participating in the survey said that (60.3%), and only 16.2% of survey respondents had
these strategies they knew and felt interested in but had applied the strategy and would continue to use that
never applied them to develop English speaking skills strategy.
Table 4. The last strategy of the first-year major students applied to engage in conversation to develop
their speaking skill through the Covid-19 pandemic
I have tried this
strategy but am
interested in it
doesn’t fit for
This strategy
strategy and
strategy and
I have never
would use it
I use this
used this
like it
again
N
me

15. Try to figure out and model 68 Frequency 11 57
native speakers’ language patterns Percent 16.2 83.8
when requesting, apologizing, or Std. Deviation .371
complaining
100|
In particular, with the final strategy to engage in words or situations where we cannot think of words or
conversation to improve speaking skills through the ways to express ideas. Therefore, having strategies to
Covid-19 pandemic of the first-year major students, overcome this situation is extremely necessary to help
which was the strategy “15. Try to figure out and model
students or learners develop their own English speaking
native speakers’ language patterns when requesting,
skills and cope with these difficult cases. That is the
apologizing, or complaining”, there were no survey
reason why the researcher of this thesis had studied
participants had applied the strategy or felt like it, the
majority (63.8%) just knew and felt interested in the strategy number 3 called, “Strategies for when I can’t
strategy but never applied, and 16.2% thought that the think of a word or expression”. This strategy
strategy was not suitable for them. That result showed section contains 7 specific strategies (numbered 16 to
that, this strategy was not interesting or effective 22). The survey responses to these strategies clearly
enough for the first-year major students to apply. showed a divisionbetween the strategies chosen by the
Strategy 3. Strategies for when I can’t think of a students favorites andheavily useing, and the rest were
word or expression unpopular strategies for them. First, the table 9 below
In the process of developing and practicing English shows the strategies that the first-year major students at
speaking skills, we can not avoid encountering difficult HLU were disliked and not applied the most.
Table 5. The strategies of the first-year major students for when they can’t think of a word or expression
which were disliked and not applied the most
strategy and would
I use this strategy

I have never used
I have tried this

interested in it
use it again
and like it
fit for me
N
Strategies for when I can’t think of a word or expression

16. Ask for help from my conversation 68 Frequency 41 20 7
partner Percent 60.3 29.4 10.3
Std. Deviation .680
18. Use words from my own language, but 68 Frequency 49 12 7
say them in a way that sounds like words in Percent 72.1 17.6 10.3
the target language Std. Deviation .670
In this section, we had 2 strategies with quite similar suitable for the vast majority of freshmen majoring in
results, namely “16. Ask for help from my conversation HLU. They knew the strategies but did not apply them
partner” and “18. Use words from my language, but to develop their English-speaking skills during this
say them in a way that sounds like words in the target Covid-19 pandemic. As we know, using synonyms or
language”. These two strategies responded that the other similar expressions is a very effective strategy to
majority of students participating in the survey felt practice and develop speaking skills. This strategy not
these were not suitable for them with the percentage only helps us to improvise flexibly in communication
of times for strategies 16 and 18 being 60.3% and situations but also helps us expand our vocabulary and
72.1%, then 29.4% and 17.6% for the answer “I have enrich our expressions when speaking English. So how
never used this strategy but am interested in it”, the has this strategy been applied by the first-year major
remaining numbers are equal and 10.3% for the answer students at HLU to improve their speaking skills during
“I have tried this strategy and would do it again”. the Covid-19 pandemic? Table 6 below will show the
That data proved that the above strategies were not survey results:
|101
Table 6. The strategies of the first-year major students at HLU for when they cannot think of a word or
expression by using synonym and different ways to express idea
strategy and would
I use this strategy

I have never used
doesn’t fit for me
I have tried this

interested in it
This strategy
use it again
and like it
N

17. Look for a different way to express 68 Frequency 9 50 9
the idea, like using a synonym Percent 13.2 73.5 13.2
Std. Deviation .518
Regarding the students’ responses to employing to them but they had never applied it in real (accounting
“Look for a different way to express the idea, like using for 73.5%), and those who chose that it was not the right
a synonym” strategies in developing speaking English
strategy for them or they had applied the strategy and
skills during the Covid-19 pandemic were reported
generally not so positive. For this strategy, the majority would continue in the future only accounting for an equal
of respondents agreed that this strategy was interesting percentage of 13.2%, even though no one loved this.
Table 7. The strategies of the first-year major students at HLU for when they cannot think of a word or
expression by making up words or guess if they do not know the right ones to use.
I have tried this

strategy but am
interested in it
doesn’t fit for
This strategy
strategy and
strategy and
I have never
would use it
I use this
used this
like it
again
N
me

19. Make up new words or guess if I 68 Frequency 7 42 19
don’t know the right ones to use Percent 10.3 61.8 27.9
Std. Deviation .597
With the next strategy, “19. Make up new words or to reach their opinions was still quite “timid” and in
guess if I don’t know the right ones to use”, the survey some ways, it was “careful”. Be careful here, that is,
result was still quite similar to the above strategies. they did not make up words or guess to try to express
Up to 61.8% of the first-year major students at HLU themselves, but would just find other ways or use other
participating in the survey were interested in this
strategies to protect English words that could express
strategy but had never applied it to develop their skills,
exactly what they mean. As for the “timidity” here, it
besides 10.3% of the respondents agreed that they were
was because the first-year major students at HLU were
not suitable with this strategy, and 27.9% of survey
respondents had applied and would continue to use still quite passive when they knew but did not apply
this strategy to develop speaking English skills during this strategy to improve their speaking skills during the
the Covid-19 pandemic. This shows that the reaction Covid-19 pandemic, maybe because they are afraid of
of students when they did not know the correct words making mistakes when making up new words.
102|
Table 8. The strategies of the first-year major students for when they can’t think of a word or expression
which were liked and applied the most

strategy and would

I have never used
I have tried this

interested in it
use it again
fit for me
like it
N

20. Use gestures as a way to try to get my 68 Frequency 5 20 43
meaning across Percent 7.4 29.4 63.2
Std. Deviation .632
21. Switch back to my own language 68 Frequency 15 53
momentarily if I know that the person I’m Percent 22.1 77.9
talking to can understand what is being said Std. Deviation .418
22. Using translator or dictionary to help 68 Frequency 13 53 2
Percent 19.1 77.9 2.9
Std. Deviation .444
The last 3 strategies were strategies that all who did not like this strategy for developing English-
freshmen were most interested in, had used, or really speaking skills. This result was not so surprising for the
loved it. Those were strategies “20. Use gestures as researcher. The use of gestures as a way to try to get
a way to try to get my meaning across”, “21. Switch speakers’ meaning across body language was a common
back to my own language momentarily if I know that thing and worth applying, because it brought effective
the person I’m talking to can understand what is being communication, helped listeners understand and the
said”, and “22. Using a translator or dictionary to help”. speaker could feel more confident when releasing body
Among them, the strategy “21. Switch back to my language. Therefore, all first-year major students at
own language momentarily if I know that the person HLU knew and were interested in this strategy, and the
I’m talking to can understand what is being said” was rate of respondents who loved and applied was very
the most favorite and used by students, accounting high, no one thinks that the strategy is not suitable for
for 77.9% of the people, the rest 22.1% had used that them. This further proves that this strategy is a popular
strategy and would continue to use it. There was no and widely applied strategy to practice language and
one who had never used or disliked this strategy. This communication.
was understandable when the psychology of students
wanted to switch back to their native language to talk In the end, the strategy “22. Using a translator or
easily with the person they were talking to if they dictionary to help” achieved the following results: 77.9
understood that language. This could help them feel % had and would continue to use the strategy, 19.1%
more comfortable and easier when communicating. had never used this strategy but still loved it, and only
However, it was clear that sometimes this strategy was 2.9% really liked this strategy in applying to develop
not good for them. Because they invisibly closed the English speaking skills during the Covid-19 pandemic.
opportunity to practice their English-speaking skills by This was understandable given that information
automatically closing the foreign language environment technology is rapidly evolving, and students frequently
to their native language. The next most popular strategy use technology to supplement their learning or
was the strategy “20. Use gestures as a way to try to get training language skills. The use of a dictionary or a
my meaning across” with the highest rate was 63.2% of high-accuracy translator could help students to get
the first-year major students at HLU liked it, 29.4% had answers quickly and accurately. Therefore, it was
used and would continue to use this strategy, and there understandable that most of them loved and applied
was only 7.4% of respondents chose that they were this strategy often. However, a quite high percentage
interested in but had never applied. There was no one of students participating in this survey chose “I have
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never used this strategy but am interested in it” (19.1%). first-year Legal English major where the research was
This demonstrates that this strategy was interesting conducted did not apply clearly, and usually the learning
and effective for the first-year major at HLU to know strategies of speaking English to the students of the
about it but they were still not hard-working to apply control groups. An appropriate learning strategy model
the strategy in reality. Looking at the above data from for speaking English was the one that could improve
Table 17, it was clear that there was almost no gender the students speaking skills so that they became more
difference related to the selection and use of strategies independent or more autonomous in learning to speak
when the first-year major students at HLU could not English. Benson [13] states “autonomy is the capacity
think of a word or expression to develop their English- to take charge of one’s own learning”. Students are
speaking skills during the Covid-19 pandemic. The Sig. more effective when they take control of their own
index listed in the statistics table for all strategies is learning. The twenty-two strategies of speaking English
greater than 0.005, showing that there was no gender developed in the study can be considered appropriate
difference related to the problem being studied, which for the purpose of improving the language learners’
means both girls and boys had the same ways of speaking skills/proficiency. The lack of initiative in
choosing and applying strategies for when they could applying strategies to develop English speaking skills
not think of a word or expression. Only strategy number during the pandemic among first-year HLU majors is
16: “Ask for help from my conversation partner” with really something that needs to be corrected in order
a Sig. result of 0.002 (< 0.005) had shown that there for them to attend university majors. Learn in the most
was a disparity and difference between male and female effective and easy way. This lack of initiative may be
students in choosing and using this strategy to develop due to the fact that the students are too new to the self-
their English-speaking skills during this pandemic. directed learning style of the university environment.
Discussion They are used to the hands-on instruction used since
high school, so now they are quite unfamiliar with these
Based on the results of data analysis conducted
strategies, only knowing and enjoying them, but never
by research, we can see, most of the first-year HLU
applying them. Therefore, we need to guide students
majors know the strategies, and are interested in them,
more about these strategies and organize challenges
but have never applied them to develop their English-
related to strategies to motivate students to implement,
speaking skills during this Covid-19 pandemic. This
them so that they can find the most suitable strategy to
has reflected the fact that first-year HLU majors are
apply to develop their English-speaking skills.
still quite passive and lazy in applying strategies
for language development during this pandemic. Conclusion
They mostly just know, just enjoy, but do not put the First, first-year legal English-major students at
strategies into practice. Even the number of students HLU became aware of speaking strategies. However,
participating in the survey thinks that strategies are not they did not acknowledge the importance of using
suitable, while the number that has applied and will speaking English strategies; thus, they were adopting
continue to use them is really small. The number of them passively and not frequently. Therefore, these
first-year majors who really love strategies to develop strategies should be officially and systematically
their English-speaking skills is too small. This needs to included in the speaking course offered to students.
be seen frankly and clearly. Second, even though most students have figured out
Brown [11] confirms the growing body of evidence how to make use of speaking English strategies, they
demonstrating the value of learners incorporating do not apply them much in reality. In others words, they
strategies into their learning process. Similarly, are still passive in developing speaking skills and lazy.
according to Brown and Scase [12], language learners As a result, there is room for further improvement in
must develop autonomy, and the English teacher must teaching and learning during speaking classes at HLU.
assist them in taking charge of their own learning by More significantly, the identification of what speaking
setting goals and implementing learning strategies. English strategies should be further incorporated and
Based on the data above, it can be concluded that, in fact, promoted in the training programs needed to be taken
the learning process of speaking skills at HLU of the into consideration.
104|
Second, even though most students have figured out English Language Teaching, 1(1), 23-37. https://jrelt.
how to make use of speaking English strategies, there ftk.uinjambi.ac.id/index.php/jrelt/article/view/5/3
were still some obstacles preventing them from using it
[5]. Heriansyah, H. (2012). Speaking problems
frequently and effectively. The most common problems
were regarding the shortage of interactive activities faced by the English Department students of Syiah
and active learning during the Covid-19 pandemic. Kuala University. Lingua Didaktika, 6(1), 37-44.
For that reason, there is room for further improvement https://doi.org/10.24036/ld.v6i1.7398
in teaching and learning during listening classes at
[6]. Dang, T. T. (2010). Learner autonomy in EFL
HLU. More significantly, the identification of what
studies in Vietnam: A discussion from sociocultural
speaking strategies should be further incorporated and
promoted in the training programs needed to be taken perspective. English Language Teaching, 3(2), 3-9.
into consideration https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v3n2p3
Third, while each legal English major student [7]. Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language learning
has his or her own personal method of implementing strategies: What every teacher should know. New
speaking strategies, most students nowadays are open York: Newbury House
to incorporating new technology into their process;
[8]. Cabaysa, C. C., & Baetiong, L. R. (2010).
in fact, they are interested in implementing tools
such as social networks or screencasting programs. Language learning strategies of students at different
Consequently, teachers and students should be levels of speaking proficiency. Education Quarterly,
encouraged to incorporate technology-based strategies 68(1), 16-35. https://journals.upd.edu.ph/index.php/
in the process of learning speaking English skills. edq/article/view/2131
[9]. O’Malley, J. M., & Chamot, A. U. (1990).

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An Analysis of Factors Influencing Learners’ English Speaking Skill
Lai-Mei Leong1 & Seyedeh Masoumeh Ahmadi2
1 School of Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia
Email: lmleong@usm,my
2 University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran
Email: s_m_a57@yahoo.com
Received: December 20, 2016 Accepted: February 18, 2017 Online Published: March 20, 2017
Abstract
Speaking is one of the most important skills to be developed and enhanced as means of effective communication.
Speaking skill is regarded one of the most difficult aspects of language learning. Many language learners find it
difficult to express themselves in spoken language. They are generally facing problems to use the foreign language to
express their thoughts effectively. They stop talking because they face psychological obstacles or cannot find the
suitable words and expressions. The modern world of media and mass communication requires good knowledge of
spoken English. This paper aims at establishing the need to focus on the factors affecting on language learners’ English
speaking skill. This review paper traces out the body of research concerning the term speaking, the importance of
speaking, characteristics of speaking performance, speaking problems, and factors affecting speaking performance.
According to the review of literature, appropriate speaking instruction was found to be the learners’ priority and a
field in which they need more attention. This study can be useful to teachers and researchers to consider their language
learners’ speaking needs in English language teaching and learning context.
Keywords: speaking, importance, characteristics, problems, factors
1. Introduction
The learning of English speaking skill is a preference for a lot of English as a Foreign/Second Language (EFL/ESL)
learners. Language learners sometimes evaluate their success in language learning based on how well they have
improved in their spoken language ability. Teachers and textbooks use either direct approaches that concentrate on
particular aspects of oral interaction such as turn-taking and topic management or indirect approaches which make
situations for oral interaction by group work, task work, and other strategies (Richards 1990).
According to Harmer (2007) and Pourhosein Gilakjani (2016), human communication is a complex process. Persons
need communication when they want to say something and transmit information. Speakers use communication when
they are going to inform someone about something. Speakers apply language according to their own goals. So speakers
should be both listeners and speakers at the same time for the effective communication.
Speaking is very important in second language learning. Despite its importance, speaking has been overlooked in
schools and universities due to different reasons like emphasis on grammar and unfavorable teacher-student
proportions. Speaking has been absent from testing because of the problem in assessing it objectively and the time it
takes to carry out speaking tests (Clifford, 1987). Speaking is a skill which is worthy of attention in both first and
second language. Learning the speaking skill is the most important aspect of learning a second or foreign language
and success is measured based on the ability to perform a conversation in the language (Nunan, 1995).
Speaking is one of the most important skills of all the four language skills because individuals who learn a language
are referred to as the speakers of that language (Ur, 1996). The main aim of English language teaching is to give
learners the ability to use English language effectively and correctly in communication (Davies & Pearse, 2000).
However, it seems that language learners are not able to communicate fluently and accurately because they do not
have enough knowledge in this field.
When we talk about speaking, we do not mean just saying the words through mouth. It means conveying the message
through the words of mouth. This skill is often ignored in some teachers’ classes. Learners do not have enough
opportunity either in their classes or outside to speak English. Unfortunately, speaking is not an important part of
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teachers’ exams. Learners need a lot of practice to learn to speak. Learners can improve their speaking skill through
listening and repeating. Teachers can give their learners some structures and ask them to repeat. This can remove their
learners’ shyness. Teachers can use short questions and short dialogues in the classrooms to develop their students’
speaking skill (Bashir, Azeem, & Dogar, 2011).
Of the most difficult skills language learners face in language learning is speaking skill. It is believed that speaking is
the most important of the four language skills. Many learners state that they have spent so many years studying English
language but cannot speak it appropriately and understandably (Bueno, Madrid, & Mclaren, 2006).
2. Definition of Speaking
There are a lot of definitions of the word “speaking” that have been suggested by the researchers in language learning.
In Webster New World Dictionary, speaking is to say words orally, to communicate as by talking, to make a request,
and to make a speech (Nunan, 1995). According to Chaney (1998), speaking is the process of making and sharing
meaning by using verbal and non-verbal symbols in different contexts. Brown (1994) and Burns and Joyce (1997)
defined speaking as an interactive process of making meaning that includes producing, receiving, and processing
information.
Bygate (1987) defined speaking as the production of auditory signals to produce different verbal responses in listeners.
It is regarded as combining sounds systematically to form meaningful sentences. Eckard and Kearny (1981), Florez
(1999), Howarth (2001), and Abd El Fattah Torky (2006) defined speaking as a two–way process including a true
communication of opinions, information, or emotions. This top-down view regards the spoken texts as the
collaboration between two or more persons in the shared time and the shared context.
3. The Importance of Speaking
Humans are programmed to speak before they learn to read and write. In any given, human beings spend much more
time interacting orally with language rather than using it in its written form. Speaking is the most important skill
because it is one of the abilities that is needed to perform a conversation. English speaking is not an easy task because
speakers should know many significant components like pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, fluency, and
comprehension. Learners should have enough English speaking ability in order to communicate easily and effectively
with other people. Rivers (1981) studied the use of language outside the classroom situation and understood that
speaking is used twice as much as reading and writing combined. According to Brown (1994), listening and speaking
are learners’ language tools.
Efrizal (2012) Pourhosein Gilakjani (2016) expressed that speaking is of great significance for the people interaction
where they speak everywhere and every day. Speaking is the way of communicating ideas and messages orally. If we
want to encourage students to communicate in English, we should use the language in real communication and ask
them to do the same process.
Richards and Rodgers (2001) stated that in the traditional methods, the speaking skill was ignored in the classrooms
where the emphasis was on reading and writing skills. For example, in The Grammar-Translation method, reading
and writing were the important skills and speaking and listening skills were not of great significance. According to Ur
(2000), of all the four language skills called listening, speaking, reading, and writing, speaking is the most important
one that is very necessary for the effective communication.
The significance of speaking is indicated with the integration of the other language skills. Speaking helps learners
develop their vocabulary and grammar skills and then better their writing skill. Students can express their emotions,
ideas; say stories; request; talk, discuss, and show the various functions of language. Speaking is of vital importance
outside the classroom. Therefore, language speakers have more opportunities to find jobs in different organizations
and companies. These statements have been supported by Baker and Westrup (2003) who said that learners who speak
English very well can have greater chance for better education, finding good jobs, and getting promotion.
Previous researches approve that persons cannot learn a language without many opportunities for meaningful
repetition. Oral language interactions and the opportunity to produce the language in meaningful tasks provide the
practice that is very important to internalizing the language. Asher (2003) supports the idea that very soon after
teachers model the language, learners like to imitate what have been said. Krashen (1988) examined the relation
between listening and speaking skills. He stated that when students speak, their speaking provides evidence that they
have acquired the language. This idea led some teachers to jump quickly from speaking teaching to reading and writing
teaching.
35
When students learn English, speaking is significant to support their ability to apply the language. Speaking skill has
been very important to the success of human beings. The significance of speaking skill is observed in the daily
activities of persons. Speaking is an interactive activity and it occurs under the real time constraints. That is, persons
can use words and phrases fluently without very much conscious thinking. Speaking skill enables individuals to
produce sentences for the real communication, in other words they actually like to communicate in language to get
specific objectives (McDonough & Shaw, 1993).
4. Characteristics of Speaking Skill
According to Mazouzi (2013), learners’ activities should be designed based on an equivalence between fluency and
accuracy achievement. Both fluency and accuracy are important elements of communicative approach. Classroom
practice can help learners develop their communicative competence. So they should know how the language system
works appropriately.
The first characteristic of speaking performance is fluency and it is the main aim of teachers in teaching speaking skill.
According to Hughes (2002), fluency is the learners’ ability to speak in understandable way in order not to break down
communication because listeners may lose their interest. Hedge (2000) expressed that fluency is the ability to answer
coherently by connecting the words and phrases, pronouncing the sounds clearly, and using stress and intonation.
The second characteristic of speaking performance is accuracy. Learners should be fluent in learning a foreign
language. Therefore, teachers should emphasize accuracy in their teaching process. Learners should pay enough
attention to the exactness and the completeness of language form when speaking such as focusing on grammatical
structures, vocabulary, and pronunciation (Mazouzi, 2013).
According to Thornbury (2005), learners’ correct use of grammatical structures requires the length and complexity of
the utterances and the well-structured clauses. To gain accuracy in terms of vocabulary means to select suitable words
in the suitable contexts. Learners sometimes apply similar words or expressions in various contexts which do not mean
similar things. So learners should be able to use words and expressions correctly.
Thornbury (2005) declared that pronunciation is the lowest level of knowledge learners typically pay attention to it.
In order to speak English language accurately, learners should master phonological rules and they should be aware of
the various sounds and their pronunciations. Learners should also know the stress, intonation, and pitch. All of these
elements help learners speak the English language easily and effectively.
6. Speaking Problems
There are some problems for speaking skill that teachers can come across in helping students to speak in the classroom.
These are inhibition, lack of topical knowledge, low participation, and mother-tongue use (Tuan & Mai, 2015).
Inhibition is the first problem that students encounter in class. When they want to say something in the classroom they
are sometimes inhibited. They are worried about making mistakes and fearful of criticism. They are ashamed of the
other students’ attention towards themselves. Littlewood (2007) expressed that a language classroom can also create
inhibitions and apprehension for the students.
The second problem is that learners complain that they cannot remember anything to say and they do not have any
motivation to express themselves. This is supported by Rivers (1968) who thinks that learners often have nothing to
say probably because their teachers had selected a topic that is not appropriate for them or they do have enough
information about it. Baker and Westrup (2003) also supports the above idea and stated that it is very difficult for
learners to answer when their teachers ask them to tell things in a foreign language because they have little opinions
about what to say, which vocabulary to apply, or how to use grammar accurately.
The third problem in the speaking class is that the participation is very low. In a class with a large number of students,
each student will have very little time for talking because just one student talks at a time and the other students try to
hear him/her. In the speaking class, some learners dominate the whole class while others talk very little or never speak.
The last problem related to the speaking ability is that when some learners share the same mother-tongue, they try to
use it in the speaking class because it is very easy for them (Tuan & Mai, 2015). According to Harmer (1991), there
are some reasons why learners use mother-tongue in their speaking classes. The first reason is that when teachers ask
their learners to talk about a topic that they do not have enough knowledge, they will try to use their language. The
second reason is that the application of mother-tongue is very natural for learners to use. If teachers do not urge their
learners to talk in English, learners will automatically use their first language to explain something to their classmates.
36
The final reason refers to the fact that if teachers regularly use their learners’ mother language, their learners will feel
comfortable to do so in their speaking class.
Hyland (1997) investigated learners from eight disciplines at five Hong Kong institutions. The findings of his research
indicated that proficiency in English was a significant factor in the academic success of an English environment. The
findings also showed that the learners’ language difficulties were related to the productive skills of writing and
speaking. Evans and Green (2007) examined the language difficulties experienced by the students at a Hong Kong
university. The results of this study represented that the students’ difficulties centered on the academic speaking such
as grammar, fluency, and pronunciation and the academic writing like style, grammar, and cohesion.
7. Factors Affecting Speaking Skill
If teachers want to help learners overcome their difficulties in learning speaking skill, they should identify some factors
that influence their speaking performance. Learners’ speaking performance are influenced by factors like performance
conditions, affective factors, listening skill, and feedback during speaking tasks (Tuan & Mai, 2015).
The first factor is pertinent to performance conditions. Learners carry out a speaking activity under different
conditions. Performance conditions impact speaking performance and these conditions involve time pressure,
planning, the quality of performance, and the amount of support (Nation & Newton, 2009).
The second factor is related to affective ones. Oxford (1990) said that one of the important factors in learning a
language is the affective side of students. According to Krashen (1982), a lot of affective variables have been
connected to second language acquisition and motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety were the three main types that
have been investigated by many researchers.
Listening ability is the third factor. Doff (1998) says that learners cannot improve their speaking ability unless they
develop listening ability. Learners should comprehend what is uttered to them in order to have a successful dialogue.
Shumin (1997) represented that when students talk, the other students answer through the listening process. Speakers
have the role of both listeners and speakers. It can be concluded that students are not able to reply if they cannot
comprehend what is told. That is to say, speaking is very closely related to listening.
Topical knowledge is the fourth factor. Bachman and Palmer (1996) defined it as the knowledge structures in long-
term memory. That is, topical knowledge is the speakers’ knowledge of related topical information. It enables students
to apply language with respect to the world in which they live. Bachman and Palmer (1996) assert that topical
knowledge has a great impact on the learners’ speaking performance.
The sixth factor is related to the feedback during speaking activities. A lot of learners expect their teachers to give
them the necessary feedback on their speaking performance. According to Harmer (1991), the decisions that
instructors adopt towards their learners’ performance depend on the stages of the lesson, the tasks, and the kinds of
mistakes they make. Harmer (1991) also continued that if instructors directly correct their students’ problems, the
flow of the dialogue and the aim of the speaking task will be spoiled. Baker and Westrup (2003) supported the above
statement and said that if learners are always corrected, they will be demotivated and afraid of talking. It has been
suggested that instructors should always correct their learners’ mistakes positively and give them more support and
persuasion while speaking.
According to Mahripah (2014), EFL learners’ speaking skill is affected by some linguistic components of language
like phonology, syntax, vocabulary, and semantics and psychological factors such as motivation and personality.
Phonology is a difficult aspect of language learning for EFL learners. As we know, English is not a phonetic language.
That is, pronunciation of English words are not similar to their spellings. Words with similar spellings are sometimes
pronounced differently because of their surrounding contexts like tenses and phonemes that come after them. This can
cause a lot of problems for non-native speakers of English and they sometimes get confused in producing the English
words.
EFL learners should have the knowledge of words and sentences. They should comprehend how words are divided
into different sounds and how sentences are stressed in specific ways. Grammatical competence can help speakers
apply and perceive the structure of English language correctly that leads to their fluency (Latha, 2012). Native speakers
say what they want without having any problems because they are familiar with the language. If they have problems
in expressing some concepts, they try to use other ways of telling those things. They may make certain mistakes
syntactically but these mistakes do not change the meaning of the sentences they want to express and this doesn’t
create serious problems for the listeners to comprehend them. But the mistakes non-native speakers commit are those
37
that change the meaning of utterances they want to convey and can create some problems for their understanding
(Mahripah, 2014).
Motivation can influence and be influenced by the components of language learning. According to Merisuo-Storm
(2007), an integrative and friendly view towards the people whose language is being learned makes sensitize learners
to the audio-lingual aspects of language and making them more sensitive to pronunciation and accent of language. If
learners have an unfriendly attitude towards the language, they will not have any substantial improvement in acquiring
the different features of language. The above sentences support the view that just communicative competence is not
sufficient for learners to improve their speaking skill. Without positive attitudes towards the speaking performance,
the aim of speaking will not be obtainable for learners.
The fear of speaking English is pertinent to some personality constructs like anxiety, inhibition, and risk taking.
Speaking a language sometimes results in anxiety. Sometimes, extreme anxiety may lead to despondence and a sense
of failure in learners (Bashir, Azeem, & Dogar 2011). According to Woodrow (2006), anxiety has a negative effect
on the oral performance of English speakers. Adults are very careful to making errors in whatever they tell. In their
opinion, errors show a kind of unawareness which can hinder them to speak English in front of other people. Speaking
anxiety may originate from a classroom condition with the different abilities of language learners. Learners are divided
into two groups: strong and weak ones. The strong learners often dominate the slow and weak ones. The weak learners
do not usually want to talk in front of the strong ones which leads to their silence during the whole class activity.
Inhibition is a feeling of worry that stops people from telling or performing what they want (Cambridge A. L.
Dictionary, 2008). All human beings make a series of defenses to protect the ego. Due to the fact that committing
mistakes is a natural process of learning a language, it certainly causes potential threats to one’s ego. These threats
disappoint the learners to talk English and prefer to be silent rather than being criticized in front of a large number of
people (Brown, 2000). Risk-taking is pertinent to inhibition and self-respect. EFL learners who have a low self-respect
tend to stop taking a risk of committing mistakes in their speaking tasks which resulting in the inhibition to the
betterment of their speaking skill (Mahripah, 2014).
8. Previous Studies on the Factors Affecting Speaking Skill
In this section, some studies pertinent to the factors influencing speaking skill are reviewed. Park and Lee (2005)
investigated the connection between second language learners’ anxiety, self-confidence, and speaking performance.
One hundred and thirty two Korean learners participated in this research. The results obtained from this research
showed that students’ anxiety level had a negative relationship to their oral performance.
Boonkit (2010) carried out a study on the factors increasing the development of learners’ speaking skill. The results
represented that the use of appropriate activities for speaking skill can be a good strategy to decrease speakers’ anxiety.
The results also revealed that the freedom of topic choice urged the participants to feel comfortable, persuaded to
speak English, and increased the speaking confidence among EFL learners.
Ali Dincer and Savas Yesilyurt (2013) carried out a study towards teachers’ beliefs on speaking skills based on
motivational orientations. The results of their study indicated that the teachers had negative opinions about speaking
instruction though they believed that it was of great significance in speaking skill. The results also revealed that the
teachers felt unskilled in oral communication though they had various motivational orientations towards speaking
English. The researchers indicated that that learners have different opinions about the significance of speaking skill in
English language and this difference is related with the learners’ motivational orientations and their
competent/incompetent feelings in speaking skill. The results demonstrated that learners’ self-assessment about their
speaking skill was negative and they expressed themselves as incapable speakers of English. Just some of them
expressed that they had a good position in taking part in speaking tasks.
Tanveer (2007) examined the factors caused anxiety for learners in learning speaking ability and the impact of anxiety
on target language communication. The obtained results indicated that learners’ feeling of stress and anxiety stop
their language learning and performance abilities. The researcher emphasized that the high anxiety lowers the learners’
speaking performance.
Eissa, Misbah, and Najat (1988) performed a study towards the difficulties of using English as a means of instruction
and communication. The results of this study displayed that learners had many difficulties in using English language
as a means of instruction. A lot of participants stated that their learners have low English proficiency. The results also
38
indicated that a lot of learners faced serious difficulties in understanding the lectures’ content without translating or
applying L1 to deliver the content of the lectures.
Urrutia and Vega (2010) demonstrated that learners’ oral performance was influenced by their lack of vocabulary,
diffidence, and fear of being despised. It was also indicated that learners’ cooperation, self-confidence, vocabulary
knowledge, and the class environment encouraged them to improve their speaking skills. Prieto (2007) performed a
study about the cooperative learning tasks. The findings of her study showed that one way to improve speaking skill
is to interact with others, learn from others, and the choice of the topics based on the learners’ interests in order to
encourage them.
Bozorgian (2012) investigated the relationship between listening skill and the other language skills. The results
revealed that there is a close correlation between listening comprehension and language proficiency. That is, the higher
the listening score, the better the speaking score. Lukitasari (2003) carried out a study towards learners’ strategies in
overcoming their speaking problems. The results obtained from this study show that learners face a lot of speaking
difficulties such as inhibition, nothing to say, low participation, and mother tongue use in their speaking classes. The
other result of this study demonstrate that learners did not better their speaking skill because they had not learnt three
components of speaking called vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation.
9. Conclusion
This paper reviewed the factors that affect students’ English speaking performance. The mentioned factors in this
paper have an important role in developing learners’ speaking skill. The factors make learners less self-confident and
less comfortable in their speaking classes. The findings of this paper indicated that learners with a low self-esteem,
higher anxiety, and low motivation have serious difficulties in speaking skill in spite of having acceptable linguistic
skills. The paper showed that students who have higher motivation and lower anxiety can speak easily and effectively.
Thus, students should have a friendly and cooperative environment that can help them overcome their difficulties in
oral performance. Based on the review of the literature of the study, teachers should understand their students’ interests
and feelings, improve their learners’ self-confidence, and choose the best teaching method to keep their learners’
involved in the speaking activity. Teachers should praise their students to speak English. They should build a friendly
relationship with their students, make them feel very happy in the class and have a feeling of great enthusiasm and
eagerness to study English in general and speak English in particular. The literature review of this study represented
that teachers should give their learners enough time for speaking skill, help them overcome their timidness through
friendly behaviors to make them feel comfortable when speaking, remind their learners not to worry about making
mistakes, and give them true instructions and enough guidance. Teachers should give their learners more opportunities
to speak English through using some speaking tasks that help them to speak and urge them to take part in speaking
activities. In addition, teachers should know when and how to correct their learners’ mistakes so that they are not
afraid of making mistakes.
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ISSN 1799-2591
Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol. 8, No. 7, pp. 848-859, July 2018
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17507/tpls.0807.17
Improving EFL Students' Speaking Proficiency

and Motivation: A Hybrid Problem-based
Learning Approach
Mohamed Ali Mohamed Kassem
Department of Curriculum and Teaching Methodology, Faculty of Education in the New Valley, Assiut University,
Egypt
Abstract—The present study used a Hybrid Problem-Based Learning (H-PBL) approach for teaching a
Speaking Course to the First-Year students of the English Department at Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz
University, Saudi Arabia. Previous research has proved the currently inappropriate teaching approaches and
the lack of motivation to be the most significant reasons for EFL students' poor speaking proficiency. The lack
of motivation is due to the traditional, rigid and tedious teaching techniques adopted in speaking classrooms
and partly due to the standardized curriculum of the speaking course where there is no scope for instructors to
change their teaching approach or introduce new ideas in the curriculum. The H-PBL approach has been
proved to be an effective model for teaching language skills; however, the existing literature still lacks an
actual action plan or a methodology to introduce this approach as a pedagogical remedy for motivating EFL
students and improving their speaking proficiency. The study addressed this gap by recommending the use of
H-PBL approach in EFL speaking classes. The study used a pre-post speaking proficiency test, a students'
motivation questionnaire, interviews and observation sheets as data collection tools. Results revealed that the
H-PBL approach has a positive effect on improving the students' speaking proficiency, students' motivation
significantly increased and, eventually, students tended to be more self-directed and independent. Instructors
also applauded the use of H-PBL approach but recommended adapting the curriculum and the teaching
strategies to support this approach.
Index Terms— H-PBL, speaking proficiency, motivation, teaching strategies
I. INTRODUCTION
Speaking is a major language skill that EFL learning programs have sought to develop to enable students to express
their ideas appropriately and to communicate successfully. Speaking proficiency has become evidence that learning a
language is achieved (Glover, 2011). However, speaking is considered the most challenging skill in mastering a
language because of its spontaneous nature and the implementation of conventional teaching approaches that emphasize
memorization and students' passive role (Shabani, 2013). On the contrary, research has revealed that improving
speaking proficiency requires students' vigorous involvement in the learning process and a supportive environment that
triggers students' motivation.
In response to the calls for involving students in the learning process, various approaches and methods based on the
constructivist approach of learning are being adopted, such as Project-Based Learning, Task-Based Learning,
Cooperative-Learning and Problem-Based Learning (PBL) (Amma, 2005; Juvova et al, 2015). These methods have
been developed as a reaction to memorization or rote-learning as well as to teacher-centered approaches that focus only
on the transmission of knowledge from teachers to students. PBL, the focus of the present study, is believed to be
suitable for current EFL settings because students, through this approach, find an opportunity to communicate, work
together and collaborate to solve complicated and authentic problems. This approach has been proved to motivate
students' learning process and facilitates the acquisition of language skills (Li, 2013). Moreover, it is claimed that PBL
approach has the potential to help students with poor language skills as it has been an effective teaching approach used
for enhancing productive skills in very difficult situations (Lian, 2013).
PBL has gained much currency among educators not only as a teaching approach but also as a radical philosophy that
seeks to change the theory of teaching and learning (Bueno et al, 2015). It is described as the most outstanding
educational innovation in the 20th century (Jonassen, 2011). In this regard, the strength of the PBL approach resides in
the following points: (1) relying on a reliable theory in the field of cognitive psychology; (2) calling for an active and
central role of students; (3) minimizing the over-dominant role of instructors; (4) advocating self and peer assessment
instead of teacher's assessment; (5) fostering students' critical and creative thinking; (6) relating learning to real world
problems; and (7) enhancing students' motivation (Savery, 2006).
The main objectives of PBL approach are to structure new knowledge by creating an environment in which students
can employ their previous knowledge with the one acquired during their problem-solving sessions (Barrell, 2007), to
develop flexible and extensive knowledge, to foster the acquisition of problem-solving and reasoning skills (Uden &
© 2018 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

THEORY AND PRACTICE IN LANGUAGE STUDIES 849
Beaumont, 2006), and to support autonomy and self-directed learners who rely on their intrinsic motivation (Hmelo et
al, 1994). In other words, in the PBL approach, real learning takes place when learners practice problem-solving skills
and develop their language skills. PBL approach was first introduced at McMaster University as an experiment model
to evaluate whether learning acquired in school was relevant to future career (Barrows, 1986). With the implementation
of the PBL approach, students were required to first identify problems and then attempt to resolve them through inquiry
and exploration. This necessitated that they learn key concepts and strategies necessary for resolving problems.
Wu (2006) illustrates that the PBL approach can be implemented in full and in a hybrid or guided mode. The former
type requires students to define the problem through exploration and understanding the scenario; to learn on their own,
with teacher only facilitating and prompting them to give further clarification and explanation. No lectures are given by
the teacher. Eventually, students are required to work independently to offer best solutions to the problems under study
and justify them. On the other hand, the hybrid mode, first introduced in Harvard Medical School (Armstrong, 1991),
takes a case-based approach wherein the teacher presents the problem case-scenario contextually, delivers lectures to
explain basic concepts, defines its theoretical perspectives and divides students into groups requested to determine the
problem(s) based on the facts, identify the issues and propose the best solutions based on their newly acquired
knowledge and skills.
The H-PBL approach is based on constructivism which postulates that learners’ attitude, behavior and overall
learning are based on their prior knowledge. According to Gijbels and Loyens (2009), constructivism considers learning
the ultimate outcome of the interaction between learner's current knowledge and new experiences acquired by the
learner from the environment. Thus, the constructivists adopt a student-centered learning approach in which students are
actively involved in a process of new knowledge construction (Liang & Gabel, 2005). Similarly, Ben-Ari (2001)
observes that, in order to construct new ideas or concepts and to pave the way for real interaction with prior knowledge,
a learner must be involved consistently into an act of mental balancing instead of obtaining information directly from
the teacher. In this regard, learning environment plays a major role as it allows the learners to gain learning experiences
(Taber, 2000), to retain learning and to improve problem-solving, critical and creative thinking skills (Neo & Neo,
2009). On the contrary, the constructivist approach is often criticized for minimizing the role of the teacher in the
learning process to guiding students throughout the learning process and creating a supporting learning environment to
enable them to construct knowledge.
Exploring what a student is expected to do in a H-PBL approach is of paramount significance. According to
Jaleniauskiene (2016), the H-PBL approach requires that the individual student should participate actively in his own
learning and undertake the responsibility for identifying his or her learning needs and achieving the desired outcomes.
Simultaneously, the students are expected to use the H-PBL approach with interdisciplinary, additional learning
resources and apply measures, such as critical thinking, fun learning experiences or any contextualized issues to
understand and gain knowledge, thus introducing the concept of hybridity (Norman & Schmidt, 1992). Being
interdisciplinary in nature and by introducing the concept of hybridity, this approach also allows a simultaneous
development of analytical and professional skills in the learners, which is difficult to achieve with conventional
teaching methods.
In conclusion, the study aimed at investigating how the H-PBL approach can be utilized to create a learning
environment that will not only facilitate the improvement of students' speaking proficiency but can also result in
positive changes in their motivation too.
A. Problem of the Study
It has been observed that the majority of English majors at Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University encounter
difficulties such as poor speaking skills, reluctance to participate in conversation, fear of committing errors, lack of
confidence, and lack of English speaking peers or social circles, which can help them to hone their speaking potential.
In addition, most of the students are passive recipients of data as they take no initiative in participating in activities,
such as English club, seminars, language workshops which are intended for the enhancement of their speaking
proficiency.
Another aspect of the problem is that Saudi EFL students are less motivated to learn English (Alfawzan, 2012;
Alajmi, 2014; Aslam, 2014; AlKaabi, 2016). All these studies are unanimous that Saudi EFL students' lack of
motivation for learning English is due to the traditional teaching approach that prepares learners only for mid/end term
examination and the learning outcomes are test-oriented rather than cognitive. The current teaching practices pay much
attention to grammatical rules, rote learning or memorization, translation of texts to facilitate teaching of skills courses
without being concerned with students' motivation for learning English. Moreover, students' low motivation has a
negative effect on their academic achievement in speaking tests (AlKaabi, 2016).
Given all the aforementioned practices, there is a need to change the teaching practices in speaking classrooms. The
researcher argues that the H-PBL approach rather than the traditional lecture-based approach is more pertinent to
resolving the issues. However, this would not be an easy task due to a few challenges and constraints. The H-PBL
approach would require a longer duration to prepare lecturers and lab sessions; instructors need to be trained on the
implementation of this approach, particularly its methods of delivery and post-teaching assessments; the students, too,
have no exposure to this new approach as their past learning was based on the conventional approach during their high
school.

850 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN LANGUAGE STUDIES
B. Questions of the Study

This study sought to address the following questions:
1- What is the effect of using a H-PBL approach on improving Saudi EFL students' speaking proficiency?
2- What is the effect of using a H-PBL approach on improving Saudi EFL students' motivation?
3- What are the teachers' and students' perceptions of using a H-PBL approach in teaching a speaking course?
C. Hypotheses of the Study
The study was based on the following hypotheses:
1- There would be statistically significant differences between the mean scores of the experimental group and the
control group in the post-test of speaking proficiency in favor of the experimental group.
2-There would be statistically significant differences between the mean scores of the experimental group and the
control group in the post-application of students' motivation questionnaire in favor of the experimental group.
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A. Students' Role versus Teacher's Role in PBL
According to PBL, a student-centered approach, students take charge of their own learning whereas instructors
assume the role of facilitators in an endeavor to: (1) scaffold students via modeling and active implementation of
questioning strategies; (2) provide sufficient guidance to guarantee students' smooth progress in the different stages of
PBL (3) monitor students' performance and exchange of their feedback; (4) encourage students' implementation of
reasoning skills; and (5) decrease the amount of scaffolding when students display willingness to and competence in
constructing their learning (Hmelo et al., 1994;Torp & Sage, 2002). However, teachers face two serious challenges in
implementing PBL. First, difficulty with constructing the problems as they should meet a number of criteria such as
addressing students' interests, challenging students' thinking potentials, relating to students' real-life needs and serving
as a means for meaningful communication (Larsson, 2001). Second, the target language is used as a means for
discussing and solving the problems. This means that students should have sufficient language proficiency. Otherwise,
students will be frustrated and demotivated.
B. Using PBL to Improve Students' Motivation
Reviewing previous studies shows that the PBL approach seeks to provide learners with more choices, autonomy and
self-determination to keep them motivated (Mossuto, 2009; Li, 2013). For instance, Mossuto (2009) in his empirical
study found out that using PBL in which learners studied in interactive groups and their learning depended on open-
ended tasks was significant in triggering students’ thinking throughout the learning process and keeping them highly
motivated. Razzak (2012) introduced the PBL approach in an educational psychology course in Bahrain to identify the
factors that cause students' lack of motivation. Data were collected by monitoring students’ performance in group
presentations. Findings showed high satisfaction with PBL and improvement in the learning outcomes. Similarly,
Huang (2012) experimented PBL in EFL classrooms in order to examine its feasibility in real situations. Four variables
were qualitatively investigated including students’ attitude, satisfaction, motivation, and self-achievement. Findings
revealed that students’ attitude toward learning was positive and their motivation level was significantly high compared
to the traditional group.
C. Using PBL to Improve Speaking
In EFL context, several studies were conducted to assess the effectiveness of the PBL approach in developing
speaking skills (Ahlfeldt, 2003; Solaina, 2013; Rohim, 2014). Ahlfeldt (2003), for instance, examined the use of PBL
approach in contrast with the traditional learning approach. Results of this study hinted that PBL was a more effective
method of instruction as learners prepared better speeches than students who learn in traditional classrooms. It was also
found out that students in PBL were involved in text and the course material that helped them to cope with their
speaking anxiety, which was not the case in traditional classrooms. Rosalina (2013) implemented PBL approach in an
EFL university speaking class in Indonesia. Her study revealed that the use of PBL not only improved students’
speaking skills but also positively affected the other relevant components such as grammar, pronunciation, and
vocabulary. Similarly, Rohim (2014) implemented PBL approach to improve speaking skills of a heterogeneous group
comprising multiple nationalities. His research employed a mixed method approach using action, observation, and
reflection during the experiment. The findings revealed a significant improvement in the students' speaking skills.
Finally, it seems that no study was conducted on the implementation of the H-PBL approach in EFL settings. This
necessitates attempting this recommended teaching approach since much attention has been paid to students' active
involvement in the learning process. This study, having taken into account the results of previous ones, aimed to fill the
gap by exploring the possibility of implementing the H-PBL approach in the context of EFL speaking classroom and to
examine how the H-PBL approach can be adopted to improve Saudi EFL students' speaking proficiency and to motivate
them to learn English.
III. METHOD

A. Research Framework
The present study employed the H-PBL approach in teaching a speaking course to accomplish at least two main
objectives derived from the problem under investigation. In other words, the two objectives were to improve EFL
students' speaking proficiency and to find ways to motivate them for learning English. The major concern of the present
study was to investigate the relationship between motivation and improvement of students' speaking proficiency. This is
consistent with the arguments made by researchers that motivation is responsible for acquisition and development of
language skills in EFL; more than a good curriculum and skilled and experienced instructors (Wang, 2008; Murphy &
Alexander, 2000; Dornyei, 2008; Li, 2013). Hence, improving students' speaking proficiency and motivation to learn
English are the two main foci of this study. In addition, it was also necessary to investigate instructors' and students'
perceptions of the H-PBL approach; this constitutes the third objective of this study.
B. A Mixed-method Approach
The present study used the mixed method approach whose two components, qualitative and quantitative, are
combined to verify a judgment (Onwuegbuzie et al 2012). The study commenced with the quantitative approach by
administering a pre-post test for both groups sampled for this study and proceeded to the qualitative approach, after
setting the results of the quantitative analysis through a statistical assessment. The rationale for using the mixed mode is
to be consistent with the recommendations of Teddlie and Tashakkori (2008) who confirmed that the use of the two
methods concurrently will lead to more accurate results.
To recap then, the former phase, the quantitative phase, was dedicated to understanding the first two variables of the
study, namely students' speaking proficiency and their motivation for learning English. In the latter phase, the
qualitative approach was used for data collection through individual semi-structured interviews and class observations
of the first phase as significant predictors of the usefulness of the H-PBL approach to study the three variables,
including the instructors’ perceptions of H-PBL approach. Hence, the former phase of this study was exploratory and
adopted a quantitative approach while the latter phase was confirmatory of the new data and followed a qualitative
approach. The mixed approach helped to avoid the so-called methodological monism, or using a single research method
(Creswell, 2014).
C. Sample of the Study
This research employed a homogenous sampling strategy (Creswell, 2014) that enabled a purposeful, convenient
sampling to identify respondents of the same membership of a subgroup having pre-defined characteristics. This
sampling technique also assisted in the selection of the research site, that was, Prince Sattam Abdulaziz University,
Saudi Arabia. The participants were selected based on several pre-identified characteristics; one case is that they must
be EFL learners registered in the First Year of the English Degree Program since the speaking course is offered only at
this level to all students of the English Dept. As a part of the protocol, all participants were asked to sign an approval
form to guarantee that they were willing to participate in this research. In addition, the researcher demonstrated the
objectives and the expected outcomes of this research. In short, sixty students from the English Department participated
in the experiment, after having divided them into two equivalent groups (control vs experimental).
D. Tools of the Study
I. Test of Speaking Proficiency (TSP)
The test aimed at measuring the speaking proficiency of first year students at the Department of English, Prince
Sattam bin Abdul Aziz University, Saudi Arabia. The TSP took the shape of oral presentations in which the participants'
speaking proficiency was assessed through a set of criteria to determine whether the level of communication would
improve after implementing the H-PBL approach. The assessment criteria included, besides speaking fluency, testing
vocabulary and grammar structures, understanding what is asked, and adopting a pronunciation and intonation
intelligible to speakers of the English language. Therefore, a 4-point rubric was developed for scoring the test (see
Appendix A). Four criteria were used to assess students' speaking proficiency: (1) fluency, (2) pronunciation, (3)
vocabulary and (4) grammar. Each criterion had a maximum score of four points; therefore, the maximum score for the
test was 16 points. Two experienced professors volunteered to participate in scoring each student’s speaking proficiency.
They rated the student's speaking proficiency independently, using the scoring rubric designed by the researcher. Prior
to the experiment, an orientation session on how to assess students' performance based on the rubric was conducted by
the researcher. Inter-rater reliability was 0.89, which indicates a high level of reliability. To determine content and face
validity, the test and the 4-point scoring rubric were submitted to a panel of ten EFL experts whose comments and
amendments were considered in the final version of the test. Thus, it was concluded that the test is a valid instrument for
measuring the students' speaking proficiency.
II. Students' Motivation Questionnaire (SMQ)
To assess students' motivation, the researcher prepared a questionnaire that included 25 statements in its initial
version. Students were requested to respond to each statement on a five-point Likert Scale, ranging from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The questionnaire was submitted to a panel of experts to determine its suitability for
measuring students' motivation. The questionnaire, in its final version, consisted of 20 items (see Appendix B). Thus, it
is an approved, validated and appropriate tool for measuring students' motivation. The reliability of the SMQ was

established via the test-retest method. In the pilot stage, the questionnaire was administered twice on a sample of 20
students excluded from the main sample of the study. There was a four-week interval between both administrations of
the questionnaire. An Alpha Cronbach’s correlation coefficient of 0.88 was calculated. Moreover, an internal
consistency reliability check was computed and it was found that the alpha coefficient for the SMQ was 0.90.
III. Instructors' and Students' Interviews
Interviews with the participants and the instructors were carried out to investigate the instructors' and students'
perceptions of using a H-PBL approach for teaching a speaking course and how the H-PBL approach was effective in
improving the students' speaking proficiency. The open-ended questions were chosen to assess the students’ and
instructors’ perceptions (see Appendix C). These qualitative interviews provided in-depth data about the informants'
reflective experiences which could not be identified during their oral presentations.
VI. Procedures
At the beginning of the first semester of the academic year (2017/2018), two classes of 30 students each were chosen.
The first class employed the traditional approach of teaching the speaking course while the H-PBL treatment was
applied in the second class. At the end of the semester, the two groups were post tested. Students were required to
deliver presentations after the experiment was over. These students were also interviewed to explore the difficulties and
anxieties they faced in learning the speaking course. In addition, instructors were also interviewed to obtain their
feedback about EFL students' speaking proficiency and motivation and how far the implementation of H-PBL was
effective in improving students' speaking proficiency.
The experiment commenced with conducting the pre-test on the two groups: Group A (traditional method of teaching)
was the control group and Group B (H-PBL method of teaching) was the experimental group. To serve the purpose of
this study, a model similar to the Edwin Bridges’ Problem-Stimulated PBL (PSPBL) model (Bridges, 1992) was
implemented in teaching the speaking course offered to the first-level students at PSAU, Saudi Arabia. Since the main
goal of PSPBL was to develop domain-specific skills, this model suited the objectives of this study. This model helped
the researcher to find various means to enhance Saudi EFL students' speaking proficiency, means that were far below
expectations. Moreover, PSPBL was also a suitable model in the context of this study since students were not motivated
to learn English and a need arose to use novel techniques for engaging the students.
According to this model, and pertinent to H-PBL approach, the lessons were presented in the form of a problem. In
other words, each lesson took a case-based approach, following the original Harvard model (Armstrong, 1991), in
which both the teacher and students understand problem contextually based on facts, define hypotheses and suggest best
possible solutions through newly acquired learning. For example, Unit 2 of the Textbook dealt with Internet dangers
and harmful effects of access to the Internet 24/7 and addiction of kids to laptops, tablets, smartphones, and game
consoles. The students were asked to treat it as a problem and convert it into a case, formulate hypotheses, and find out
solutions to reduce the chance of child victimization. The students conducted group discussions to understand the
problem. It was quite clear that students used their prior knowledge as they brainstormed ideas into different hypotheses
to explain the problem. During this activity, all students of the group were encouraged to speak. The researcher used
such a model over the whole semester to teach all the units of the textbook. (Appendix D)
During teaching sessions, classroom observations were carried out by the teacher. The value of using observation
was to give teachers an opportunity to see directly what students do rather than to rely on what they claim they can do
(Dornyei, 2007). However, these observation sessions were more of a reflective assistance, not an evaluative tool (Yin,
2014). Then the researcher also informed the students in the follow-up interviews to comment on some of the learning
incidents observed in their oral presentations, which helped frame the themes and sub themes of this study.
Throughout the semester, data were collected through oral presentations, semi-structured interviews and observations.
The multiple tools enabled the researcher to perform a methodological triangulation of data in the end. All oral
presentations and the interviews were recorded to prepare transcripts. The transcripts of both interviews and oral
presentations used the analytical coding method (Linda, 2011) which necessitated reading and re-reading line-by-line to
gain familiarity with the data. While reading the transcripts of both interviews and oral presentations, the data were
coded into categories and themes using Miles and Huberman’s (1994) Concurrent Flow Model which required reducing
different types data not in linear manner but simultaneously as themes and sub-themes happening over and over again.
This analysis enabled the researcher to draw relationships between data sources and make themes more visible and
retrievable. Gradually, the data sources became saturated and themes and categories were more refined enabling the
researcher to understand general patterns and relationships emerging from the data.
The process of thematic analysis is often directed by the grounded approach proposed by (Glaser & Straus, 2006;
Strauss & Corbin, 1994) and is most suitable and informative particularly in the fields of educational and cultural
research. Therefore, the thematic content analysis of the transcripts of students’ oral presentations and interviews
(instructors and students) was a useful primary data technique not only to assess how H-PBL approach motivated Saudi
EFL students and improved their speaking proficiency but also to assist in assessing the instructors’ and students’
perceptions of the adoption of the H-PBL approach in contrast with the traditional approach. The method eventually
helped the researcher to identify themes based on the categorization and clustering of the factors that were emerging
from the transcripts from both groups. These themes were distributed in clusters and termed as pre-identified
characteristics of the Saudi EFL students as they were the primary participants of this study. Last but not the least, the

method helped the researcher to make a close examination of the perception of the participants in both groups as they
experienced events in their “multiple contextual factors” (Creswell, 2102) with a constructivist approach and with
participatory perspectives (Guba & Lincoln, 1989). As the last step, findings were compared between group A
(traditional approach) and group B (H-PBL approach) to examine how the H-PBL approach improved Saudi EFL
students' speaking proficiency. Although the researcher had made homogenous sampling, comparisons were still made
between the responses within the themes and across all themes to determine which responses corroborated or
contradicted each other.
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A. Results of Speaking Proficiency Test
By the end of the experiment, the TSP was administered on the sample to test the first hypothesis of the study. This
hypothesis predicted statistically significant differences between the mean scores of the experimental group and the
control group on the post-application of TSP in favor of the experimental group. An independent-samples t-test was
used to compare the mean scores of the experimental group and the control group on the post application of TSP. The
results, displayed in Table 1, showed a statistically significant difference in the scores for the experimental group (M
=13.06, SD =.691) and the control group (M =6.80, SD = .961); t (58) = 28.985, p = 0.01 in favor of the experimental
group. These results showed a positive effect of the H-PBL approach on improving the students' speaking proficiency
and the difference between the two groups is due to the implementation of the H-PBL.
TABLE 1.
INDEPENDENT-SAMPLES T-TEST RESULTS OF THE DIFFERENCES IN THE MEAN SCORES BETWEEN
THE CONTROL GROUP AND THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUP ON THE POST APPLICATION OF TSP
Group N Mean Std. Deviation t df Sig.(2-tailed)
Control 30 6.80 .961
Experimental 30 13.06 .691 28.985 58 0.01
The experimental group students' speaking proficiency improvement in terms of fluency, pronunciation, vocabulary
and grammar, as presented by their scores on each item compared to the students of the control group, is displayed in
Table 2. The mean score of each item on the experimental group students' post-test is higher than that of the control
group (M= 2.83> 1.73for fluency; M= 2.80 > 1.66 for pronunciation; M = 3.63> 1.63 for vocabulary; M = 3.80> 1.76
for grammar). Further analysis showed that the students improved mostly in grammar (M difference = 2.04) whereas
fluency witnessed the less improvement (M difference = 1.10). Moreover, the results revealed that using H-PBL
resulted in a statistically significant improvement in all aspects of speaking proficiency.
TABLE 2.
INDEPENDENT-SAMPLES T-TEST RESULTS OF THE DIFFERENCES IN THE MEAN SCORES BETWEEN THE CONTROL GROUP AND THE EXPERIMENTAL
GROUP ON THE POST APPLICATION OF TSP IN TERMS OF FLUENCY, PRONUNCIATION, VOCABULARY AND GRAMMAR
TBWS Control Group Experimental Group
M SD M SD t p
Fluency 1.73 0.44 2.83 0.37 10.24 0.01*
Pronunciation 1.66 0.47 2.80 0.40 9.87 0.01*
Vocabulary 1.63 0.49 3.63 0.49 15.80 0.01*
Grammar 1.76 0.43 3.80 0.40 18.81 0.01*
Note: * p < .01
B. Results of Students' Motivation Questionnaire

The results of post application of SMQ showed that students of the experimental group were highly motivated
compared to their counterparts of the control group. This confirmed the second hypothesis of the study that predicted
statistically significant differences between the mean scores of the experimental group and the control group on the
post-application of SMQ in favor of the experimental group. An independent-samples t-test was used to compare the
mean scores of the experimental group and the control group on the post application of SMQ. The results, displayed in
Table 3, showed a statistically significant difference in the mean scores of the experimental group (M =86.70, SD =4.77)
and the control group (M =33.30, SD = 4.77); t (58) = 43.34, p = 0.01 in favor of the experimental group. The results
indicated a positive effect of the H-PBL approach on improving students' motivation.
TABLE 3.
INDEPENDENT-SAMPLES T-TEST RESULTS OF THE DIFFERENCES IN THE MEAN SCORES BETWEEN THE CONTROL GROUP AND
THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUP IN POST APPLICATION OF SMQ
Group N Mean Std. Deviation t df Sig.(2-tailed)
Control 30 33.30 4.77
Experimental 30 86.70 4.77 43.34 58 0.01

Moreover, a positive correlation between the level of students' motivation and their improvement in speaking
proficiency was found. Thus, it could be concluded that motivation is a prerequisite for a significant improvement in
students' speaking proficiency.
The data analysis of students' oral presentations and subsequent interviews and a careful examination of the
interviews transcripts by the instructors revealed three main findings (themes) and six secondary findings (sub-themes),
corresponding to the variables identified in the research framework of this study. Figure 1 exhibits these main and
secondary findings.
figure 1. Themes and sub themes of the H-PBL approach found in this study
As the figure reveals, the first major finding of introducing the H-PBL approach is improving EFL students' speaking
proficiency. This was made possible mainly through two methods: a cross-disciplinary approach and a student-centered
approach, which are ideally suitable for the H-PBL approach. The second set of findings of this study emerges in the
form of improvement in students’ motivation which was sub-divided into two categories for ease of understanding. That
is, H-PBL is seen as an alternative to memorization or retention of learning and it encourages self-directed or
independent learning to develop English speaking proficiency. The third cluster of findings was in the form of
instructors’ positive perceptions of the H-PBL approach with two sub-divisions: first, the curriculum must be adapted
according to the new H-PBL learning and second, teaching strategies must support the H-PBL approach.
Students' motivation was explored when the students were asked whether they felt more motivated to learn speaking
by using the new teaching approach, how far the new teaching technique suited their ability and which teaching
approach they would prefer, the traditional lecture-based learning or the H-BPL. The main objective to ask such
questions was to obtain information on how the H-PBL approach motivated participants for learning English and what
was students' level of motivation for learning the Speaking course before and after implementing the H-PBL approach.
Students admitted that in the beginning they faced multidisciplinary problems while trying to practice English speaking
skills; e.g., they faced problems of memorization and retention but then the H-PBL was seen as an easy alternative. The
researcher found that the H-PBL was referred to several times during the interviews, so it was acknowledged as the first
sub–theme of motivation. Thus, many students admitted that H-PBL was the most convenient way to get rid of
memorization habits and help in the retention of the lessons. Moreover, a few informants also mentioned that H-PBL
helped them with self-directed learning. When H-PBL approach was employed, students could engage themselves in a
learning process that improved their oral communication skills along with other activities such as analyzing and
synthesizing the lectures. This was taken as the second sub-theme because H-PBL promoted self-directed learning and
ensured the initiation of a lifelong learning process to.
C. Results of Instructors' Interviews
These interviews took place after the completion of the experiment. The purpose was to identify teachers’
perceptions of the use of the H-PBL approach. Almost all interviewees accepted that H-PBL approach was definitely a
useful approach but they emphasized that while using the H-PBL approach it was necessary to innovate without
sacrificing the best of the traditional. According to them, prior to implementing the H-PBL approach, it was necessary
to make two changes: first, to prepare a customized hybrid curriculum to adapt to the PBL approach and second, to
identify the teaching strategies that support the H-PBL approach. The rationale for suggesting a hybrid curriculum of
the speaking course was that it might encourage self-directed learning for the students and give enough opportunity to

the teacher for discussing cross-disciplinary concepts. Thus, they admitted to what the student-informants had already
commented on during their interviews. The instructors also emphasized that a revised curriculum of the speaking course
would increase active learning and decrease students' passive learning or memorization that happened in the traditional
method. For this purpose, the instructors suggested reducing the number of lectures from the traditional curriculum and
introducing more tutorials, workshops and lab activities to ensure more interactive presentations. Their second
suggestion related to identifying such teaching strategies that would support the H-PBL learning. The rationale for
making this suggestion was that H-PBL approach involved teaching difficult concepts. In addition, the focus was also
laid on getting the desired learning outcomes, making positive changes in learners’ behavior, and developing speaking
skills in particular. Hence, the instructors recommended identifying a range of carefully planned teaching strategies for
integrating all pedagogical elements required for the PBL approach. These findings are consistent with those of
previous studies (e.g., Distlehorst et al 2005; Huang, 2012; Li, 2013).
V. CONCLUSION
This study posits a few interesting facts about H-PBL approach. First, it was revealed that H-PBL, if used in a
discipline-specific situation such as teaching a speaking course, would prove to be a good initiative for introducing this
new teaching approach. Second, in a problem-based approach, students address the problem without any prior
preparation which interestingly motivates them. The problem may be presented to them as a complex, very ill-
structured, challenging and pragmatic one. But it was observed that students are able to discuss and analyze the problem
to determine and locate the resources to solve it. Thus, they develop their skills independently in a self–directed way,
either individually or in a group. Eventually, students develop a sense of responsibility for their own learning and they
work independently of one another. The researcher concluded that the H-PBL approach proved to be an effective way to
improve EFL students' speaking proficiency and motivation.
The present study had certain limitations too. First, the generalization of the findings may not be applicable to all
skills courses as this research was conducted only in the context of a speaking course in the undergraduate program of
PSAU, Saudi Arabia. Second, the data were collected from a very small sample size, confined to PSAU's English
Department. It would have been more credible if the study sample was collected from 4 or 5 different universities
around Saudi Arabia and also from two concurrent academic semesters to determine its vast application, transferability
and application beyond time measurements. Factors such as gender, age, educational backgrounds and level of language
comprehension represent another limitation of this study. These factors were not explored in this study as they were
outside its scope of investigation but can be investigated and explored in further research.
Two main challenges faced the researcher in carrying out the present study. Changing students' learning style and
perceptions of the learning process represented the first challenge. Students, under the conventional method of teaching,
expected to receive the learning material from the teacher without any real participation or serious efforts. Thus,
encouraging students to be involved in problem-solving was not an easy task. Gradually, students succeeded in
adjusting themselves to learn, act and work collaboratively according to the new conditions. Changing the instructor's
role from transmitter to mentor/coach represented the second challenge as many difficulties arose: developing the
instructor's coaching skills, redesigning the content of the course to match the requirements of H-PBL, tailoring
immediate feedback on students' progress and crafting evaluating tasks.
This study has wider perspectives as the H-PBL approach could be applied to other areas of language learning.
Future studies should be carried out to explore the possibility of applying the H-PBL approach to other skills and
courses such as reading, writing, grammar and vocabulary. Eventually, faculty development programs and workshops
are recommended to train instructors on how H-PBL approach could be implemented successfully.
APPENDIX A. SPEAKING PROFICIENCY GRADING RUBRIC

Aspect/Criterion 1 Poor 2 Satisfactory 3 Good 4 Excellent
Fluency Students speak very slowly, Students are often slow Students' speech is almost Students speak fluently and
pauses are frequent and and incomplete smooth. However, some smoothly. They are able to
lengthy, breakdowns are sentences are used. hesitation and repetition develop speech/topics
detected and hesitation However, students are may take place with little appropriately. Hesitation and
impedes possible able to process the effect on the reluctance are avoided.
communication. speech. comprehensibility.
Pronunciation Students lack the right Students commit Students commit some Students use the right
pronunciation rules. No frequent pronunciation pronunciation, inflection, pronunciations, inflection,
efforts are detected to use the errors and create some rhythm and intonation rhythm and intonation. They
right accent. Understanding difficulty to the listener. errors. However, these use a native like accent.
is hard to be achieved. minor errors do not create
misunderstanding.
Vocabulary Students are unable to use Students use Students use accurate Students use rich and precise
suitable words to express basic/limited vocabulary vocabulary. Repetition of vocabulary to express their
their ideas. Lack the choice as variety and some words may be ideas eloquently. Idiomatic
appropriate vocabulary richness are lacking. detected. Students are still language is used accurately to
impedes them from able to express their ideas enrich their speech.
producing the right response. clearly.

Grammar Students are unable to use Students commit many Students commit some Students show mastery of
correct grammatical rules and mistakes that they are mistakes. However, they are grammatical rules. They use
are hard to be understood by unable to correct, fail to able to correct themselves varied sentence structures and
others as mistakes impede use varied sentence and this does not negatively accurate tenses.
communication. structures and accurate affect the comprehensibility
tenses, and of their speech
APPENDIX B. STUDENTS' MOTIVATION QUESTIONNAIRE

Read the following statements and choose the number that best matches your opinion of each statement.
1. Strongly disagree 2. Slightly disagree 3. Neutral (Neither agree nor disagree) 4. Slightly agree 5. Strongly agree
Statement 1 2 3 4 5
1. English is my most favorite subject
2. I persist in using English even if I face difficulties
3. I exert much effort to be fluent in English
4. Learning English inspires me
5. I plan to improve my English language skills
6. Attending English classes is really great
7. I like listening to people speaking English
8. I try to speak English for the praise of the instructor.
9. I like reading English articles and watching English movies
10. Communicating with English native speakers is interesting.
11. I study English diligently as it will help me to get a good job after graduation.
12. I study English diligently to prepare myself for higher studies after
graduation.
13. I'm more confident in using English compared to my colleagues.
14. I like to learn more about different aspects of English language
15. I do my best to understand oral and written English
16. If it is my decision, I would devote more time for studying English
17. Studying English contributes positively to my personal development
18. English is a major component of the College program
19. I plan to attend more English classes in the future
20. Conducting some mistakes while using English does not impede me from
communicating with others in English
APPENDIX C. STUDENTS' AND INSTRUCTORS' INTERVIEWS

Students’ Interview
1. Did the new approach employed in the course motivate you?
2. How and when did you and your group members get motivated –during discussions, reading for the text, speaking?
3. Are you still motivated to continue your learning skills even after the completion of this class?
4. Do you think that the assigned learning goals have been achieved with this new teaching approach?
5. Did this class address your learning needs and learning outcomes?
6. Do you prefer the old teaching approach or the new one? And why?
7. What do you think is required to become a good speaker in English?
8. In what way has the new teaching approach improved your speaking proficiency?
9. Do you think the new approach will affect your performance in class (e.g higher GPA)
10. Do you think the new approach can be employed to study other courses as well e.g Reading and Writing,
Grammar and Vocabulary?
Instructors’ Interview
1. Which teaching approach do you prefer the traditional teaching approach or the H-PBL? Why?
2. Do you think that H-PBL suits the students’ ability?
3. Do you think that students became more motivated to learn English in the new teaching approach that you applied
this semester?
4. Do you think that students’ speaking proficiency improved as a result of implementing the new teaching approach?
5. Do you recommend this approach to teach the speaking course in EFL at Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University?
6. Do you think the text books are adequately designed to suit the H-PBL approach?
7. Do you think the current curriculum and credit system adequately designed to suit the H- PBL approach?
8. Do you think the instructors are adequately trained to adopt the H-PBL approach in their teaching?
9. How much time do you think will be required for the students to completely switch over to the new teaching
technique?
10. What are the advantages and challenges of using the H-PBL approach in the context of this university?

APPENDIX D. SAMPLE H-PBL LESSON PLAN
Stage Content Teaching/Learning Activities Teaching/ Learning Outcomes

Stage 1 • Speaking Course overview • Pronunciation, Accent etc. samples taken • Great academic environment built
• PBL introduction of students to determine their current level of up to implement PBL approach
• Accent/ Pronunciation orientation performance (Peer/ group discussions) • Problems identified
• Group formation
Stage 2 • Recall of Problems identified in the • learning objectives explained; focus to be • Engagement and Task focus;
last stage on PBL approach • Learning starts: Pronunciation and
• Instructor draws a table consisting of • Instructors discusses facts / problems/ accent clarity encouraged; Loud and
four columns: (1) Facts (2) Problems various causes and effect ( e.g Cultural clear reading, Problems understood
(3) Hypotheses about cause and effect barriers; words meanings; Hesitation; Fear of • Schematic representation of
and (4) Learning objectives. failure problems &their explanation
Stage 3 • Group discussions of problem and • Group contributes their views and thoughts • students motivated, interest and
methods used to solve it. to problems identified. curiosity stimulated
• students encouraged to speak their • Students raise relevant points from their • students made to think deeply rather
mind prior knowledge to explain the problem, than just memorize
• a framework designed to initiate the
teaching based on PBL approach
Stage 4 • Students need to acquire necessary • Group agree on a set of focused and • Restructuring prior and existing
knowledge about learning outcomes achievable learning outcomes. knowledge to identify gaps in
before course commencement. • Self-directed learning; private study and understanding,
use of a wide range of resources • concepts are linked and priority
Each student practiced to understand what areas identified.
work is to be done to achieve learning • students motivated to learn from
outcomes several resources
Stage 5 • Real learning begins with H-PBL • Students listened to the audios and teacher • Students were able to produce a
Classroom approach explained correct articulation of consonants, stretch of spoken discourse that was
teaching • Text based study focused on vowels, diphthongs, etc. grammatically correct
begins) developing Speaking skills, • Students practiced the articulation of the • They assisted each other in
pronunciation etc words Students used some variety in their understanding difficult concepts.
voice (volume, rate, pitch, and rhythm, use • Critical reflection on the techniques
stress and intonation) they emphasized key achieved
words (noun, verbs, adjectives and adverbs). • Self-discipline and criticizing
resources done
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Mohamed A. Kassem is a faculty member at the Department of Curriculum and Teaching Methodology, New
Valley College of Education, Assiut University, Egypt. He earned his PhD in TEFL in 2011. He is highly
interested in several areas: improving EFL learners' language skills, using technology to create a supporting
learning environment and using alternative assessment techniques.

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provided by English Education Journal
USING THE PARTICIPATION POINT SYSTEM IN TEACHING

SPEAKING SKILLS
By
Muhammad Ihsan*
Asnawi Muslem
Zulfadli A. Aziz
Syiah Kuala University, Banda Aceh
ABSTRACT
This research was aimed to investigate if there would be a significant

difference in achievement between students who were taught EFL
speaking skills by using the Participation Point System (PPS) technique
and those who were taught by using the discussion technique at UIN
Ar-Raniry Banda Aceh. It was also aimed at finding out the response of
the students’ towards the use of the PPS in learning speaking skills in a
conversation class at UIN Ar-Raniry Banda Aceh. The participants for
this research were 30 non-English first year students in an EFL
conversation class at UIN Ar-Raniry Banda Aceh. Tests and a
questionnaire were used to collect the data. The findings from the
research showed that the PPS can help the students improve their
speaking skills more than the discussion technique in pronunciation,
grammar, vocabulary, fluency, and expression. The PPS technique
encourages the students to participate more in the classroom situation
by asking and answering questions, expressing opinions and
volunteering for classroom activities. It also creates a better teaching-
learning atmosphere in the classroom.
Keywords: participation point system, speaking skills, experimental

study, conversation class
INTRODUCTION
One of the main problems when teaching speaking skills is that

many students do not want to fully participate in the speaking practice.
*
Corresponding author: ihsan@santertainment.com
176
ENGLISH EDUCATION JOURNAL (EEJ), 9(2), 176-191, April 2018
Anxiety, shyness, lack of vocabulary, lack of confidence, afraid of

making mistakes, and lack of motivation are believed to be the main
problems in speaking (Juhana, 2012).
Language is a method of communication used by humans to
express their thoughts, ideas and feelings. It is a way to communicate in
social interactions which have essential social roles (Phakiti, 2014).
Human organs of speech produce language from the persons thoughts
according to Bashir et al. (2011).
English language teaching is often divided into the four domains of
reading, writing, speaking and listening. Each aspect of English is
equally essential and the development of one area has a tendency to
enhance learning in the others (Rabbitt, 2015). There are two ways to
deliver the message in communications. It can be produced by writing
and/or by speaking. Speaking is the most important skill to master by
EFL English learners in order to enhance students learning and other
aspects of English.
When students are trying to communicate, they need to assemble
their thoughts and encode thejr ideas into the words and syntactic
structures in the target language. Schunk et al. (2008) have stated that
speaking skills are in some ways linked to the motivation of the
students themselves. Additionally, students who are interested in
learning and speaking English will find that their motivation increases
gradually. Some of them feel that learning a foreign language
completely needs hard work and that there are not many chances to use
all those skills in their real life situation.
Green-Demers et al. (2006) have said that lack of motivating
conditions in learning activities is also one of the most obvious
academic problems for students. They further indicated that this
situation could lead to frustration, learning dissatisfaction and could
affect their motivation in learning to improve their speaking skills.
Based on the researcher’s experience in teaching an EFL
conversation class for one year. many students showed lack of
motivation when they were asked to speak in the classroom, and they
tended to just sit at the back of the class and pretend that they were not
there in the class to avoid the situation where they would be asked to
speak. This is a big issue in the conversation class because the main
point of a conversation class is to help the students to get the chance to
speak and to practice their speaking skills. Therefore, the researcher
believes that there is a need to find a suitable technique to help students
gain self-confidence and to feel more motivated in their conversation
177
Using The Participation Point System in Teaching Speaking Skills (M. Ihsan, A.
Muslem & Z. A. Aziz)
class to achieve the main goal in teaching-learning speaking. This is

also in line with Astuti (2013) who stated that most Indonesian students
want to speak English communicatively in real life but are afraid to
make mistakes in speaking even though they understand English
Grammar and vocabulary. Moreover, the lack of motivation to create a
welcoming English speaking environment is another factor for the
learners in learning speaking. It becomes a severe issue in the
conversation class because the main point of the conversation class is to
help the students to get chances to speak EFL and to practice their EFL
speaking skills. Therefore, the researcher felt that that there was a need
to find a suitable technique to help students gain their confidence and to
be more motivated in their conversation class to achieve the main goal
for the teaching-learning of EFL speaking. By doing so, the
conversation class would achieve its main purposes which is to help the
students to speak English.
The Participation Point System (PPS), introduced by Hadley
(2002), has been used to measure and to assist the progress of students
in developing their speaking skills, to make students used to speaking
in English and to measure the participation levels of the students.
Teachers usually only write the scores for the active learners in their
score sheets privately. Consequently, it’s only the active students who
get the advantage of these scores and the students do not know what
their participation level is. Therefore, Hadley (2002) designed the PPS
technique, which makes the points for the students who participate
become something tangible.
Jeffrey (2004) has stated that the PPS can help passive students
participate and communicate in the classroom activities. After noticing
the passivity of his students, he decided to use PPS in his classroom.
The results from his research showed that his students became much
more enthusiastic to participate in all the speaking activities in the class
after introducing the Participation Point System technique.
Hadley (2002) and Jeffrey (2003) have found that the PPS has a
positive effect, which does not control the students but rather
encourages them to reduce their anxiety level in order to communicate
effectively in the class. A study conducted by Bess and Bess (2002)
showed that PPS can be very effective in assisting students to overcome
their anxieties and become more proactive learners in the speaking
classroom. Raine (2014) also proved that the students’ attitudes
towards PPS was positive which was shown from the answers they
gave on the questionnaire where the majority of the students agreed
178
that the PPS was effective in encouraging them to ask questions,

answer questions, express opinions, and to volunteer to speak in the
classroom activities.
PPS has been proven by Hadley (2002) and by Jeffrey (2003) to be
one of the most suitable and effective teaching techniques to improve
the students’ motivation to speak EFL and to decrease the students’
anxiety when practicing speaking. Therefore, the researcher decided to
try the use of the PPS technique in her conversation or speaking class in
order to try to solve problems she had in her speaking class.
In order to try to solve problems she had in her conversation class,
the researcher tried using the PPS technique in order to try to improve
the students’ speaking skills. PPS is a technique to motivate students'
participation in the classroom, especially participation in
communication by giving the students something real to talk about.
Coins, beads, cards etc. cab be used to represent the participation scores
of each student in the class (Jeffrey, 2003).
This research was important in order to provide useful information
for the teacher, her school and education authorities about any benefits
of using PPS in teaching speaking skills and to find out the responses
of the students to the application of this technique in the classroom.
Research Questions
1. Will there be any significant difference in the achievements of
students from UIN Ar-Raniry who are taught speaking using
the PPS technique and those who are taught using the usual
technique?
2. What will be the response of the students to the use of PPS for
learning speaking in conversation classes at UIN Ar-Raniry,
Banda Aceh?
LITERATURE REVIEW
Speaking
Language skills that should be mastered by students are reading,
writing, listening, and speaking. Speaking is one of the most important
skills to master in order to acquire the language fully. Brown (2004)
has stated that speaking is a part of the creative construction of
linguistic products. Furthermore, Harmer (2007) has claimed that
speaking is frequently face-to-face and interactive. Speakers may use
non-written language, vocal yariety features, for example altering their
179
tone, emphasizing, whispering, shouting or speaking faster or slower

and they also can use body language to add further meaning to the
verbal messages. In addition, Cameron (2001) has said that speaking is
the active use of language to convey meaning so that another individual
can make sense of it. Therefore speaking can be labeled as a productive
use of language.
Speaking is the verbal communicative skill in using a language to
express thoughts, ideas and feelings. Speaking is a crucial part of
everyday verbal communications and is most often used as a first
impression of someone’s ability in a language. Most people will assess
someones English ability by their speaking skills. Someone who can
easily and automatically express his ideas fluently in English will
become well-known as a good speaker of English.
Speaking Skills
Heaton (1990) has said that speaking is a complex skill that needs
the simultaneous use of different abilities, which commonly develop at
different rates. According to Bashir et al. (2011), speaking skills are
productive skills in the oral mode. It is like other language skills, but it
is more complicated than it seems at first and involves more than just
pronouncing written texts.
To conclude, speaking skills are the most challenging part of
learning a foreign language and deserve more attention. They are a vital
part of language learning and need to be developed gradually, step-by-
step.
Teaching Speaking
Teaching speaking is a very crucial part of EFL teaching-learning
to make students able to interact with other speakers of English. As
stated by Nunan (2015, p. 58), the actual test of a student’s ability as a
speaker is whether they are able to communicate with other people that
use the target language outside of the classroom.
This is in line with what has been stated by Thaine (2005) that
practicing the target language regularly is definitely needed in order to
get students used to speaking in the new language. The more they
practice, the more they can concentrate on what the other speaker
expresses and give a proper response to it. Teaching-learning speaking
not only consists of giving students practice in the classroom but also
focusing on methods and techniques which can assist students to
180
negotiate meaning and to communicate effectively with other speakers

of English.
Teaching-learning speaking EFL must aim for the students to be
able to use the English language in communication processes. Hence,
the process of teaching-learning EFL speaking should not only focus on
controlled and guided activities but also on some free activities to give
students opportunities to practice and to develop their own, individual
speaking skills.
The main objective of teaching-learning EFL speaking is to make
students understand and use their target language. Students need to
minimize confusion while delivering their thoughts and ideas to other
speakers of English because of problems with their grammar,
vocabulary, and pronunciation. They must also carefully consider the
social and cultural background of the listener.
Importance of Teaching-Learning Speaking

Speaking is the process of arranging and producing messages by
using the voice, vocabulary, articulation, non-verbal cues and syntax
(Cooper, 1985). Teaching-learning speaking is a key aspect in
improving the sociolinguistic competence of students in using English
as a foreign language. There are some challenges in teaching-learning
EFL speaking or conversation. One of them is that the students have
little idea what real spoken English language sounds like except from
the movies and TV (Pawlak & Waniek-Klimczak, 2015). In teaching-
learning speaking, the teacher must not only teach his students the
theory about speaking or just give them examples of how to speak or
how to use English, but the teacher must guide the students how to
learn, use and practice English till they become fluent in it. In this case,
the students must practice speaking by themselves. The teacher should
make the students interact with other people who can speak English.
Speaking is not only the ability to say anything in a language but also
the ability to communicate by using that language.
Spoking the English language is an essential skill for students to
learn, in order to understand and to communicate, to read and to write,
to ask and to answer questions, to express their thoughts and their
feelings in English. It is the main form of human communication and
the fundamental method of teaching-learning from the early school
years up until the highest levels of higher education (Cook, 2000).
Speaking is recognized as the fundamental ability in language
communi-cation. Nevertheless, its significance to language learners is
181
unsurpased for daily verbal communications. Speaking can assist in

language acquisition and lead towards the educational development of
many second language learners. All language educators understand that
speaking is a vital communications skill for their learners, although not
all are aware of how speaking can directly contribute to other
significant aspects of their students’ achievements (Christine & Debbie,
2007).
Speaking activities require interaction between a person and one or
more others. Such interactions happens in a natural situation. In these
interactions, speakers not only give short sentences to answer questions
from other people but they also provide interactions that use emotions,
creativity, agreement or disagreement, sighing, nodding, gesticulating
and so on. So the other person will understand what that person has
said.
Learning to speak communicatively in a foreign language needs to
follow a process. First, the learner needs to understand enough
vocabulary and grammar and to have a little knowledge of the language
that they are learning. Then they must become accustomed to the
sentence patterns and have a basic knowledge for them to use them in
expressing their intentions automatically so that the main goal of
speaking in the language is achieved.
The students need much practice in order to make them
accustomed to the language so that at the more advanced stage the
learners can concentrate on what they want to say. If the teacher wants
his students to be able to interact better, the teacher must get get hjs
students to practice many examples, many times and must give them
good models of communication to peactice. The teacher must also help
his students develop their ability to speak with acceptable grammar and
good pronunciation, like an international speaker not like a native
speaker as there are so many different varieties of native English
speakers e.g.: Cockney, Texan, Queenslander, Irish, Scottish, New
Yorker, Canadian, Northern Indian and Philippino. In fact Malaysian
contestants regukarly won the Toastmasters International recorded
World Speaking Championships a few decades ago.
It is important to note that a language teacher should understand
the purpose of teaching-learning EFL speaking. It’s aim is to make his
students able to use English for day-to-day communications. The
processes of teaching-learning, therefore, should give more emphasis to
free activities: whereas the controlled and guided activities should just
be a vehicle for achieving that purpose. Speaking is very important in
182
our life. According to Melendez et al. (2014, p. 549), speaking EFL is

one of the main challenges for a beginner student, and it can leads to
frustration for a student at the start of her degree. Hence, it was
proposed to conduct a study based on strategies for developing
speaking skills at a basic level in order to support and enhance the oral
participation of students in their studies.
Functions of Teaching-Learning Speaking

Speaking especially in a language other than our own is quite
complex. For that reason, teachers need to focus on the learners and
provide them with opportunities to speak by using several strategies for
teaching speaking (Nunan, 2015, p. 64). In order to develop strategies
for teaching speaking, teachers need to understand the core functions of
it in order to find ways for teaching-learning it effectively and
efficiently. As stated by Richards (2008, p. 20), a good understanding
about the functions of speaking and the different purposes of speaking
in daily communication will help teachers in designing speaking
activities through instructional materials for second or foreign language
learners. Many experts have classified the functions of speaking in
human interactions. Brown and Yule (1983) in Richards (2008, p. 21)
categorize them into three functions: talk as interaction, talk as
transaction, and talk as performance.
Talk as interaction refers to the conversations that people make
every day and describes interactions which mainly serve social
functions. Talk as transaction refers to situations where the main focus
of communication is on what is being said or done. Talk as
performance refers to public speaking in front of an audience like a
public speech, making an announcement in public, or giving a
classroom presentation Richards (2008, p. 22).
The Participation Point System

The Participation Point System (PPS) is a technique of motivating
classroom participation, particularly communicative participation by
providing students with something tangible while activities are
underway to represent their participation scores (Jeffrey, 2003). It is a
way of encouraging students to get the confidence they need to be able
to communicate in the classroom. It can assist some passive students to
become more active and to communicate actively in class activities.
Jumiati and Asrina (2013) believe that PPS can improve the students’
speaking skills in grammar and vocabulary as well as in fluency.
183
According to Hadley (2002), the PPS is a technique for motivating

students to participate in classroom activities mainly in communicative
participation by giving students something tangible (such as discs,
marbles, poker chips, etc.) while activities are underway to represent
their participation scores. Besides active participation is a must for
every student, communicating daily expectations is also a must for
every teacher. Thus PPS combines these two in a measurable and
tangible way. Each class activity is given various points that students
can get as they complete their tasks.
Teaching Speaking Using the Participation Point System

The PPS is a technique to motivate students to participate in the
classroom activities. This technique is used to improve students’
communicative participation in the classroom by giving students
something tangible (such as discs, marbles, poker chips, etc.) while
activities are underway. These tangible things then represent the
participation scores of the students (Jeffrey, 2003).
Jeffrey (2003) implemented the PPS technique in his class by using
glass discs that were each worth one point while a marble was worth
three points. He also used gold discs that were worth six points for
remarkable and outstanding participation. One point was given to each
student who was on time to emphasize the importance of punctuality.
He found that punctuality definitely improved when students were
rewarded with one point in this way for being on time. Before using
this technique, there were always a number of late students, coming
into the class after the lesson had started, which was disruptive.
In the first section, the teacher walks around the classroom to
check each students’ homework and gives one point to each student
who has done his/her homework. Additionally, students who volunteer
to answer a question while their homework is being checked get one
additional point or more if they elaborate the answer. Homework
checking only takes around five minutes. Before the class ends, each
student’s participation score is counted by collecting all discs and
marbles.
Bess and Bess (2002) have said that PPS works like this: during
the lesson planning, the teacher thinks about planned student behaviors
such as speaking in pairs, working in groups, etc. Next, the teacher
assigns each task with a number of participation points based on the
task. What students are expected to do is clearly spelled out, either
184
written on the white board or written out in a handout. Students

complete each activity in the classroom.
In fact, teaching speaking using Participation Point System can be
used in many kinds of ways. Below are the fundamental steps to
implement PPS in a classroom as outlined by Raine (2014):
1. Desirable behaviors (asking for opinions, asking questions,
volunteering for classroom activities, etc.) are assigned a
participation point score;
2. Students who participate in desirable actions are rewarded with
a physical representation of the points value (coins, beads, or
tokens);
3. At the end of each class, the total participation points received
by each learner is counted;
4. Special prizes are awarded at the end of each semester for the
students who collect the most points.
The total number of points may also count towards each student’s final
grade.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research Design
This research used a quantitative method with a pre-test and a post-
test design. This research was a type of experimental study using a
Quasi-Experimental Design which had both a pre-test and a post-test
with an experimental (EG) and a control group (CG) and withadirect
assignment of subjects (see below) (Edmonds & Kennedy, 2017, p. 33)
The experimental design which was used in this study was Non-
equivalent Control Group Quasi-Experimental Design which was
almost the same as pre-test-post-test control group design. The EG and
the CG in this design were not chosen at random (Edmonds &
Kennedy, 2017, p. 36).
Research Location and Participants

This research was conducted at UIN Ar-Raniry Banda Aceh which
is situated in Darussalam, Banda Aceh. This University was established
in 1960. It has been a requirement since 2014 that all new students
admitted to UIN have to take a compulsory EFL conversation course.
There were 792 students enrolled in 2016, and they were divided into
36 classes, average 22 students/class, for the conversation course.
185
These first-year students were from many different majors in UIN Ar-
Raniry Banda Aceh.
The population for this research were the non-English department
students of UIN who were taking the conversation class at UIN Ar-
Raniry dormitory that is obligatory for them to complete as a
requirement to finish their degree. The researcher also excluded those
students who had graduated from boarding schools (e.g. Madrasah
Alia) because those students had already attended a better fundamental
conversation class at their previous school. The total population for this
research was 151 students.
To conduct the research on PPS, the researcher chose those
students who were taking the conversation class in the UIN Ar-Raniry
dormitory as a sample for this study, because those students came from
many different majors and were gathered into one class.
There were 151 students who were taking the Conversation class
who did not come from a boarding school. The researcher and one of
the researcher’s acquaintances were each teaching a Conversation class
that semester. Those two separate classes consisted of students who
were not from boarding schools so that’s why those two classes were
suitable to become the samples for this research.
Thus the sample for this study were 30 non-English department
students from two existing conversation classes at UIN in the
2016/2017 Academic Year. The researcher checked for equivalence of
homogeneity in the English achievements of those two classes, and the
results showed there were no significant differences between them.
Blom and Unsworth (2010) aver that every experimental research
must have a minimum of two subject groups, an experimental group
(EG), and a control group (CG). The EG consists of subjects who are
given the treatment, while, the CG consists of subjects who are not
given the treatment in the study. Therefore, the students were divided
into two classes, the CG and the EG. 15 students were assigned to the
EG which waswas to get the PPS technique, and 15 students were
assigned to the CG with the usual Discussion technique. During the
teaching experiment, the treatment was only given to the EG, while the
CG was taught using the Discussion Technique. The post-testscores
from both groups were compared to see if there was any significant
difference between the scores from the two groups or not.
186
Research Instruments
Before giving the treatment t the EG, the researcher gave a pre-test
to both the EG and the CG. The pre-test was conducted in order to get
the background information on the students’ prior level of knowledge.
The tests were given in spoken form in order to find out each
student’s speaking ability in understanding and responding to a
conversation. The test was created based on the syllabus specification
for the conversation class which consisted of five questions about
introducing yourself, introducing people, asking and giving
information, simple questions, and asking and giving directions
After conducting the pre-test, the next step was to analyze the
results from the pre-test in order to allow the researcher to compare the
results from the two tests after the treatment. The treatment was
conducted with the EG and the CG for seven meetings.
A questionnaire is a list of questions used to collect written data.
Arikunto (2010) has stated that, regarding the way of answering the
questions, the questions can be divided into two types, viz: open and
closed. Closed questions were chosen for this research in order to limit
the responses from the students This study had 10 questions about the
students’ responses toward the use of PPS in the classroom and was
adopted from Raine (2014). The questionnaire was distributed to the
EG students in order to find out their response to learning speaking
using the PPS in their conversation class at UIN.
Data Analysis
In analyzing the data from this study, the researcher used the data
from the students answers about introducing themselves, introducing
other people, asking and giving information, simple questions, and
asking and giving directions from both the pre-tests and the post-tests
that were done.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The quantitative data, in this study, was acquired through the

pretests, the post-tests, and the questionnaire. By applying the PPS
when teaching-learning speaking in the classroom, the students became
more interested in participating in their conversation class since for
every participation that they made in the class they got a reward in the
form of a silver bead (1 point) for a regular participation or a golden
bead (3 points) for a special participation. The total participation points
187
for each student were added up to get their final scores at the end of the
semester. Therefore, the EG students were more excited about
practicing speaking in class and this therefore affected their overall
speaking skills performance during the classes.
The students’ overall speaking skill scores from the EG were better
than those from the CG after the PPS technique was applied for
teaching-learning speaking with the EG. This can be seen as the scores
from the EG for the post-test were certainly much higher that those
from the pre-test.
Furthermore, from the questionnaire the EG students responded
positively to the use of the PPS technique for teaching-learning ESL
conversation skills. The students believed that the PPS technique
assisted and motivated them in improving their speaking skills.
CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
This experimental research was conducted with a conversation

class at UIN Ar-Raniry Banda Aceh. This experimental research was
focused on the use of the PPS technique for improving the speaking
skills of the EG students. The implementation of the PPS technique by
Hadley (2002) and Jeffrey (2003) had previously shown that this
technique is one of the most suitable and effective teaching techniques
to improve the motivation of students and to decrease their anxiety.
This research has several conclusions, they are; the PPS technique can
improve the achievements in speaking skills of students, this was
proven by > (7.41> 2.07). Therefore, it was concluded that
the alternative hypotheses be accepted. Additionally, the PPS also
improved the motivation of the EG students towards the application of
the PPS technique and encouraged greater awareness in the classroom
to ask and answer questions, to express opinions and to volunteer for
classroom activities. On top of that, it also created a better teaching-
learning atmosphere in the classroom.
According to the research findings, it can be concluded that the
PPS technique can improve the students’ speaking skills in
pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, fluency, and expression. This
happened because the PPS technique motivated the students to be more
active in the classroom and encouraged them to participate more in the
classroom activities by asking and answering questions, expressing
opinions, and volunteering for classroom activities. Consequently, the
188
students got more practice in speaking in the classroom and this

resulted in positive improvements in their speaking skills. Thus the
students responded positively to the use of the PPS technique for
teaching-learning EFL conversation skills. The students said that the
Participation Point System technique assisted and motivated them to
improve their EFL conversation speaking skills.
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Brown, H. D. (2004). Language assessment principle and classroom
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Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
Vol.6, No.35, 2015
Teaching Speaking Skills in English Language using Classroom

Activities in Secondary School Level in Eldoret Municipality,
Kenya
Benter Oseno Gudu
Moi University, PO box 3900 -30100, Eldoret, Kenya
Abstract
There is a general public concern in Kenya that majority of Form Four school leavers lack communicative and
linguistic competence and thus cannot sustain conversation in English language without occasionally code
switching to Sheng or Kiswahili. This study sought to find out the classroom activities used by teachers to
promote learners’ active participation in speaking skills lessons in eight secondary schools in Eldoret
Municipality, Kenya. The study was based on Krashen’s (1985), Monitor Model specifically the input and the
affective filter hypotheses which emphasize that learners acquire target language when they are motivated and
involved actively in the learning process. The study adopted mixed methods design and simple random sampling
to select schools, students and English language teachers from National, Provincial and District schools. In
certain cases, purposive sampling technique was also used. Data on classroom activities used to teach speaking
skills were collected using Questionnaires administered to teachers and students, direct observation during
speaking skills lessons in Form three classrooms. The data collected was analyzed using descriptive statistics.
The study found out that: there was variation in use of classroom activities for example discussion was the most
used classroom activity while oral drill was the least used, during classroom discussions, students code switched
to Kiswahili or Sheng due to low oral skills and teachers did not integrate various classroom activities in one
lesson thus denied learners chances of using authentic language in context. The study recommends that: 1)
students should be given chances to practice using authentic English language in context, 2) teachers should
integrate various activities in a lesson to meet learners’ needs and 3) Curriculum to acknowledge learners’
cultural backgrounds in order to enhance their learning outcomes. This study is useful to language educators and
teachers of English language.
Keywords: speaking skills, classroom activities, English, language, motivation, teacher, learner
1. Introduction
In Kenya English is taught as a second language, it has been given a high status than native languages by the
Government due to its status as a national and international language (Chesang, 2005). It is used in all
government communications, compulsory subject in educational system hence taught from standard one to
university and a language for instruction from standard four to university (Ongondo, 2009; Sewe, 2009). This
recognition has enhanced penetration of English language even to domains such as inter-ethnic and social
communications where the indigenous languages were being used (King’ei, 2004; Chesang, 2005; Kembo and
Ogechi, 2009). Although, it has been used for linguistic imperialism by the colonialists to perpetuate their own
culture and interest ( Nabea, 2009; Kembo and Ogechi, 2009), it still holds a prestigious position in the country
because it is the language used across the curriculum in Kenyan Educational system, official language used in
office, media houses, courts, diplomacy, used to conduct all government business and an international language
(Chesang, 2005). As such, the importance of one attaining communicative competence in English language in
Kenyan Education system cannot be overemphasized.
However, globally, there is debate that majority of high school graduates cannot speak English
language properly (Alonzo, 2014; Sarwar, et al., 2014; Alharbi, 2015). Even the bright students who get high
scores in written examinations are unable to express themselves orally in English language (Sarwar et al, 2014).
In Kenya, students lack communicative and linguistic competence and often code switch to use Sheng, Kiswahili
and English languages during conversation or in group discussions in class (Abenga, 2005: Gudu, 2010). A
research done in Kenya by Mwamba (2005) found out that many students in secondary schools were shy and
preferred remaining quiet in class because they were unable to express themselves properly in spoken English.
This observation is consistent with that of Richards (old.fltrp.com/down//080403001.pdf) who found that
learners who have no linguistic competence often speak slowly, take too long to compose utterances, do not
participate actively in conversation, their spoken English language do not sound natural, have poor grammar and
pronunciation.
Similar observation was made by Alharbi (2015) in Saudi Arabia where learners have low oral skills
due to absence of authentic language learning situations outside and inside classroom. According to the author,
there are several factors that influence learning of speaking skills for instance use of mother tongue outside and
inside classroom environment, low status of English in a country, learners’ negative attitude towards English
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language, use of mother tongue by teachers to explain difficult concept, use of teacher-centered methodology
and passiveness of learners in classroom (Ibid). These factors influence successful speaking skills lessons.
The problem of low communicative and linguistic competence from secondary school is carried to the university
where it has also been observed that some of the first year students in Kenyan universities are not able to sustain
class discussions in English language without code switching or making grammatical mistakes (Barasa, 2005;
Mwamba, 2005; Gudu, et al., 2014). This is a serious problem which could affect the students learning of other
subjects and long term professional career development.
8-4-4 system of education has interfered with teaching of English language because of loaded
curriculum. The curriculum does not provide enough time for learners to practice using language in context due
to large number of students in class, students’ low proficiency and cultural related factors (Al-Hosni 2014;
Alharbi, 2015). Consequently it encourages the use of traditional teaching approaches by teachers because
enable teachers to cover the syllabus in good time (Lumala, 2007; Ngagi et al, 2014). Krashen (2005)
recommend that learners should be motivated so that they do not feel threatened. Al-Hosni (2014) observe that
anxiety and unwillingness to learn by learners in speaking skills lesson are the two main obstacles for learning
English. These are caused when learners fear being negatively evaluated in error correction in front of their
friends. In addition, those learners with low proficiency and rate self as ‘poor’ become more anxious and are not
willing to communicate (Ibid).
The problem of poor spoken English language among Form four graduates has led to a general feeling
that there is a need to re-examine the teaching of English language in Secondary Schools in Kenya (Mwamba,
2005). According to many researchers, the reasons for poor speaking skills could emanate from lack of
emphasis on speaking skills in the curriculum since it is not examined in national examinations, teachers’ own
limited English proficiency, class conditions that do not favor oral activities and limited opportunities outside
class for practicing using English language (Mwamba, 2005; K. I. E, 2002; Kioko and Muthwii, 2001; Alharbi,
2015; Bashir et al., 2011; Soureshjani and Riahipour, 2012; Alharbi, 2015).
Critics also blame the poor grasp of speaking skills of secondary school leavers to the introduction of
8:4:4 curricula by the Kenya Government in 1986 which according to them distorted the teaching of English
speaking skills in secondary schools (Lumala, 2007; Njagi et al., 2014). In this system of education, a student
must undertake 8 years of learning in primary school, 4 years in secondary school and 4 years at university. At
the end of primary and secondary levels, there is a summative national evaluation done by Kenya National
Examinations Council (KNEC). Introduction this system has interfered with teaching of English language and
encouraged traditional teaching methods due to overloaded English language curriculum consequently learners
are not given chance to practice English language in context (Ong’ondo, 2009; Otunga, et al., 2011; Barasa,
2005; Mwamba, 2005). The summative evaluations done by KNEC are used by the subject panelists at the
Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development (KICD) to evaluate the teaching, curricular implementation and
review processes at primary, secondary and tertiary colleges.
The problems identified above could be as a result of various reasons advanced by scholars. First, due
to lack of assessment of speaking skills, learners do not pay attention to it thus graduates have low oral skills
(Sarwar, et al., 2014). Researchers observe that speaking is the most difficult skill for most learners who learn it
as a second or foreign language due to their low proficiency (Alonzo 2014; Alharbi 2015; Al-Hosni, 2014;
Zhang 2009). Al-Hosni (2014) identifies factors causing speaking difficulties as:
Students are worried about making mistakes fearful of criticism, or simply shy. Students have no
motivation to express themselves… only one participant can talk at a time because of large classes and
the tendency of some learners to dominate while others speak very little or not at all… learners who
share the same mother tongue tend to use it because it is easier and because they feel less exposed if
they speak their mother tongue (Hosni, 2014: 123).
Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development (KICD), formerly KIE (2002: 3), charged with the
development of English syllabus and all syllabi taught in primary and secondary schools in Kenya, the current
teaching of English Speaking Skills in secondary schools in Kenya is based on the Revised Syllabus released by
KIE in 2002. The main aim of the Revised Syllabus was to improve communicative competence of secondary
school learners in Kenya. The specific objectives were to enhance learners: (i) attentive listening for
comprehension, correct inference, interpretation and appropriate response from spoken discourse, (ii) fluency
and confidence in speaking in a variety of contexts, (iii) effective use of non-verbal cues while speaking, (iv)
capacity to read, analyze and appreciate literary works, (v) capacity to use a variety of sentence structures and
vocabularies correctly (vi) think creatively and critically and (vii) communicate appropriately in functional and
creative writing. With these clear objectives and correct implementation of the syllabus KICD and most English
language scholars believe that graduates of secondary school education should have no problem expressing
themselves in English.
Teachers who implement the recommended English language syllabus should ensure that learners are
equipped with comprehensive language usage and can express themselves in all situations. However, based on
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persistent lack of communicative competence by secondary school leavers, English language scholars observe
that there is still a problem with teaching of speaking skills in secondary schools in Kenya (Mwamba, 2005). In
addition, researchers believe that speaking is an undervalued skill (Alonso, 2014; Al-Hosni, 2014; Alharbri 2015;
Mwamba, 2005). Yet little research has been conducted into the teaching of speaking skill and possible remedy
for generally low English language proficient learners in Kenyan context (Abenga 2005; Barasa 2005; Gudu,
2010).
Talley and Hui-ling (2014) observe that curriculum for teaching speaking skill should endeavour to
expose learners to authentic, practical settings for speaking English and encourage active learner involvement in
the lesson. Talley and Hui-Ling (2014) argue that English speaking curriculum should take cognizance of
international and local cultures which should coexist mutually. In addition, Ngagi et al (2014) recommend that a
curriculum should be designed in a manner that it recognizes the classroom activities of learners in order to
enhance learning outcomes. Tuan and Mai (2015) pinpoint the factors that affect students’ speaking performance
such as motivation, confidence, anxiety, time, planning, amount of support, standard performance, listening
ability and feedback during speaking activities. For students to have a successful conversation, they must have
good listening skills in order to understand what is said to them. The Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
approaches require that learners actively participate by sharing ideas, speaking freely, thus every speaker plays
the role of listener and speaker (Tuan and Mai, 2015).
According to English language scholars, use of learner-centered classroom activities including group
discussions, speeches, storytelling, drama, debates, poem recitation, songs, and tongue-twisters could alleviate
the problem of low oral skills (Johnson, 2006, Villegas and Lukas, 2002, Gathumbi and Masembe, 2005; Okech,
2005). These classroom activities improve student’s active participation, motivate and expose students to
authentic use of English language in context. Many researchers have also proven that students are much more
ready to interact with each other with more complex responses than with their teacher (Achmad and Yusuf 2014:
151) ‘students feel comfortable working, interacting and making mistakes with their partners rather than with
their teachers and corrective feedback from peers are found to be less daunting than the correction by teachers.
This study therefore sought to establish classroom activities employed and how they are used by teachers in form
three English lessons to enhance learners’ active participation in secondary schools.
2 Method
The study was carried out in Eldoret Municipality which has three districts, namely Eldoret East, Wareng, and
Uasin Gishu West, Uasin Gishu County, Kenya. The municipality was selected for this study because it
experiences problem of low communicative competence of Form four graduates like other parts of Kenya. The
study employed descriptive survey research design (Orodho and Kombo, 2002).
Simple random sampling procedure was followed as described by Mugenda (2008). A table of random
numbers was employed to sample the Provincial and District secondary schools except national school category
where there was only one in the entire Municipality thus purposively sampled. A total of eight out of twenty
three secondary schools, constituting about 30 % of sampled population of secondary schools in the Municipality
were selected. The same technique was again used to select 30% of form three students per school. Purposive
sampling was used to select two form three teachers of English from each school. In this study two data
collection instruments were used namely: questionnaire and observation schedule. Tape recording was used
alongside observation to capture verbatim communication (Mutai, 2000). The data was analyzed using SPSS
computer package.
3. Results
Based on questionnaires from teachers and students and classroom observations, the activities used by teachers
of English language in their lessons included dramatization, discussion, debating, impromptu speeches, story-
telling, role play, dialogue, oral narratives, , poems recitation, songs and tongue twisters. What differed was the
mode of delivery and preferences as shown by frequency of use of the class activities.
3.1 Teachers’ Responses

Fourteen teachers (100%) indicated that they use different classroom activities depending on the situation. The
most preferred classroom activity among the teachers was discussion used by 92.9% of teachers, dramatization
(85.7%), songs (78.6%), impromptu speeches and tongue twisters each (71.4%). Moderately preferred activities
included short stories and role play (64.3%), debating and poem recitation each (57.1%). The less preferred
activity was oral drills (42.9%).
The study also established that teachers used many recommended integrated classroom activities
including dramatization, discussion, debating, dialogues, role play, impromptu speeches, tongue twisters, oral
drills and poem recitation, but to various degrees (Table 1). This study found out that teachers preferred some
combinations compared to others. The most preferred combination by teachers consisted of dramatization,
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discussion, debating and dialogues which 50% of teachers used in classroom activities, followed by
dramatization, discussion and role-play (14.3%). The rest of the activity combinations were less preferred but
nonetheless used by at least one teacher. However, short stories, oral narratives, language games and songs
combination were not used at all by any teacher.
Table 1: Integrated Activities in Speaking Skills Lesson
Combinations Combinations of Activities used by Frequency of teachers using
Groups teachers the activities Percentage
1. Dramatization, discussion, debating and
7 50
dialogues
2. Dramatization, discussion and role play 2 14.3
3. Dramatization, discussion and impromptu
1 7.1
speeches
4. Dramatization, discussion and tongue
1 7.1
twisters
5. Discussion, debating and tongue twisters 1 7.1
6. Discussion, impromptu speeches and oral
1 7.1
drills
7. Dramatization, discussion, poems recitation 1 7.1
8. Short stories, oral narrative, language games
0 0.0
and songs
TOTAL 14 100
(3)
3.2 Students’ Responses
According to the student responses, the most widely used classroom activities included discussion which was
confirmed by 88.9% of the students, story-telling (82.7%) and poem recitation (82.9%). Other activities that are
moderately used include dramatization confirmed by 69.4% of students, debating (67.1%), songs (56.7%),
tongue twisters (58.3%) and role play (53.6%). According to the respondents, impromptu speeches (37.3%) and
oral drills (35.3%) are rarely used.
3.3 Observed Lessons

One major observation was that classroom activities were carried by teachers in varying degrees. Discussion was
more popular than oral drills in all school categories. In general, teachers in the National school were able to
integrate several classroom activities within a lesson for instance dialogues, discussions, impromptu speeches
and role play as opposed to provincial and district schools. Provincial school teachers used question and answer
sessions, whole class discussion and group discussions. In the District school category, whole class discussion
and story-telling were the mostly used classroom activities and students were noisy in their discussion groups.
Although, observed lessons revealed that most teachers across the school categories used discussion comprising
of whole class discussion, group discussion and pair discussion, in some cases learners code switched to use
Kiswahili and Sheng in their group discussions.
In general, teachers tried to integrate at least two classroom activities within a single lesson to achieve
integration of the four skills (listening, reading, speaking and writing). It was also observed that teachers chose
an activity within a combination without using all the integrated activities. The emphasis though was however on
listening and the students only spoke when answering the questions asked by their teachers. It was also observed
that reading was only done by the teacher as students listened. Students were not properly given chances to
practice their speaking and reading skills.
Where story-telling was used as classroom activity, only one to two students got the opportunity to tell
a story before the end of a lesson and only one activity was undertaken throughout the lesson. In some observed
lessons, oral narratives were also used to teach students but teachers tended to employ whole class discussion
with less opportunity for students to tell their own oral narratives to enhance their speaking skills and sub-skills
such as non-verbal cues, stress, intonation and fluency.
In all the lessons observed, there was no language game and songs used, even though in the
questionnaire students and teachers indicated that these were used to some extent. The songs only came out in
oral narratives. In some schools teachers provided enough time for practice for example in situations where
teachers taught intonation as an initiated activity of pair practice using model sentences. During such lessons it
was noted that some students could not even pronounce the sounds in words written on the board let alone
reading them. Teachers in all school categories were able to integrate the four main language skills (listening,
reading, speaking and writing) in a single lesson which enabled the skills to complement each other.
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4. Discussion
In the light of the above given research findings, the discussion is based on; variation on use of classroom
activities, motivation, teacher’s role and learner’s role. I will start by discussing the variation on use of
classroom activities.
4.1 Variation on use of Classroom Activities

The observation between students and teachers on variation of use of the classroom activities was not similar.
However, it showed a general agreement that some activities such as discussion were used more than oral drills.
Although in the questionnaires teachers indicated that they use the learner-centered classroom activities,
observed lessons by the researcher revealed that a majority of them adopted lecture method, explanation,
question and answer which are mainly teacher-centered teaching methods. It was also observed during class
observations that students’ participation was low as most learners were passive.
A study done in Oman by Al-Hosin (2014) also indicated that learners were passive in class and when
given chance to discuss they used Arabic in their study groups due to inadequate vocabulary, weak sentence
building skills, grammar structures, fear of making mistakes in front of their classmates thus kept quiet. Kenya
just like Saudi Arabia the curriculum is wide. This has led to teachers using teacher centered methodology like
repetition drills, memorization and lecture method (Mwamba, 2005).
Boring and stressful classroom environments do not encourage students to be creative or analytical, and
tasks that only require students to listen and imitate demotivate them. Students have no responsibilities
in the classroom and are negative learners. Even if they have the opportunity to participate, they will not
take it, because they are afraid to make mistakes. (Alharbi 2015: 108).
Although classroom activities for instance discussion, role play, speeches, dramatization encourage learners to
practice using language in context, learners cultural factors make them passive thus there is need for more
effort by both teachers and students to engage in learner centered strategies (Achmad and Yusuf 2014). In
addition, the learner centered classroom activities also encourage shy learners to speak by communicating face to
face, work independently, minimal involvement of the teacher hence improve their speaking skills through
practice (Alharbi, 2015: Achmad and Yusuf, 2014).
Pair work, group work, role playing and interviews … encourage shy students to participate and discuss
their opinions with their classmates instead of only with teachers. Employing various techniques in the
classroom also challenges students and caters for diversity in students’ learning styles (Alharbi 2015:
109).
In addition, cultural factors have been found to hamper effective implementation of communicative
language teaching methodologies (CLT). The classroom activities which were of interest in this study are based
on CLT principles. A study done in Thailand by Methitham (2014)) found that teachers were unable to
implement CLT methodologies due to cultural factors that make learners passive. Talley and Hui-Ling (2014)
observe that CLT despite its benefits has met cultural barriers which have frustrated its implementation for
instance in China CLT did not work due to learners’ cultural background which make them “reticent and Quiete”
( Talley and Hui-ling 2014). This could have been one of the factors that made teachers not to integrate several
activities within a lesson. Teachers should therefore take cognizance of learners’ cultural backgrounds in order to
be able to identify the most effective EFL speaking strategies when learners are reluctant to speak and implement
them according to learners’ needs (Talley and Hui-ling, 2014).
Furthermore, problem on frequency of use of classroom activities was that most teachers tended to use
less of some of the classroom activities especially oral drills and language games. Language scholars observe
that oral drills help students improve by practicing and consequently perfect their skills in speech (Broughtton et
al, 1980; Kochhar, 1992; Ayot, 1984; Oketch, 2005). In this study, this was done at low level. The designers of
the curriculum assumed that all these interactive classroom activities would be used in equal proportion to
promote learner participation and thus enhance acquisition of oral and communicative competence.
Alonso (2014) observe that fluency controlled activities for instance storytelling, discussions, debates,
simulations and role play provide learners with room to practice using language for instance the use of
vocabulary and formulaic expressions are communicative and interactive. These activities focus more on
fluency and the teacher is a facilitator. Students also benefit from these classroom activities because in real life
performance is dynamic and improves with practice in context. (Gathumbi and Masembe 2005; Alonso 2014). A
study done by Alonso (2014) in Spain found that Institutions and State Language School teachers used role play,
problem solving, discussions and debates and simulations more than Secondary Education (SE) teachers. These
activities were found to give learners enough time to practice using language in context thus improvement of
communicative competence.
Similarly a recent study done by Achmad and Yusuf (2014) in Indonesia found that pair work was
effectively being used by teachers in teaching English. The students were actively speaking and the class was
noisy. Later they reported what they had discussed in whole class discussion. These helped in improving their
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proficiency. However, the use of pair work also had limitations because stronger students intimidated the
weaker students thus they did not acquire language. The impact of preferential use of these classroom activities
remain unclear and could be the subject of another study.
Another problem was that although discussion was a major group activity across schools, in some
groups in some school categories, students code switched to Kiswahili and/or Sheng in their discussion groups.
However teachers did not discourage this bad practice. Research has found that learners use mother- tongue in
class when the topic of the lesson is difficult, for cultural identity and lack of encouragement to use target
language by their teachers during English lessons (Tuan and man 2015). Similarly research done in Vietnam by
Tuang and Mai (2015) revealed that learners speak in mother-tongue in English lessons. This finding is similar
to a study done in Saudi by Alharbi (2015) where teachers use mother tongue (Arabic) in the classroom to clarify
difficult concepts, grammatical points and explaining new vocabulary which decrease student motivation,
encourage students to think in mother-tongue. Besides, a study done by Alhosni (2014) also revealed that some
teachers use Mother-tongue for classroom management.
In addition, research done in Saudi Arabia found that English language is not important in the nation,
even in educational arena because students use mother-tongue (Arabic) to get what they want including
lucrative white collar jobs (Alharbi, 2015). Although in Kenya English enjoys high status in the society as I had
said in the introduction, students just like those in Saudi Arabia have low proficiency which could be alluded to
several factors for instance the language policy that lower primary be taught using language of catchment area
(mother tongue) does not encourage learners to achieve proficiency due to lack of authentic situations inside and
outside English language classroom (Ayot 1984; Alharbi 2015). For this problem to be solved, teachers and
students should be exposed to courses that increase language awareness for instance grammar, phonetics and
phonology and they be provided with authentic situations to practice language in context (Borg, 2006; Alharbi
2015). For group discussion to achieve its objective, it must be carried out in the target language. Achmad and
Yusuf (2014:153) observe that learners must be told the benefit of speaking in target language in the classroom
because it helps ‘mimic the real life’ situations.
Al-Hosni (2014) argue that the use of mother tongue in English language lessons by teachers and
students devalue the use of English for communication, sacrifice valuable opportunities for English language use
and learners see it as language used for oral drills and dialogues which are not important. The teaching
methodologies being used by teachers are inadequate as they do not put emphasis on speaking skill thus meager
development in English language (Ibid). This is also emphasized by Alonso (2014) contend that:
Although the practice of speaking in the classroom is a key element in the development of the second
language, oral skills have not always been central in second language teaching methodologies (146).
Teachers are not integrating various class activities in one lesson. Very few teachers managed to
integrate several activities in a lesson. According to Kochhar (1992) a good lesson is evaluated basing on the
varied activities the teacher used to actively involve the learners and how productive the activities were. Al-Abn
(2008) in Al – Hosni (2014) observe that learners have difficulty in learning speaking skills due to lack of oral
activities in the text book and recommended oral activities for instance songs, stories, rhymes and more
conversational language to encourage students to practice using language , have fun and to enjoy learning in
speaking skills lesson. Talley and Hui-ling (2014) recommend that topics should be creative to allow the teacher
to mix varied classroom activities for instance videos, songs, role play and storytelling which help in promoting
learner regular inclusion and participation.
4.2 Motivation
Motivation is an important factor which determines the rate at which learners undertake the activities. According
to Littlewood, (1984: 53) ‘Motivation is the crucial force which determines whether a learner embarks in a task
at all, how much energy he/she devotes to it, and how long he/she perseveres.’ This is an indication that the
communicative skills are developed when the learner is motivated and is provided with opportunity to practice
using language in context. Al-Hosni (2014) observes that some learners lack motivation to speak English
because they do not see the need to learn or speak English. This means that teachers should endeavor to explain
to their learners the importance of learning English language in order to develop internal motivation.
4.3 Teacher’s Role

Teachers should facilitate the learning process by providing learners with knowledge (Alharbi, 2015). This
requires that teachers use teacher centered methodology but be tactful to be aware of the culture of the
community in order to take care of the learner cultures (Methitham, 2014). Identification of these cultural
aspects provides warm, friendlier, and good relationship between teachers and students by reducing the cultural
distance. In addition, teachers should also be fair in error correction so that they do not overcorrect a student
(Borg 2006). This makes students’ error correction to be a natural part of learning process (Alharbi 2015).
Teachers should provide learners with authentic language in context (Alharbi, 2015; Hosni, 2014). Achmad and
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Yusuf (2014: 153):

In speaking class, teachers are required to create communicative and interactive activities by giving
students a great deal of opportunities to practice the target language. Essentially, the class manifests
student-centred backdrop rather than teacher centered… teachers are to prepare classroom activities that
are devoted and best facilitate speaking exercises.
Teachers also carry the burden of knowing how learners from specific communities learn so that the
teaching styles are uniform with the learners’ learning styles in order to enhance learning (Talley and Hui-Ling,
2014). Tsui (1996) identified six speaking strategies to be employed by teachers when teaching speaking skills
lesson for instance i) lengthen wait time between question and answer, ii) to improve questioning techniques, iii)
focus on content iv) Establish a warm rapport with the students, v) to accept variety of answers and vi) To
allow for student rehearsals. Learners also expect their teachers to give them feedback on their performance. A
teacher should only correct when there is a problem but should not correct every time a student makes a mistake
because this will affect the flow of conversation, destroy the purpose for the speaking activity, demotivating
students and learners may become afraid to speak. Thus a teacher should endeavour to correct mistakes
positively and with a lot of encouragement (Tuan and Mai, 2015).
4.4 Learner’s Role

Learners also lay an important role in speaking skills lesson. First, students should be ready to interact with the
curriculum being provided. This requires learners who have internal motivation. This increases self esteem,
confidence and willingness to communicate (Alharbi 2015). The learners then develop long-term self motivation
and determination wich will enable them to put more effort by participating actively in classroom activities and
speaking in English outside the classroom.. Archmad and Yusuf (2014) recommend that when a teacher is using
the uncontrolled classroom activities, it is important to take cognizance of culture of the learners as it impacts on
their learning outcomes. Talley and Hui-ling (2014) observe that learners are expected to agree to initiate,
respond, manage and negotiate their part in speaking skills lesson. In addition, they should select, sequence,
arrange words and sentences and utterances in order to have unified spoken English. Consequently, learners
demonstrate their comprehension and express self through meaningful and grammatical sentences verbally
(Ibid)).
Talley and Hui-ling (2014: 40) propose four strategies in classroom communication interaction. A
learner should: Think of what they are going to say, think about the structures they are using but do not let them
interfere with what they want to say, do not be afraid to make mistakes (mistakes are normal as you are learning
a language) and when you are not understood, use repetition, gestures, synonyms, definitions, acting out,
whatever comes naturally as you begin to feel more proficient in the language.
5. Conclusion
The study then made conclusion as follows: First, all the classroom activities including discussion, dialogues,
drama, oral narratives, songs, tongue twisters, debate, poem recitation, story-telling and role play were used
during lessons but with different frequencies. For example, discussion was used more across schools than oral
drills. This could bring imbalance in the contribution of these classroom activities to the learner.
Two, code switching to use Kiswahili or Sheng by students was a problem in certain class group
discussions which could hamper learning of the target language. It was found that learners speak in mother
tongue in their discussion groups (Kiswahili and Sheng). This was a sign of low proficiency in the target
language. Teachers should endeavour to teach using the target language (vocabulary, grammar, difficult concept
which will encourage their learners to speak using the target language. The students should also be made to
know the importance of attaining communicative competence in English language for instance job interviews,
attainment of decent jobs and positive attitudes towards English language. These will increase motivation for
learners. There are several causes that make students to have low proficiency in English language for instance
teachers’ lack language awareness thus learners lack models to emulate; learners are passive; teacher centered
methodology; lack of motivation by learners and students think in mother tongue and then translate to English
language (Alharbi, 2015).
Teachers should invite native speakers. A study done in Spain by Alonso (2014) found that teachers do
not invite native speakers of English to interact with learners. Although, this strategy usually motivate and
enable learner to acquire the sounds as pronounced by native speakers (role modeling). Teachers underrate the
contribution of interaction with native speakers which is a key pillar in motivation of students. A study done by
Wu (2006) in Talley and Hui-ling (2014) indicated that EFL learners often lack exposure to native speaker
models for their linguistic input because they have been exposed to non native models and are also non-native in
host culture. This calls for teachers who take cognizance of learners’ home culture and target culture in order to
support their learners’ learning. Talley and Hui-ling (2014:44) recommend that:
Provide students with numerous opportunities of intercultural exploration. When students encounter
61
Vol.6, No.35, 2015
new cultural aspects or reflect on their own culture through the perception of foreign eyes, it is possible
to gain their interest.
Three, teachers prefer teaching classroom activities singly not integratively. English language teachers tended to
integrate the various classroom activities differently with those in national schools doing it better than those in
provincial and district schools. Together these observations could be responsible for low communicative
competence of secondary school graduates.
5.1 Recommendations
The study then made four recommendations: First, teachers to discuss the importance of learning English
language in national/international arena to motivate their learners to put a concerted effort in achieving
communicative competence. Two, the curriculum design and teaching approaches should acknowledge cultural
diversity and learning styles of learners in order to respond to the students’ needs. Three, teachers should speak
using target language in the classroom frequently in order to expose students more to English language and to
encourage them to use English in the classroom discourse (Tuan and Mai, 2015) . In addition, for learners to
improve their speaking skills, they should speak using target language when undertaking classroom tasks and
outside classroom, speak English at home with classmates, should be made to understand why it is important to
acquire speaking skills, join speaking club for instance drama, debate and speak in front of a mirror (Tuan and
Mai, 2015).
Suggested further research include: i) The reasons for the low communicative competence of secondary
school graduates. ii) It is not apparent in this study why teachers find it difficult to integrate several classroom
activities to achieve the set objectives in speaking skills lessons.
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British Journal of Multidisciplinary and Advanced Studies:
English Language, Teaching, Communication, Literature and Linguistics 4(1),40-57, 2023
Print ISSN: 2517-276X
Online ISSN: 2517-2778
Website: https://bjmas.org/index.php/bjmas/index
Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK
Some Effective Ways to Improve Speaking Skill of English Majored

Freshmen at Tay Do University in Viet Nam
Nga H.T. Nguyen,
Tay Do University, Vietnam
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37745/bjmas.2022.0092 Published:11th January 2023
Citation: Nguyen N.H.T. (2023) Some Effective Ways to Improve Speaking Skill of English Majored Freshmen at Tay
Do University in Viet Nam, British Journal of Multidisciplinary and Advanced Studies: English Language, Teaching,
Communication, Literature and Linguistics 4(1),40-57
ABSTRACT: It is undeniable that speaking skill is very important in learning English. It is a tool to
help students find good jobs in the future, especially to work for a foreign company. However, the
process of learning and practicing speaking English is not easy, students still get a lot of difficulties.
This research was carried out to study some effective ways to improve speaking skill. The participants
were eighty-six English majored freshmen of English classes at Tay Do University. Questionnaire was
delivered to collect problems. This was a quantitative and qualitative research. The results showed
that enriching vocabulary, taking part in an English club, spending more time to practise, working in
group, talking to foreigner and enlarging knowledge about culture were the major ways. Basing on
these, English learners could find out suitable learning ways to improve their speaking skill. The
results of this study may also be useful for those who are interested in this field.
KEY WORD: speaking, English majored freshmen, university
INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, English has been considered very important in every field of each society as diplomacy,
business, aviation, education, science, technology and etc. Because of its globalization, English has
become the crucial medium in communication. English has become very popular in Vietnam since
there have been many English-speaking people coming to Vietnam not only to do business with
Vietnamese people but also to get to know about the people, the cultures. Specially, with the open-
door policy, many foreigners have been attracted by Vietnam. Therefore, English has become the
major medium of communication between the Vietnamese and the foreigners. Vietnamese people need
to be able to communicate in English successfully and effectively. The lacking of communicative
ability in oral and other language skills in using English can put Vietnamese regionally and
internationally in an inferior position both in politics and economics.
The communicative approach in language teaching has become more and more predominant in recent
years all over the world. At the threshold of the 21st century, English is used either as a first or second
language by millions of people and is one of the main or official languages in every continent of the
world. In Vietnam this approach has been used popularly especially speaking skill. To teach speaking
40
skill to learners, many classroom teaching techniques such as pair work, group work, role play, English
club, talking to foreigners and etc.
Speaking skill consists of short, fragmentary utterance, in a range of pronunciation. There is often a
great deal of repetition and overlap between one speaker and another and speakers usually use non-
specific references. Brown (1994) defined that speaking is an interactive process of constructing
meaning that involves producing, receiving and processing information. When participating in
communicative activities, the speaker should choose the correct vocabulary to describe the things they
want to say about, to rephrase or to emphasize words to clarify the description to produce the expected
pattern of specific discourse situations.
At TDU, English is a compulsory subject for English major and non-major, every student knows that
it will be important for their future jobs. Among the four languages skills, most students think that
speaking is the most important in the first year of studying. To make speaking successfully, they must
have a good ability of English especially communicating orally in it.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Definition of skill
In the past, a skill has been likened to a job and the learned capacity or talent to carry out pre-
determined results often with the minimum outlay of time, energy, or both. Skills can be classified in
two main types: domain-general and domain-specific. For example, in the domain of studying, some
general skills would include teamwork, individual work, self-motivation, and others, whereas domain-
specific skills would be useful only for a certain subject.
Skills in language often depend on numerous variables. “Skill is different from knowledge provided.
A fundamental difference is that while both can be understood and memorized, only a skill can be
imitated and practiced.” (Bygate, 1987). It is undeniable that knowledge of the language is not enough
for language learners, they need skills. Students obverse, practice, and then gradually gain the skills to
succeed. The more students practice the more successful they are.
Definition of speaking skill
There are a lot of definitions for speaking, for example, “Speaking is an interactive process of
constructing meaning that involves producing and receiving and processing information.” (Burns &
Joyce, 1997) or according to Revell (1979), “Speaking is an exchange process between people, of
knowledge, of information, of information, of ideas, of options, of feeling, so there must be concept,
ideas, in the fellow speakers of what they are going to say.” In short, speaking can be understood as an
action of making vocal sounds, it is also defined as expressing a person’s thought and feelings in
spoken language.
In addition, speaking is “an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing and
receiving and processing information.” (Brown, 1994). Its form and meaning are dependent on the
context in which it occurs, including the participants themselves, their collective experiences, the
41
physical environment, and the purposes for speaking. It is often spontaneous, open-ended, and
evolving. Speaking requires that learners not only know how to produce specific points of language
such as grammar, pronunciation, or vocabulary (linguistic competence), but also that they understand
when, why, and in what ways to produce language (sociolinguistic competence). A good speaker
synthesizes these skills and knowledge to succeed in a given speech act. Speaking skill also plays the
key role in foreign language learning and teaching.
The position of speaking skill in English language learning
It seems clear that speaking is the key component to English language learning. Teachers and students
are aware of the role of speaking in English language learning. In fact, different skills have certain
roles, but the almost aim is to use spoken language to communicate with others.
First, speaking is to enable learners to communicate in the target language. Besides, communication is
a basic demand for everyone, so if students want to communicate students should learn how to speak.
For the increasing demands for joining in a lot of fields in life, not only domestically but also overseas,
learners need to be able to communicate well as they ask for information to serve their different
purposes.
Second, one of the objectives in teaching language is to prepare learners to be able to use the language.
They must be aware that speech maintains a higher position than other skills. Martin Bygate (1987)
said that, “Speaking is a medium through which much language is learnt, and which for many is
particularly conductive for learning.” This means that there are a lot of emphases put on the importance
of speaking skills. When speaking skills are mastered, other skills like listening, writing, and reading
which can be effectively achieved.
In sum, speaking skill which plays a vital part in the teaching and learning of English requires the efforts
of both the teachers and the students to gain a mastery of it. Bygate (1987) proved that speaking not only
requires linguistic but also socio-cultural competence, which asks speakers to understand what, when,
why, and in which way to speak. In order to speak English fluently, apart from a limited amount of
grammar and vocabulary, teachers must be aware of the contribution of other factors involved in
speaking such as culture, pronunciation and etc.
Factors affecting on speaking skill
There are two most important reasons why speaking should be taught in the classroom. The first reason
is speaking is a good source of motivation for students. Nunan (1991) pointed out, “Success is
measured in terms of the ability to carry out a conversation in the target language.” Students who have
ability to speak English eligibly, they want to speak English; they know how to express themselves in
English. Thus, they always speak when possible. But for those who cannot speak English well, they
do not want to speak any word. Therefore, there are many factors affecting on speaking skill well as
vocabulary, culture, pronunciation and psychological obstacles.
42
Vocabulary
The term vocabulary has been defined quite differently according to its various aspects such as criteria,
features and functions. According to Ur, (1996: 60), vocabulary can be defined as “the words we teach
in the foreign language. However, a new item of vocabulary may be more than a single word: a
compound of two or three words or multi word idioms.” It is words that sounds and meanings interlock
to allow us to communicate with one another, and it is word that we arrange together to make sentences,
conversation and discourse of all kinds.
Chastain (1988) stated that, “The lack of needed vocabulary is the most common cause of students’
inability to say what they want to say during communication activities.” In other word, a word does
not merely have a meaning; it probably has many different meanings in different contexts. Learners
are often confused about choosing suitable words in certain context. Overall, learners meet difficulty
in identifying a word.
Vocabulary is very important for students who learn English as a foreign language. That is why
students who learn English or a certain language should know the words. The mastery of vocabulary
can support them in speaking when they are communicating to people. If they do not know the meaning
of words, they will not be able to speak English. Moreover, learning vocabulary is one of the first steps
of learning a second language.
Background knowledge
Besides some difficulties about vocabulary students also meet difficulty in lack of background
knowledge. Background knowledge is the main element to have a good listening skill. Learners will
not speak well if they get unfamiliar topic. Background knowledge consists of many aspects in real
life such as culture, society, economy, and so on. Therefore, background knowledge plays a significant
role in language learning as well as speaking.
Lack of background knowledge is an obstacle during the learning process. Anderson and Lynch (2000)
mentioned that, “Lack of social-cultural, factual and contextual knowledge of the target language can
also present an obstacle to comprehension because language is used to express culture.” The marriage
between language and culture is indivisible. In fact, background knowledge includes knowledge of the
target culture, knowledge of current affairs, arts, politics and literature. Culture provides land for
language to develop and in contrast, language operates to serve the culture. For this reason, it is
necessary for learners to have knowledge of culture background of language that they are learning.
Pronunciation
A reasonable pronunciation is important when a learner’s general aim is to talk intelligibly to others in
another language. In fact, pronunciation plays a critical role for learners who want to master in both
listening and speaking. If learners are good at pronouncing words, they will be proficient in listening.
Yates (2001) expressed that, “Pronunciation relates to the generation of sounds that are used to form
meaning.” With the same point, Hismanoglu (2016) stated that, “Pronunciation is significant as it is a
section of successful oral production or communicative competence.”
43
In addition, pronunciation involves in accent and intonation. Intonation is the rhythm how one’s voice
rises and falls at a certain point of the sentence. Brazil et al (1980) argued that, “Intonation in English
might also convey a speaker’s involvement in a conversation as well as a desire to take turn of talk or
leave the conversation. Intonation is a significant feature in English.” In communication, when the
speakers have different intonations, the listeners will confuse because different intonations make a
same sentence have various meaning. In addition, “The reason lies often in difference of stress and
intonation sufficiently large to spoil comprehension.”, Boyle (1984). It is not surprised that if the
speakers change their intonation, the listeners often misunderstand the meaning of the sentence.
Therefore, learners should learn how to control their intonation correctly to avoid misunderstanding.
Students can be expected to do well in the pronunciation of English if the pronunciation class is taken
out of isolation and becomes an integral part of the oral communication class. The goal of
pronunciation should be changed from the attainment of perfect pronunciation to the more realistic
goals of developing functional intelligibility, communicability, increased self-confidence, the
development of speech monitoring abilities and speech modification strategies for use beyond the
classroom. The overall aim of these goals is for the learner to develop spoken English that is easy to
understand, serves the learner's individual needs, and allows a positive image of himself as a speaker
of a foreign language. The learner needs to develop awareness and monitoring skills that will allow
learning opportunities outside the classroom environment.
Psychological obstacles
According to Wheeless (1975), “The fear of misinterpreting, inadequately processing, and/or not being
able to adjust psychologically to messages sent by others.” Students cannot neglect the existence of
being afraid and have a great tension when they think of a foreign language. Moreover, anxiety makes
up nervous and afraid; thus makes to poor performance. The feelings of fear and nervousness are
closely connected to the cognitive side of anxiety, which is worry. Eysenck (1979) suggested that,
“Worry wastes energy that should be used for memory and processing on a type of thinking which in
no way facilitates the task at hand.” Sometimes, learners forget what they want to say because of
nervousness.
One of the limitation reasons that may challenge Vietnamese to speaking English well is that they are
afraid of making mistakes while communicating. Making mistakes is a natural part of learning English
and they are only bad if students allow them to be, and if students do not learn by them. It does not
matter if student’s vocabulary is limited. It does not matter if their pronunciation is not flawless and it
certainly does not matter if their grammar is not perfect.
What matter is that students adopt a bold attitude and open their mouth and speak if students really do
want to improve their speaking English fluency. In addition, many Vietnamese students face the
common problem that although they spent six or seven years studying English at school, they cannot
pronounce an English sentence correctly, and they are not confident enough to communicate in the
language. Besides some students understand English grammar very well, and even score high marks
in examinations, but their communication skills are very poor and they are often too shy to even attempt
to strike up a conversation.
44
In short, there are many factors which effect on speaking skill but there are four main factors which
are vocabulary, background knowledge, pronunciation and psychological obstacles. When students are
lacking of vocabulary, they do not how to show their feeling, thinking, ideas and etc. Besides, if
students pronounce wrong words the listener cannot understand what students say and lacking of
background knowledge is also one of the reasons makes students get difficulties in speaking skill.
Moreover, psychological obstacles are very important in speaking skill. Many English students speak
badly not because they lack vocabulary or understanding, but because they are nervous, worried, and
afraid of appearing foolish. Therefore, students must train themselves. In addition to studying English
vocabulary, pronunciation, culture, students must also study their own psychology.
RESEARCH AIM, RESEARCH QUESTION AND HYPOTHESIS
Research aim
To develop students’ speaking skill at TDU, teachers have made a lot of efforts to motivate students
to participate in speaking class effectively. This study aimed at investigating the reality of some
effective ways to improve speaking skill of the first year students. It intended to investigate the attitudes
of students towards the importance of speaking skill, some ways to improve speaking skill effectively
and the benefits which students could learn from these ways. Then some suggestions were made for
the further study.
Research question
This study was implemented to find the effective ways to improve speaking skill for English majored
Freshmen at TDU. There were many ways but this research only focused on some useful ways. The
aim of the study was to answer the following research questions:
1. Which ways do students do to improve speaking skill?

2. What benefits can students learn from these ways?
Hypothesis
Through the literature review and the research questions, it was hypothesized that English majored
freshmen would be aware of their English speaking skill. In addition, they could recognize the factors
that influence on their speaking ability and would have suitable ways to improve it.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Design
In order to get information to fulfil the aims of the study. The questionnaire was severed for the
investigation of students’ attitudes and some effective ways to improve speaking skill. The survey
questionnaire is one of the most effective instruments for collecting data in social science. A
questionnaire is essentially a structured technique for collecting primary data. It is generally a series
of written questions for which the respondents have to provide the answers. If a questionnaire is well
designed, it will motivate the respondents to give accurate and complete information; it provides
45
reliable and relevant data in return. A questionnaire serves as an inductive method with the aim to
formulate new theory, where open-ended questions are used to explore a substantive area.
Participants
In order to get the data for study about the effective ways to improve speaking skill for English majored
Freshmen at Tay Do University, there are eighty-six students at Tay Do University. Most of them are
at the age from 18 to 19. Their time length of learning English is a little bit different, because
participants’ background of learning English is the same, but students spend time to practise English
speaking skill is not the same. Most of them started learning English at grade six.
At Tay Do university, students studied four periods (each period lasts 50 minutes) a week and there
were more than 30 students in a class. Therefore, students do not have more chances to practise
speaking skill. Most of students were taught from the primary school and some of them had learned
English in language centres, private tuitions, etc. Thus, these students had more chances to practise
and their speaking skill was better. From this, the participants had unequal level when learning
speaking skill because of the differences among their ability background of learning English.
Instrument
The instrument used in this study was questionnaire. The survey questionnaire is one of the most
effective instruments for collecting data in social science. Advantages of using questionnaire are: less
pressure on respondents, not under pressure of interview bias and analysis of answer is straightforward.
The survey questionnaire was used as the main sources to fulfil the aims. The questionnaire was
designed to investigate the students’ opinion about some ways to improve speaking skill and the
benefits which students could learn from these ways. Clear instructions were given when the
questionnaire was administered.
The questionnaire for students which included 18 questions written only in English, was administered
to eighty-six students. The questionnaire included students’ background, the attitude toward English
subject, the difficulties in learning speaking and some ways to improve speaking skill. The following
table was a short description of the questionnaire.
Table 1: The gist of questionnaire
Question/Statement Summary of the question’s/statement’s content
From 1 to 6 Students’ background
Question 7 Student’s problems in speaking skill
From 8 to 20 Some suggestion ways to improve speaking skill
46
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Students’ background
Students’ opinion about the importance of learning English

56.98
60.00
40.00 34.88
20.00 8.14
0.00
Very important Important Not important
Figure 1: The importance of learning English
People need to communicate with others to share their feeling, emotions, information and etc. Thus,
speaking skill plays an important role in communication. Fortunately, most of students know the
important of speaking skill in English but a few students do not. In figure 1, we could see that 34.88%
thought learning English was very important. Besides, 56.98% considered learning English was
important. This means that learners’ awareness of learning English has been increased. English will be
the language that people use to communicate with other people in the world. While 8.14% chose it was
not important. Maybe they thought that other languages as French or Chinese were more dominant
than English.
Students’ favourite skills
60.00
45.35
40.00
23.26
17.44 13.95
20.00
0.00
Speaking Listening Writing Reading
Figure 2: The skills that students like
Freshmen know that learning English is very important, because it can help them have a good job with
high salary and it is easy to communicate with foreigners in other countries. To communicate directly
with others, speaking skill is the best way. That is the reason why 45.35% loved speaking. Follow
speaking skill was listening skill (23.26%). Whereas writing skill was only 17.44% and reading skill
was 13.95%.
47
Students’ self-evaluation on speaking ability
60.00
41.86
40.00 30.23
11.63 16.28
20.00
0.00
Excellent Good Average Bad
Figure 3: Students’ self-evaluation on speaking ability
Look at figure 3, we could see that most of students evaluated their speaking skill at the average
(41.86%) and 16.28% said they were bad at it. The number of them said that speaking skill was
excellent (11.63%) and 30.23% of remainders said that they were good at speaking skill. From this, it
could be understood that most of the students had problems with their speaking skill. When observing
in speaking class, it was too hard for students to speak English. Most of students spoke Vietnamese
instead of English. Whenever teacher made a question, there was very few students raised their hand
to answer.
Students’ interests in learning speaking
80.00 69.77
60.00
40.00 25.58
20.00 4.65 0.00
0.00
Interested Normal Stressed Bored
Figure 4: Students’ feeling when learning speaking
The statistics in figure 4 above showed that most the students felt interested when they learnt speaking
in class (69.77%). Besides, the number of them said that it was normal (25.58%) and stressed was
4.657%. It was surprised that there was no student who felt bored. From this, we could guess that the
method teachers used to teach in class was very effectively.
48
Students’ self-studying speaking
80.00 69.77
60.00
40.00
11.63 16.28
20.00 2.32
0.00
Every day Just in class Sometimes Rarely
Figure 5: Students’ self-practice speaking
Apart from learning speaking in class, practising speaking outside plays an important role in improving
speaking skill. However, when being asked about practising English speaking skill, all of students
asked (69.77%) said that they only practise English speaking in class. 16.28% sometimes practised
speaking and 11.63% practised it every day. Only 2.32% of freshmen rarely practised. In short, most
of students only practise English speaking skill in class and spend a little time on practising outside.
Students’ frequency of encountering obstacles in speaking
56.98
60.00
40.00
25.58
16.28
20.00
1.16
0.00
Always Usually Seldom Never
Figure 6: Students’ frequency of encountering obstacles
In figure 6, it was not difficult to see that most of students (56.98%) answered that they usually had
problems with speaking. Besides, 16.28% said that they always had difficulties. 25.58% seldom had
problems and only 1.16% was never. It could be concluded that speaking was a hard subject to students.
49
Student’s problems in speaking
50.00 44.19
37.21
40.00
30.00
20.00
8.13 6.98
10.00 3.49
0.00
Bad Lack of Lack of Lack of Poor ideas
pronunciation vocabulary confidence information
Figure 7: Student’s problems in speaking
When learning speaking skill, there were many factors affecting on it. Regarding to figure 7, only
3.49% of the students reported that they had poor idea and the number of the students (6.98%) who
were lack of information. 8.13% said that lacking of confidence was their problems. Bad pronunciation
and lack of vocabulary were pretty high with 44.19% and 37.21% respectively. In brief, vocabulary
and pronunciation are big problems with students, lacking of information and confidence may be a
small element in speaking skill. If they practise more and more, they will be confident and have more
information in speaking.
The ways students improve speaking skill and benefits they get from these ways
35.00 32.56
30.00 25.58
25.00 18.61
20.00 13.95
15.00
10.00 5.81 3.49
5.00
0.00
Enrich Attend an Spend more Work in group Communicate Enlarge
vocabulary English club time to practise with foreigner knowledge
about culture
Figure 8: The ways students improve speaking
There are many ways which students thought they could help them to improve speaking skill
effectively. Throughout figure 8 above, most of students chose enriching vocabulary (32,9%), taking
part in an English club (25.58%) and spending more time to practise was 18.61%. Besides, there were
a few students thought that working in group, communicating with foreigners and enlarging knowledge
50
about culture could help to improve their speaking skill too. Then, six ways above would be analysed
and discussed clearly. Besides, finding the benefits which students could learn from these ways also
added.
Enrich vocabulary
In figure 8, the number of participants enriching vocabulary to improve speaking made up 32.56% (the
highest percentage). Students said that using textbook and reading newspaper, magazines could help
them to improve vocabulary. Besides, learning vocabulary by watching English movie seemed to be a
good way, because students could not only learning vocabulary but also relaxing and learning the
culture, street language, gesture, tone and etc.
37.21
40.00
23.26 20.93 18.60
20.00
0.00
Support the Say more things Communicate Gain confidence
score well more effectively
Figure 9: The benefits from enlarging vocabulary
Enriching vocabulary bought students many advantages. 37.21% admitted that when they had enough
vocabulary to speak they could get high scores. Vocabulary also helped them say more things
(23.26%), then they communicated more effectively (20.93%) and spoke more confidently (18.60%).
Attend an English club
In figure 8, 25.58% freshmen thought that attending an English speaking club was the effective way.
English club is established from some people who love English. There are many people in an English
club, they speak English in many different voices. Students can learn from the way they pronounce a
word, or their voice and intonation. Besides, English club always makes many games for members to
relax as well as to learn. Students can also learn vocabulary, culture and etc. from these games. In
addition, the participants are people from all kinds of classes that give students chances to speak in
many fields.
40.00 29.07
30.00 25.58 24.42 20.93
20.00
10.00
0.00
Exchange ideas Improve Play and learn Have friends
pronunciation
Figure 10: The benefits from attending an English club
51
There were many benefits which students could learn from attending an English club. 29.07% said that
they could have more opportunities to exchange ideas, 25.58% said that joining an English club helped
them improve pronunciation, voice and intonation. 24.42% said that it had many games to learn and
play. In addition, English club had many members, it was easy for members to make friends together
(20.93%).
Spend more time to practise
In figure 8, only 18.61% spent more time to practise English speaking skill. Most of students practised
speaking skill in class and spent little time on practising outside. Practising English speaking outside
played an important role in improving speaking skill because time was limited in class, there was only
50 minutes every period and there were about 30 students in class. There were not many chances for
students to practise speaking. Then, practising outside the class gave students more chances to get idea,
confidence and etc.
37.21
40.00
30.00 24.42 22.09
20.00 16.28
10.00
0.00
Get habit of Get good Feel relax Choose favorite
speaking memory topics
Figure 11: The benefits from spending more time to practise
Practising speaking, students could listen to the words of an English-language that they liked. Then
repeat the words as many times as possible until they become automatic. It was the best way to get
habit of speaking (37.21%) and it was good for students’ memory (24.42%). Above all, students were
not afraid to speak. In addition, students without the pressure from the teachers and the scores could
feel relax (22.09%) and they could choose the partners or the topics they liked to talk about (16.28%).
Work in group
In figure 8, 13.95% approved that working in group was a chance for improving speaking. There were
many members in a group that helped students get more information about topics. Moreover, speaking
52
English in group was easier than speaking in front of many people. When carrying out group work,
students were more independent, they could conduct or design the tasks, together. Students as the group
members interacted as well as helped each other to overcome difficulties.
Figure 12: The benefits from working in group
40.00 36.05
30.23
30.00 20.93
20.00 12.79
10.00
0.00
Get more Speak more Feel more Learn from each
information English confident other
It could be clearly seen that students working in group thought that they could get more information
(36.05%) and they could also have chances to speak more English (30.23%). Besides, the number of
students who felt more confidence was 20.93%. In addition, they learnt from each other (12.79%) to
solve the problems together to get group work successfully.
Communicate with foreigners
In figure 8, 5.81% considered talking to foreigners was one of the ways to get better speaking. Perhaps,
communicating with foreigners helped students learn pronunciation, intonation and voice, which was
easy to remember since there were some words students learnt but did not use them frequently, they
would forget them. In addition, when students pronounced wrong words, foreigners could help them
corrected these mistakes. Moreover, when communicating with foreigners, they told their life, country
and etc. Therefore, students could know foreigner’s culture as well as their country. Besides, when
communicating with foreigner many times made students feel more confident.
60.00
41.86
40.00 33.72
18.61
20.00 5.81
0.00
Improve Enlarge Be confiddent Get information
pronunciation vocabulary
Figure 13: The benefits from talking to foreigners
It could be seen that most of students talking to foreigners to improve their speaking skill since their
pronunciation, voice, and intonation would be improved (41.86%). In addition, enlarging vocabulary
made up 33.72% and communicating with foreigner made them feel more self-confident (18,61%).
The remainders said that getting more information from foreigner was 5.81%.
53
Enlarge knowledge about culture
In figure 8, only 3.49%, the lowest percentage of students chose enlarging knowledge about culture to
improve speaking skill. Actually, students did not recognize the role of cultural factor in English.
Students needed to understand that language could not be translated word-for-word. Some words that
depended of different cultures carried various meanings in different situations and contexts. In
addition, students also obtained nonverbal language, like gestures, which played an important role in
communication and implied different meanings in different languages. Students should read book,
newspaper, magazine to get more knowledge of culture.
50.00 40.70
40.00
30.00 24.42 22.09
20.00 12.79
10.00
0.00
Promote Enhance cultural Get culture- Cope with the
understanding sensitivity promoting changing world
activities
Figure 14: The benefits from enlarging knowledge about culture
It could be clearly seen that providing enough cultural knowledge could help students promote
understanding (40.70%). The second benefits from enlarging knowledge about culture was enhancing
cultural sensitivity (24.42%). The others were getting promoting activities (22.09%) and coping with
the changing world (12.79%).
Summary
To sum up, freshmen majored in English sometimes were passive or speechless in speaking class. In
fact, students usually faced some factors that made them hard to speak up. It caused by bad
pronunciation (44.19%), lack of vocabulary (37.21%), lack of confidence (8.13%) and others
(10.47%). These made students doubt to say what they wanted to convey. To overcome these problems,
there are six ways which could help students improve speaking skill effectively as enriching vocabulary
(32,9%), taking part in an English club (25.58%) and spending more time to practise (18.61%).
Besides, working in group, talking to foreigner and enlarging knowledge about culture could help to
improve speaking skill.
Firstly, enlarging vocabulary is one of the effective ways to improve speaking skill because vocabulary
is the cornerstone of English skills. Without large vocabulary, even the best understanding of English
grammar will not allow students to speak English well. Vocabulary is a list or collection of words and
phrases usually alphabetically arranged and explained or defined. If students lack of vocabulary in
54
speaking, they cannot speak fluently or even they cannot speak out what they want to say. Students
should read more text book, newspapers, magazine and etc., playing word games, puzzles, and looking
up words in the dictionary; they are all good ways to learn new words.
Secondly, attending an English club seems to be very effectively in learning speaking English. English
club is a community of people who have the same interests in English, they create an environment not
only to practice English, but also a place where members meet and relax. English club offers an
environment for members to learn and to give members the opportunity to practice some skills such as
communication reflection, presentation skills, ability to argue in public, so on. English club can create
the environment for all students to promote their abilities in the process of learning, self-study, self-
expression, and teamwork abilities.
Thirdly, practising speaking English outside the classroom is good to improve speaking skill. Students
can enlarge knowledge about words of an English-language that they like. They can listen and sing
English music; listen to one of their favourite actors on video and repeat one or two sentences that they
like and do it until it becomes automatic. These are good for students’ memory that they need for
English. Above all, students can choose partners or topics they are interested in that they can speak
freely and become automatic speaking.
Next, working in group may be the effective way to improve speaking skill. Clearly, group work can
increase students talking time, which increases speaking skill. In other word, group work helps to
improve communication. Students who have little chance to talk to each other now can share ideas,
become close in the short time and above all solve the common problem assigned. Besides, working
in groups helps students to produce greater output. Simply because of the number of people involved,
each member with different experience, knowledge, points of view and values, a larger number and
variety of ideas can be given.
In addition, communicating with foreigners is a chance for students to get better speaking. It helps
students more active and confident. Instead of exposure to English through books and text books,
students may be exposed to authentic English language when they communicate with foreigners.
Through learning activities, such as organizing games, meetings, and etc., students will learn more
about British and American culture. In addition, using English slang in a way that students have hardly
been taught in the curriculum. Moreover, talking to foreigners, students will have to use English
frequently, this is a chance for gradual improvement of their own skill strips.
Finally, enlarging knowledge about culture to improve speaking skill is also a good way. There are
universal cultures that can exist in every community. There are two cultures which create a big
difference: Oriental culture (Vietnam) and Western culture (England). Each nation has its own
characteristics of geography, history, physical life, etc. which are reflected in the language clearly,
especially in vocabulary of each ethnic group. Each country has its things, events, phenomena and
concepts related to its own cultural background. There are words about the customs of marriage and
religion, creed that extremely strange to Westerners. Therefore, to improve speaking, students should
get knowledge about culture.
55
In conclusion, speaking skill is an important skill since the purpose of learning English is able to
communicate with foreigners. Good English communication helps students easily access to new trends
and technologies of the world. Thanks to enriching vocabulary, taking part in an English club, spending
more time to practise, working in group, talking to foreigner and enlarging knowledge about culture,
freshmen’s speaking can be improved effectively.
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
Conclusion
This research has showed knowledge, attitudes, feelings, and the current ways English major freshmen
study speaking skill. There are many ways to improve speaking skill but students have to find their
problems as lacking of vocabulary, poor idea, bad pronunciation, lacking of confident and etc.
Throughout the study, it can be seen that there are some ways effectively to improve speaking skill for
students. They are enriching vocabulary, taking part in an English club, practising speaking English
outside the classroom.
Learners’ attention and awareness are always important to decide their win or lose in study speaking
skill. Students should speak as often and as much as possible; this is the best way to learn English.
There is nothing better than conversation to help students improve speaking skill. The best way to do
this is to be in an English speaking environment. Take an English course in an English language school.
Besides, students also get into the habit of thinking in English, do not translate from Vietnamese into
English, it will slow students down. This might sound a little strange and embarrassing at first, but
students can record their talking and listen to their own pronunciation, talking speed and the flow of
speaking. It will give students a great chance to improve speaking.
Suggestion for further study
There are many other ways that have not been mentioned in this study. Further research proposal
should focus on some difficulties which students face in speaking skill and find the suitable methods
to overcome of other participants as English-Majored Sophomores or English Majored Juniors.
Besides, further researchers should study about the ways to improve listening, then all helps students
become master in communication.
REFERENCES
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Boyle, J. P. (1984). Factors Affecting Listening Comprehension. ELT Journal, 38(1), 34-38.
Brazil, D., Coulthard, M., & Johns, C. (1980). Discourse, Intonation, and Language teaching. London:
Longman. Lenguas Modernas, (8), 101-107.
Brown, H.D. (1994), Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Languagepedagogy, New Jersey:
Prentice Hall Regents
Burns, A. & Joyce, H. (1997). Focus on speaking. Macquarie University, Sydney (Australia). National
Centre for English Language Teaching and Research. ERIC Number: ED411709
Bygate, M. (1987). Speaking, Oxford University Press.
56
Chastain, K. (1988). Developing Second Language skill. Virginia: University of Virginia.
Eysenck, M. W. (1979). Anxiety, learning and memory: A reconceptualization. Journal of Research in
Personality, 13, 363-385.
Hismanoglu, M. (2006). Current perspectives on pronunciation learning and teaching. Journal of
Language and Linguistic Studies, 2(1), 1-10.
Nunan, D. (1991). Language teaching Methodology, UK: prentice- hall International
Revell, J. (1979). Teaching techniques for communicative English. London: MacMillan Publisher.
Ur, P (1996). A course in Language Teaching- Practice and Theory, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Wheeless, L. R. (1975). An investigation of receiver apprehension and social context dimensions of
communication apprehension. Communication Education, 24(3), 261-268.
Yates, L. (2001). Teaching pronunciation in the AMEP: Current practice and professional
development. AMEP Research Centre.
57
UNIVERSITY OF BURUNDI
1
INSTITUTE FOR APPLIED PEDAGOGY

ENGLISH-KIRUNDI DEPARTMENT
LARGE CLASS MANAGEMENT WHILE

TEACHING AND LEARNING THE SPEAKING
SKILL IN ENGLISH: A Study Conducted in First
Years of the Institute for Applied Pedagogy at the
University of Burundi
By
Sinaï BAKANIBONA
A Thesis Submitted in Partial

Fulfilment of the Requirements for
Supervisor:
the Award of the Degree “Licencié
Prof. Herménégilde RWANTABAGU en Pédagogie Appliquée, Agrégé
Senior lecturer at the University of Burundi de l’Enseignement Secondaire en
Anglais”
BUJUMBURA, November 2017

i
DEDICATION
To my beloved parents,
To my beloved wife,
To my beloved brother and sister,
To my beloved children,
To my relatives,
I warmly dedicate this work.

ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Above all, I thank God, the Almighty for having given me the strength and patience
to undertake and complete this work. Glory and Praise to Him!
This work is also the result of many people’s effort to whom I would like to express
gratitude.
First and foremost, my heartfelt gratitude and deepest thanks go to Professor
Herménégilde Rwantabagu, Lecturer at the University of Burundi, for accepting to
supervise this work. His concern for clarity, his constructive criticism, all have
shaped this work what it is today.
Secondly, I would like to extend my gratitude to all the teachers I have known in my
life as a student from primary school to university, especially those of the English –
Kirundi Department at the Institute for Applied Pedagogy, for both the academic
and moral education they provided me with.
Thirdly, my sincere thanks go to my beloved parents Necrisson Bakanibona and

Martha Ndikumana who, despite their little income thought of sending me to school
and cared about my school education. I also thank my wife Bigirimana Noëlla who
has always been a source of motivation and inspiration for me.
Fourthly, my thanks go to Professor Matt Baker, Lecturer at Texas Tech University

for his pieces of advice on how to deal with a scientific research and Kimberly
Vardeman, a librarian at Texas Tech University Library, who provided me with
different scientific resources that helped me to make this work what it is.
Last but not least, it would be unfair to end without acknowledging the Director of
Academic Services, the lecturers and students at the Institute for Applied
Pedagogy/University of Burundi who kindly accepted to give me data and answered
my questionnaire.
Sinaï Bakanibona
iii
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ABC : American Broadcasting Company
B.A : Bachelor of Arts
BBC : British Broadcasting Corporation
CBS : Columbia Broadcasting System
CLT : Communicative Language Teaching
CNN : Cable News Network
EFL : English as a Foreign Language
ELT : English Language Teaching
EAC : East African Community
ENS : Ecole Normale Supérieure (Higher Teacher Training School)
Et Al. : Et Alii (latin): and others
Fig. : Figure
HEB : Heinemann Educational Books
4Rs : Re-education, Responsibility, Relevance, Rapport
i.e : Id est (latin): that is
IPA : Institut de Pédagogie Appliquée (Institute for Applied
Pedagogy)
Ph. D : Philosophiae Doctor (Doctor of Philosophy)
R.P : Received Pronunciation
T.V : Television
U.B : University of Burundi
UNESCO : United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization
USA : The United States of America
V.C.R : Videocassette
iv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure1. Two spaces in the learning environment by Krause et al. 2003:16 ... 21
Figure 2. Classroom Management Strategies (adapted from Bilik 2008:238) . 21
Figure 3. Strategies to get students to cooperate by Olive (2007:16) ............... 23
Figure 4. The difference between the three types of classroom management
style (Bilik 2008:246) ....................................................................... 24
v
LIST OF GRAPHICS
Graphics 1: Pre-service training .............................................................................. 49
Graphics 2: In-service training course .................................................................... 49
Graphics 3: Teachers’ perception about oral expression teaching .......................... 51
Graphics 4: Methods of teaching English in large class ......................................... 58
Graphic 5: Students’ performance.......................................................................... 60
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table1. First years’ enrolments at the Institute for Applied Pedagogy of the
University of Burundi ............................................................................. 17
Table 2. New academic system (Bachelor-Master-Doctorate) at University of
Burundi .................................................................................................... 18
OBSERVATION GRID
Table 3. Sample of Departments and Teachers – Learners used as Informants . 38
Table 4: The Learning Conditions ....................................................................... 45
Table 5: The Role of Learners ............................................................................. 46
Table 6: The role of the teacher ........................................................................... 47
TEACHERS' QUESTIONNAIRE
Table7: Data presentation for Pre-service training .............................................. 48
Table 8: Data presentation for in-service training course .................................... 49
Table 9: Data presentation for Teachers’ perception about oral expression
teaching ................................................................................................... 51
Table 10: Data presentation for question 9 on involving students ..................... 52
Table11: Data presentation for question 10 on particular problems encountered
................................................................................................................. 57
Table 12: Data presentation for methods of teaching English in large class ....... 58
Table 13: Data presentation for students’ performance ....................................... 59
STUDENTS' QUESTIONNAIRE
Table 14: Data presentation for perception of the class ....................................... 62
Table 15: Data presentation for learning speaking skill ...................................... 64
Table 16: Data presentation for question 6 .......................................................... 65
Table 17: Data presentation for students’ opinion about classroom management.
................................................................................................................. 66
Question 12. When you are in the classroom how often does your teacher make
you do the following? ............................................................................. 69
Table 18: Data presentation for question 12 ....................................................... 69
Table 19: Data presentation for question 13 ........................................................ 71
vii
ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to investigate the problems faced by the teachers and
students in the management of a large class while teaching and learning the speaking
skill in English. The work was motivated by the fact that First Year students, even
though they use English as medium of instruction, are not good at spoken English.
The study focused on the adoption of appropriate methods, approaches and
techniques to manage large classes. The purpose of the study was to examine the
type and gravity of the problems faced by the subjects and suggest the use of
appropriate methods, techniques and approaches. The study was conducted at the
Institute for Applied Pedagogy of the University of Burundi. To collect the data in
the field, the researcher used classroom observation and written questionnaires for
both lecturers and students. After analysis of the collected data, the results of this
study displayed various problems faced in large class management. These include:
the lack of interactions between student and teacher in large class, lack of special
training in large class management, uncomfortable feeling in large class, lack of
proper teaching aids, etc. The study ended with a general conclusion and some
recommendations to all stakeholders who are concerned by the teaching and learning
of the speaking skill in English.
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION .......................................................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................... ii
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS .............................................................. iii
LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................ iv
LIST OF GRAPHICS ............................................................................................. v
LIST OF TABLES.................................................................................................. vi
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................... vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................... viii
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 1
I.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................... 1
I.2. Background to the Study ..................................................................................... 3
I.3. Statement of the Problem .................................................................................... 4
I.4. Aims of the Study ............................................................................................... 7
I.5. Significance of the Study .................................................................................... 8
I.6. Research Questions ............................................................................................. 8
I.7. Research Hypotheses .......................................................................................... 9
I.8. Motivation for justification of the Study ............................................................ 9
I.9. Scope of the Study ............................................................................................ 10
I.10. Definition of Key Terms ................................................................................. 10
I.11. Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ................................ 13
II.1 Classroom Management ................................................................................... 13
II.1.1. The class size phenomenon .......................................................................... 16
II.1.2. Methods and Strategies of Teaching Large Size English Language Classes19
II.1.3. General Problems of Large Class English Language Teaching ................... 28
II.2. Student’s Speaking Difficulties ....................................................................... 31
II.3. Speaking Activities in Oral Expression Course .............................................. 33
II.4. Some Tips for Teaching Large Classes ........................................................... 35
II.5. Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 36
ix
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY .................................................................... 37

III.1. Introduction .................................................................................................... 37
III.2. Research area .................................................................................................. 37
III.3. Research Population ....................................................................................... 37
III.4. Sampling Technique ....................................................................................... 38
III.4.1. Selection of Informants ............................................................................... 38
III.5. Data Collection Instruments ........................................................................... 39
III.5.1. Written Questionnaire ................................................................................. 39
III.5.2. Classroom Observation ............................................................................... 40
III.6. Data Collection Procedure ............................................................................. 41
III.6.1. Pilot Study ................................................................................................... 41
III.6.2. The Field Study ........................................................................................... 41
III.7. Data Analysis Procedures............................................................................... 42
III.8. Encountered Difficulties ................................................................................ 42
III.9. Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 43
CHAPTER IV: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS ..... 44
IV.1. Introduction .................................................................................................... 44
IV.2. Analysis of data from Classroom Observation .............................................. 44
IV.3. Data analysis from the lecturers’ questionnaire ............................................. 48
IV.4. Analysis of data from the students’ questionnaire ......................................... 62
IV.5. Findings .......................................................................................................... 72
IV.6. Discussion ...................................................................................................... 74
IV.7. Validation of Hypotheses ............................................................................... 75
IV.8. Conclusion...................................................................................................... 76
CHAPTER V: GENERAL CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS................ 77
V.1. General Conclusion ......................................................................................... 77
V.2. Conclusions and observations ......................................................................... 78
V.3. Recommendations ........................................................................................... 78
V.4. Suggestions for future research ....................................................................... 81
x
BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................. 82
APPENDICES ....................................................................................................... 87
1
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION
I.1. Introduction
People communicate, work, study, pray, amuse, exchange knowledge or goods by
means of language to communicate. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, a
new language invaded the Burundian territory, namely Swahili, brought by Swahili
traders from the East. As a matter of fact, Swahili became a commercial language in
some Burundian townships. Later in the same century, catholic missionaries and
German colonizers settled in the country and introduced a new language, German.
However, that language did not influence much the history of languages in Burundi.
Now, English is gaining ground as a major world language. With Burundi’s entry
into the East African Community, more and more people are learning for various
purposes. It has been introduced in primary and secondary school curricula. The
teaching and learning of English in official school programmes was introduced for
the first time in the 1959s from the first year of secondary school.
However, in terms of importance, it is quite evident that English has left behind many
languages and is now getting ready to overtake French. Briefly put, the importance
of English language has never stopped growing ever since the day it was introduced
in the Burundian system of education.
According to Teny Doyle and Paul Meara (1991: 10), the English language is now
spoken by more than 350 million people as their mother tongue and over one billion
more use it as their official language. This means that English is spoken and used as
a national or/and an official language by more countries in worldwide. To emphasize
its worldwide importance, Teny Doyle and Paul Meara say that: “the printed matter
in the world, 50 percent is in English, four of the largest broadcasting companies in
the world, namely CBS, BBC, ABC and CNN, in the field of non-stop coverage,
transmit in English to audiences that regularly exceed 100 million.”
2
The entry of Burundi into the EAC finally came to raise its importance since this
community uses English as its working language and is made by countries which use
it as their official language. English is, thus, a key for the smooth integration into the
EAC. Burundians in general and learners of English in particular need to be well
need to develop communicative competence, especially, the speaking skill in order
to be able to communicate fluently and accurately in English. However, in addition
to the fact that it has got an unfair share in the curriculum, so many other factors still
affect and undermine the teaching and learning process in the Burundian educational
system especially large class.
Large classes are often perceived as one of the major obstacles to quality education.
Indeed, there are many studies that point to the disadvantages of large classes and
advocate for small classes as factor to ensure quality education. English Language
Teaching in large classes is a worldwide phenomenon especially in the developing
countries. Large classes affect teaching materials and methods. The teachers also feel
helpless to impart proper teaching in such classes. English language teachers at all
levels generally agree that large classes are a big hindrance in teaching. Hence, the
need for management of large size English language classes arises.
The concept of large class management is often confused with maintaining discipline
in the large classes. According to Mahmood Ahmad Azhar (2004:2), management
of large size English language classes in an instructional perspective means the
complex set of plans and actions that the teacher uses to ensure that the learning in
the classroom is effective and efficient. The concept management of large classes is
broader than that of discipline, which often connotes keeping students quiet and in
their seats, but that should not be the teacher’s central goal. Effective classroom
management places discipline in its proper perspective in the total instructional
scene.
3
In the University of Burundi in general and at the Institute for Applied Pedagogy in
particular, the problem of large class management is a reality and affects the quality
of teaching and learning. The present study envisages to identify the problems faced
by teachers and learners, particularly in the field of spoken English in the first years
of the Institute for Applied Pedagogy in order to propose the appropriate solutions.
I.2. Background to the Study

In Burundi, the English language appears nowadays to be an essential language to
be learned for some reasons. There are two main reasons for the adoption of the
English language in Burundi. First of all, the geographical location of Burundi and
secondly, the fact that English has come to be an international language for
communication.
In Burundi, English has become a window open for communication with the outside
world. However, the teaching of English language has been lately introduced in the
educational system of Burundi on top of this other two pre-existing languages,
Kirundi and French. It is now taught as a compulsory subject 1from primary school
up to university level. But, English has become a victim of the phenomenon of the
plethoric number of learners in classrooms because of the rapid growth of the student
population. With free primary education policy adopted in 2005, Burundi is still
facing large class issues because the demand for education is higher than the supply.
In addition, University of Burundi, one of the public institutions, has felt the impact
of the increasing number of students.
Therefore, in order to solve this problem, they tend to put as many students as
possible in one class. In this way, they seem to be solving the problem but they ignore
that they are creating another cumbersome situation to the teacher who is going to
teach and students who will be in that class. For example, the English course is
1
A Compulsory Course is a course within your academic programme that you must pass in order to meet the
regulations to be eligible to graduate.
4
common course in all science departments (Mathematics, Biology-chemistry,

Physics –Technology) and is also taught by one teacher in the same classroom at the
IPA whereas there would be one lecturer of English language for each department at
least. Furthermore, due to the growing school population, most secondary school
graduates are urged to pursue their academic studies and are oriented towards the
University of Burundi. This is the reason why first years in different departments at
the University of Burundi are now overcrowded.
This situation described here, does not allow effective communication in the
classroom, especially in a language class. Thus, the teachers of oral expression in
English struggle to make the students speak the language, but as anyone can realize,
not all the students will have the opportunity to use the language in such classes of
large size. Moreover, this situation can alter the methods used by the teacher because
a method which can work for a normal class of 30 students may not work on large
classes. A number of researchers have worked on the problem of a large size class,
classroom management, etc. The present study is specifically concerned with Large
Class Management while Teaching and Learning the Speaking Skill in English:
A Study conducted in First years of the Institute for Applied Pedagogy at the
University of Burundi.
I.3. Statement of the Problem

All the EFL learners dream of being fluent proficient in the target language.
Hence, the speaking skill is important, but due to large numbers of students, the
teaching and learning of speaking skill in first years of the Institute for Applied
Pedagogy at the University of Burundi is not adequately covered. Both the teachers
and students’ performance are negatively affected by the phenomenon of
overcrowded classes. In fact, teachers are stuck by the large number of students when
they first enter in classroom, they wonder how to work in such an unfavourable
conditions and find it hard to cope with this situation. A large class becomes then a
burden for the teacher, as Forrester (1964:19) puts it:
5
“Every teacher of large class is haunted by the knowledge that he

ought to give more individual attention to his pupils. He knows that
the real progress in learning a foreign language is largely
dependent upon having plenty of opportunities for practising the
correct use of language. But, he feels that it is next to impossible to
give every pupil an opportunity of speaking or reading in lesson”.
The above quotation shows that not only a large class has a negative impact on the
teaching process, but it also hinders effective learning of the speaking skill. Here the
emphasis is put on the fact that in a large class, students do not have enough
opportunities for practising the target language. Furthermore, this shortcoming
becomes more marked when it comes to the speaking skill. This can be justified by
the fact that in writing expression, which is another productive skill, you can have
the whole class practising at the same time. For example, all students in a class of
more than 70 students can easily write their comments on a given test in less than 10
minutes, whereas doing the same exercise orally, within the same portion of time is
practically impossible.
This point is sustained by Pattison (1987:6), who states that oral work is difficult to
practise in a large class. He observes that to have a whole class silently reading or
writing an exercise in a large class is easy, but to have the whole class speaking is
almost impossible. The learning of the spoken language is consequently affected
because students do not have scope of quality improvement.
It is true in the Department of English-Kirundi at the Institute for Applied Pedagogy

of the University of Burundi; a number of courses such as Teaching Methods,
American and African literatures, are taught in a discourse way to train students in
the use of oral English in addition to the Oral expression course, which entails that
large classes affect the mastery of the speaking skill.
6
Hence, management of large class has a very strong impact upon students’ learning.
Nobody ignores that good classroom management is a key-factor to success in any
language class in general and in an English language speaking class in particular.
Any language must be primarily spoken while reading and writing come afterwards.
Furthermore, good classroom management must try to avoid being too authoritarian
when teaching although the teacher has to be authoritative. Above all, a good
manager of large class must always seek to create a favourable atmosphere for
learning activities in the classroom. The teacher must positively motivate his/her
students.
In a nutshell, this work sets out to show that although such a shortcoming as large
classes is considered trivial and neglected by researchers, it can deeply affect the
teaching method and classroom management and thus affect the learning prospects
of the learners by cutting down on their opportunities to practise the linguistic
competences they have been taught. This prevents on the one hand the students from
achieving their primary goal which Robert Lado (1964: 48) defines as:
“the ability to speak a foreign language is without

doubt the most highly prized language skill and rightly
so because he who can speak a language well can also
understand it and can learn to read it with relative ease [….].
Also the ability to speak a language will greatly expedite,
and facilitate learning to write it”.
On the other hand, it does serious harm to the language teaching goal which is to
produce students who possess not only the linguistic competence but also the
performance one. According to Krashen and Terrell (1984:166) “our goal is for
students to achieve both communicative and linguistic competence: we are thus not
sacrificing accuracy for fluency”. The study is designed to analyse the problems of
7
large class spoken English language teaching and learning and suggest the use of
appropriate methods, techniques and approaches to address them.
I.4. Aims of the Study

This study considers the problem of the teaching and learning the English language
in large class. Regarding the goal in learning a foreign language, this work puts much
emphasis on the spoken language. The aims of the study are:
1. to explore the teaching and learning of the speaking skill at the Institute for
Applied Pedagogy (IPA) in the University of Burundi (U.B);
2. to make inquiries for the existence of large class in the light of realities on the
Institute for Applied Pedagogy;
3. to indicate the challenges of teaching and learning the English language in
large classes;
4. to draw attention to the effective techniques, methods and approaches to
manage large class.
All in all, the main aim of this study is to assess the problems faced by students while
learning, on one hand, and by lecturers while teaching, on the other hand, the
speaking skill in large class so as to enhance the quality of spoken English learning
at University of Burundi despite the challenge of large class.
8
I.5. Significance of the Study

Today, all EFL learners dream of being fluent and proficient in the target language.
Hence, the importance of the speaking skill is obvious, but in the Institute for Applied
Pedagogy (IPA) at the University of Burundi, EFL learners suffers from different
obstacles that make the mastery of the speaking skill to be very difficult which leads
to learners losing concentration in class and lack of motivation. In this research, we
attempt to highlight some ways that can help to solve these problems and enhance
quality of learning that lead to the mastery of the English language speaking. When
assessing the learning of English language by students in Turkey, Ciceli (1996:103)
noticed the same problem and has this to say “even advanced students…who have
mastered structural function form and vocabulary can often read and write better
than they can speak in a foreign language”.
Hence, this study intends to contribute to the improvement of the quality of teaching
and learning of spoken English at the University of Burundi, by showing the way to
address the problems due to large classes.
I.6. Research Questions

The present study attempts to answer the following questions:
1. Does large class situation of first year students affect methods and techniques
used in the teaching the speaking skill?
2. Does large class situation deny students opportunities to practise the speaking
skill?
3. Does the lack of in-service training by lecturers affect the management of
large class?
9
I.7. Research Hypotheses

The following hypotheses were formulated:
1. The large class situation of first year students affects the methods and
techniques used in teaching the speaking skill in English.
2. The phenomenon of a large class denies students the opportunity to practise
the speaking skill in English.
3. The lack of in-service training by lecturers affects the management of a large
class.
I.8. Motivation for justification of the Study

The inspiration and choice to work on this topic did not grow in my mind at random.
I’ve been a student and I suffered from the same challenge of being in a large class.
I thought how the teacher can manage effectively such a class and, for us learners, it
was harder to get a good seat in the front places. You had to wake up early in the
morning with the intention of looking for a seat so-called “itongo” in my local
language which means “field, farm” so as to display the great value of seat given at
the University of Burundi. As I was trained in the English-Kirundi Department at the
Institute for Applied Pedagogy and observed difficulties of learners in oral
communication abilities, I was very motivated to make this thesis.
In this case of large class, there is no effective learning and teaching of the speaking
skill. Those who are talented students become weak because they are demotivated
by being in a large class and they do not practise as they would do. I have realized
that most of the learners still have a big problem in speaking not because they do not
know English but because they never get enough time to develop their ability to
speak English.
In fact, I have realized during my learning experience, that students feel

uncomfortable in a large class especially in oral courses or presentations. Thus, they
feel comfortable while writing than speaking. For that reason, I decided to work on
10
Large Class Management while Teaching and Learning the Speaking Skill in
English: A Study Conducted in First Years of the Institute for Applied Pedagogy
at the University of Burundi so as to see how to solve this challenge.
I.9. Scope of the Study

This study is concerned with the teaching and learning the speaking skill. It is also
good to remind that Burundi is a monolingual country where the imminently best
environment in which one can learn a foreign language is in the classroom. The work
is limited to the study of the problems caused by large class management while
teaching and learning spoken English at an academic institution such as the Institute
for Applied Pedagogy at University of Burundi.
I.10. Definition of Key Terms

Communicative competence is defined by Campbell and Wales (1970:24) as “the
capacity or ability to produce and understand utterances which are not so much
grammatical but appropriate in the context in which they are used”.
According to Adejare (1995:115), Communicative Competence is “the general
human ability to use language predicated upon the general knowledge of grammar
of each particular language and ability to produce and understand general and some
specific texts in the language”. In the present study, communicative competence
means the ability of speaking fluently a language as a teacher by profession.
Large size class: the term large size class has a dual meaning. On the one hand, it
refers to how big the classroom is. On the other hand, it simply means the number of
students in a classroom. In this work, the term large size class is used to refer to the
second meaning. It has always been a very controversial debate about how big the
number of students should be in so-called large class.
11
Azhar (2004: xx) defines the following key terms:

Administration: It equips the teacher/administrator with devices for class/school
management in a conducive and effective environment, providing him/her an
opportunity to administer instructional processes in a disciplined manner.
Approach: It is an overall strategy which helps to design the curriculum. In English

Language Teaching, the notion of approach helps to define/adopt a theory of
language and a theory of learning.
Classroom environment: It provides a context for learning and includes not only
the physical space, resources and materials, but also the class atmosphere,
participants’ attitudes and emotions, and the social dynamics of the learning
experience.
Management: It is an arrangement and organization of materials and activities

related to teaching, helping in the application of skills during the class and providing
guidelines to the teacher for organizing his/her performance during the class activity.
Method: It is the systematic and logical arrangement of different ideas for

introducing and transferring knowledge with a view to make learning process
functional, instructive and successful.
Methodology: It is the analysis/adoption of methods, procedures and principles

related to the discipline, reflecting the theoretical approach to the subject.
Strategy: It is the conscious outline/plan based on teaching objectives and including

the ordering of materials to be conveyed to the learner. Strategy may be implicit or
explicit.
12
Technique: It is the classroom application of teaching methodology and modus

operandi2 adopted by the teacher during a particular class.
I.11. Conclusion
This chapter was made of a general introduction, the statement of the problem,
purpose of the study, research questions and research hypotheses. This chapter talked
about the importance of the English speaking skill and what can be the obstacle in
the development of this skill in First Years at the Institute for Applied Pedagogy of
the University of Burundi. The following chapter is concerned with the literature
review.
2
the particular way in which a person performs a tasks or action or the way a thing operates (The Concise Oxford
Dictionary, 1995)
13
CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter reviews the literature related to the problem of teaching and learning
English in overcrowded classes.
II.1 Classroom Management

Classroom management concerns all the strategies and materials that teachers use
inside the classroom in order to reduce students’ misbehaviour and create a suitable
atmosphere that helps students develop their learning skills. It is also the process of
ensuring that lessons run smoothly despite disruptive behaviour by some students;
closely linked to issues of motivation, discipline and respect.
According to Oliver and Reschly (2007: 01): “the ability of teachers to organize
classrooms and manage the behaviour of their student is critical to achieving
positive educational outcomes”. In addition, Marzano and Pickering (2003:01) wrote
that “effective teaching and learning cannot take place in a poorly managed
classroom… In contrast, well-managed classrooms provide an environment in which
teaching and learning can flourish”.
Hence, we see that classroom management is a major component of the teaching and
learning process. Brophy (2006:47) states that “Classroom management refers to
actions taken to create and maintain a learning environment conducive to successful
instruction (arranging the physical environment, establishing rules and procedures,
maintaining students’ attention to lessons and engagement in activities)”. If teachers
teach without establishing control, then the quality of teaching will suffer.
According to Wragg (2003:12), “For many years, researchers and teachers

themselves have tried to find the secrets of successful teaching…. Without the ability
to manage a group effectively, any other qualities teachers have maybe neutralized”.
Hence, successful class management is one of the most strategies that lead to
successful language classes.
14
Amy B.Tsui (2003: 138) asserts that classroom management “…is frequently used
to refer to aspects of classroom organization, such as conducting individual, pair,
or group work, maintaining order; dealing with disruptive behaviour; and handling
daily business, such as collecting assignments and taking roll calls”.
Classroom management according to Daniel Linden Duke (1990:136-137) is

“provision and procedures necessary to establish and maintain an environment in
which instruction and learning can occur”.
In order to ensure that instructional time is not wasted, teachers are required to be
good planners. Many problems of large size ELT 3 classes can be anticipated.
Although, perhaps no teacher can eliminate all the anticipated problems, planning
permits the teachers to keep the amount of time needed to deal with such problems
to a minimum. In the United States, during the 1980s, the researchers at the Research
and Development Centre for Teacher Education at the University of Texas conducted
series of studies describing how effective teachers establish and maintain productive,
orderly classrooms.
Therefore, teachers must have the ability and experience in managing their classes
in order to be successful in the teaching process. Furthermore, for teachers to speak
English as native speakers and being knowledgeable about its teaching is not enough
to be good teachers, but also they should have the ability to manage their classes and
improve it.
Much literature indicates the crucial importance of classroom management.

Weinstein (2007:06), for instance, points out that classroom management has two
main purposes: to establish and sustain an orderly environment so that teaching and
learning can be effective and to enhance students’ social emotional growth. She
considers seven underlying assumptions about classroom management:
3
English Language Teaching
15
Weinstein’s Guiding Assumption about classroom management
1 Successful classroom management fosters self-discipline and personal

responsibility.
2 Most problems of disorder in classrooms can be avoided if teachers foster positive
student – teacher relationships, implement engaging instruction, and use good
preventive management strategies.
3 The way teachers think about management strongly influences what they do.
Teachers who view classroom management as a process of guiding and structuring
classroom events tend to be more effective than teachers who stress their
disciplinary role or who see classroom management as a product of personal
charm.
4 The need for order must not supersede the need for meaningful instruction.
5 The tasks of classroom management vary across different classroom situations.
6 Managing today’s diverse classroom requires the knowledge, skills and

predispositions to work with students from diverse racial, ethnic, language and
social class background. In other words, teachers must become “culturally
responsive classroom managers”.
7 Becoming an effective classroom manager requires reflection, hard work and time.
16
II.1.1. The class size phenomenon

In academic institutions, teachers generally meet different classes in one day. Their
quality of teaching is influenced by the number of students in their classes. There is
no absolute agreement upon the optimum class size for the ideal learning situation.
In addition, the term “large size class” also varies from situation to situation and
from institution to institution. Through the published data, it was established that the
class size is relative to the purposes that are to be accomplished. In an institution, for
instance, an unusual gifted teacher might be able to lecture very successfully to three
hundred students or even more at one time.
On the other hand, a class of Chemistry where the students have to carry out
experiments needs to be small. Similarly, in an English language teaching class, the
number of students has to be reasonable like 30 students per class so that the teacher
can easily communicate with them. Teaching the speaking skill in an English
language class, the teacher has to have a class that can allow the teacher to verify the
speaking competence of learners.
In Burundi, the educational system is facing on large class phenomena from primary
schools to universities. It is due to rapid demographic growth in the whole country.
For instance, the Institute for Applied Pedagogy (IPA) was created in 1993 and
began with an average of 44.2 students 4 per class whereas it presents an average of
121.2 students per class in the 2010-2011 academic year and 92.1 students per class
in 2016-2017.Table 1 shows the enrolments of students in first years of all the
departments of the Institute for Applied Pedagogy in the old system of higher
education from its creation to 2011. Table 2 displays the enrolments of the students
for the new academic system of Burundi.
4
The average number of students per class at Institute for Applied Pedagogy of University of Burundi basing on the
academic data in 1993, from Academic Service Department.
17
Table1. First years’ enrolments at the Institute for Applied Pedagogy of the University of Burundi
(Source: Academic services, U.B, 2017).
English- Biology-
Kirundi Chemistry French Mathematics Physics –Technology
Academic Department Department Department Department Department TOTAL
year
1993-1994 48 33 74 41 25 221
1994-1995 25 37 58 29 17 166
1995-1996 26 22 45 26 14 133
1997-1998 41 28 28 18 15 130
1998-1999 58 77 75 80 18 308
1999-2000 79 90 45 67 11 292
2000-2001 104 50 38 58 4 254
2001-2002 88 53 33 49 8 231
2002-2003 146 119 86 97 51 499
2003-2004 182 145 101 111 107 646
2004-2005 157 105 108 94 65 529
2005-2006 151 108 156 111 29 555
2007-2008 156 89 146 104 31 526
2008-2009 137 87 79 73 51 427
2009-2010 173 124 132 116 103 648
2010-2011 126 115 191 134 40 606
18
Table 2. New academic system (Bachelor-Master-Doctorate) at University of Burundi
(Source: Academic services, U.B, 2017).
Biology- Physics –
English Chemistry French Kiswahili- Mathematics Technology
Department Department Department Kirundi Department Department TOTAL
Academic year Department
2011-2012 188 118 170 - 149 42 667
2012-2013 180 89 137 - 99 28 533
2013-2014 NULLIFIED
2014-2015 144 39 97 93 62 15 450
2015-2016 156 53 84 61 50 43 447
2016-2017 147 59 125 124 62 36 553
19
II.1.2. Methods and Strategies of Teaching Large Size English Language Classes
Managing student behaviour in the classroom in order to enhance teaching and learning
is viewed in literature as a complex process as it concerns a wide range of behaviours
that may be present in a particular group of students as well as the identification and
implementation of appropriate strategies for handling these behaviours (Tan et
al.2003:17).
There are therefore a number of classroom management strategies that can be deployed
to ensure effective teaching and learning in large class. According to Soodak and
McCarthy (2006:16), the strategies characterise an all-encompassing view of
classroom management that extends to everything that teachers do to facilitate or
improve student learning such as:
a. behaviour:
- showing a positive attitude
- happy facial expressions
- giving encouraging statement
- being respectful
- demonstrating fair treatment of all students
b. classroom environment:
- being welcoming to students
- the classroom being well lit
- adequate stimulating materials, etc.
c. expectations:
- having high expectations of quality of student work and behaviour
d. materials:
- having adequate and quality textbooks
- equipment and other learning resources
20
e. activities:
- designing learning experiences that engage student interests
- passions and intellectual curiosity
Bilik (2008:240) provides a more illuminating set of strategies in the form of a

framework (fig.2) that teachers can deploy to effectively manage their classrooms:
Catering for students’ development needs
Effective classroom management should cater for the developmental needs of students
including their characteristics. The above means that as a process, classroom
management needs to consider what interests and motivates students of different ages
and developmental characteristics so that appropriate strategies can be applied (Bilik
2008:240; Pianta 2006:37). As an example younger students in lower grades are more
motivated to learn by concrete things such as rewards while senior students may just
prefer recognition and challenging work.
Creating and implementing a learning environment
Creating and implementing a learning environment implies a careful planning from the
start of the school-year. It relates to the creation of two spaces of the learning
environment namely the physical and cognitive spaces (Krause et al. 2003:16). The
creation of the physical learning environment goes beyond having an attractive,
stimulating environment with good ventilation, to ensuring an environment
characterised by mutual respect, friendliness and welcoming, that is, an environment
where everyone blooms and does their best. The creation of a cognitive space relates
to the expectations that the teacher sets for students in the classroom and the process
of ensuring a motivational climate are viewed by Bilik (2008: 240) as the most
important components of the creation of learning environment strategy.
21
Learning environment
Physical space Cognitive space
Figure1. Two spaces in the learning environment by Krause et al. 2003:16
This strategy relates to the arrangement of classroom furniture to ensure visibility and
accessibility of both staff and students as well as lack of distractibility during the
teaching and learning process (Soodak & McCarthy 2006:16; Teach for America
2011). The teacher needs to have free movements in the classroom for effective
monitoring of students’ work while students need free movements during group work
and when consulting the teacher.
Catering for student

development level/characteristics
Effective
Creating a conducive
classroom
physical environment
management
style
Classroom Management
strategies
Creating, teaching and
maintaining rules and Creating a conducive
procedures learning environment
Getting student cooperation Effectively managing the

classroom activities
Figure 2. Classroom Management Strategies (adapted from Bilik 2008:238)

22
Effective managing classroom activities
Effective teachers differ from ineffective ones not only in how they respond to
students’ behaviour problems but more importantly in how they manage groups.
Effective teachers, according to Bilik (2008:244), perform the following activities
when managing student classroom activities:
(i) closely monitor students on a regular basis in order to quickly detect

inappropriate learning behaviour;
(ii) moving around the classroom, checking each student’s work while also keeping
an eye on the rest of the class;
(iii) maintaining student interest through positive feedback and rewards;
(iv) engaging students in variety of challenging activities.
Getting students to cooperate
The following activities according to Oliver (2007:16) can be undertaken to ensure

more cooperation of students during the teaching and learning process:
(i) developing a positive relationship with students based on respect and mutual
trust,
(ii) getting students to share and assure responsibility for their learning by letting
students lead discussion and group work,
(iii) rewarding students using a variety of reward systems as a way of recognising
and appreciating their contributions during the teaching and learning process.
23
Develop a positive Get students to share

relationship with and assume
students responsibility
Getting
students to
cooperate
Reward appropriate
behaviour
Figure 3. Strategies to get students to cooperate by Olive (2007:16)
Creating and enforcing rules and routines
Rules ensure order and safe learning during the teaching/learning process while
routines ensure predictability (Classroom Management Resource Guide 2014).
Effective teachers set and enforce rules without fear and favour and also plan their
work with clarity to ensure routine is followed and students are aware of what they are
supposed to do next and be able to adequately prepare themselves in advance of the
lesson.
24
Effective classroom management style
There are three basic management styles that teachers can use during the teaching and
learning process and these include the authoritative, authoritarian and the permissive
styles. The authoritarian classroom management style is restrictive and punitive and
focuses on keeping order in the classroom rather than on instruction and learning. It is
not effective as a management strategy as it stifles student creativity and freedom (Bilik
2008: 246). The permissive classroom management style gives too much freedom to
students and provides them with little support for developing learning skills or to
manage their behaviour. This strategy is viewed as one of the contributors of
disciplinary problems in classrooms. The authoritative classroom management style is
the one that is viewed as effective in promoting an orderly and productive learning
environment in classrooms. This style encourages students to be independent thinkers
and actors and involves the teacher balancing between teaching and facilitating.
The authoritative The authoritarian The permissive

classroom management classroom classroom
style management style management style
This type of style is This type of style

This type of style offers students with
restrictive and
encourages students to considerable
punitive. The focus
be independent autonomy, but
is mainly on keeping
thinkers and doers but provides them with
order in the
still involves effective little support for
classroom rather than
monitoring. developing learning
on instruction and
learning. skills or managing
their behaviour.
Figure 4. The difference between the three types of classroom management style
(Bilik 2008:246)
25
Teaching English in a large size class is really a difficult task. The following tools and
strategies can help English language teachers to teach in class such as:
a. Participatory Lecture. Students need to be fully involved if an English

Language class is engaged in lecture method. This can be called an interactive
or participatory lecture. In this method, students are invited to say everything
they know about the topic the teacher intends to cover. Their answers are
written on the board or overhead, and then, as the lecture progresses, their
answers may be referred to as examples. It is also a good way to find out just
how much information, misinformation, or both your students have about a
particular subject. As a break from the one-way lecture, according to Peter
Frederick J. (1987:45-56), “begins a jointly created coherent understanding
of the topic”.
b. Language Laboratory. Though mention of language laboratory seems out

of place when talking of strategies to manage large size ELT classes, but one
cannot ignore the importance and the role of a language laboratory in ELT
classes. If the institution can manage to procure a language laboratory, it can
very effectively be used in language classes. The class can be divided into
groups to attend the language laboratory sessions. Much of the language
learning depends on the practice of oral-aural skills. A language laboratory
can give more effective practice in oral-aural skills than a tape recorder.
Robert Lado points out that there are two conflicting views on the role of the
language laboratory in the teaching of a language. The first view is that the
language laboratory is “the centre of language teaching with the teacher
assisting the lab operation and adjusting to it”. The second view is that it “is
a teaching aid; with the class as a centre”. The first view is indefensible; for
it relegates the teacher’s role to that of a mechanic and subordinate and
assigns a superior role to the language laboratory and the ready-made
26
materials which may be used independently by the students. In defence of

“the lab-as-aid point of view”, Lado (1964:28) sets forth the following
arguments:
1. The teacher is clearly thought of as the central figure to teach the students.
2. The lab is one more aid, not the central component of teaching.
3. The lab materials are designed to supplement class work selectively.
4. The materials are not complete lessons.
Zakia Sarwar (2001:127) examined Logon’s assumptions and Altman’s tenets to

determine how the concept of individualization could be exploited for large classes,
where learners needed (a) exposure to language learning, (b) activities for confidence
building, and (c) a learner-centred approach to build rapport between the teacher and
learners. After thorough deliberations, a working definition that emerged was the use
of four Rs for individualization purpose, i.e; “Re-education, Responsibility, Relevance
and Rapport”.
a. Re-education. This implies redefining the role of a teacher as facilitator and the
student as an active agent in the process of learning. In Burundi, this change
needs to be emphasized more, since the teacher and the learners are used to the
lecture method in which the student is a passive listener and speaker; the teacher
talks without any interaction or break for the whole teaching period.
b. Responsibility. This means that the students take charge of their own learning.
In our social context, this is a conceptual leap as they are used to rote learning
and lack confidence in their own cognitive domain. It also implies teacher’s
responsibility to set up clearly defined tasks which can be monitored by the
students on their own and ensure the availability of self-learning materials for
learners.
c. Relevance. The material devised for the learners needs to be relevant. Relevance
means finding contexts of learning that are meaningful for the learners.
27
d. Rapport. A large size class poses to be a class-management challenge for a

teacher. It is only through the proper rapport that an atmosphere conducive to
learning can be built up. Also “humanizing” a large class is perhaps the only way
to motivate learning.
Humanistic teaching could be a good method in dealing with disruptive students

because it concerns students’ feelings and motivation. Harmer (2001:90) points out that
“humanistic teaching has also found a greater acceptance at the level of procedures
and activities, in which students are encouraged to make use of their own lives and
feelings in the classroom”. Using this method, teachers might design activities that
make students feel good and remember happy times whilst at the same time practice
language. Teachers should take on many different roles. These roles are not like the
traditional role of being the authoritarian of the class. The role of the teacher is to be
an instructional leader, a facilitator and a guide.
28
II.1.3. General Problems of Large Class English Language Teaching

In the light of the foregoing discussion on classroom management phenomena, i.e class
size phenomenon and ELT situation, there are certain problems which are related to
large size classes English language teaching and cannot be ignored at any time.
According to Mahmood Ahmad Azhar (2004:99-101), these adapted problems are as
follows:
a. Discipline. Discipline is a vital element in the teaching and learning process. A

disciplined class is an ideal field for a teacher to impart knowledge. In a class of
100 to 200 students, it is impossible to maintain discipline. Maybe a teacher is
very competent in his/her profession, his/her preparation is satisfactory, is smart
and punctual; but will fail to control and maintain discipline in a large class.
Student behaviour problems have for years been a major concern of teachers,
administrators and parents
b. Individual Attention to Students. A class is made of individuals who belong to

different backgrounds having different problems. They need to be given
individual attention. But how is it possible in a class of 120-200 students? It is
very difficult to speak and listen to individual students all the time within the
period of 50 to 60 minutes. It also becomes difficult for the teacher to know
his/her students individually. A teacher will always find a lot of embarrassment
in identifying the specific needs of individual learners in a large size class. It will
also be difficult to locate the weak students and help them.
c. Evaluation. Proper evaluation is an important requirement in the teaching and

learning process. There are many reasons to carry out evaluation. On the one
hand, the teacher comes to know how much successful teaching is and on the
other hand the students know where they stand in comprehension. It is very
difficult for teachers to carry out proper evaluation in large size class. The
29
teachers consider it very difficult to supervise a class and check all the exercises
done by each student in the classroom. It becomes almost impossible to correct
their mistakes. Pair work and group work becomes impossible. It is troublesome
for the teacher to mark too many scripts of home assignments. But all these
evaluations are very essential in the teaching and learning system.
d. Teaching – Learning Process. In a large class, the teaching – learning process

gets very slow. There are many distractions and disturbances. The teacher is not
audible to the students because of overcrowding; there is much noise in class.
Students find it easier to talk with one another than listening to the teacher. As a
result, the teacher does not own the class and the class does not own the teacher
and, thus, the teaching – learning process gets disrupted.
e. Interaction. In a large class, the teachers cannot interact freely with the students.
The interaction between the teacher and the students is restricted. The teacher in
most cases has to resort to the lecture method which means the teacher’s talking
time is increased up to 90% and in certain cases up to 95%. Teachers are not able
to pay attention to individuals, having only uncertain control over the classroom
situation, feeling uncomfortable in the classroom, and worrying about the
physical constraints imposed by the situation. Teaching cannot be carried out in
isolation. Proper interaction between the teachers and the students is essential.
f. Ignorance of real talent. Those who mostly suffer in a large size class are the
talented students. They are not given individual attention. They need patting as
well as guidance to further improve their capacities. When they feel ignored they
go in the background and lack motivation. They need to be given due
recognition.
30
g. Lack of understanding. In a large size class there is no understanding. The

teacher does not and cannot establish good rapport with the students. In a “crowd
phenomenon” of large size class, the students cannot get closer to the teacher.
He is not in their reach and this leads to lack of understanding between the
students and the teacher.
h. Students lacking motivation. It is generally seen that students learning in large

classes are demotivated due to noise, overcrowding, lack of proper seating
arrangement etc. According to Eddie C. Kennedy (1997:210), there are four
classes of motivation which are directly related to teaching. There are:
(1) Arousal – the instigation of activity through which the learner becomes
engaged in learning.
(2) Expectancy – setting up goals and objectives which enable the student to
understand what he/she will learn during the instructional period.
(3) Incentive – rewarding achievement in a manner that will encourage sustained
effort toward future achievement in a manner that will.
(4) Discipline – the use of rewards and punishment to control and direct
behaviour. It is very unfortunate that all these classes of motivation are non-
existent in the large size classes.
i. Teaching through lecture Method only. In the large size ELT classes, teachers
are bound to depend on lecture method only. F. Theodore Struck (1988:254)
defines lecture method as “by a lecture is meant a more or less extended oral
presentation of knowledge which has its maximum value with adults. It has
probably always been one of the leading, if not the foremost, methods used in
systematic, organized instruction for adults”.
31
In the lecture method, the teacher needs to make sure that the decoding of information
by the student is correct and the decoded message is learnt. The feeding of information
by the teacher is based on the assumption that it is valid. In his reflection on teaching,
Johnson (1982:114) is quoted as follows:
“Few pedagogic devices in our time have been repudiated
more unequivocally by educational theorists than the
method of verbal instruction. It is fashionable many
quarters to characterize verbal learning as parrot-like
recitation and rote memorization of isolated facts, and
dismiss it disdainfully as an archaic remnant of discredited
educational tradition”5.
The lecturing methodology for 18th century England is probably applicable for ELT in
Burundi today. Lecture method needs to be modified and in certain situations
substituted with alternative methodologies. So, we can conclude that the lecture
method cannot be found suitable all the time in all the lessons.
II.2. Student’s Speaking Difficulties

The speaking skill is a complex skill to be mastered in easy way so student face many
barriers and difficulties. These difficulties could be about the subjects, about students’
background, or the teachers’ manners and ways of teaching. Therefore, teachers are
responsible for the teaching and the learning process so they must be aware of all these
difficulties and find the appropriate ways to decrease them. Here, we will present some
problems that could be found inside the classroom such as:
a. Lack of interest in the subject problem: Students sometimes feel uninterested

in the topics that teachers suggest in the classroom because they have dealt with
these subjects many times before or they have not any ideas about these subjects
5
Post Graduate Diploma in English Language Teaching 515, AIOU, p 114
32
or topics which are ambiguous in some parts of them; in this case, students may
not perform or talk about these topics and keep themselves off-task. Twomey
quoted in Westwood (2008: 36) argues that:
“Many of these students avoid participating verbally during lessons,
do not appear to take an interest in the subject matter, and do not
perceive class discussions as learning opportunities. Their attitude
serves as a defence mechanism which protects them from possible
humiliation from giving the wrong answer and exposing their
academic inadequacies”.
b. Students’ psychological problems: In addition to the previous cognitive

difficulties, students may have other problems that hinder them to interact in the
classroom these problems are students’ psychological problems which also have
a great impact on the learning process. Many researchers have just emphasized
on the other difficulties which are related to the learning process but they neglect
the psychological side in which students may feel boring and uninteresting in
learning or integrating in the classroom. Some of the psychological problems
that we can present here are famous one which are: anxiety, shyness, self-esteem
and self-confidence.
(i) Anxiety problem: This case is very famous and familiar, as Scovel says: “it
is associated with the feeling of uneasiness, frustration, self-doubt,
apprehension, or worry” (Brown 2000:151). We can say that anxiety is about
when a person may feel pessimistic about his/her self and his/her work.
Douglas Brown suggested that there are: “trait anxiety” which is permanent
feeling; so students always feel anxious about anything in life and “state
anxiety” that is not temporary according to such situation and circumstances.
(ii) Shyness problem: Some students have the ability to work and make effective
efforts in the classroom but they could not express themselves because of
33
shyness. Shyness is the feeling of fear of making mistakes and of being

criticized from the others or feelings that can hinder students from
participating, talking, enjoying tasks, and even engaging with others.
Students suffering from this problem do not like to work neither with others
nor in public; they may like loneliness and silence as well as they do not
prefer interacting with others they do not know just the ones who are relatives
or very close to them. In addition, students, who are freshmen at the
institution, do not get any opportunity of expressing themselves in the public
or in front of others.
(iii) Self-esteem and self-confidence problems: The learning process requires
from students to trust in their abilities and never be negative toward
themselves. Self-esteem and self-confidence are extremely important and “it
could easily be claimed that no successful cognitive or effective activity can
be carried out without some degree of self-esteem, self-confidence,
knowledge of yourself and belief in your own capacities for that activity”.
(Brown 2000:145)
Hence, it is quite clear that low self-esteem and self-confidence, they will absolutely
fail in engaging in the lesson and they will lose their disposition in participating and
involving in the activities.
II.3. Speaking Activities in Oral Expression Course
Students are still the responsibility of teachers until they learn effectively the target
language, so teachers must make sure that their students learn and get the intended
information. Teachers should be aware that “learners are not neutral pawns in the
teacher’s game, but individuals with positive and negative feelings about themselves
and others”6. From this quotation we explicit that students are the responsibility of the
teachers so they must work hard and do their job effectively in attempting to promote
6
Lynch, Tony (1996) Communicative in the Language Classroom. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
34
students’ level and ability to master the target language. Then, the teachers are asked
to choose and manage appropriate speaking activities in order to motivate students’
interaction in the classroom and enhance their engagement in the presented activity.
The advantages of preparing and presenting speaking activities are explained in the
book of “How to Teach English” by Jeremy Harmer (1998:87) who gives three main
reasons that speaking activities are beneficial for the students’ learning development:
- The first reason is about “Rehearsal” in which students experience every day in
every speaking activity a new situation that could happen in the real life. At this
step, students have free discussions outside the classroom.
- The second reason is about “Feedback” in which students and even teachers are
able to be aware of their progress. Teachers can see how well their class is doing
and what language problems they are having because students are asked to
produce feedback. Speaking activities can give students enormous confidence
and satisfaction, and with sensitive teacher guidance can help them into further
study.
- The last presented reason is about “Engagement” in which speaking activities
could enhance students’ participation and interaction in the classroom; so as
Harmer (1998:88) says: “If all students are participating fully and if the teacher
has set up the activity properly and can then give sympathetic and useful
feedback – they will get tremendous satisfaction from it. Many speaking tasks
(role-playing, discussion, problem-solving, etc.) are intrinsically enjoyable in
themselves”.
35
II.4. Some Tips for Teaching Large Classes
The UNESCO publication Embracing Diversity: Toolkit for Creating Inclusive,

Learning-Friendly Environment 7 (2006:51-52) offers a holistic, practical means to
make schools and classrooms more inclusive, learning-friendly and gender-sensitive.
This guide aims to help teachers by giving them guidelines about how to teach in large
classes successfully without compromising quality. Here are some tips for teaching
large classes:
1. Do everything possible to get to know your students. A positive relationship with

your students builds a willingness on their part to actively participate in class.
2. Have your students introduce themselves to everyone in an interactive manner.
You introduce yourself, as well.
3. Move around the class when talking – this engages students more actively, and
it can reduce the physical and social distance between you and your students.
4. Tell your students you will be available before and after class to answer any
questions they might have.
5. Keep track of frequently asked questions or common mistakes. Use these to
develop lessons and help students avoid making mistakes.
6. Be aware of the class. If you notice or even feel that there is something wrong,
ask a student what is going on. Invite small groups of students to visit you discuss
important class issues. When necessary, involve students and use positive
discipline to deal with misbehaviour.
7. Give a background questionnaire or a diagnostic test to check the content of
your lessons and the knowledge and skills of your students, to identify those
students that need special attention, as well as to make connections to students’
life experiences.
7
Hadded, Caroline (2006) Practical Tips for Teaching Large classes: A Teacher’s Guide. Bankok: UNESCO Asia and
Pacific Regional Bureau for Education
36
8. Develop a formal lesson plan as a way to organizing your teaching in a large

class setting; a way to monitor whether or not your students are understanding
what is taught; and a chance for you to think about what to do next and how to
improve your teaching. In your plan, identify what topic is to be taught, the
learning objectives, teaching methods, classroom arrangement, main activities,
resources and assessment methods.
9. Develop a visual display of the outline of the day’s topics and learning
objectives. This will make following the flow of the class much easier for you
and your students. Plan for a clear beginning, middle and end to the class.
10.Use “prompts” to develop students’ question and answer skills, and count to 10
after you ask a question to give time for the student(s) to answer.
11.Set examination questions that really tell you if your students have truly learned
and can apply what you have taught them, not just what they remember.
12.Reflect on your teaching. Discuss with your colleagues and students how your
class can be improved. Visit the classes of colleagues who are teaching many
students, and exchange ideas and materials for teaching large classes. Above all,
view the challenge of teaching a large class as an opportunity, not a problem.
II.5. Conclusion
In this chapter, we attempt to review the literature concerning the management of large
size class while teaching and learning the speaking skill. We highlighted features of
spoken language that make this skill more important than the other skills. This chapter
was also about the explanation of the methods, strategies and techniques that can be
used to manage large class even though teaching and learning the speaking skill is a
difficult process regarding the students’ speaking and psychological problems
involved. The next chapter deals with the methodology used to collect and analyse the
relevant data.
37
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY
III.1. Introduction
The aim of the present chapter is to show the methods and techniques that the
researcher used to get the required data related to the research questions of the topic at
hand. The main sections of this chapter are description of the study area, the sampling
techniques, instruments for data collection, data collection procedure and data analysis.
III.2. Research area

The study was conducted at the Institute for Applied Pedagogy. The latter has six
departments namely English, French, Kiswahili-Kirundi, Biology-Chemistry, Physics-
Technology and Mathematics, and the English language is taught in all departments.
But, students of science departments (Mathematics, Biology-Chemistry, Physics-
Technology) learn English in the same auditorium with one teacher. The study area
was not therefore chosen at random. It was due to the fact that among the universities
scattered in the country, the Institute for Applied Pedagogy of the University of
Burundi is one of the institutions that train teachers in different subjects. The IPA is
located in Bujumbura city.
III.3. Research Population

The population concerned by the research is made of teachers and learners from the
Institute for Applied Pedagogy at the University of Burundi. The researcher was helped
by the Academic Services in order to get the lists of the students. The number of all the
students in First Years in 2016-2017 academic year is 553.
38
III.4. Sampling Technique
III.4.1. Selection of Informants

The research population consists of English teachers/lecturers who teach in IPA’s
different departments. It includes a sample of six teachers of English namely 3 from
the English Department and 3 who teach English in other departments; however, one
teacher did not hand back the questionnaire, making 5 questionnaires returned. Because
of the large number of students, the researcher selected 15% for each department and
so, 90 students of first years at the Institute for Applied Pedagogy (IAP) - University
of Burundi. The subjects were randomly chosen on the basis of their alphabetical lists.
The researcher took a list and select students with odd numbers until 16% was reached
for each department. The population chosen allowed us to investigate and evaluate the
impact caused by large class size on the teaching and learning of the speaking skill in
English.
Table 3. Sample of Departments and Teachers – Learners used as Informants
Department/First year Total number Number of Number of

of learners sampled learners Teachers surveyed
English 147 23 3
French 125 20 1
Kiswahili-Kirundi 124 19 1
Biology-Chemistry 59 10 1
Mathematics 62 10
Physics-Technology 36 9
Total 553 90 6
N.B: 1 same teacher for First Year students of Biology-Chemistry, Mathematics and
Physics-Technology departments.
39
III.5. Data Collection Instruments

There is a number of instruments used to collect the data from subjects. You can
observe them or ask them questions in written (questionnaire) or oral (interview) form.
As there is no best way of collecting data, a combination of two instruments was used
in this study namely: classroom observation and questionnaires administrated to both
the teachers and the students.
III.5.1. Written Questionnaire

I used the questionnaire to collect data. A questionnaire is defined as a formulated
series of questions that are used for getting information about people’s opinion or
activities. Questionnaires are defined by Richterich and Chancerel (1977:36) as
structured instruments for collection of data which translate research hypotheses into
questions. I thus resorted to two kinds of questionnaire, one for the teachers and the
other for the students. The questionnaire was adequate for these reasons:
a) It is convenient for collecting data from a large sample within a short-time.
b) It gives the respondents freedom to provide frank answers to sensitive questions,
especially if they are not asked to disclose their names.
c) Respondents can also answer questions during their free time.
A few questions were close-ended, i.e, teachers and students had alternative answers
from which they could make only one choice. Other questions were open-ended, that
is, respondents could give their views or opinions which helped to understand better
the real problems encountered in teaching and learning the speaking skill in a large size
class.
40
III.5.2. Classroom Observation

Classroom observation is vital in the sense that it helps me to get real information
through “eye-witnessing”. It helps to avoid the risk of being misled by information that
you receive from the questionnaires which may be incomplete, wrong or biased. Lesson
observation was used because it makes it possible to collect primary data on what
actually goes on during the English lesson. It is essential to watch how the speaking
skill teaching and learning takes place on the basis of the environment and the
participants in order to understand the possible problems encountered by the learners
as well as the teachers.
Class observation also allows to bring a critical mind on what is going on in the
classroom because the information collected may be more genuine than the one held
by the informants. Wallace (1978:62) argues in favour of what is said above and puts
it in the following words:
“This kind of observation is also extremely
valuable since certain aspects of the action
will be clear to the observer in a way that
they cannot be to the teacher. In sport, there is
a saying that the spectator sees most of the game”.
In order to see most of the classroom activities successfully, I then planned classroom
observation. First, I made a checklist of items that my observation was to focus on.
Researchers in the field of education have already provided some theories about
teaching and learning. These are the setting, the learner, the teacher and their
relationships and activities. The researcher observed one half time of the British
literature course when students were presenting their exposés. For that reason, the
researcher observed for two hours in the morning and two hours in the afternoon for
three days.
41
III.6. Data Collection Procedure
III.6.1. Pilot Study

Before the formal questionnaire, a pilot study was conducted in June 2017. On the one
hand, we presented the questionnaire for teachers to some lecturers in order to see their
opinions about the management of large classes. Their conclusions led us to think that
the whole study was worthwhile before being conducted. On the other hand, a group
of eighteen students from first years of different departments of Institute for Applied
Pedagogy at University of Burundi got the questionnaire. The aim was to check
whether questions were related to the difficulties that they are facing in large size
classes or not. I also got their ideas on the management of large classes while learning
speaking skill in English. The choice of these students was at random but each
department got representatives. The pilot study also confirmed that the questionnaires
were valid and adapted.
III.6.2. The Field Study

After the carrying out the pilot study, I got different opinions from lecturers and
students of the Institute for Applied Pedagogy. Their observations have been integrated
in the final questionnaire that was distributed during the field study. I used two kinds
of questionnaires: one for teachers and another one for students. The researcher went
from department to department and distributed the questionnaires until all the
respondents received the questionnaires. Before doing that, the research first contacted
the Academic direction so as to ask for permission to get enrolment data in first years
and to contact the lecturers and students. The lecturers and students left the
questionnaire to be filled but some lecturers and students didn’t hand back the
questionnaire. Of the 6 lecturers who received the questionnaire, 1 lecturer didn’t
answer and he told me that he is too busy to answer it. Only 5 lecturers who returned
complete questionnaire. In all departments, there are 7 students that is 1 from English
department, 2 from Kiswahili-Kirundi department, 3 from Mathematics department
42
and 1 from French department. Then, from the initial sample of 90 students the final
sample was 83 who were concerned by the data analysis procedure.
III.7. Data Analysis Procedures

In this study, concerning the questionnaire, the researcher classified the answers given
by respondents, that is teachers and learners, into different categories according to the
answers that were given. The following step was to establish tables with frequencies
and percentages, theme by theme and question by question. For open-ended questions,
the researcher quoted the expressed priceless opinions.
III.8. Encountered Difficulties

Generally, no research work can be achieved without difficulties. When I was carrying
out this study I came across many problems, but the main ones were financial
difficulties and the availability of the respondents both the teachers and the students.
The distribution process of questionnaires raised peculiar problems to the researcher

due to the non-availability of respondents. Students were studying intensively and 7 of
them did not hand back the questionnaire. For that reason, I spent four weeks collecting
answered questionnaires which could have been collected in a single day. For teachers,
they were organizing simulations and training, they handed back the answered
questionnaires late.
With classroom observation, the only problem I met was that in the first years, English
was already taught in some departments and even in the English department, it was
already through with oral expression course. That is why I attended presentations of
topics on British Literature.
43
III.9. Conclusion
This chapter is essential because it displays the methods and techniques used to collect
the necessary data. The chapter shows how I managed to analyse the data in the
research field. It is a bridge between the second chapter and the following one. The
next chapter deals with data presentation, analysis and findings.
44
CHAPTER IV: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS
IV.1. Introduction
This chapter is concerned with the presentation and analysis of data collected during
our investigation. Its main purpose is to find answers to the research questions and to
test hypotheses stated in the first chapter of this study.
This work aimed at analysing the impact of large classes on the learning and teaching
of the speaking skill referred to as oral skill as well as finding solutions to the problems.
This chapter presents the analysis and interpretation of data gathered through the
teacher’s questionnaire, student’s questionnaire, and classroom observation. It is
divided into two main sections: the first section reports and analyses information
provided through three tools used while collecting our data: the classroom observation,
the teachers’ and the students’ questionnaires. The second section deals with the
findings.
IV.2. Analysis of data from Classroom Observation

a. The Setting: The Learning Conditions
The teaching and learning activities at the University of Burundi especially at the
Institute for Applied Pedagogy take place in large size lecture rooms. Students and
teachers always sit in a room large enough to contain more than one hundred people
and they sit in rows facing the teacher. The lecture theatres are often quiet and lighted,
even though some students in the back position make noise.
The First Year class visited had an average number of students present representing
around sixty percent (60%). It means that 40% of the students did not attend classes.
Summary of classroom observation results in the first year of the English department.
N.B: As earlier mentioned, we observed around one half time of the British literature
course when students were presenting their exposés. We observed for two hours in the
morning and two in the afternoon for three days.
45
Table 4: The Learning Conditions
Item observed The learning

conditions
First Year of English
Department
Results Answers
The size of the classroom
Large Yes
Average No
Small No
Too small No
The number of students
Too big Yes
Large No
Average No
Small No
The state of the room
Noisy & Lighted Sometimes
Quiet & Lighted Often
Noisy & Dark No
Quiet & Dark No
Learners are seated
In rows All the time
Into circles No
Into groups No
The classroom that the researcher visited is large size because it’s a lecture hall that
contains a great number of students. In Table 4 above, sometimes, students who are in
back places make noise. The students are seated in rows which sometimes doesn’t
allow teachers to walk easily in the classroom because the arrangement is not well
done.
46
b. The Role of the Learner
The role of the learner is very important in the teaching and learning process especially
while developing the speaking skill. The learner plays a key role by participating in
debate, discussion, etc. and the latter helps the teacher to discover where learners have
challenges.
Table 5: The Role of Learners
Item observed The role of learners

Department
Results Answers
Motivated Somehow
A little motivated No
Not motivated No
Do pay attention
All of them Sometimes
Some of them Often
Very few of them No
None No
Activities during the course
Taking notes Often
Reading aloud Sometimes
Interpretation of images & 0
pictures
Question and answer drills Sometimes
Class debates and discussion 0
Have problems
With pronunciation Yes
With the topic Somehow
Poor vocabulary Somehow
It’s very difficult to pay attention to all students in the classroom because they are too
many. Students often takes notes that are dictated by the teachers and it doesn’t give
them the time to practise the English language. Students have also problems of
pronunciation and they have also poor vocabulary as it’s indicated in Table 5.
47
c. The Role of the Teacher

The role of the teacher is of paramount importance in the process of teaching-learning.
The teacher has to act as a stimulator of motivation.
Table 6: The role of the teacher

Item observed The role of learners
Department
Results Answers
Motivated Somehow
A little motivated No
Not motivated No
The teacher’s position
 is seated
In front No
In the middle No
In the back No
 stands up
In front All the time
In the middle No
In the back No
 is moving
In front Often
In the middle No
In the back No
Activities during the course
Giving instruction Sometimes
Dictating notes Often
Asking questions Sometimes
Correcting errors Sometimes
Answering students’ questions Yes
The type of English used
Formal & R.P Yes
Informal & R.P Sometimes
Bad pronunciation No
Colloquial No
The speed is
High No
Low Yes
Too low No
48
In table 6, the teacher displays sufficient motivation. Sometimes, the teacher stays in
front of the class because of the congestion of students, desks and bad seating
arrangement.
IV.3. Data analysis from the lecturers’ questionnaire

As mentioned in our research methodology, the study was conducted on 6 English
teachers namely 3 teachers from the English Department including 2 teachers of oral
expression and 1 of literature; and 3 other English teachers from other departments. In
the following lines, we analyse and interpret the teachers’ opinions about the different
questions. Unfortunately, one teacher did not give back his questionnaire which means
that I collected only 5 lecturer’s questionnaires. The lecturer’s questionnaire is made
of 20 questions which are presented and analysed in groups according to their likeness.
One of the respondents said “I didn’t any special pre-service training on management
of large class but there were some topics related to classroom management that were
part of lessons in academic curriculum at the College”.
Table7: Data presentation for Pre-service training
Questions Answers F Percentage

1.Have you attended a pre-service training on Yes 0 0%
management of large class?
No 5 100%
2.Have you done any pre-service training course? Yes 0 0%
No 4 80%
No answer 1 20%
3.Do you have special training to handle large classes? Yes 2 40%
No 3 60%
F: Frequencies
49
The responses about the sample lecturers are

graphically reflected
100%
100% 80%
60%
40%
50% 20%
0% 0%
0%
Question 1 Question 2 Question 3
Yes No No answer
Graphics 1: Pre-service training
This section on pre-service training related questions reveal that the teachers had no
pre-service training, when special training was necessary for them to teach large size
ELT classes. They did not have special training to handle large classes except 40% for
whom management of large size class was a part of the curriculum during their
academic studies and another 60% did not study it anymore.
Table 8: Data presentation for in-service training course

Question Answers F Percentage
4. Did you attend any in-service course in the past Yes 1 20%
five years?
No 4 80%
The responses of in-service training course reflected

graphically
80%
80%
60%
40%
20%
20%
0%
Question 4
Yes No
Graphics 2: In-service training course

50
This section proves that most teachers did not attend an English language teaching
course in the last five years which means from 2012 till 2017, only 20% have attended
in-service training and 80% did not get any training especially on management of large
class.
According to the information we gathered, we found out that the teachers often use
techniques which do not require activities involving students’ participation due to the
large class situation.
What should be done here is the seminars or in-service training that should be
organized for the teachers with special training on how to deal with different teaching
skills in large class. We know that the role of language is to communicate, and these
teachers are training students who will be communicators; that is why these teachers
must be equipped with methods and techniques related to the teaching of the different
skills. And for the case of teachers who got the training, they are required to be
competent because competent teachers will therefore strive to put theories into practice
by emphasizing the function of a language.
P. Gurrey (1960: 2) hints at it when he states that:
“A teacher needs to have a dozen different methods at his finger tips and a
number of skills at his command. He needs to know how different aspects
of language teaching can be handled bringing change on the methods he
has at his disposal”.
One can draw from this quotation that it is meaningless to memorise all existing
theories by heart without being able to use them appropriately. In the same sense if
those methods are not used, the teaching-learning activity will not be successful. That
is why teachers should bear in mind that without methods or when badly used, no
teaching- learning activity would take place. And for this to be well achieved, it needs
to be applied in a good class environment.
51
Table 9: Data presentation for Teachers’ perception about oral expression

teaching

5.What is the size of your a. Less than 50 students 0 0%
class?
b. Between 50 and 70 students 0 0%
c. 70 students and more 5 100%
6.How do you find the a. Very difficult 2 40%
teaching of the speaking b. Difficult 3 60%
skills in large size classes?
c. Not difficult 0 0%
d. Normal 0 0%
e. A waste of time 0 0%
7. Do you use different a. Yes 5 100%
activities in teaching the
b. No 0 0%
speaking skill?
Graphic representation of teachers'perception on large class

100% 100%
100%
90%
80%
70% 60%
60%
50% 40%
40%
30%
20%
10% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%
0%
Answer A Answer B Answer C Answer D Answer E
Graphics 3: Teachers’ perception about oral expression teaching
Here, as seen in Table 9 above, no lecturer among the 5 investigated deals with a class
of less than 50 students. We noticed that all the teachers, that is 5 teachers out of 5,
which is 100%, teach classes containing 70 students and more. Putting together the
frequencies of teachers who declared that they teach classes of between 70 and 200
52
students. Considering the definition of what a large class is, we see that all these classes
are large because a large class contains 50 students and more. In such a situation then,
with a large number of students in the classroom, one wonders how English teachers
can make all students speaking. One of the respondents of the questionnaire said:
“It’s not easy to teach in a large class because you were supposed
to work with each individual student just to evaluate and help
them. Because the number of learners doesn’t allow us to do
so, we just split them into different groups, to mean that it’s
not easy to evaluate each student”.
Therefore, it must be noted here that the number of students within a classroom
constitutes a factor of success or failure in the speaking skill’s learning. In addition, the
teachers assert that it is not easy to teach the speaking skill in large class because the
latter is very noisy and it is very difficult to work with individual students and evaluate
each one.
Question 9: How often do you involve your students in the following activities?
Table 10: Data presentation for question 9 on involving students
Activities Often Once in a Never Total

while
F % F % F % 5 100%
Individual verbal response 1 20% 3 60% 1 20% 5 100%
Debates/discussion 1 20% 4 80% 0 0% 5 100%
Language games 0 0% 0 0% 5 100% 5 100%
Group work 4 80% 1 20% 0 0% 5 100%
Pair work 0 0% 1 20% 4 80% 5 100%
Chorus work 0 0% 0 0% 5 100% 5 100%
Drama: - simulation 3 60% 2 40% 0 0% 5 100%
- role-play
53
a. Individual verbal response
As one can read in Table 10 above, the data from the study show that 3 out of 5 teachers
investigated or 60% reported that they use the individual verbal response once in while
teaching the oral skill; 1 teacher disclosed that he often uses it; 1 teacher, that is 20%
confirmed to have never used such an activity in his oral lesson.
From the above, considering the teachers’ answers and the results from our classroom
observation, we find out that this activity is the most commonly used technique on
which most of the teachers investigated converge. It is clear that this activity involves
students’ participation during the speaking lesson in the sense that it gives a student the
opportunity to express himself orally. However, as an observer while collecting data,
we noticed that in large classes, a problem remains: it is not all the students who get
the opportunity to give their verbal response due to the time allotted to a lesson.
b. Debate
Concerning debate as an activity to improve the students’ speaking ability, data in

Table 10 showed that 1 teacher out of 5 teachers investigated (20%), said that he often
uses them in his speaking lesson. 4 teachers, that is 80%, reported that they use this
activity once in a while, whereas no teacher said he had never used the technique.
Considering then the proportion of teachers who often use it and those who use it once
in a while, we simply understood that this activity is used by teachers in large classes.
The reason advanced by the teachers investigated is that according to them, it is
difficult in the sense that in debate/discussion, students have to be equipped with high
proficiency in the language. In this case, students who are not proficient face the
problem of lacking the appropriate vocabulary to use. However, although rarely used
in large classes, this activity or technique should be practiced for its great importance
in improving the students’ public speaking skill to be tried out and for the speaker to
be judged by his peers expressing himself on fresher topics.
54
c. Language games
The table above indicates that no teacher uses the technique of language games during
their speaking lessons and no one confirmed to have used the said activity once in a
while. Furthermore, all of the teachers investigated reported that they never use this
activity in their speaking skill teaching.
We concluded then, that language games are never used in all the classes under
investigation although they are very important in language learning as they can add fun
and variety to conversation sessions if the participants are fond of games. In the view
of J.A. Bright and al. (1987:155), “games are especially refreshing after demanding
conversational activities such as debate or speeches”. Moreover, a game is a
wonderful way to break the routine of classroom drill by providing relaxation while
remaining within the framework of language learning. It was noticed then that the
English teachers of the selected classes are afraid of practicing it due to the big number
of learners they deal with. Therefore, it should be better to initiate this technique and
while practicing it, the teacher should select only the best games from the hundreds of
language games available.
d & e) Group and pair work
For these two techniques, the data in Table 10 shows that 1 teacher, that is 20%, said
that he practices once in a while these activities and 4 teachers, or 80%, admitted that
they do not use them.
We noticed from the above that these techniques are rarely used in many classes
particularly large ones if we consider the percentages of teachers who admitted to use
them once in a while.
55
For this, the reason revealed by teachers is that according to them, group and pair work
are time-consuming; which implies that it is almost impossible to practice them in a
large class.
However, organizing students into groups and pairs is very advantageous for the
students to improve the speaking skill. Some speaking activities like
dialogue/conversation and discussion could be based on group or pair work. While
the activities are going on, the teacher should move around, listening to the dialogue,
giving immediate advice and/or noting points for later teaching. Dialogue should be
imaginative and they should allow every student to play both the question and answer
roles. It is usually better for the teacher to structure the dialogue in a way which makes
him to be sure that everyone takes part and to be sure that the structure or pattern he
wishes to teach is the one the students actually use.
We notice that these activities are to be more practised due to the fact that when all the
students in a group are working together, they communicate with each other and more
importantly they co-operate among themselves. Moreover, group and pair works are
good techniques to enhance communication in the classroom in the sense that they
increase the amount of students’ practice. They allow many students to have
opportunities for talking or expressing themselves at the same time though it is time-
consuming.
f. Chorus work
The responses from the 5 teachers investigated, that is 100%, showed that none of
them practise the chorus work in their speaking skill teaching lessons. Chorus work is
very important in the learning of the oral-aural skills in large classes. This is supported
by Sesnan Barry (1991:107) when he states that:
Chorus work has got a bad name and that this has come about for
two reasons:
56
1. In small classes it was the lazy teacher’s way of drilling the

children,
2. It became a mindless repetition which the children were
unable to break up.
However, in large classes, chorus work has its place if it is managed correctly. Here
are some tips advocated by Sesnan Barry (1991: 108) where he makes us know that:
a. Chorus work only has a value if the teacher is listening

carefully to detect deviations from the norm which has been
given and checking that every student is taking part. This can
only be done if short utterances are used; however, it cannot be
done on single words.
b. There is no need for the whole class to chant at once; columns
or rows can say their phrases or sentences in turn. They can
even take roles following previously given guidelines.
c. Chorus work can be done only if words to be drilled are fixed
that is, in the form of a drill which is predictable.
This method in teaching language is not used at university because it is considered to

be used for pupils.
g. Drama
Concerning drama and language learning through the speaking skill, the data presented
in Table 10 revealed that 3 teachers, that is 60%, often use simulation and role play
activities in their teaching of the speaking skill; and 2 teachers, that is 40%, asserted
that they use drama activities once in a while. Taking into account the proportion of
teachers who admit never using drama activities and those who admitted to use drama
once in a while, we noticed that this activity or technique is rarely used for the
improvement of the speaking skills in large classes. Drama activities were found to be
of great importance in developing the speaking ability in students due to the fact that
57
they provide students with an opportunity to practise the language. Teachers

investigated on the issue put forward the explanation that drama activities are not used
because they are time-consuming especially in large classes. For the practice of drama,
students should be given time to prepare by reviewing the language and the information
that they need in order to do the activity.
A drama activity is in many ways an important version of role-play. Drama for

language practice does not always mean learning a script by heart and performing it.
Students can improvise and create a drama for themselves using the language they have
already learned. They need to do some preparation and may need to practise
improvisation. They can do this preparation in groups and perform their improvisation
for other groups, to the rest of the class or even to the rest of the school.
For this again, the teacher can get ideas for drama performances from a text or from
the students’ course book or from some literature they are studying. It can be
motivating for students to act out, for instance an incident which appears in a local
newspaper or magazine. They can play the role of the main characters in the situation.
Question 10. What particular problems do you often encounter in teaching the
speaking skills in large class?
Table11: Data presentation for question 10 on particular problems encountered
Responses Frequencies of answers Percentages

Lack of sufficient time 5 100%
Lack of appropriate teaching materials 5 100%
Lack of sufficient space 1 20%
Students’ lack of self-confidence in the speaking 3 60%
skill
Having a look on the answers provided in Table 11 above, we see that all the teachers
investigated, that is 100%, face the main problem of lacking enough time to deal with
the speaking skill activities in large classes, 5 teachers investigated, that is 100%,
admitted to be facing the problem of lacking appropriate teaching materials, while 1
teacher out of 5, that is 20%, reported to encounter the problem related to the lack of
58
enough space. A fourth group of 3 teachers out of 5 teachers, that is 60% asserted to
encounter the problem of students’ lack of self-confidence in the speaking skill.
We notice that in large classes, teachers face many problems including those mentioned
above which are added to other challenges of teaching large classes and the latter being
related to intimacy, anxiety, the problem of meeting individual needs, distractions and
the noise level in the sense that a large class becomes out of hand.
Table 12: Data presentation for methods of teaching English in large class
Questions Answers F Percentage

11. Do you teach by the lecture method only? Yes 0 0%
No 5 100%
12. Can you use the communicative method in Yes 5 100%
teaching English in large size class? No 0 0%
13. Do you use the communicative methods in Yes 5 100%
teaching English in large class? No 0 0%
14. Do you use only the blackboard while teaching Yes 5 100%
the English speaking skill? No 0 0%
15. Do you use teaching aids other than the Yes 5 100%
chalkboard in a large size English Language No 0 0%
Teaching class?
16. Do your students seem satisfied with your Yes 5 100%
method of teaching? No 0 0%
Graphic representation of methods of teaching English

in large class
100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%
100%
80%
60%
40%
20% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%
0%
Question 11 Question 12 Question 13 Question 14 Question 15 Question 16
Yes No
Graphics 4: Methods of teaching English in large class

59
Having a look at the answers provided in Table 12, we see that all the teachers
investigated, that is 100%, do not use lecture method only in their teaching and 5
teachers, that is 100%, practise the communicative approach while teaching the English
language in the speaking activities in large classes.
Thus, the teachers do not teach through the lecture method only, communicative
method can be used in large size classes. Communicative method is used by the
teachers and other teaching aids like handouts, real objects, real-life situations. Most
of the teachers believe that other methods help the students overcome shyness because
they allow students to cooperate with other students during group work on any real life
situation given.
Table 13: Data presentation for students’ performance

17. Do you think that students a. They are motivated 4 80%
participate in oral expression
b. They are risk-takers 0 0%
because….?
c. They like the teacher 0 0%
d. They want extra marks 1 20%
18.Do you make your students a. Individually 0 0%
work? b. In pairs 0 0%
c. In groups 5 100%
19.Do your students face a. Yes 5 100%
speaking difficulties? b. No 0 0%
60
Graphic representation of students'performance

5 5
5
4
4
Frequencies
3
2
1
1
0 0 0 0 0
0
Answer A Answer B Answer C Answer D
Graphics 5: Students’ performance
In Table 13, 4 teachers out of 5, that is 80%, have proved that their students are
motivated in learning English and 1 teacher out of 5, that is 20%, mentioned that
students want extra marks when they study the English language. All the teachers make
their students work in groups as one of the strategies to face large class. It was also
revealed by all teachers that students face speaking difficulties.
As mentioned above, the basic problem that students often come across, in large class,
is the lack of enough opportunities for expressing themselves. Three main causes of
this situation have been put forward by the students:
1. They are in a big number and the time devoted to oral practices is very
limited;
2. The existence of the mother tongue which is easier to use in their
communication;
3. The fact that there are a number of courses which are taught in languages
other than English, such as some Kirundi and Teaching Methodology courses
taught in French.
61
Question 20. What should be done to improve the speaking skill while teaching
of English in large classes?
This last question was asked with the objective of knowing the teachers’ suggestions
on what could be done in order to remedy this challenge in terms of improving oral
ability among students in the English language. Here are some which have been
expressed according to the frequency of occurrence:
 Improve the class working conditions;
 Attend to every student’s needs – be able to help them in their struggle to speak
good English communicatively;
 Exchange didactical and pedagogical methods within in-service trainings
organized by government;
 Use of audio-visual material;
 Split the class into smaller groups;
 Establish English clubs.
Another respondent suggested what can be done to improve the teaching and learning
of English in large class:
“I think teachers should be aware of methods used
to teach in large class. In case, there are some who
don’t know, they should read some books related to
managing large classes. Apart from that, the government
should organise in-service trainings to help them or
to update those ones who already know it.
Teachers also may learn from one another”.
62
IV.4. Analysis of data from the students’ questionnaire

The students’ questionnaire was administrated in a favourable situation because
students were so helpful and ready to answer the questions easily.
The students’ questionnaire is made of 14 questions which are either close-end
questions, requiring students to choose “Yes” or “No” answers or open-end questions
where students are asked to give explanations or suggest other alternatives. The
questionnaire is divided into three main sections or them:
Table 14: Data presentation for perception of the class
Questions Clas English Kiswahili French Biology - Mathe- Physics- Total

s Chemist matics Technol
ry ogy
Ans-
wers F % F % F % F % F % F % F %
1.Did you like Yes 14 60.8 16 84.2 14 77.7 5 55.5 6 75 5 83.3 60 72.3
to study
English?
No 9 39.1 3 15.7 4 22.2 4 44.4 2 25 1 16.6 23 27.7
If yes, why?
Total 23 100 19 100 18 100 9 100 8 100 6 100 83 100

2.Taking into 0 0 1 5.3 3 16.6 0 0 3 37.5 4 66.6 11 13.3
consideration
the number of Yes
students in
your class, do
you feel 23 100 18 94.7 15 83.4 9 100 5 62.5 2 33.4 72 86.7
comfortable
while learning No
the English
language?
If no, why?
Total 23 100 19 100 18 100 9 100 8 100 6 100 83 100

3.Can you 8 34.8 9 47.4 10 55.5 4 44.4 2 25 5 83.3 38 45.8
hear without Yes
any problem
the teacher’s
63
voice when 15 65.2 10 52.6 8 44.5 5 55.6 6 75 1 16.7 45 54.2

you are not No
seated in the
front?
Total 23 100 19 100 18 100 9 100 8 100 6 100 83 100
The majority of the students, 72.3%, like to learn the English language because it’s an
international tool of communication and it can help them, in the future, to pursue their
academic studies in Anglophone countries or use it in other domains. Looking at the
data in the above table, I notice that students at the Institute for Applied Pedagogy study
in unfavourable learning conditions. The majority of the students, 86.7%, stated that
they feel uncomfortable while learning the speaking skill in class. Only 13.3 % of the
students asked, asserted the contrary.
Another problem faced by students is the fact of not being able to hear the teacher’s
voice when they are not seated in front. 54.2% of the respondents indicated that they
are unable to catch what the teacher says when sitting at the back of the classroom.
However, some of them underlined that it depends on the teacher’s voice and
pronunciation. If the teacher speaks with a loud and intelligible voice, they can easily
understand him.
64
Table 15: Data presentation for learning speaking skill
Questions Clas English Kiswahili French Biology - Mathe Physics- Total

s Chemist matics Technol
ry ogy
F % F % F % F % F % F % F %
Ans-
wers
4.The main Yes 8 34.8 5 26.3 2 11.1 3 33.3 2 25 1 16.7 21 25.3
objective of
teaching the
oral expression
is to train
No 15 65.2 14 73.7 16 88.9 6 66.7 6 75 5 83.3 62 74.7
students to
speak
accurately as
well as fluently
English. Do you
think this
objective is
always
reached?
Explain
Total 23 100 19 100 18 100 9 100 8 100 6 100 83 100
5.Does your Yes 9 39.2 5 26.3 2 11.1 0 0 2 25 0 0 18 21.6

level enable you No 2 8.7 4 21 10 55.6 3 33.3 4 50 2 33.3 25 30.2
to express Som 12 52.1 10 52.7 6 33.3 6 66.7 2 25 4 66.7 40 48.2
yourself ehow
fluently in
English?
Total 23 100 19 100 18 100 9 100 8 100 6 100 83 100
65
As can be seen in the above table 15, the majority of informants, 74.7%, approve that
the objective of teaching oral expression (speaking skill), which is to train the students
to speak fluently and accurately, is not always reached. Only 25.3% think that this
objective is always reached. One respondent replied that:
“While students are giving their presentations,

they get the habit of holding a speech in front of
a great number of people. So, they get able to
fight against their shyness”.
Some students explained that due to the large of the class, the teacher does not have
enough time to focus on and give enough practice opportunities to each student
individually. Others argue that due to the fact of not beginning the learning of English
from primary school is the main reason for the lack of fluency in the English language.
Question 6. Communicating fluently in a second or foreign language requires

frequent and regular opportunities of using that language on the part of the
learner.
Table 16: Data presentation for question 6
Questions Class English Kiswahili French Biology - Mathem Physics Total

Chemist atics -
ry Techno
logy
Ans-
wers F % F % F % F % F % F % F %
Do you think Yes 10 43.4 9 47.3 6 33.3 2 22.2 3 37.5 1 16.7 31 37.3
you get
enough No 13 56.6 10 52.7 12 66.7 7 77.8 5 62.5 5 83.3 52 62.7
opportunities
of speaking
English in the
classroom?
Total 23 100 19 100 18 100 9 100 8 100 6 100 83 100
How often do Everyda 1 4.3 1 5.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2.4

you get an y
opportunity Often 3 13.1 1 5.2 1 5.5 0 0 1 12.5 1 16.7 7 8.4
66
to express Someti 5 21.7 5 26.5 4 22.2 1 11.1 2 25 1 16.7 18 21.6

yourself in the mes
classroom? Rarely 13 56.6 1 57.9 10 55.6 6 66.7 4 50 2 33.3 47 56.7
Never 1 4.3 1 5.2 3 16.7 2 22.2 1 12.5 2 33.3 9 10.9
Explain why
Total 23 100 19 100 18 100 9 100 8 100 6 100 83 100
As mentioned the table 16 above, 62.7% of informants affirm that they do not get
enough time to speaking English and exercise in the classroom because there are many
students.
The data from the table indicate that 56.7% of the surveyed students said that they
rarely get the opportunity to express themselves in the classroom whereas 21.6% of
them sometimes get such occasions. 10.9% of respondents never get any chance to
express themselves individually in the classroom because of the large class. Only 2.4%
of students who express themselves every day and 8.4% of them often get the
opportunity to express themselves in the classroom.
Table 17: Data presentation for students’ opinion about classroom management.
Questions Clas English Kiswahili French Biology - Mathe Physics Total

s Chemist matics -
ry Techno
logy
Ans- F % F % F % F % F % F % F %
wers
7.Does your Yes 16 69.6 13 68.4 11 61.1 5 55.6 6 75 3 50 54 65.1
lecturer use
different
teaching
methods and No 7 30.4 6 31.6 7 38.9 4 44.4 2 25 3 50 29 34.9
strategies to
make you
speak during
class session?
If yes, cite some
Total 23 100 19 100 18 100 9 100 8 100 6 100 83 100
8.Do you feel Yes 11 47.9 14 73.7 10 55.6 3 33.3 5 62. 2 33. 45 54.2
comfortable in 5 3
67
learning No 4 17.3 1 5.2 2 11.1 2 22.2 3 37. 4 66. 16 19.2

English oral 5 7
expression
Som 8 34.8 4 21.1 6 33.3 4 44.5 0 0 0 0 22 26.6
classes?
ehow
Explain why
Total 23 100 19 100 18 100 9 100 8 100 6 100 83 100
9.Does the Yes 3 13.1 4 21.1 2 11.1 5 55.6 3 37. 3 50 20 24.1
physical 5
environment of
the classroom No 20 86.9 15 78.9 16 88.9 4 44.4 5 62. 3 50 63 75.9
make you feel 5
comfortable?
Total 23 100 19 100 18 100 9 100 8 100 6 100 83 100
10.Does your Yes 3 13.1 6 31.6 4 22.2 0 0 2 25 3 50 18 21.7

teacher present
to you some
rules that you
should follow at No 20 86.9 13 68.4 14 77.8 9 100 6 75 3 50 65 78.3
the beginning
of the class?
Total 23 100 19 100 18 100 9 100 8 100 6 100 83 100
11.How would Very 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

you describe good
the atmosphere Good 3 13.1 2 10.5 1 5.5 3 33.3 1 12. 1 16. 11 13.3
in English 5 6
class? Aver 10 43.4 8 42.1 10 55.6 2 22.3 2 25 4 66. 36 43.3
age 7
Bad 7 30.4 5 26.3 7 38.9 1 11.1 5 62. 1 16. 26 31.3
Explain your
5 7
choice Very 3 13.1 4 21.1 0 0 3 33.3 0 0 0 0 10 12.1
bad
Total 23 100 19 100 18 100 9 100 8 100 6 100 83 100
From this Table 17, we deduce that 65.1% of the students think that their teachers work
hard to make them learn well by using different methods and strategies while teaching
and by using authentic materials and attempting to meet students’ needs. But only
34.9% believe that teachers do not use different methods and strategies because
teachers may present the same activities that make students get bored and lose
concentration. The table shows that 54.2 % of students contacted feel comfortable in
68
learning the speaking skill (oral expression) because the latter makes them feel free and
it is not like the other sessions where there is not effort to move and be active; 26.6%
of them feel somehow comfortable whereas 19.2% of them do not feel comfortable
because of the physical environment and the fear of being in front of the audience.
Concerning question 9, the table 17 displays that 75.9% of the respondents say that the
physical environment does not make them feel comfortable because the classroom is
not comfortable and seating arrangements are not well managed. But only 24.1% feel
comfortable because the teacher attempts to order the situation in the classroom.
For the data collected for question 10, table 17 above shows that 78.3% of the students
confirm that their teachers do not set rules at the beginning of the class which they may
follow when they are practising the speaking skill in the classroom. Only 21.7% of
students assert that teachers set some rules to be followed.
The atmosphere in the classroom is also described as the most of the students (43.3%)
admit that the atmosphere in their class is average; 31.3% of them accept that it is bad
because of the physical environment and fear of being in the large class. Some students
(13.3%) say that the atmosphere in their class is good because of the teacher who tries
to make them work and create a challenging atmosphere but 12.1% of them write that
is very bad because sometimes they get bored with the same activities and the situation
in the classroom makes them off-task.
69
Question 12. When you are in the classroom how often does your teacher make
you do the following?
Activity Often Once in a Never

while
a. Recite poems
b. Practise formal debates
c. Discuss in groups
d. Discuss in pairs
e. Play games
f. Answer teacher’s questions orally
Activities Often Once in a Never Total

while
F % F % F % F %
Recite poems 0 0 4 4.9 79 95.1 83 100%
Practise formal debates 31 37.3 46 55.4 6 7.3 83 100%
Discuss in groups 49 59.1 31 37.3 3 3.6 83 100%
Discuss in pairs 26 31.3 34 40.9 23 27.8 83 100%
Play games 0 0 14 16.9 69 83.1 83 100%
Answer the teacher’s questions 74 89.1 9 10.9 0 0 83 100%
orally
F: Frequency
Table 18 above, contains in its first column activities which, most of the time should
be used by the teachers to improve students’ oral abilities. These activities can be
grouped into categories that are related to the improvement of the speaking skill.
Among the ones connected with the speaking skill, we have reciting poems, practising
formal debates, discussing in groups, discussing in pairs, playing games, answering
the teacher’s questions orally.
By asking this question, we wanted to know how often the speaking skill is practised
by students in large classes under investigation.
Looking at the data provided by students in the table, we see that in reciting poems, no
student out of 83 students, that is 0 %, stated that this activity is often used; 4 students,
that is 4.9%, admitted that reciting poems is used once in a while, whereas 79 students,
70
that is 95.1%, reported that reciting poems as an activity to improve the speaking skill
is never used.
Concerning practising formal debate, data from the table show that 31 students out of
83, that is 37.3 %, admitted that this activity is often used; for 46 students, that is 55.4%,
this activity is used once in a while whereas 6 students (7.3%) said that practising
formal debates activity is never used in their classrooms.
As for discussing in groups, we noticed that 49 students, that is 59.1%, admitted that
this activity is often used in their classroom; 31 students (37.3%) confirmed that they
use the activity from time to time in the classroom while another number of students,
that is 3 students (3.6%) acknowledged that discussing in groups is never used in their
classrooms. Regarding discussing in pairs, the data collected showed that 26 students
(31.3%), declared that discussing in pairs often occurs in their classroom; 34 students
involved in the research, that is 40.9%, admitted that discussing in pairs is done in their
classrooms whereas 23 students, that is 27.8%, stated that they are never involved in
discussing in pairs.
As far as playing games is concerned, the data in the table showed that no student
involved in the study, that is 0%, underlined that the activity is often done in their
classrooms, while 14 students out of 83 students, that is 16.9%, admitted to be involved
in playing games. Finally, a considerable number of 69 students or 83.1 % asserted that
they have never been involved in playing games by their teachers.
Considering answering the teacher’s questions orally, we see from Table 10 that 74
students out of 83, that is 89.1%, stated that this activity often takes place in their
classroom. A small number of 9 students, that is 10.9%, reported that such an activity
is carried out in their classrooms once in a while, whereas no students use the activity
in their classrooms.
As a general conclusion on the activities related to the speaking skill mentioned above,
we noticed, after taking into account and analysing the data obtained, that only
71
answering the teacher’s questions orally technique is frequently used. All the remaining
activities within the same category are rarely provided to students by teachers in large
classes.
Questions Clas English Kiswahil French Biology - Mathem Physics- Total

s i Chemist atics Technol
ry ogy
F % F % F % F % F % F % F %
Ans-
wers
13.Do you Yes 19 82.7 16 84. 18 100 7 77.8 8 100 5 83. 73 87.9
think the fact 2 3
that you are too
many in class
affects your No 4 17.3 3 15. 0 0 2 22.2 0 1 16. 10 12.1
performance in 7 7
spoken
English?
Explain
Total 23 100 19 100 18 100 9 100 8 100 6 100 83 100
As mentioned in table 19 on the phenomenon of large class affecting their performance,

73 students out of 83, that is 87.9%, have answered positively. They assume that this
phenomenon impairs their opportunity to practise and hinder them from their
improving the speaking skill in English. However, some students (12.1%) said that
instead of being a shortcoming, this situation is rather an asset for them. They consider
large class in positive aspect because it gives them of meeting different ideas in great
number and it helps to broaden their English linguistic environment and community.
72
Question 14. What can be done to improve oral skill learning?
Like the lecturer’s questionnaire, the respondents to the students’ questionnaire have
suggested some tips that may allow them to improve the speaking skill. Here are some
that were mentioned:
- Increase the time duration of oral expression;

- Make conversations with their classmates in English outside the classroom;
- Increase debate sessions, discussion;
- Organise public speaking in terms of acquiring speaking habits;
- Create and participate in English clubs;
- Re-establish the linguistic immersion programme in English speaking countries
One respondent student added that (...):

“We should be initiated to speak in front of others.
They [teachers] should multiply the opportunities
for students to speak a lot even in exams. We should be
all given living homes and food for free so as to attain
the right objective of speaking English fluently”.
IV.5. Findings
This section consists of analysing and interpreting the data that lead to the findings:
I have assumed that in the first years at the Institute for Applied Pedagogy of University
of Burundi, classes are too large. A significant number of teachers denied having
attended any pre-service training, special training to handle large classes nor any ELT
course in the past five years from 2012-2017. All the teachers supported that the classes
of beyond 70 be as large class. Most of the teachers were of the view that their students
were interested in learning English and in this regard student – teacher interactions
were possible though difficult. A significant number of the respondents (100%)
expressed that they did not resort to lecture method only. A large number of teachers
73
also expressed their opinion that teaching in large classes was not a pleasant
experience. However, most of them agreed that the students cooperate with them in the
teaching – learning process. The majority of the teachers (80%) said that students
participate in speaking skill because they are motivated.
To the question whether the learning conditions are also affected by the phenomenon
of plethoric numbers of students in a class, the data from observation, described in
Table 15, and data from the students’ questionnaire presented in tables objectively
show that the learning conditions are also affected by this situation of large size class.
The majority of my respondents, 75.9%, said that they do not feel comfortable in the
classroom. 54.2% of the students stated that they cannot hear easily the teacher’s voice
when there are in the back seats. It may be noted that the students were all the time
sitting in rows facing the teacher with the blackboard in front of them. This situation
does not allow effective communication hence effective learning as supported by
Jonson and Morrow (1981:64) who state that in the following terms:
“Sitting in regimented rows under the eagle eye of a magisterial
teacher, addressing all remarks to or through the learner. This is
a scene which destroys all hope of communication”.
The last question was to know whether a large class can affect the students’
performance. From the results presented in tables, it is quite evident that large classes
impeded the performance of students. From what has been developed under this
chapter, I can state that a large class is an obstacle to the effective teaching and
learning of the speaking skill as the topic of this study indicates. In few words, I can
say that the findings confirmed the research hypotheses of this study.
74
IV.6. Discussion
The main purpose of the study was to investigate the existing problems in the
management of large classes of the Institute for Applied Pedagogy at the University of
Burundi and focus upon the use of appropriate methods, techniques and strategies to
address them.
The tool of investigation for the study was a questionnaire formulated in the light of
research hypotheses. These hypotheses were formulated in the light of the researcher’s
own experience of learning and teaching in large classes, informal
interviews/discussions, etc. with teachers, students and administrators at various levels.
In the literature review, it was found that classroom management is generally

misunderstood by some of the teachers. It requires time and a variety of approaches to
be used by them. In this connection, reference to a poll of over 1000 teachers in the
United States was given who highlighted the hindrance of the time constraint in
accomplishing their objectives. Similarly, Texas studies stressed the need for careful
planning for effective teaching in order to manage large classrooms.
The importance and the need for English language teaching could not be denied in the
present situation. Teaching the English language is a pedagogical pursuit quite different
from other activities related to other subjects. Large size classes in this connection
constitute a big hindrance. Perhaps no other aspect of teaching requires so much
proficiency, patience and consistency as does the teaching and learning of English
language in large classes. To tackle the situation, personalized feedback, getting
students to listen, use of questions, etc. could be adopted as effective strategies.
In short, due to the multidimensional aspects of large classroom management general

problems which were revealed, included: discipline, individual attention to the
students, teacher’s discomfort, lack of incentives for teachers. It seems mandatory for
75
all those who are concerned with the large size ELT classes directly or indirectly to
look into the different aspects of these problems and adopt all possible measures and
strategies to manage them.
IV.7. Validation of Hypotheses

On the basis of the analysis and interpretation of data, the research hypotheses were
validated.
The first hypothesis reads as follows:
“Large class affect the methods and techniques used in teaching the speaking skill”.
Thus, this hypothesis was proven right. Large class affects the methods used by
lecturers in teaching the speaking skill, teachers do not use effectively the techniques,
methods and strategies. They also feel uncomfortable to teach in large class.
The second hypothesis reads as follows:
“The large number of students within a classroom is a hindrance to efficient learning

speaking skill and deny students practise of the English language”. This hypothesis is
true because the teachers and students assert that individual attention is not possible
due to large class. That is why back zone students (backbenchers) are neglected in large
class and those students do not feel comfortable in the classroom.
The third hypothesis reads as follows:
“The lack of in-service training by lecturers affect the management of large class”.
This hypothesis is validated because most of the teachers suggested that the in-service
training sessions for lecturers should be organized on how to cope with large size
classes in the teaching and learning of the speaking skills in order to achieve their
objectives. It was seen that teachers have not been trained in English Language
Teaching.
76
The fourth hypothesis said:
“The large class situation affects the use of materials by students in learning the
speaking skill”. This hypothesis was proven right because large class and lack of
teaching aids affect the students’ performance in speaking skills. Teachers do not feel
comfortable in large classes because of the lack of teaching aids that can make easy the
teaching and learning process. Infrastructures like sufficient classrooms, language
laboratory… are not available.
IV.8. Conclusion
The chapter dealt with the presentation of the data, analysis and findings. The data was
presented by using tables in which I showed the results from the teachers and learners’
questionnaires. All the issues discussed in this chapter were to find out the problems
affecting the teaching and learning of the speaking skill. After presenting the data
obtained from different subjects, they were analysed and finally the researcher
presented the results after analysing the answers from teachers and learners’
questionnaires. The following chapter is concerned with the general conclusion and
some recommendations.
77
CHAPTER V: GENERAL CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS
V.1. General Conclusion

All along the study, our goal was to investigate the existing problems in the
management of large size class while teaching and learning the speaking skill in first
years at the Institute for Applied Pedagogy at the University of Burundi and to suggest
solutions to the problems caused by large classes. To achieve this aim, the study was
carried out through five chapters which are summarized below:
The first and introductory chapter consists of the background to the study, the statement
of the problem, the research questions and hypotheses, scope and delimitation of the
study, and finally the definition of key terms. The second chapter gives a broad review
of essential literature relating to the topic under study. Within this chapter, different
views of scholars having researched on the teaching and learning of the speaking skill
are presented.
The third chapter describes the methodology used for this work, the research
population, and data collection procedure including classroom observation and written
questionnaires, and then the data analysis procedure. In the fourth chapter, we deal with
the data presentation analysis, interpretation, and a summary of our findings, while
chapter five dealt with the general conclusion and suggestions.
This chapter deals with the conclusions and suggestions in the light of the results of the
study. After analysis and interpretation of data, it was found that the subjects faced
multifarious and multidimensional problems in the sphere of management of large size
classes. In the light of the findings research conclusions have been drawn:
78
V.2. Conclusions and observations

Based on the findings of the study, a significant number of the teachers think that
maintaining discipline is mostly a problem in large class. Thus, it becomes very
difficult to give individual attention to the weak students in a large class. In addition,
most of the teachers do not feel comfortable while teaching in large classes and modern
teaching aids are not available at the Institute for Applied Pedagogy. It is utmost hard
that student and teacher interactions can be maintained in a large class and it is difficult
to keep up effective classroom management. For that reason, teachers cannot develop
proper rapport with the students. It has been seen that most of the English teachers did
not get special training on large classes management. Students assert that they do not
feel motivated when they are in a large class. So, learning and teaching need to be made
more pragmatic by teaching the students through the communicative approach in order
to make the speaking skill effective at the Institute for Applied Pedagogy of the
V.3. Recommendations
In the light of the findings of the study and the conclusions and observations drawn,
following recommendations are given:
 To students
They should:
- Listen carefully, silently and put into practice their teachers’ instructions in
order to facilitate their tasks during the speaking activities;
- Participate as actively as possible in all the oral activities organized within
the classroom with no pretext of belonging to a large class which may bring
some students to wait for others to work for them;
- Join English clubs in order to increase the amount of opportunities for free
expression;
79
- Create theatre groups that can allow them to play drama, sketches, etc.;
- Avoid laziness and other types of disturbances related to the large class
situation as they think the teacher cannot control their behaviour.
 To teachers
When teaching the speaking skill in large classes, teachers should:

- Ensure proper discipline by being firm, fair and friendly to his/her students;
undisciplined students be made to sit in the front row so that the teacher can
watch them directly;
- Be not dependent on lecture method only. Many modern communicative
teaching methods can be applied for effective class management;
- Teach classes in groups of 15 to 20, instead of trying to teach the whole class at
once. For example, if a teacher has 60 students, he may have three or four groups
respectively of 15 or 20 students. The small groups may be, easier to teach and
will enable the teacher to pay closer attention to individual learners;
- Assign students to small groups of 5 to 7 learners and give them simple tasks or
projects to do together. The teacher should do this as often as possible so that
they will get used to group work;
- Establish simple rules (didactic contract) of acceptable behaviour for everybody
to observe when working in groups or individually such as:
• How to get together in groups and develop the speaking skill
• How to talk softly without disturbing others during group work
• How to take turns and how to wait for one’s turn
- Be in control of everything going on in the classroom setting.
80
 To Institute for Applied Pedagogy
The Institute for Applied Pedagogy should:

- Give teachers special training on the management of large size classes.
Normal and traditional methods will not prove as effective as the special
ones;
- Avail time/a day to speak English or public speaking competition in English
on a given topic at school;
- Create Communication Training Centre (CTC), a centre that can empower
faculty, and undergraduate students to become better oral and visual
communicators in the classroom;
- Re-establish of linguistic immersion in English speaking countries;
- Organize picnics in English, English clubs, English evening entertainments.
 To the government
The government should:

- Provide the Institute for Applied Pedagogy with modern teaching aids.
Modern teaching aids may be available in all the large classes. In this modern
age of technology just a chalk and black board may not prove that effective
as are language laboratory, TV, VCR, etc. All these aids will make teaching
interesting as well as effective;
- Consider the issue of large classes subsequently prevailing in the whole
country and consequently hindering the learning of different skills and then
for that provide enough budget for building more classrooms;
- Provide schools with enough and appropriate teaching materials enabling to
deal with the speaking skill. As it has been discovered in our research that
sometimes apart from large numbers of students within the classroom, the
speaking skill is not dealt with due to lack of appropriate teaching materials;
81
- Organize workshops and seminars for English teachers in general and for
those dealing with large classes in particular so that they can exchange on
varieties of methods and techniques for teaching the speaking skill in large
classes.
V.4. Suggestions for future research

On the basis of the findings, the researcher recommends that:
a. The problems of managing large size classes in the institutions of the other areas
of the country be explored.
b. A study be conducted to find out the nature of problems in managing large size
classes in other higher education institutions.
82
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APPENDICES
88
Appendix 1: Letter to the Director of Academic Services French Version
BAKANIBONA Sinaï Le 24/08/2017

IPA Anglais V
Département d’Anglais-Kirundi
Université du Burundi
Objet : Demande d’autorisation A Monsieur le Directeur Académique

d’accès aux informations Université du Burundi
à
BUJUMBURA.
Monsieur le Directeur,
J’ai l’honneur de venir auprès de votre haute autorité pour solliciter
l’autorisation d’accéder aux informations concernant les inscriptions dans les
premières années de l’Institut de Pédagogie Appliquée (IPA) depuis son existence
jusqu’aujourd’hui.
En effet, Monsieur le Directeur, je suis en train de rédiger mon mémoire de
fin d’études universitaires dans le Département de l’Anglais-Kirundi de l’IPA. Vous
verrez en annexe la copie de l’attestation de recherche.
Dans l’attente d’une suite favorable, je vous prie d’agreer, Monsieur le
Directeur Académique, l’expression de ma demande la plus distinguée.
T.C.P.I à :
- Chef des Services Académiques
Sinaï BAKANIBONA
89
Appendix 2`: THE CHECKLIST OF ITEMS FOR CLASSROOM

OBSERVATION
I. THE SETTING
a. The size of the room:
- Large
- Average
- Small
- Too small
b. The number of students:

- Too big (over 50)
- Large (over 30)
- Average (20-30)
- Small (less than 20)
c. The state of the room:

- Noisy & lighted
- Quiet & lighted
- Noisy & dark
- Quiet & dark
d. Learners are seated:

- In rows
- In circles
- Into groups
II. THE LEARNERS

a. Are motivated
- Motivated
- A little motivated
90
- Not motivated
b. Do pay attention
- All of them
- Some of them
- Very few of them
- None
c. Activities during the lesson
- Taking notes
- Reading aloud
- Interpreting images & pictures
- Answering questions
- Class discussion
- Interaction between teacher-student
d. Have problems
- With pronunciation
- With topic
- Poor vocabulary
III. THE TEACHER

a. Are motivated
- Motivated
- A little motivated
- Not motivated
b. The teacher’s position
- is seated:
 In front
 In the middle
 In the back
91
- stands up:
 In the front
 In the middle
 In the back
- is moving:
 In the front
 In the middle
 In the back
 All around the room
c. Activities during the lesson
- Giving instruction
- Dictating notes
- Asking questions
- Correcting errors
- Answering students’ questions
d. The type of English used is:
- Formal & R.P
- Informal & R.P
- Bad pronunciation
- Colloquial
e. The speed is:
- High
- Normal
- Low
- Too low
92
Appendix 3: LETTER TO LECTURERS
Sinaï BAKANIBONA
English-Kirundi Department
Dear Lecturer,
“LARGE CLASS MANAGEMENT WHILE TEACHING AND LEARNING

THE SPEAKING SKILL IN ENGLISH: A Study Conducted in First Years of the
Institute for Applied Pedagogy at the University of Burundi, Academic Year 2016-
2017” is the title of the study I am undertaking at the University of Burundi. Thus, I
want to know about the factors which have caused the problems in the management of
large size English Language classes. I would wish to benefit from your knowledge and
experience by completing the attached questionnaire.
The information provided will be used only for research purposes and it will
undoubtedly help a great deal in understanding the present difficulties in English
Language Teaching and Learning in Large size classes and in drawing conclusions and
suggestions for the management of large size English language Teaching classes.
Yours sincerely,
Sinaï Bakanibona
93
Appendix 4: LECTURER’S QUESTIONNAIRE
I. Instructions:
a) Do not write your name anywhere on this form
b) Fill in the blanks where necessary
c) Where alternatives are given, indicate your choice with a tick 
II. Pre-service training
Yes No
1. Have you attended pre-service training on management of large
class?
If Yes when?
……………………………………………………………………………………....
………………………………………………………………………………………
Where?
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
2. What did the pre-service training course consist of?

………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………..........................
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
3. Do you have special training to handle large classes?

94
III. In-service training course

Yes No
4. Did you attend any English Language Teaching course in the
past five years?
5.
If yes. For how long?
……………………………………………………………………………………....
These courses consisted of

………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
IV. Teachers’ Perception about Oral expression teaching
6. What is the size of your class?

a. Less than 50 students
b. Between 50 and 70 students
c. 70 students and more
7. How do you find the teaching of the speaking skills in large size classes?
a. Very difficult
b. Difficult
c. Not difficult
d. Normal
e. A waste of time
95
Explain your answer:

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………..…………………………………………………………..
8. Do you use different activities in teaching the speaking skill?
a. Yes
b. No
If yes, say which:
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………..……………………………………………………..
9. How often do you involve your students in the following activities?
Often Once in a while Never

a. Individual verbal response
b. Debates
c. Language games
d. Group work
e. Pair work
f. Chorus work
g. Drama: - Simulation
- Role-play
10.What particular problems do you often encounter in the teaching of the speaking
skills in large class?
a. Lack of sufficient time
b. Lack of sufficient teaching materials
c. Lack of sufficient space
d. Students’ lack of self-confidence in the speaking skill

e. Others (specify)
96
V. Methods of teaching English in large class

Yes No
11. Do you teach by the lecture method only?
12. Can you use the communicative method in teaching English
in large size class?
13. Do you use the communicative methods in teaching English
in large class?
14. Do you use only the blackboard while teaching the English speaking skill?
If yes, say why
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………..
15. Do you use teaching aids other than the chalkboard in a large size English
Language Teaching class? If yes, name a few aids.
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
16. Do your students seem satisfied with your method of teaching?
If yes, say why
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………..
VI. Students’ performance

17.Do you think that students participate in the oral expression because?
a. They are motivated
b. They are risk-takers

97
c. They like the teacher
d. They want extra marks
18.Do you make your students work?
a. Individually
b. In pairs
c. In groups
19.Do your students face to speaking difficulties?
a. Yes
b. No
20.What should be done to improve speaking skill while teaching of English in
large classes?
………………………..…………………………………………………………
………………………..…………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………...........................
98
Appendix 5: STUDENTS’ QUESTIONNAIRE
Sinaï BAKANIBONA
English-Kirundi Department
Dear student,
“LARGE CLASS MANAGEMENT WHILE TEACHING AND LEARNING

THE SPEAKING SKILL IN ENGLISH: A Study conducted in First Years of the
Institute for Applied Pedagogy at the University of Burundi, Academic 2016-2017”
is the title of the study I am undertaking at the University of Burundi. Thus, I want to
know about the factors which cause problems in the management of large size English
Language classes. I would wish to benefit from your knowledge and experience by
completing the attached questionnaire.
The information provided will be used only for research purposes and it will
undoubtedly help a great deal in understanding the present difficulties in English
Language Teaching and Learning in large classes and in drawing conclusions and
suggestions for the management of large class English language learning.
Yours sincerely,
Sinaï Bakanibona
99
Appendix 6: STUDENTS’ QUESTIONNAIRE
I. Instructions:
a) Do not write your name anywhere on this form

b) Explain, give your opinion and fill in the blanks where necessary
c) Where alternatives are given, indicate your choice with a tick 
II. Perception of the class
1. Did you like to study English?

a. Yes
b. No
If yes, why
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
2. Taking into consideration the number of students in your class, do you feel
comfortable while learning the English language?
a. Yes
b. No
If no, why
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
3. Can you hear without any problem the teacher’s voice when you are not seated
in the front?
a. Yes
b. No
100
III. Learning the speaking skill

4. The main objective of teaching oral expression is to train students to speak
accurately as well as fluently English. Do you think this objective is always
reached?
a. Yes
b. No
c. Explain
…………………………………………………………………………..……
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………..
5. Does your level enable you to express yourself fluently in English?
a. Yes
b. No
c. Somehow
Explain
……………………………………………………………………………..……
……………………………………………………………………………..……
…………………………………………………………………………………..
6. Communicating fluently in a second or foreign language requires frequent and

regular opportunities of using that language on the part of the learner.
Do you think you get enough opportunities for speaking English in the
classroom?
Yes
No
How often do you get an opportunity to express yourself in the classroom?
a. Everyday
b. often
c. sometimes
d. rarely
e. never
101
Explain why
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………….
IV. Students’ opinion about classroom management
7. Does your lecturer use different teaching methods and strategies to make you
speak during classes?
a. Yes
b. No
If yes, cite some
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………..
8. Do you feel comfortable in learning English oral expression classes?

a. Yes
b. No
c. Somehow
Explain why
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
9. Does the physical environment of the classroom make you feel comfortable?
a. Yes
b. No
10.Does your teacher present to you some rules that you should follow at the
beginning of the class?
a. Yes
b. No
11.How would you describe the atmosphere in English classes?

a. Very good
b. Good
c. Average
102
d. Bad
e. Very bad
Explain your choice
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
12.When you are in the classroom how often does your teacher make you do the
following?
Often Once in a Never
while
g. Recite poems
h. Practise formal debates
i. Discuss in groups
j. Discuss in pairs
k. Play games
l. Answer teacher’s questions orally
13.Do you think the fact that you are too many in class affects your performance in
spoken English?
Yes
No
Explain………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
14.What can be done to improve the oral skill learning?

Explain…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………….………………
…………………………………………………………………………………...
NHA TRANG UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH IN TEACHING
GRADUATION COURSEWORK
HOW IMPORTANT SELF-CONFIDENCE IS WHEN LEARNING
ENGLISH SPEAKING
Supervisor : TRAN THI THUY QUYNH, M.A.

Student : DUY VO TU TRINH
Student’s Number : 60137312
Class : 60.NNA-9
NHA TRANG 2022
1
DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY
[Immediately following the Approval page, include this sentence in your thesis.] When
the thesis does not include information based on cooperative research or material that
has been published and submitted for publication, this statement should be used.]
I hereby declare that this is the only copy of my research. I hereby certify that I am the
sole author of this thesis and that no part of this thesis has been reproduced or previously
published.
I also confirm that I have relied on the copyrights of Vietnam, and I have not violated any
terms of Copyright. Furthermore, citations from referenced sources will be specifically
cited with the full author's name and date.
I accept all responsibility related to issues such as plagiarism, plagiarism if you have a
clear basis to prove it.
2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wouldn't be able to complete it without everyone's help.
First of all, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Mr. Hoang Cong Binh,
although he is not responsible for his role as my guide in this graduation thesis. But with
enthusiasm and thoughtfulness, he guided his students on how to stay on track and
complete this research.
Second, I would like to extend my sincerest thanks to my classmates/my friends for

taking the time to accept the survey I sent them. Their cooperation was one of the most
valuable and important things for my research this time.
Along with that, I also sincerely thank those who have always loved and cheered me on,
giving me the strength to be able to conquer myself.
And again, I would like to thank my supervisor, Ms. Tran Thi Thuy Quynh, for telling
me what I should do and for answering questions and concerns throughout this research.
Last but not least, thank me for trying my best and my serious attitude as well as the
ambition of wishing for a better teaching method in the future.
Finally, a big thank you to everyone and I really feel grateful for that.
Duy Vo Tu Trinh
April, 2022
3
PREFACE
Why do most Vietnamese kids gain access to English so early, starting in second grade,
third grade, or fifth grade at the latest? However, even after so many years of studying
English, the great majority of students still struggle to speak the language fluently or even
utter a few simple lines. Furthermore, I am more conscious of this issue than ever before
as a result of my teaching as a part-time job to supplement my income.
They can read and execute activities from books or as taught by the teacher, but when it
comes to speaking, they are nervous, scared, and unsure of what to say. I've had the good
fortune of meeting several extremely gorgeous students when teaching as a tutor, that
also the reason why I chose to do a study to discover the factors that limit their ability to
communicate in English. How does self-confidence impact the acquisition of speaking
abilities in particular? Is it really so crucial?
To get the most precise results for the research, data was collected from students of K60
K61 K62 of the Faculty of Foreign Languages (FFL) majoring in English at Nha Trang
University.(NTU)
I thus affirm that the research is entirely original and transparent, with no plagiarized or
copied material from other sources or research papers. References shall be properly
mentioned as the source of more information on other arguments. References will use the
common framework- APA 6th of referencing and citation.
4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents
DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY ............................................................................2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................................3
PREFACE ...........................................................................................................................4
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................5
ABBREVIATIONS AND CONVENTIONS....................................................................7
LISTS OF CHARTS ..........................................................................................................7
ABSTRACT: .......................................................................................................................8
CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION: ...................................................................................9
1.1. Rationale:...................................................................................................................9
1.2. Current Status: ...........................................................................................................9
1.3. Aims of the Study:...................................................................................................10
1.4. Scope& Subject of the Study: .................................................................................10
1.5. Significance of the Study: .......................................................................................11
CHAPTER II - LITERATURE REVIEW: ...................................................................12
2.1. The definition of Speaking: .....................................................................................12
2.2. The importance of Speaking: ..................................................................................12
2.3. The characteristic of Speaking: ...............................................................................13
2.4. Self-confidence (SCF) definition and role: .............................................................14
2.5. Researches on factors that influence learning Speaking: ........................................15
CHAPTER III - METHODOLOGY& ORGANIZATION: ........................................18
3.1. Methodology: ..........................................................................................................18
3.2. Organization of the Study: ......................................................................................19
CHAPTER IV - FINDING & DISCUSSION ................................................................20
4.1. The questionnaire form: ..........................................................................................20
4.2. Analysis with charts: ...............................................................................................21
4.3. Finding results: ........................................................................................................23
CHAPTER V - SUGGESTIONS AND IMPLICATIONS ...........................................31
5.1. For teachers: ............................................................................................................31
5.1.1. Improve teaching methods: ...............................................................................31
5.1.2. Appropriate attitude: .........................................................................................31
5.2. For students: ............................................................................................................32
5.2.1. Attitude change: ................................................................................................32
5
5.2.2. Practice makes perfect: .....................................................................................32
CHAPTER VI - CONCLUSION ....................................................................................34
6.1. Major Findings: .......................................................................................................34
6.2. Limitations: .............................................................................................................34
REFERENCE: ..................................................................................................................35
6
ABBREVIATIONS AND CONVENTIONS
FFL: Faculty Foreign Language
NTU: Nha Trang University
L1: First Language
SCF: Self- Confidence
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Factors that affect Speaking skill Page 26
LISTS OF CHARTS
Chart 1 The preference for Speaking Page 18
Chart 2 Speaking learning methods Page 19
Chart 3 The confidence when speaking in public Page 20
Chart 4 Automatically use English to communicate Page 21

Chart 5 Passively use English to speak Page 22
Chart 6 Prefer to use English to communicate Page 23
Chart 7 Scared of making mistakes when speaking English Page 23
Chart 8 Confidence in Speaking skill Page 24
Chart 9 Self-assessment Speaking level Page 24
Chart 10 SCF plays an important role in Speaking learning Page 25
7
ABSTRACT:
While speaking is often considered the most difficult skill to master when learning a new
language, it can still be mastered. Many people learn to speak faster than they learn other
abilities. There are some great ways to learn to speak, but are they right for you? Of all
the methods and tips to learn to speak, almost confidence is something that everyone
talks about.
Because of the importance of confidence while learning to speak, this study was created
to scientifically support the aforementioned view by providing evidence and statistics to
back it up as stated before. Along with the theoretical foundations and arguments I will
seek to further support this point of view.
The goal of the study was to determine whether speaking ability and confidence are
connected and to what extent they are connected. The data will be displayed through a
survey of respondents who have majored in the English language and the results will be
collected from there. The purpose of this report is to demonstrate to the reader how
important confidence is to learning a language and to gaining skills in general. Then,
evaluate and assess the general situation of English majors at Nha Trang University to
draw findings and make recommendations to improve their speaking ability in the future.
In summary, this study aims to answer the following questions:
- What is the relationship between SCF and Speaking learners?

- What role does SCF play in learning Speaking?
- Does SCF affect Speaking learning results?
- How to improve SCF for foreign language faculty students at Nha Trang
University?.
8
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION:
This chapter contains a synopsis of my research paper: The rationale part explains why
I'm producing this report, the report's aim, the Significance of the Study emphasizes the
topic's relevance and urgency, the research methods, and the study's scope and
objectives.
1.1. Rationale:
At a time when English is becoming increasingly popular and widely recognized as a
common and worldwide language, emerging nations such as Vietnam must strive to
integrate with their international counterparts. Speaking is always regarded as the most
used skill among the skills of Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing. We utilize
spoken language in virtually every day activity, thus it shouldn't be a problem if you
don't know how to write. However, despite spending a long time learning English, most
Vietnamese students have weak speaking abilities... Furthermore, Vietnamese people
are naturally shy and like to live in groups. As a result, displaying our individuality or
ourselves in front of others is always a novel experience for us. Over time, we develop
a hesitant attitude, fearful of making errors and being scolded. Furthermore, ineffective
teaching approaches contribute to exacerbating the problem by "adding gasoline to the
fire." I chose to perform this experiment after observing these students for a length of
time to understand how confidence affects Speaking learning, as well as other
contributing elements.
1.2. Current Status:
In general, English classes in particular and classes in other subjects in general in
Vietnam are mostly crowded with students, with about 30 to 50 students in a class.
Therefore, organizing a Speaking activity that all class members can participate in is an
almost impossible task. Speaking skills require you to hone them every day and never
stop learning. Along with the current traditional teaching methods in primary schools,
middle schools, and high schools, it profoundly affects students' speaking skills when
they go to university. A teacher once told me that college students in his class don't
even know the meaning of most basic words like "turn, round...". In the current context
9
of teaching and learning methods, it seems that cannot access and develop speaking
skills equally.
A large class of students will form an avoidance mentality because they think that there
are many people, so they will not take their turn to answer or perform such activities.
Invisibly, for a long time will form lazy and timid psychology that seriously affects
learning Speaking.
More and more students think that they are not qualified to speak in public and are too
lazy to speak, which makes their speaking ability worse and worse. Some students even
think that their second foreign language is better than their first foreign language
(English). More seriously, these are students who specialize in English, where English
is the decisive factor, but they cannot use English fluently, especially speaking skills.
The study will clarify how Self-confidence plays a role in learning to Speak and other
factors affecting the ability to use English for communication of the majority of students
majoring in English today then develop appropriate solutions to address those causes.
1.3. Aims of the Study:
The main purpose of this study is to find out the relationship between self-confidence
and speaking learning. Is SCF really important for learning a new language, especially
Speaking? Through that, the study aims to compare and find out whether people with
good competence in Speaking skills are confident people or not and vice versa.
Moreover, the study also wants to evaluate other factors that affect the speaking ability
of students majoring in linguistics at Nha Trang University. What is the factor most
students mention?
1.4. Scope& Subject of the Study:
The research will focus on the main audience of students majoring in English at Nha
Trang University. All students from course 60 to course 63 were the subjects of the
study.
The research will also focus and analyze deeply on the main topic which is the
importance of SCF for learning Speaking skills. Therefore, this study will not go to
analysis deeply on other factors, but only collect and refer to them as secondary factors.
At the same time, the study is based on data collected at Nha Trang University, does
not apply to students from other universities, and the study is at Nha Trang university's
inside level.
10
1.5. Significance of the Study:
Humans are born to learn the fastest two skills: Listening and Speaking. However, after
a long time of observing the speaking ability of students majoring in English, I have
found that this is always the skill that students feel the least confident in. Although
Vietnamese students have early access to English and have studied it for a very long
time. Even English is considered one of the three main subjects along with Math and
Literature. However, students of English majors in particular and students of other
majors, in general, are afraid to use English to speak. There are many factors mentioned
in other studies, but perhaps all of us think that to do well in Speaking, we must be
confident. This study has the main purpose to show the influence of SCF on Speaking
learning. Whether SCF really plays a very important role for students when learning to
speak or not and what other influencing factors are. Why so far teachers rarely care or
take measures to help students become more confident. Are teachers or students still
not really aware of how SCF affects speaking learning, or even though they already
know, they still have not been able to build more optimal solutions? Understanding the
importance of SCF, we will propose solutions to solve the problem, furthermore, SCF
will no longer be neglected and teachers or parents will pay attention to students'
confidence.
11
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW:
This chapter covers the concepts of Speaking and SCF. By using the Qualitative method,
the chapter also provides proven research and opinions to serve as a theoretical basis to
strengthen the author's point of view and the logic of the research paper.
2.1. The definition of Speaking:

Producing, receiving, and digesting information are all part of the interactive process of
generating meaning that is speaking. It must be delivered orally, in the form of phrases
and utterances. Speaking is the ability to construct phrases or utterances in the oral
modality. It is more difficult than the other talents since, unlike the others, it includes
more than just pronouncing words (Bashir, 2011:38). According to Utama et al., (2013).
Linguistics and non-linguistics are two aspects that influence speaking ability. The
linguistic element includes grammar, word order, pronunciation, utterance understanding,
vocabulary, and fluency. Temperament is seen as a non-linguistic factor.
2.2. The importance of Speaking:

Before learning to read and write, humans are born with the ability to communicate. At
any one time, humans spend significantly more time speaking verbally using language
than they do using it in its written form. Speaking is the most important skill since it is
one of the skills necessary to carry on a conversation. Speaking English is challenging
because speakers must be skilled in a variety of areas, including pronunciation, grammar,
vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension.
Learners must have appropriate English speaking skills to engage freely and productively
with others. Rivers (1981) observed that speaking is utilized twice as often as reading and
writing combined outside of the classroom. According to Brown, language techniques for
learners include listening and speaking (1994).
According to Efrizal (2012) and Pourhosein Gilakjani (2016), speaking is vital for
people's contact since they converse everywhere and every day. Speaking is the verbal
exchange of ideas and messages. If we want to encourage students to speak English, we
should use the language in actual communication and encourage them to do so as well.
12
According to Richards and Rodgers (2001), conventional practices in schools, where the
emphasis was on reading and writing talents, the speaking competence was overlooked.
In The Grammar-Translation approach, for example, reading and writing were the most
important talents, but speaking and listening were not.
Speaking is the most crucial of the four language skills of listening, speaking, reading,
and writing, according to Ur (2000), and is required for effective communication.
The importance of speaking is proven by the integration of other linguistic talents.

Students' vocabulary and grammar abilities grow as a result of speaking, and their writing
skills improve as a result. Students may express their emotions and opinions, tell tales,
make requests, converse, dispute, and show how language works. Speaking is important
outside of the classroom. As a result, those who speak the language have greater
opportunities to work in a variety of organizations and enterprises. Baker and Westrup
(2003) backed up these claims, claiming that students who were fluent in English had a
higher chance of succeeding.
2.3. The characteristic of Speaking:

Learners' activities should be organized to achieve a mix of fluency and accuracy,
according to Mazouzi (2013). The communication technique relies heavily on fluency
and accuracy.
By practicing in the classroom, students may develop their communication abilities. As a

result, they should be well-versed in the workings of the language system.
Fluency is the most basic aspect of speaking ability, and it is the primary objective of
teachers when instructing students on how to talk.
According to Hughes (2002), fluency is the ability of learners to speak intelligibly such
that communication does not break down due to listener fatigue. Hedge (2000) defines
fluency as the ability to react coherently by connecting words and phrases, clearly
pronouncing sounds, and using emphasis and intonation.
Learners should focus on the precision and completeness of language form, such as
grammatical structures, vocabulary, and pronunciation, when speaking (Mazouzi, 2013).
13
The length and complexity of utterances, as well as well-structured sentences, are
essential for learners to appropriately apply grammatical structures, according to
Thornbury (2005). Choose acceptable terms in appropriate circumstances to enhance
vocabulary accuracy. Learners commonly employ the same words or idioms in multiple
contexts, even if they don't mean the same thing. As a consequence, pupils should be able
to use words and phrases correctly. Learners generally pay attention to pronunciation at
the lowest level of understanding, according to Thornbury (2005).
To speak English correctly, learners must understand phonological principles and be

aware of the different sounds and their pronunciations. Students should be able to
recognize stress, intonation, and pitch. All of these qualities make it easier for students to
speak English fluently and effectively.
2.4. Self-confidence (SCF) definition and role:

Self-confidence (SCF) is the trust and belief in one's own skills, which is believing in
oneself and knowing that one can do or control anything.
What is the significance of SCF?
SCF is really essential in everyone's life. We feel more prepared for life's problems when
we have confidence. If we're confident, we're more likely to pursue folks and
opportunities. And if something doesn't work out the first time, confidence motivates us
to give it another shot.
Le Thuy- a hot tiktoker- an inspirer told that “It’s not that I was born being confident.
Confidence is an important weapon for me, for young women, and for everyone”
The opposite happens when confidence is low. Confident people are more likely to try
new things and create new acquaintances. After failing the first time, people may be less
reluctant to try again. Someone with a lack of confidence may be unable to reach their
full potential. You can only do anything if you believe in yourself. For example, you may
be a capable person who is unaware of it or who has a long-term inner life that refuses to
exhibit it, or you may have poor self-esteem and believe you are inferior to others.
individuals in the area. Only when you feel confident and believe in yourself can you
create extraordinary things. Indeed, even if you don't believe you can do it yourself, who
else would you expect to believe you can?
14
2.5. Researches on factors that influence learning Speaking:
So, how important is confidence, specifically SCF, in learning to speak? Many research
have been conducted in the past to determine the characteristics that influence a student's
ability to speak.
This section includes some studies on the factors that influence speaking talents. Park and
Lee (2005) investigated the link between second language learners' anxiety, self-
confidence, and speaking performance.
A total of 132 Korean students took part in the research. According to the findings of this
study, students' degrees of anxiety and self-deprecation had a negative link with their oral
performance.
Boonkit (2010) looked at the factors that influence the development of students' speaking
ability. According to the findings, employing appropriate speaking skills activities might
be a useful strategy for lowering speakers' uneasiness. The results also revealed that the
participants' freedom in topic selection made them feel at ease and motivated them to join
in order to practice speaking English, and that they developed confidence in their ability
to do so.
Ali Dincer and Savas Yesilyurt (2013) conducted a study based on motivational
orientations on instructors' attitudes about speaking skills. The teachers in their study had
unfavorable feelings regarding speaking teaching, despite the fact that they considered it
was very important for speaking abilities.
They did not receive any coaching, despite the fact that they thought it was critical to
their speaking talents. Students have diverse viewpoints on the value of speaking talents
in school, according to experts. The English language and this distinction are linked to
the learners' motivational orientations and motivational orientations. Feelings of
competence and inadequacy in one's ability to communicate. The results demonstrated
that the learners' self-evaluation of their abilities was correct. Due to their lack of
speaking skills, they portrayed themselves as unskilled English speakers. Only a handful
of them claimed to be in a decent position to take part in speaking obligations.
Tanveer (2007) looked at the factors that cause anxiety in students learning a foreign
language, as well as how anxiety affects target language communication. Learners' stress
15
and self-criticism impede their language learning and performance abilities, according to
the study. Severe anxiety, according to the study, impairs the trainees' capacity to
communicate.
The issues of teaching and communicating in English were investigated by Eissa,

Misbah, and Najat (1988). Learners had a lot of difficulty using English as a medium of
teaching, according to the findings of this study. Many interviewers stated that their
students' mastery of the English language is weak. Many learners had substantial
difficulties comprehending the content of the lectures without translation or utilizing L1
to communicate the content of the lectures, according to the findings.
According to Urrutia and Vega, learners' oral performance was influenced by their lack
of vocabulary, shyness, and fear of being rejected (2010). Cooperation, self-confidence,
vocabulary knowledge, and the classroom environment were all highlighted as elements
that aided students in improving their speaking skills.
Bozorgian investigated the link between listening ability and other speaking talents
(2012). There is a substantial link between listening comprehension and language
abilities, according to the research. To put it another way, a better listening score equals a
higher speaking score.
Lukitasari (2003) looked on how students dealt with their speech issues. Learners
confront a range of problems in their speaking sessions, according to the research,
including reluctance, a lack of self-confidence, a fear of making mistakes, and the use of
their mother tongue. Another conclusion of the study is that learners' speaking abilities
did not increase since they did not master the three components of speaking: vocabulary,
grammar, and pronunciation.
In general, numerous variables influence pupils' capacity to talk, including shyness, fear,
boredom when there are no productive activities... But, according to most research and
the opinions of the aforementioned specialists, the confidence component is the common
reason.
Other skills, such as writing, listening, and reading, do not need pupils to demonstrate
their abilities in front of a large group of people, and they will also avoid the dread of
making errors because only they and their professors are aware of their progress.
16
Speaking abilities, on the other hand, are different; they are compelled to demonstrate
them in front of everyone, and if they do not do well and are chastised, they will become
increasingly self-deprecating.
17
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY& ORGANIZATION:
This chapter will provide an overview of the research methodology as well as the study's
structure.
3.1. Methodology:
This research is carried out by combining qualitative and quantitative research.
A questionnaire was set up to interview relevant people in an online form. The

questionnaire is structured in both multiple-choice and essay form and is suitable for the
research topic.
For qualitative research, an essay question asks respondents about the factors they
consider important and influential when learning to speak. This method aims to better
understand the thoughts of other individuals, to avoid letting the researcher subjectively
impose his or her thoughts on the survey respondents. At the same time, the study also
consulted more about opinions through interviews with research subjects from other
research papers.
For quantitative research, a set of multiple-choice questions are required to select the
answers with the highest degree of accuracy for themselves. They will then self-assess
their speaking skills after answering the previous questions. With this research method,
the researcher can grasp more clearly and show the participants the purpose of the
research with more certainty. The researcher will collect data from quantitative
questionnaires and present them in the form of relevant figures and graphs. This method
makes it easier for researchers to collect data from their own background and is more
accurate than qualitative research when using numbers and charts for presentation.
Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages, so the combination of the two
research methods will help the research have higher reliability.
Data collection tools: Surveys, Literary Works and Research.
18
3.2. Organization of the Study:
Chapter I: Introduction
The introduction of the concept of speaking skill and the views of linguists.
Chapter II: Literature Review
This chapter is used to demonstrate the theoretical background required before choosing a
research topic. This section shows the studies that have been done previously on the
factors affecting the English-speaking learning of other researchers. From there, general
conclusions and theoretical basis for doing research can be drawn.
Chapter III: Methodology & Organization
This section outlines the methodology used to prepare the report and what the
organization of the report will include.
Chapter IV: Finding & Discussion
The analysis is an important part used to show the correctness of the topic for readers to
believe and make the research more scientific based on the data. This part will analyze
based on the data collected from the questionnaire and present it through graphs. Along
with the chart, the thoughts of the participants will also be mentioned in the form of
paragraphs.
Chapter V: Suggestions & Solutions
From the collected data and results, this chapter will suggest solutions to improve
students' speaking ability and increase confidence when learning Speaking.
Chapter VI: Conclusion
This chapter generalizes the major findings of the research study and draws an overall
judgment of the outstanding issues.
19
CHAPTER IV
FINDING & DISCUSSION
This chapter will look at how good speakers and their confidence levels are comparable,
and vice versa. At the same time, this chapter demonstrates the latest state of language
major students' speaking abilities. In addition, the chapter shows the extent to which the
study participants agree with the assertion that "SCF plays an essential role in the
development of speaking proficiency."
4.1. The questionnaire form:

The study was conducted for students studying at the Faculty of Foreign Languages, Nha
Trang University. The survey size included 100 students, including 67 women, 25 men
and 8 others. The respondents included course 60, course 61, course 62, and course 63.
The survey was conducted online and was collected within 2 weeks. The questionnaire
was presented as a Google form and sent to the participants in the form of a link.
The survey consists of 11 multiple choice questions and 1 essay question. The first part
of the survey solicited opinions on the participants' basic personal information. The
second part of the survey includes questions that focus on the main topic to clarify the
relationship between confidence in learning Speaking. The essay question will be a
question to collect personal opinions of the participants about which factors affect the
ability to learn English Speaking.
The detailed questionnaire is attached on the next page.
20
4.2. Analysis with charts:
The following is a map of students' preferences for Speaking skills.
Do you like English Speaking skill?
4%
18%
21% No
Not much
Yes
Totally yes
57%
Chart 1_The preference for Speaking
According to the results received, the number of people who love the Speaking subject
accounted for 75%. Takes more than 2/3 of the total votes for this question. Thus, it can
be seen that Speaking is still a subject loved by the majority of students. So, why is it
loved by the majority but still not a skill that most students are good at?
To continue, let's find out what is the main learning method of students majoring in
English Language.
21
You learn Speaking mainly through:
1% 9%
Imitate movies/music
29%
Talk to foreigners/friends/teachers
Talk to mirror/myself
44% Only listen/watch movies/music
17% Listen to teachers
Chart 2_Speaking learning methods
Let's look at the chart, we can see that the most common way of learning for English
majors is “Talk to foreigners/ friends/ teachers”. This seems to have been able to predict
and it is also extremely reasonable, Speaking is a skill that requires us to practice
speaking a lot. Talking directly between people can improve our English speaking skills
as well as help us communicate more confidently.
While these are effective ways of learning Speaking, they are nevertheless the way the
vast majority of students will choose whether or not they're really good at Speaking.
Their practice environment is mostly around friends and teachers. Sometimes they will
also meet and communicate with foreigners, but it is just a small amount. While
communicating with teachers, professor as well as friends, they are all Vietnamese and
their English is not really the perfect environment for you to become good at this skill.
The next most popular way to learn is Only listen/watch movies/music. In this way of
learning, learners only receive without producing. Although the advantage of this way of
learning is that learners can choose to watch and listen to the sources of knowledge from
the natives themselves to learn from and learn from. However, speaking is a productive
skill. Learners must use them as their mother tongue for daily communication in order to
make progress. Therefore, the combination of both reception and production is extremely
important in learning Speaking in general and other skills in particular.
22
Talk to myself/mirror is the 3rd choice of the methods. This approach also has its own
advantages and disadvantages. Talk to myself/mirror can help learners realize their own
shortcomings in body language, accent as well as intonation. For those who have
difficulty or shyness in communicating with others, this will be the right way for them to
learn and can help them practice Speaking.
However, they cannot clearly realize what mistakes they will make if they only use this
way of learning, no one is perfect without suggestions and comments from others.
Therefore, learners should be aware of the disadvantages of this skill and have ways to
deal with them.
4.3. Finding results:

The similarity between the number of people who like to learn Speaking and the
number of people who like to stand in front of the classroom to speak English shows
the accuracy of the survey. With 77% of participants voting from quite true to
extremely true for the sentence "I love to stand in front of the class to speak/answer
teacher's questions" compared to 75% of those who like to learn Speaking, there is a
insignificant difference. Notably, when comparing individual answers, the results of
those who voted like for Speaking skill will also vote the same for the given sentence
above.
Do you like English I love to stand in front of the

Speaking skill? class to speak/answer
teacher’s questions
2%
12%
18% 4% No 23% Not True
21%
Not much Quite True
19% True
Yes
Totally yes Totally True
57%
Extremely True
44%
Chart 1_ The preference for Speaking Chart 3_ The confidence when speaking in public
In contrast, individuals who voted that they did not like Speaking were more likely to
agree with the sentence "Standing in front of the class to speak/answer teacher's
23
questions is a big challenge for me". The results show that, about 76% of the
individuals who chose Not much and No for the question "Do you like Speaking skill"
will choose the answer from quite true to extremely true for the sentence "Standing in
front of the class to speak/answer teacher's questions is a big challenge for me”.
Hence, based on the similarity of individuals who chose whether they like or dislike
using English to speak in public and their preference for Speaking, we got a high match.
Individuals who choose not to like Speaking tend to be afraid to speak English in public
or in crowds and vice versa. Thus, we pose a question: "Do people who do not like
Speaking and also afraid to speak English in public have good Speaking skills? And will
people who like the Speaking skill and want to use it in front of others have better
Speaking results?” We going to answer these questions after.
Now, let's consider how often the students used English to communicate:
I automatically speak English with my friends/

foreigners to practice Speaking English
36
29
27
7 1
NOT TRUE QUITE TRUE TRUE TOTALLY TRUE EXTREMELY TRUE
Chart 4_ Automatically use English to communicate
24
I just speak English only when I have to ( in a
presentation or teacher asks me directly)
33.5 32.3
19.4
6.5 6.5
NOT TRUE QUITE TRUE TRUE TOTALLY TRUE EXTREMELY TRUE
Chart 5_Passively use English to speak
The number of people who chose from True to Extremly True for the sentence "I
automatically speak English with my friends/ foreigners to practice Speaking English" is
35%. Meanwhile, the number of people making such a choice for the sentence "I just
speak English only when I have to ( in a presentation or teacher asks me directly)" is
51%. Thus, we can see, the number of people who only use English when they are forced
to do so is higher than the number of people who actively use English to communicate.
Moreover, the data also shows us that a common condition of students in the Faculty of
Foreign Languages is laziness and shyness, lack of practice.
Speaking is a subject that requires us to practice as much as possible, not a subject that
we can use passive learning method to master. With the result like that, we find that this
result is quite high for language major students when learning Speaking. The lower the
percentage of the sentence “I just speak English only when I have to ( in a presentation or
teacher asks me directly)”, the higher the effectiveness of learning Speaking.
25
Now, let's make a comparison table to see the students' self-doubt when learning
speaking with two sentences “I’m scared that I will make mistakes when speaking
English in front of others” and “I prefer to use Vietnamese to communicate with others
rather than use English”:
I want to speak English I’m scared that I will make

mistakes when speaking
more but I do not have English in front of others
enough confidence
3% 14%
13%
11% Not True Not True

5% 23%
Quite True Quite True
True 27% True
39% 22% Totally True Totally True
43%
Extremely True Extremely True
Chart 6_Prefer to use English to communicate Chart 7_ Scared of making mistakes when using English
55%(55/100) of people chose "True" to "Extremely true" for the sentence "I want to
speak English more but I do not have enough confidence " and 59%(59/100) of people
gave the same choice as "I am afraid that I will make a mistake when I speak English".
With a negligible percentage difference and more than half of the participants voting, we
can see a strong link between fear of making mistakes that leads unconfident. Moreover,
we can infer the situation that students of the Faculty of Foreign Languages at Nha Trang
University are facing. Thus, the fear of making mistakes has affected their confidence in
using English to communicate and talk. They are afraid of making mistakes in front of
everyone, so they tend to want to use Vietnamese instead of English to communicate.
This is very harmful and dangerous, in the long run, it will form become a habit of
relying on L1 for the majority of students If they only use L1 as their primary language
and are safe because they won't make the same mistakes as when using English, then
their Speaking ability they will not be improved.
We have looked at the aspect of fear and self-doubt when using Speaking English. So,
let's see how many students are confident about their speaking ability:
26
I want to speak English whenever I can and I
feel confident about my Speaking skill
6%2%
Not True
24% Quite True

44%
True
Totally True
Extremely True
24%
Chart 8_Confidence in Speaking skill
About 32% (32/100) of people choose to be confident with their speaking ability. This
number corresponds to 1/3 of the people who participated in the vote. Compared with the
numbers for fear of using English Speaking, the number of people who are confident with
speaking ability is 27% lower.
Let's see how the interviewees self-assessed their Speaking Skill with the following chart.
Self-assessment of your speaking skill, which level

do you think you are at?
5% 2%
18%
23%
52%
Bad Quite Bad Normal Quite Good Good
Chart 9_Self-assessment Speaking level
27
More than 50% (53/100) people voted for "Normal" when self-assessment their Speaking
ability, 28%(28/100) voted for "Quite Good" and "Good" and 20%(20/100) voted for
"Quite Bad" and "Bad".
Thus, we find that there is a match between 32% (32/100) of people who are confident
with their English speaking ability and 28% (28/100) of people who consider themselves
to be good at Speaking. In contrast, 70% (70/100) of people who think that they are
"Normal" or even "Bad" are tend to choose they are not confident with their English
speaking skill.
From here, we can clearly see the rationality of the problem we are studying, students
who have a habit of using Vietnamese instead of English, are unconfident, and tend to be
afraid of making mistakes will have poorer speaking results than people who feel
confident and use English to communicate regularly.
So, how many people agree that confidence plays an important role in learning Speaking?
SCF plays an important role in

Speaking
Extremely True
Totally True
True
Quite True
Not True
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Chart 10_SCF plays an important role in Speaking learning
Up to 89% (89/100) of the respondents agree that Self-confidence plays a vital role in
learning Speaking. This is highly reasonable and satisfies the point I made earlier.
28
However, in order to increase the accuracy and objectivity of the research, below is a list
of the causes affecting the speaking ability of students at the Foreign Language
Department of Nha Trang University, which is presented in the form of sentences.
NUMBER REASONS THAT YOU THINK WILL AFFECT YOUR PERCENT

SPEAKING SKILL (%)
1 Lack of confidence & afraid of making mistakes 45%(45/100)
2 Lack vocabulary, grammar 19% (19/100)
3 Lack of practice 16%(16/100)
4 The mock of teachers/friends 9%(9/100)
5 The way of teaching 8% (8/100)
6 The inappropriate environment 2% (2/100)
7 The passion, inspiration 1%(1/100)
Table 1_Factors that affect Speaking skill
According to the responses about their thoughts on the reasons that affect Speaking skills,
here are 7 main reasons mentioned. Leading with nearly 50% of the participants said that
lack of confidence and fear of making mistakes are the reasons for FFL students' poor
speaking performance. The question was answered in free and written form, but the
results are also completely consistent with the research that I have mentioned earlier
when assuming that SCF plays an important role in Speaking learning as well is the
opinion of the majority of students.
Ranked second is the lack of vocabulary and grammar. This leads to their low confidence
and fear of communicating in English. They argue that we cannot speak without knowing
the vocabulary and understanding the structure and grammar of English.
Following is the lack of practice. Whether it's Speaking skills in particular or all other
skills in general, we all need to spend time and effort on them in order to achieve good
results. The lack of vocabulary and knowledge of grammar is also the result of a lack of
practice. Even if you don't have a talent for learning foreign languages, you can "Hard
work compensate for lack of intelligence." and still achieve good results.
29
There is a reason also mentioned by some of them, which is the teaching style and
attitude of the teacher that hinders your performance. Criticisms and boring teaching
methods will be the cause of low learning result. About 17% of students choose the above
reasons, this is a significant number and is based on students' personal experiences.
30
CHAPTER V
SUGGESTIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
In this chapter, I mention solutions as well as suggested recommendations to improve

confidence and comfort when learning Speaking for English language students at Nha
Trang University.
5.1. For teachers:
5.1.1. Improve teaching methods:
With traditional, passive learning methods, the teacher is always the speaker and the
student is always the listener. Therefore, there is always an invisible distance between
teachers and students. Let's create a closer and friendlier bond with our students.
According to Tao Giao Duc magazine - "Developing a positive relationship between
teachers and students brings many great and lasting benefits to student's lives, both
academically in the classroom and in society. A student will perform better in class if
they feel recognized, appreciated and cared for by their teacher. . They feel valued if the
teacher cares not only about their grades but also their happiness and social life." If
current teaching methods do not bring high results, teachers need to find out new
teaching methods and find the right method for their students. To learn English Speaking
effectively, teachers must offer interesting and useful activities to encourage their
students to participate.
Boonkit (2010) investigated the aspects that contribute to the development of learners'
speaking abilities. The findings indicated that using suitable speaking skills activities
might be a helpful method for reducing speakers' nervousness. Speaking classes with a
language teaching approach Communicative and student-centered approaches are
essential. In Speaking classes, students should always be as talkative as possible and be
able to freely express their thoughts and opinions, and the teacher should only act as a
facilitator, not a controller.
5.1.2. Appropriate attitude:
Along with that, the teacher's disparaging words are always the most fatal wounds for
students, this deeply hinders students' confidence when learning English.According to the
research of Elsevier, Sciver Science Direct and Procedia_Social and Behavior Sciences,
“The outcomes of the study reveal that although positive attitudes of teachers have a good
31
impact on students' performance and personality development, negative attitudes have a
negative impact on students' performance and personality development. This, in turn,
clearly demonstrates how instructors, in particular, transcend the bounds of the classroom
in students' educational lives, and how powerful they may be throughout the student's
life.”
Moreover, with students' passive mentality, and lack of confidence, teachers need to take
a broad view and find out what students need. Along with that, teachers need to limit
imposing personal thoughts on their students. For example, on a question about whether
you think it's good or bad to spend money as a child, let your students speak for
themselves instead of refuting them and forcing their students to think the same way as
the teacher. This is harmful because it makes students feel that their words and opinions
are not respected and that they will no longer want to speak up. Moreover, teachers must
know how to control negative and personal emotions that affect teaching too much. If a
student can't answer and gets the question wrong, explain the benefits of the practice, and
self-study instead of criticizing what's not good about the student.
5.2. For students:

5.2.1. Attitude change:
Students need to have a more positive attitude in learning Speaking, trying to remove the
elements of fear and shyness. Parents, friends, or close people are people we can share
with. Take advice from them every time you run into problems. Don't be afraid when you
make a mistake, because only when you make a mistake then you can correct it. No one
can change us but ourselves. If you think that you are an unintelligent person, no matter
how hard you try, the results will still be the same, it is because you have not tried
enough. Hard work compensates for a lack of intelligence. Building a character that
knows how to face fear and make mistakes will help you grow, Speaking is a productive
subject, so you need to let people know what you've learned just through manufacturing.
5.2.2. Practice makes perfect:
If you think that you have enough self-confidence, but because your qualifications are not
enough, you do not dare to show it. Then what you're missing is practice. Obviously, you
need to practice harder, learn more vocabulary and sentence structure, and practice
pronunciation more, there's no reason why you won't make progress forever. What you
32
need is to find the motivation to overcome yourself, there are many young people today
who are living with the mindset of "whatever" and have no intention of progressing.
"You can't fail without trying, and you can succeed without failing". You can't complain
about why you got a low score when you didn't study, and you can't get a higher score if
you don't try. Only with hard work can you achieve the desired results. Find yourself
motivated to learn and try your best to learn it, not only Speaking skills but everything, if
you spend time on it, it will definitely get better.
33
CHAPTER VI
CONCLUSION
The main ideas of this research work will be summarized in this part. In addition, some
of the remaining difficulties will be referred to in the future for more research article
proposals.
6.1. Major Findings:
Research has shown a close relationship between self-confidence and speaking learning.
Not only having a connection with each other, but SCF also plays an important role in the
Speaking learning of students from the Faculty of Foreign Languages, Nha Trang
University. About 89% of students agreed that SCF plays an important role in Speaking
and SCF also accounted for about 45% of students' thoughts about factors affecting their
Speaking ability. The other remaining factors are "lack of practice, lack of knowledge,
and disparagement". Students who tend to be timid and afraid of making mistakes will
have lower speaking results than students who have a bold mentality and practice English
every day. (according to the students' self-assessment results) . The research results also
show that the main cause of lack of confidence in the majority of students today is the
fear of making mistakes, and the cause of this fear clearly showed is the fear of being
bullied by friends and teachers ridiculed and reprimanded. Moreover, the lack of
knowledge about vocabulary as well as sentence structure also significantly affects the
confidence in using English to speak and present.
For the above reasons, I have come up with solutions to solve the main problems that
have affected the students' speaking results.
6.2. Limitations:
The limitation of this study is that the number of participants is relatively low, only about
100 people, and the results are not completely accurate. There will be deviations because
there are students who have not read the sentences carefully and have already made
decisions. Furthermore, the research results are based on manual processing without
using other research applications or algorithms. However, the results of the study also
coincide with the literature review and my predictions when undertaking this project.
34
REFERENCE:
1. Esther Maison (2019). Mối quan hệ giữa giáo viên_học sinh tạo nên sự tích cực
trong lớp học translated by Tào Thị Nhung_Tao Giao Duc Magazine, Thursday,
25th May, 2022.
2. Mucella Ulug (2011). The effects of teachers’ attitudes on students’ personality
and performance. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND
license.
3. Rivers (1981). The Effectiveness of a Task-Based Instruction program in
Developing the English Language Speaking Skills of Secondary Stage Students.
Ain Shams University Women’s college Curricula and Methods of teaching
Department
4. Richards and Rodgers (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching.
Cambride University Library.
5. Baker, J. and Westrup, H. (2003) Essential Speaking Skills: A Handbook for
English Language Teachers. Continuum, London.
6. Mazouzi (2014). Analysis of Some Factors Affecting Learners’ Oral Performance.
Faculté des Lettres et des Langues FLL.
7. Hedge, T. (2000) Teaching and learning in the language classroom.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
8. Lai-Mei Leong & Seyedeh Masoumeh Ahmadi (2017) An Analysis of Factors
Influencing Learners’ English Speaking Skill. School of Educational Studies,
University Sains Malaysia, Malaysia.
9. Kamonpan Boonkit (2010) Enhancing the development of speaking skills
for non-native speakers of English. Procedia- Social and Behavioral Sciences.
10. Ali Dincer and Savas Yesilyurt (2013) Motivation to Speak English:
A Self-Determination Theory Perspective. Erzincan Binali Yildirim University.
35
DEPARTMENT OF TRANSLATION – INTERPRETATION
GRADUATION
COURSEWORK
RESEARCH ON HOW PRESENTATIONS ENHANCE
K63 FFL STUDENTS SPEAKING SKILLS
AND SOLLUTIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT.
Supervisor : BÙI VÂN ANH, M.A.

Student : NGUYỄN TƯỜNG VY
Student’s Number :60139037
Class :60.NNA-9
Nha Trang, 2022

GRADUATION
COURSEWORK
RESEARCH ON HOW PRESENTATIONS ENHANCE

K63 FFL STUDENTS SPEAKING SKILLS
AND SOLLUTIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT.
Supervisor : BÙI VÂN ANH, M.A.

Student : NGUYỄN TƯỜNG VY
Class : 60.NNA-9
Nha Trang, 2022

PREFACE
American billionaire Warren Buffet once said: “practice presentating everyday to
shortening your way to success”. Presentation is an effective communication tool, plays
a major role in the success of many individuals. Learning how to do presentation will
help the learner to know how to speak in public, the skills that can apply into
conversations, improve the communication skills when applying for a job, has the
chance to practice as well as accumulating more experience and gain confidence.
As you can see, presentation skill presents in every aspect of life and everyone is a part
of it, with various types of situations and with different purposes and roles. Weak
presentation skill will cost you many occupation or promotion chances, as well as
showing your ability to others. However, presentating is a skill that can be train and
practice.
Speaking skill is also a major factor that affect the ability of presentating of a person. If
a person has a good speaking skill, high chances that they will be able to do a good
presentation and vice versa, due to the relationship between the two skills as well as
their similar characteristics.
Practically, I hope that the result of this research would be a contribution in the work of
improving student’s speaking skill in the future. With a good speaking and presentation
skill, you can achive many success in personal life as well as in study and work.
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Apart from my efforts, the success of this graduation coursework depends largely on
the encouragement and guidance as well as the support from many individuals. I would
like to take this opportunity to express my gratitude to the people who have been
instrumental in the successful completion of this project.
First of all, I would like to say thank you to the Faculty of Foreign Languages for
allowing us to gain lots of knowledge and enhance our skills over the past time.
Moreover, I am highly indebted to Ms. Tran Thi Thuy Quynh and Ms. Bui Van Anh,
for their guidance and constant supervision as well as for providing necessary
information regarding the project and also for her support in completing the coursework.
Without their dedication during the course in the past, I would not have accomplished
this graduation coursework.
Finally, my thanks and appreciations also go to my teammates who have supported me

during the years studying at Nha Trang University and helped me in finishing the
coursework on time. Without their positive encouragement, this paper would not have
been possible.
Sincerely thank!
Nguyen TuongVy
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE ...................................................................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................... ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................ iii
LIST OF TABLES/GRAPHS/FIGURES ................................................................... v
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................ 1
1.1. Rationale ........................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Aims of the Study ............................................................................................. 1
1.3. Scope of the Study ............................................................................................ 2
1.4. Research Method ............................................................................................... 2
1.5. Significance of the Study .................................................................................. 2
1.6. Organization of the Study ................................................................................. 3
CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW AND METHODS ................................... 4
2.1. An Overview of Presentation ............................................................................... 4
2.2. Definition of Presentation skill ............................................................................ 4
2.3. Requirements of Presentation skill....................................................................... 5
2.4. Roles of Presentation skill to students ................................................................. 6
2.4.1. In studying. ........................................................................................................ 6
2.4.2. In work and life. ................................................................................................ 6
2.5. An Overview of Speaking skill ............................................................................ 6
2.6. The Relationship between Presentation skill and Speaking skill ......................... 7
2.7. Research Methods ................................................................................................ 7
2.7.1. Data collection ............................................................................................... 7
2.7.2. Data analysis .................................................................................................. 7
CHAPTER III: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS .................................................... 8
3.1. Findings ................................................................................................................ 8
3.2. Discussion .......................................................................................................... 23
CHAPTER IV: SOLUTIONS AND IMPLICATIONS........................................... 24
4.1. Solutions ............................................................................................................. 24
4.2. Implications ........................................................................................................ 25
iii
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ................................................................................. 26
5.1. Major Findings ................................................................................................... 26
5.2. Limitations ......................................................................................................... 26
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 27
APPENDIX .................................................................................................................. 28
iv
LIST OF TABLES/GRAPHS/FIGURES
No. Name of the chart Page
1. How often do you do presentations? 8
2. How many times have you done a presentation? 9
3. Have you ever experienced doing presentations before going to 10
university?
4. Which is the first subject that you do a presentation on? 11
5. How did you feel after finishing your first presentation? 12
6. What do you think you lack in your first presentation? 13

7. What do you think are the most important in doing a presentation? 14
8. Any other difficulties that you think the other presenters have met? 15
9. Are you confident with your speaking skills? 16
10. Do you think speaking skills are important? 17
11. Do you think a good speaker will do a good presentation? 18
12. Do you think doing a presentation will improve your speaking skills? 19
13. What factors cause a good speaker to not do a good presentation? 20
14. To be a good speaker, what do you need to improve? 21
15. To be a good presenter, what do you need to improve? 22
v
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
1.1. Rationale
Nowadays, presentation is considered to be an essential and necessary skill to
college student, especially English-major students. Improving the presentation
skill is extremely vital not only in study but also for future jobs. Reality shows
that students with good speaking skill is usually do presentation confidently,
fluently and very persuasive. Sao Do magazine is also claim that “speaking is the
first step of improving presentation skill”.
In communicating, you must master and make use of the skills of public
speaking, as well as knowing how to turn your knowledge into advantages are
the most important thing in achieving the main goal of communication. Among
all of the above, presentation skill is considered to be the most important skill
that plays a role of delivering information to the listener in the most effective
way. However, not every student is gifted with a good speaking skill and achieve
success in communicating. Therefore, I choose to do a “research on how
presentations enhance k63 ffl students speaking skills and sollutions for
improvement” to emphasize the importance of how presentating will improve the
speaking skill and the weaknesses of English-major students.
1.2. Aims of the Study

The main aims of the study are:
✓ To survey the presenting and speaking ability of K63 FFL students of Nha
Trang University.
✓ To find out the problems that K63 FFL students of Nha Trang University are
facing.
✓ To research on how presentation enhance speaking skill.
✓ Propose several solutions to help K63 FFL students of Nha Trang University
enhance their speaking skill as well as their presentation skill which are
important skills in their study and future jobs.
1
1.3. Scope of the Study
This research sets its boundary in researching the presenting ability K63 FFL
students of Nha Trang University. It will look into the following points:
• The students’ soft skills are weak.
• The students lack knowledge.
1.4. Research Method

The quantitative approach was employed to accomplish the research goals. With
the hope to go on the right track for the answers, the below is the order in which
the study was carried out:
➢ Building up a theoretical background for the paper.

➢ Data collectiing: collect necessary information to serve the purpose of
analyzing and assess the reality of students’ speaking and presentating ability.
➢ Analyzing the collected data to have the final results.
1.5. Significance of the Study

The importance of presentation skill in ehancing speaking skill has been
conducted by many researchers as well as mentioned by many papers. In
Vietname, there are many works related to this issue such as:
➢ “Sử dụng phương tiện trực quan trong các bài thuyết trình trên lớp của sinh
viên năm thứ 2” (By Nguyễn Phương Trà, class K3A9, Foreign Language
University – Ha Noi National University”
➢ “Nâng cao năng lực giao tiếp cho sinh viên Tiếng Anh Thương mại năm 2:
Nhu cầu và khuyến nghị” (By Nguyễn Thị Hoàng Báu, class 08CNATM03,
English-major Faculty, Foreign Language University – Da Nang University)
➢ “Kỹ năng thuyết trình – Chuẩn bị” (Tâm Việt Group – Training and Advising)
➢ “Kỹ năng thuyết trình – Tài liệu phục vụ chuyên để rèn luyện kỹ năng sống
cho sinh viên thiệt thòi trường Đại học An Giang” (Dr. Hồ Thanh Mỹ Phương
and collaborators: Trương Thị Mỹ Dung, Đoàn Mỹ Ngọc).
➢ “Kỹ năng thuyết trình bằng tiếng Anh của sinh viên năm thứ 3 Khoa Tiếng
Anh – Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ - Đại học Đà Nẵng – Thực trạng và giải
2
pháp” (student Nguyễn Thị Phương Huyền, Foreign Language University –
Da Nang University, 2008)
To many people, delivering a speech that is persuasive enough is a major part of

achieving and being success in carreer and life. Therefore, presentation skill is
an indispensable step on the road to success. We cannot be called successful
when we cannot make people realize our success. Presentation skills are difficult
but can be practiced.
Practice your presentation skills to shorten your path to success. And the
important thing is, if you are a good presenter, you will be able to convey the
content and achieve the presentation goal, you will attract the audience to join
the "interaction", you will increase your confidence, build an image. yourself and
the easier it is for you to convince others.
1.6. Organization of the Study

This graduation coursework includes 5 Chapters:
o Chapter 1 (Introduction) introduces the rationale, aims, scope, research

method in general, and significance of the study.
o Chapter 2 (Literature review and methods) presents the literature review and
methods of the research in detail.
o Chapter 3 ( Findings and discussions) reflects the findings and conclusions.
o Chapter 4 (Solutions and implications) offers information about solutions and
implications for students who study in a university in general and major in
Translation and Interpreting in particular.
o Chapter 5 (Conclusion) is further built on chapters 3 and 4 in which the
conclusion of major findings, limitations of the study, and suggestions are
provided.
3
CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW AND METHODS
2.1. An Overview of Presentation
Presentation is simply public speaking. You can see people give presentations
everywhere and even you yourself give presentations but sometimes you just
don't realize it. You are a student, you talk about a topic, an assigned project
before class. You are the captain of the football team, you present the tactics for
the match coming for the whole team. You are the guy who wants to take a girl
to be his wife, you must say something to her whole family…
2.2. Definition of Presentation skill

2.2.1. Definition
Some presentation concepts:
“Presentation is presenting a problem clearly in front of many people.

Presentation is an art, the presenter is likened to an artist or actor standing in
front of the public, speaking is a skill developed through experience and
training”
Or “Presentation is presenting by to speak in front of many listeners about a

certain issue in order to provide information or persuasion, to influence the
listeners”
Or “Presentation is communication and talking to the crowd”
2.2.2. Types of presentation
Classifying a presentation based on its purpose, we have: Presentation to provide

information; Present to Persuade and Present to Inspire.
- Presentation is a way of conveying ideas and information: For example, a

teacher is giving a lecture, a classmate announces something in front of the class.
- Persuasive presentations, influencing listeners: For example, a salesperson

gives a presentation to convince customers to buy a product at a conference, a
marketing manager convinces the company's management about the campaign.
marketing for the company in the near future.
4
- Inspiring presentation: Company leaders must talk to employees about a
certain topic to stimulate work morale, a speaker presents a certain topic, or a
general talks to three employees. troops before the day of battle.
2.2.3. The importance of presentation
In all areas of life, good presentation will create a high status, a respect from
other individuals. In the field of politics great speakers, they are all world leaders:
Barack Obama, Fidel Castro, Mather Luther King, John Kennedy, Ho Chi Minh
In the field of education, did you realize that a teacher who does not speak in
front of an attractive crowd does not make the students understand the lesson,
despite having extensive knowledge. In the field of economics and management,
a good director is not only someone who has a strategic vision, a creative
business idea, but also a person with good presentation skills, a leader who can
do for the employee to understand and follow the strategies and directions he
sets.
Through the above, everyone must realize that presentation skill is the most
important skill because it brings together all other skill factors such as:
confidence, use of words, body language. , rigorous reasoning, creativity...
Therefore there is a saying "As you speak in front of a crowd, so will your life".
Therefore, presentation skills are an indispensable step on the road to success.
Presentation skills are difficult but can be practiced.
Presentations have three important roles:
✓ Presentation is an effective communication tool.

✓ Presentation plays a huge role in the success of each individual.
✓ Presentation as a high income generating profession.
2.3. Requirements of Presentation skill

There are some following requirements for presentation skill:
✓ The presenter must evaluate himself correctly: right in terms of

knowledge, relationships, position, practical experience..
5
✓ Learn about the object, order, profession, needs...
✓ Prepare in advance about knowledge, information, presentation
materials.
✓ The purpose of the presentation must be clearly defined, with the reason,
time and place of the presentation.
✓ Must know how to listen to the audience and have timely feedback.
✓ Well structured 3 parts of the presentation: introduction, body,
conclusion.
2.4. Roles of Presentation skill to students

2.4.1. In studying.
Presentation is a mandatory requirement for students in some subjects where the
lecturer applies the presentation method.
The presentation is also an opportunity for students to practice their presentation

skills in front of crowds, preparing for a favorable job after graduation.
2.4.2. In work and life.

In all areas of life, good presentation will create a high status, a respect from
others.
No matter how valuable a person's insights and unique ideas are, but when
needed, he can't explain it to others, it is difficult to achieve certain successes.
No one accepts a person who is considered successful, but in front of the crowd
is embarrassed, unable to speak. More unfortunately, the knowledge, working
experience, and unique ideas of one person will not help others.
2.5. An Overview of Speaking skill

Public speaking is an instinctive fear of everyone, not just in Vietnam. The
problem is how to overcome that fear. Many studies on why people are afraid of
public speaking have identified the main reasons as follows:
o People are afraid of being defeated by others, belittled, disparaged, and

distrusted by others.
6
o Fear of creating something of their own that they have not been able to do
or have never tried (most pronounced when invited to sing).
o Fear of being embarassed (by words, gestures, habits, clothes, body shape,
...)
o Fear of not speaking fluently, faltering, not knowing how to express...
2.6. The Relationship between Presentation skill and Speaking skill

Presentation skills are one of many basic speaking skills. Therefore, presentation
skills, besides their own characteristics, still have common characteristics of
speaking skills. It is the ability to quickly recognize external manifestations and
predict internal psychological developments. At the same time, knowing how to
use verbal and non-verbal means, knowing how to navigate to adjust and control
the communication process continue to achieve the intended purpose.
2.7. Research Methods

2.7.1. Data collection
2.3.1.1. Sampling unit
After the data collection is completed, sample unit tables including the
answers gathered by the survey will be exemplified in the following
charts:
2.3.1.2. Procedure of data collection

During the data collection process, three steps are followed. The
researcher first create a sample list contains the questions which use to get
information from students. Subsequently, the researcher uses the Google
Form to compile the questions and collect data online. Finally, the
researcher gathers the data collected.
2.7.2. Data analysis

2.4.2.1. Unit of analysis
2.4.2.2. Procedure of data analysis
7
CHAPTER III: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
The results of the research will be clarified in this chapter.
3.1. Findings
3.1.1. How often do you do presentations?
This pie chart shows the regularity of doing presentations of K63 FFL students
of Nha Trang University. It is devided into four levels including every subject,
every week, every day and every month.
As can be seen from the pie chart, K63 FFL students of Nha Trang University
has done at least one presentation in every subject. The proof is that the number
of students chose the answer of “every subject”.
In conclusion, K63 FFL students of Nha Trang University have been

experiencing and getting used to doing presentation.
8
3.1.2. How many times have you done a presentation?
The pie chart above illustrates the number of time that students have done
presentation until now, which includes under 5 times, under 10 times, more than
10 times and other.
As can be seen from the chart, the highest percentage belongs to the choice “more
than 10 times” which dominates with 95,2 percent. This is due to the fact that
K63 FFL students of Nha Trang University has just get through their second
semesters of their first year. Therefore, more than 10 times is totally make sense.
However, there is a minority that chose the answer “other”, which means that
they have done presentation very many times. In this case, these students must
have a great experience in doing presentation as they have done it so many times
besides of doing presentations on classes.
Moreover, there is no students chose the other two answers as doing

presentations is compulsary. Therefore, whether they are fond of doing
presentation or not, they are still obtaining experience in doing it.
In conclusion, the number of times that a student have done presentation affects
greatly to their performances as they can draw experiences from their
presentations.
9
3.1.3. Have you ever experienced doing presentations before going to
university?
The pie chart above shows whether the students have experienced doing
presentation before they get in University or not.
In overall, the majority of students have never experienced doing presentations

before they get in University, which is quite obvious as most high school
curriculum does not apply the method of letting students doing presentations as
in University. Their teaching and studying method is only surrounding in
delivering theoretical knowledge and paper work. Therefore, students graduated
from high schools with such curriculum will find doing presentations strange and
challenging. Without early notice from teachers, who used to be college students,
they get in University with confusion and unable to comprehend within such
short time.
On the other hand, nearly half of students doing the survey have encountered and
experienced doing presentation. These students must have graduated from
schools with high-quality curriculum, which explains why they have experienced
in such skill.
10
3.1.4. Which is the first subject that you do a presentation on?
This pie chart shows the subjects that each student have done their first
presentation in, includes of writing, listening, pronunciation in use and grammar.
According to the chart, the highest percentage of students’ first presentating

subject is Listening with 33,3 percent. The first presentation is Listening would
be very challenging for students who have never done presentation before.
Because Listening is mostly rely on the ability of explaining what are the other
students must do and Listening does not have any particular formula or certain
examples like other skills. The second highest percentage is Pronunciation in use
with 28,6 percent which is also quite challenging as it requires you to have a very
good pronunciation and how you guide the other students to pronounce words.
The third highest is Grammar with 23,8 percent and the lowest is Writing with
only 14,3 percent.
As for students with experience in doing presentations, they will surely do better
than the others in finding information, conducting the content or designing slides.
11
3.1.5. How did you feel after finishing your first presentation?
This chart shows the feelings of students when they finished doing a
presentation, those feelings include exciting, exhausting, worrying and
confusing.
Feeling exhausting is the most common feeling in students when they finished
doing a presentation with 42,9 percent. As most of them have never experienced
doing presentation before, it is obvious that they would feel exhausting for doing
such unfamiliar work. Those who have experience would have the way to
preserve and distribute their energy evenly. The second most common feeling
would be confusing with 23,8 percent which is obviously because of the lack of
experience caused them to feel confusing about their performance. Similar to
confusing, worrying is at the third as they feel worry about whether they have
done something wrong or were their presentation boring or missing any of the
content, etc. The least is exciting with 14,3 percent which mainly because these
students have many experience in doing such work, therefore, they would find it
exciting and interesting, unlike the other students.
In summary, the experience affects students’ feeling after finishing doing

presentation and this is a very vital factor that can raise their confidence up or
even make it disappear.
12
3.1.6. What do you think you lack in your first presentation?
This pie chart shows the shortage of the students when they finish doing a
presentation that includes confidence, interaction, body language and making
eye-contact.
Most of the students claims that they lack confidence when doing a presentation.
This mainly because they lack experience in public speaking as well as
experience in presentating. As confidence is not what you are born with, it is
what you gain from practice and experience. In addition, many of them states
that they lack of making eye-contact to the listeners. This is also because of their
lack of experience in doing such work. Interaction shares the same reason of the
previous issue. However, body language is not something that you can get from
experience. Body language is a soft skill you must learn in public speaking and
high schools do not have such subject to teach students.
In overall, all of the issue stated above is caused by the lack of experience in
doing presentation as most of them have never done such work before. Therefore,
high schools should consider to launch classes that teach these kinds of soft skill
in order to help students to be familiar with such skills.
13
3.1.7. What do you think are the most important in doing a presentation?
This pie chart indicates the most important factor in doing a presentation that
includes confidence, interaction, body language and content.
Most of the students agreed on confidence is the most important factor in doing
a presentation with 76,2 percent in total. This maybe due to the fact that they feel
they lack of confidence, therefore, they think that confidence is the most
important factor in doing a presentation. This choice is also shows that they want
to improve their confidence to get better in doing presentation. The second most
important factor is interaction with 19 percent. This choice is mainly focuses on
the term of interact with listeners rather than confidence, which shows that the
students who chose this answer have already confident enough and want to
improve other factor to aim at a perfect performance. These students must own
great experience in doing presentation in order to realise this fact. A minority of
the students chose body language as they might feel that they are equiped with
the other factors but they usually froze during the presentation, so they chose
body language instead of others, which is also a very interesting choice.
14
3.1.8. Any other difficulties that you think the other presenters have met?
This chart shows the difficulties that students think they and other presenters face
in doing presentations, including lack of interaction, lack of body language, lack
of confidence and stuttering.
Most of them consider themselves and other presenters have been lack of
confidence. As mentioned, confidence is gain from practice and experience.
Lack of confidence led them to feel nervous and forget the content, as well as
causing them to fail in doing presentation. Stuttering is the second biggest
difficulty that students face. Stuttering is mainly caused by lack of confidence in
public speaking, which even experienced people are still facing. Lack of
interaction shares the same rank with stuttering with 28,6 percent. As the students
are not confident enough to interact with the listeners watching them. There are
a minority of them indicates that they lack of body language, which is the least
concern by other students.
In conclusion, confidence is still the biggest concern to K63 FFL students of Nha
Trang University in doing presentations.
15
3.1.9. Are you confident with your speaking skills?
This chart shows the students’ confidence about their speaking skill.
Most of the students indicated that they are only quite confident about their
speaking skill. This raise a concern about Vietnamese students’ ability of
speaking English after 12 years of studying English. There is only 33,3 percent
is actually confident confident and 19 percent is very confident in their speaking
skill. Evern though there are 9,5 percent is completely have no confidence in
their speaking skill.
In conclusion, Vietnamese studens’ speaking ability is very limited although they

have been learning English for the past 12 years. In order to improve this
situation, solutions regarding speaking skill must be applied into schools
curriculum.
16
3.1.10. Do you think speaking skills are important?
This pie chart shows the students’ opinion on whether speaking skill in important
or not.
More than 90 percent of the students agree on speaking skill is absolutely

important. In this modern world, communication skills play a vital role and one
must have mastery over these skills to get success in their respective fields. So,
speaking is the most important skill among all the four language skills in order
to communicate well in this global world. You can’t take speaking skills lightly,
no matter how talented you are. If you speak with conviction and passion, it will
help the audience relate to you, believe in you, and remember you. However,
there are more than 9 percent of the students only quite agree that speaking skill
is important, which is kind of underestimate the importance of speaking skill.
17
3.1.11. Do you think a good speaker will do a good presentation?
This pie chart shows the students’ opinion on whether a good speaker will do a
good presentation.
81 percent of the students agree on the idea of a good speaker will do a good
presentation, which mainly because they are not confident enough to perform a
good presentation. Therefore, they believe that if someone is good at speaking,
they will also good at presentating. However, this idea is not quite correct to
everyone as 19 percent of the students disagree on the above idea as they think
that good speaker cannot surely will become a good presenter due to many
factors like understanding the content of the presentation.
18
3.1.12. Do you think doing a presentation will improve your speaking skills?
This pie chart shows the belief of the students on whether doing a presentation
will improve their speaking skills or not.
In this case, everyone agreed that doing presentations will surely improve their
speaking skill in many aspect like confidence, public speaking, etc.
By this result, the Ministry of Training and Education should consider to apply
doing presentation in high schools in order to develop students’ soft skills that
will be essential for them in the future.
19
3.1.13. What factors cause a good speaker to not do a good presentation?
This pie chart shows the factors that cause a good speaker to not be able to do a
good presentation that includes lack of preparation, lack of knowledge about the
content, nervous and lack of confidence.
Most of the students claims that lack of knowledge about the content is the main
factor that cause a good speaker to not be able to do a good presentation as doing
a presentation is more than just speaking. Presentation is more about delivering
the content to the listeners rather than relying on the speaking skill. Therefore,
most of the students agreed on that lack of knowledge about the content is the
main factor. Lack of preparation is also the second highest factor chosen by the
students as it is also a main cause. The other two factors only half as much as the
mentioned factors. However, all of the factors mentiond are what we all should
be considered if we want to be a good presenter in the future.
20
3.1.14. To be a good speaker, what do you need to improve?
This pie chart shows the factors that students think they should improve to be a
better speaker that includes confidence, preparation, body language and eye-
contact.
The highest percentage is confidence with 76,2 percent as confidence plays a

major role in public speaking. Confidence is still the foremost factor that
everyone consider when looking at a person. Confidence will get you to a very
high place if you can make the most out of it. Therefore, confidence is a must
have if you want to become a good speaker. Preparation and body language are
also important factors that will make you become more persuasive in a speech.
With all of that, becoming a good speaker is no longer a dream.
21
3.1.15. To be a good presenter, what do you need to improve?
This pie chart shows the factors that students think they should improve to be a
better presenter that includes confidence, preparation, body language and eye-
contact.
If becoming a good speaker requires confidence, then becoming a good presenter

requires much of practice, chosen by the students with 81 percent. Presenting is
much more difficult than speaking as it is about delivering information to the
listeners rather than just talk. It is about how you deliver, explain to them in an
understandable way. Therefore, practicing will be essential if you want to
become a good presenter in the futurel.
22
3.2. Discussion
From the findings based on the data collected from the survey questionnaire as
well as from the interview process. It is very important for the researcher to
present and describe the results of the research in this session and to give the
reader an overview of the discussion there are three important sections
mentioned by the researcher:
a. Discussion about the Presentation skill of K63 FFL students
Based on the findings collected from the survey questionnaire, it can be seen
that most of the freshman of the FFL of Nha Trang University had attach
great importance to doing presentation enhancing speaking skill. Most
students believe that with confidence as well as a good speaking skill,
students can do a good presentation.
b. Discussion about the difficulties that the students face
Through the findings from the surveys questionnaire and interviews it can be
said that doing presentation was not easy and students face a lot of difficulties
and challenges.
Lack of confidence was the main problem that students face in doing
presentation. New to the lack of confidence a large number of students found
it difficult to perform a good presentation the main reason for this problem
was that students don’t have much experience in such work.
c. Discussion about solutions
From the findings of the questionnaire the percentage of students who learn
how to prepare for their presentation accounted for relatively high percentage
of the total. It can be said that students were aware of the importance of
preparation. Moreover no, by doing presentation students have also
enhancing their speaking abilities.
23
CHAPTER IV: SOLUTIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
4.1. Solutions
4.1.1. For teachers
Pay more attention to students' motivations, attitudes and learning strategies;

help students properly assess the necessity of presenation for the future of
students so that students can identify motivation, positive learning attitude, and
effective learning strategies.
Guide and advise students on effective ways to help students feel more interested
in doing presentation (how to prepare lessons, how to learn vocabulary, apply
new words in situations, learn how to pronounce correctly) and by that, students
can enhance their speaking skill.
Do not put learning pressure on weak students, lazy students. Instead, encourage
and encourage students to learn on their own.
There is a fair reward and punishment system for students to have a basis to self-
assess their level of effort and progress, creating a determination to study for
students.
Assessing students' true ability to make appropriate requirements; too low

requirements for good and good students will make students feel bored and will
not have the will to strive to rise up; Too high requirements for weak students
will lose students' confidence, reduce students' interest in doing presentation.
Encourage students to limit the use of Vietnamese in class; Limit writing during
speaking practice hours.
Create confidence for students in doing presentation: should not put too much
emphasis on correct grammar, making students feel afraid. Instead, encourage
students to try to express ideas, express what they want to deliver to the others.
4.1.2. For students
- Identify for yourself a motivation, the right learning attitude, the right learning
strategy to improve the quality of presentation.
24
- Change the method of learning speaking to suit new requirements.
- Actively participate in class activities; Use class time to practice speaking with
classmates.
- Always look for every opportunity to be able to communicate with friends in

English, create quick response.
- Create a habit of thinking in English, limiting the conversion of ideas from

Vietnamese to English.
- Practice standard pronunciation, speak fluently. This is one of the factors that
determine the confidence of learners.
4.1.3. For the University
- Pay more attention to teaching and learning equipment to meet the requirements
of teaching method innovation.
- Implement small class sizes (30-35 students/class) so that students have more
opportunities to practice presentating.
- Divide classes by level so that students are not afraid to speak in public.
- Organize exchanges with representatives of businesses so that students have

the opportunity to learn the requirements of employers, thereby helping students
orient their studies.
4.2. Implications
Research results have shown that the majority of the freshmen of Faculty of
Foreign Languages of Nha Trang University attach great importance of
presentatiton as it enhanced their speaking skill. In addition, students have also
identified the difficulties that they and other students are facing. It can be said
that doing presentation has a great impact on students’ speaking skill as it
improve the students’ confidence, as well as improving necessary elements in
the process of delivering knowledge. Furthermore, the findings of this research
may become the premis for future changes in educating Foreign Languages.
25
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION
5.1. Major Findings
In general, the ultimate goal of this paper is to research the students’ opinion on
whether doing presentation would enhance their speaking skill. Several prior
perspectives on this topic have been examined to provide a theoretical
framework for the whole study.
The application of presentation activities has had a positive impact on students'

speaking ability, especially in improving students' fluency and vocabulary. At
the same time, after participating in class presentation activities, students had
positive feedback through the assessment of their attitude to participate in
activities. Thereby, it shows that presentation activities contribute to creating
excitement, a practice environment for students to review old knowledge and
discover and learn new knowledge through self-preparedness and observation of
learning from classmates. Thereby helping students to be more confident when
communicating in front of crowds. However, there were a small number of
participants who felt that the presentation activities were not suitable for them.
This could be a problem for the future researcher if anyone wants to continue
applying this method.
5.2. Limitations
Besides of the advantages of this research, limitations, which need to be clarified,
are still exist. First of all, the object of this research is only focuses on K63 FFL
students of Nha Trang University, therefore the results are limited within the K63
FFL student categories. Furthermore, due to the time limitation, there are still
many difficulties that students are also facing in doing presentation that have not
been indicated in this research.
26
REFERENCES
Brown, H. (1980). Priciples of Language Learning and Teaching, Engleword Cliffs. New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall.
C., A. (1981). Problems of Learning English as a Second Language. Singapore : University Press for
SEAMEO Regional Language Centre.
Cole, P. G. (1994). Teaching Priciples and Practice. Prentice Hall of Australia Pty Ltd.
Gardner, R. L. (1994). Teaching Priciples and Practice. Prentice Hall of Australia Pty Ltd.
Harmer, J. (1991). The Practice of English Language Teaching. Longman Group UK Limited.
O’Mally, J. C. (1990). Using Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge University Press.
Oxford, R. (1990). Language Learning Strategies. Newbury Publisher.
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APPENDIX
QUESTIONNAIRE
I am a senior from the Faculty of Foreign Languages of Nha Trang University. I
am currently conducting this survey to support my graduation coursework on
“Research on how presentations enhance K63 FFL students speaking skills and
solutions for improvement”. Your answers will be valuable data for me in the
coursework. I promise that your personal information will be used for this survey
only. Thank you for your cooperation!
Your name: ........................................................................
Your student’s ID: .............................................................
Your class: .........................................................................
1. How often do you do presentations?

 Every subject
 Every week
 Every day
 Every month
2. How many times have you done a presentation?
 Under 5 times
 Under 10 times
 More than 10 times
 Other (__________)
3. Have you ever experienced doing presentations before going to
university?
 Yes
 No
4. Which is the first subject that you do a presentation on?
 Writing
 Listening
28
 Pronunciation in Use
 Grammar
5. How did you feel after finishing your first presentation?
 Exciting
 Exhausting
 Worrying
 Confusing
6. What do you think you lack in your first presentation?
 Confidence
 Interaction
 Body language
 Making eye-contact
7. What do you think are the most important in doing a presentation?
 Confidence
 Interaction
 Body language
 Content
8. Any other difficulties that you think the other presenters have met?
 Lack of interaction
 Lack of body language
 Lack of confidence
 Stuttering
9. Are you confident with your speaking skills?
 Totally
 Yes
 Quite
 No
10.Do you think speaking skills are important?
 Absolutely
29
 Quite agree
 Disagree
 Strongly disagree
11.Do you think a good speaker will do a good presentation?
 Yes
 No
12.Do you think doing a presentation will improve your speaking skills?
 Yes
 No
 Neutral
13.What factors cause a good speaker to not do a good presentation?
 Lack of preparation
 Lack of knowledge about the content
 Nervous
 Lack of confidence
14.To be a good speaker, what do you need to improve?
 Confidence
 Preparation
 Body language
 Eye-contact
15.To be a good presenter, what do you need to improve?
 Practice
 Speaking skills
 Vocabularies
 Body language
30
GRADUATION COURSEWORK
Research on difficulties in learning speaking skills of first-year

English majors students at Nha Trang University and solutions
for improvement.
Supervisor : BUI VAN ANH , M.A.

Student : PHAM THI BOANG
Class : 60.NNA-10
Nha Trang, 2022

PREFACE
As a final year student at the Faculty of Foreign Languages, majoring in English, Nha
Trang University, I often consider myself to be an active learner and inspire students to
learn foreign languages. I am said to have a predestined relationship with the teaching
profession. I chose to major in teaching on the advice of my parents. I admit that I was
not initially passionate about teaching; However, my love for students through tutoring
makes me always want to find the right learning method to bring out the best in each
student's English ability. Currently, some of high school transfer the check approach
from writing to oral examination a few subjects, consisting of English. However,
students deal maximum with rote gaining knowledge of with out knowledge
anything .The scenario lasted as much as college make bad English speaking skills.
Because lack of knowledge about speaking skills, especially for students in first
years .Therefore, I have chosen the topic: "Research on difficulties in learning speaking
skills of first-year English majors at Nha Trang University and solutions to improve"
for my graduation report.
For the above reasons, a study is being conducted on the difficulties faced by freshman
students in practicing speaking English at Nha Trang University. This study aims to
find some difficulties and solutions to overcome in order to improve students' speaking
skills and help them to communicate confidently in class as well as in daily life and
later work.
1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
No one can be successful alone. To complete this research , I need the support of
many people. And next, I would like to explicit my deep gratitude to all those people
who supported me on this studies process.
Firstly, I would like to thank Ms. Bui Van Anh for guiding me in the preparation
of this thesis.Thanks to dedicated guidance and careful guidance, I am able to complete
the thesis. Your comments and suggestions made me realize what was missing in my
research and help me to complete this research.
Secondly, I would like to thank the teachers of the English department who
helped me to complete my studies in class so that I can conduct this thesis. At the same
time , I also thank these lovely students - freshmen of the English major in Nha Trang
university for helping me complete the survey to find difficulties in learning English
speaking skills.
Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to my loved ones who are my strong
supports and have always been by my side to comfort and cheer me up whenever I am
tired. and stressed.
Phạm Thị Boang
June, 2022
2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE ..................................................................................................................... 1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................... 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................. 3
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................... 5
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURE.............................................................................. 5
CHAPTER I : OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY. ....................................................... 6
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 6
1.1. Rationale. ............................................................................................................................ 6
1.2. Previous studies. .............................................................................................. 7
1.3. Aims of the study . ........................................................................................................... 8
1.4. Research subjects ............................................................................................................. 8
1.5. Scope of the study ............................................................................................................ 9
1.6. Method of study. .............................................................................................................. 9
1.6.1. Introduction of the English Faculty of Nha Trang University.................... 9
1.6.2. Participants. ................................................................................................................. 10
1.6.2.1. The Students................................................................................................................ 10
1.6.3. Methods of data collection . ....................................................................................... 10
1.6.3.1. Questionnaires ............................................................................................................ 10
1.6 3.2. The interview . ............................................................................................................. 11
1.6.4. Method of data analysis. ............................................................................................. 11
1.6.5. Data collection procedure . ........................................................................................ 11
1.6.6. Data annalysis and statistics ..................................................................................... 11
1.7. Organization of the study............................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................ 14
2.1. Overview of speaking . ................................................................................................. 14
2.1.1. Definition of speaking. ............................................................................................... 14
2.1.2. Speaking Aspects ........................................................................................................... 14
2.1.3. Characteristics of speaking skills ............................................................................. 16
2.1.4. Importance of speaking skills .................................................................................... 16
2.2. Factors affecting Speaking skills. .............................................................................. 18
3
2.3. Difficulties in learning English speaking skills. ................................................... 19
CHAPTER III . RESEARCH FINDINGS ............................................................... 21
3.1. Questionnaire findings. ................................................................................................... 21
3.1.1. Students’ real situations of learning English speaking skills ........................ 21
3.1.2. Students’s attitudes toward speaking skills. ........................................................ 22
3.1.3. Difficulty in learning English speaking skills . ................................................... 25
3.1.4. Activities for improving English speaking skills . ............................................. 28
3.2. Interview findings. ............................................................................................................ 29
3.3. Summary .............................................................................................................................. 30
CHAPTER IV: RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ........................ 31
4.1. For English faculty and teachers at Nha Trang University .............................. 31
4.2. For first-year English-major students . .................................................................... 33
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ................................................................................ 36
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 38
APPENDIX.................................................................................................................. 40
4
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Abbreviations Meaning
EFL English as a Foreign Language

ESL English as a Second Language
NTU Nha Trang University
TESOL Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages
SLA Second Language Acquisition
L1 First Language
L2 Second Language
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURE
Table 3. 1: The students’ English learning time ........................................................... 20

Chart 3. 1: The students' assessment of learning the speaking skills ........................... 22
Chart 3. 2: Students’ interest in learning English speakingError! Bookmark not
defined.
Chart 3. 3: Students attitude toward learning English speaking ................................... 24
Chart 3. 4: The frequency of students speaking and having problems in learning English
speaking skills ............................................................................................................... 25
Chart 3. 5: Main difficulties that students face while learning speaking skills. ........... 26
Chart 3. 6: Students' psychological speaking problems ............................................... 27
Chart 3. 7: Activities for improving English speaking skills ....................................... 28
5
6
CHAPTER I : OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY.
INTRODUCTION
This chapter summarizes my research, includes a rationale, explains why this

research paper was written, a section of previous research- highlights and analyzes the
importance of speaking through studies by previous researchers.The aim of this study,
the methodology used throughout the study, the scope and objectives.
1.1. Rationale.
Foreign languages in general, and English in particular, have become an
important and effective tool in international economic integration in the current
globalization trend. When it comes to foreign languages, English is the most widely
used. In approximately 60 countries, it is considered the primary language in addition
to the mother tongue, and in more than 100 countries, it is considered a second language.
When it comes to trade, business, cultural exchange, and knowledge exchange, Vietnam
is not an exception. As a result, many Vietnamese schools have made English a
mandatory subject and have invested heavily in teaching and learning foreign languages.
Students who are good at their specialty and can use English fluently after graduating
from any major will have an advantage in recruitment interviews. Even while seated.
Students who can use English fluently in school have better access to knowledge, update
and expand their knowledge than students who cannot use English. Learning English
entails a variety of skills such as listening, speaking, reading, and writing, with speaking
being a critical skill that must be focused on and improved because it is an effective
mode of communication. As a result, how can they improve their English speaking skills
and communicate fluently, particularly in the current industrial revolution? that is an
important goal in foreign language teaching and learning. However, not all English
majors can communicate fluently in English after finishing school. The way they study
and teach at university, which is vastly different from how they did in high school, is
particularly difficult and perplexing for first-year students. They find it difficult to
7
express themselves verbally, which leads to shyness and a fear of communicating in
English. This has had a significant impact on the learning outcomes of students. As a
result, one of the goals of this project is to provide an answer to the question of first-
year students who are having difficulty learning to speak. Thereby, some solutions to
improve English speaking skills for freshmen English majors at Nha Trang University
are proposed.
1.2. Previous studies.
According to my findings, there are some research topics on speaking English

difficulties. Some topics are related to English majors. On this research topic, I have
consulted a series of research, including: According to Ur, P. (1996), there are four
factors that make practicing speaking difficult: Students are frequently concerned when
they make mistakes, fearful of being reprimanded, and feel anxious; the students
themselves make no attempt; there is uneven participation in a class, with some students
participating passionately while others saying nothing; people are afraid of speaking
another language, they want to speak their mother tongue because it is easier. According
to Lukitasari (2003), learners' speaking skills do not improve since they do not lead the
three major aspects in speaking, especially regarding vocabulary, grammar, and
phonetics. Lawtie (2004) discovered that emotional state influences speaking
difficulties. They are completely controlled by feelings such as insecurity, shyness,
nervousness, and pressure. This will be a major issue for them if they do not believe in
themselves. As a result, one of the most important aspects to consider when
communicating with people who have trouble speaking is their emotional state.
Pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, motivation, anxiety, and embarrassment

are some of the issues that students face when speaking English, according to Yunita
(2014). These are the factors that impede students' ability to communicate in English.
The author studied a range of subjects who had this difficulties when having to learn to
participate in difficult to learn English, and she discovered that all these students also
couldn't speak English fluently. According to Nauli (2014)'s research, three factors
8
influence the learning process of English. It is based on culture difficulties (such as
social acceptance and English status), English problems (such as elements and difficult
situations), and communication issues (self-confidence and speaking opponent). He
studied these relative and absolute factors at the state university in Jambi. Mustafa
Mubarak Pathan (2014) identified several causes of difficulty in practicing speaking
skills, including: pronunciation, the use of adjectives, the use of prepositions, the use of
idioms, grammatical errors, semantic errors, and other problems (lack of vocabulary,
fear / embarrassment while communicating, lack of interest and motivation, lack of
practice). He explained the following reasons: "Their failure to recognize it is mainly
due to their teachers' failure to make them understand this fact at an early stage of their
learning. And this failing on the part of the teachers is due to the fact that the majority
of EFL school teachers in Libya are not properly trained for this purpose, nor are their
abilities updated."Despite the fact that many people worked on improving their
speaking skills, the percentage of students who speak English confidently remains small.
Therefore, I chose to study the topic. “Research on difficulties in learning
speaking skills of first-year English majors students at Nha Trang University and
solutions for improvement.” For my topic’s graduation report.
1.3. Aims of the study .

The purpose of this research was to discover why first-year English majors at
Nha Trang University struggle to learn English speaking skills. After categorizing the
difficulties, I would provide some solutions to help students improve their speaking
skills. Based on previous studies, I believe that this study will assist NTU freshmen in
improving their difficulties in learning their speaking skills. As a result, students'
speaking skills improve, which benefits their learning in class and in life.
1.4. Research subjects

The research subjects in this study are difficulties in speaking English for first-
year English-major students at NTU. Students are exposed to various types of learning
methods, since each person's ability varies. As a result, the study's findings will be as
realistic and accurate as possible.
9
1.5. Scope of the study
The study focuses on the difficulties in learning speaking skills for first-year
English majors at NTU. Because of time and knowledge constraints, as well as a lack
of reference sources, this study cannot impact the entire issue of speaking ability. This
just focuses on the most common difficulties students face when speaking. Furthermore,
the research also couldn't include all NTU students; it was limited to first-year English
majors at NTU.
I hope that this study will be useful in future for English majors as well as all
students who want to overcome difficulties in speaking English.
1.6. Method of study.

1.6.1. Introduction of the English Faculty of Nha Trang University.
Nha Trang University's Faculty of Foreign Languages was founded in 2009 with
the mission of teaching foreign languages (English, French, Russian, and Chinese) with
all NTU students and teaching a bachelor's program in English university with a major
in Translating and Interpreting. The Faculty now has over 30 members, including four
doctors and 22 masters, as well as international study teachers from the United States,
Australia, and Taiwan. The Faculty currently has around 1000 students studying English
Translation and Interpreting.
Since its inception, faculty members of the Lecturers have continually updated
teaching materials from advanced countries, extremely innovative teaching methods to
start creating student classrooms, and implemented new communication methods.
Furthermore, the Faculty always employs assessment methods that are based on
international standards and the actual conditions of the South Central region.
The Faculty is currently divided into three departments: English translation,
English teaching, and English for tourism. When having taken the entrance exam,
students' exam achievements are pre-intermediate. Students in Nha Trang University's
English department have varying levels of English proficiency. The majority of the
students come from rural areas where they have little opportunity to speak English. As
a result, when they enter university, it is difficult for them to speak English confidently
as expected.
10
1.6.2. Participants.
1.6.2.1. The Students.
This study was conducted at Nha Trang University with the cooperation of 60
first-year English majors from the Faculty of English. They ranged in age from 18 to
19. They were in K63 and the second semester of the 2021-2022 academic year at Nha
Trang University. Many of them have been studying English for seven years (4 years at
secondary school and 3 years at high school). Moreover, their English backgrounds
were rather similar because the majority of them come from various rural areas
and students did not have any other opportunities to practice English skills due to the
influence of English curriculum for high school students. As a result, when they enrolled
at Nha Trang University, their English skills were limited, and they faced lots of
challenges in their studying.
1.6.3. Methods of data collection .

In this study, two main instruments were used: a self-created questionnaire with
14 statements and interviews.
1.6.3.1. Questionnaires
The questionnaire was created with students in head to make summarizing and
analysing the results easier for me. The questionnaire for students contains 14 multiple-
choice questions. As a result, the questionnaire method for students was distributed to
60 first-year students majoring in English K63 at Nha Trang University's Faculty of
English in order to gather information for the survey question. Part 1 of the 14 sub-
questions is intended to collect general information about students. Part II questions
request to assess students' attitudes toward English speaking skills; Part III questions
aim to discover the causal factors and difficulties in students' speaking skills. To make
sure the results' reliability of the data, the learner questionnaire has been distributed
effectively to students' learning K63 during class rest periods and gathered directly. That
is, these students were more likely to focus on answering 14 questions about what they
had just viewed. I briefly stated the purpose and meaning of the study and clarified any
11
misunderstandings about the survey question before asking learners to create a survey
questionnaire. To avoid ambiguity, directions and explanations in Vietnamese are
provided in addition to the written instructions on the leaflet. 60 students completed the
survey in the end.
1.6 3.2. The interview .

Four students from Nha Trang University's K63 English Department were
interviewed. Everyone supported and helped me in a supportive and comfortable
manner. This aims to gather students' perspectives on the factors influencing English
speaking skills and make recommendations to improve them. Analysis of the interview
results, I can analyze the data after the interview. The outcomes of the interviews were
thoroughly researched. In each section, an analysis of questionnaire data is given along
with data from survey questionnaire.
1.6.4. Method of data analysis.

The information gathered from the questionnaire responses of first-year English
majors was subjected to analysis to provide answers to the research questions.
1.6.5. Data collection procedure .

At this process, data for the study is gathered from English majors in their first
year at the Faculty of English. To collect information about the issues of first-year
English major students' learning English speaking skills at Nha Trang University, 60
survey questionnaires were distributed to students. In furthermore, four other students
were invited to participate in the interview. When the collection of information was
completed, the data analysis began.
1.6.6. Data annalysis and statistics .
All data was gathered using questionnaires and interview answers. Total amount
(using percentages and numbers) and quality are organized. The interview data is
analyzed subjectively to improve the reliability and accuracy of the research findings.
12
The analysis of questionnaire data consists of a few steps, which are conducted out as
follows:
Step 1: Determine the difficulties that students are facing when communicating
in english.
Step 2: Identify methods for students to reduce difficulties in learning English.
Step 3: Once the data has been identified, analyze it. The researcher used the
following formula to calculate the percentage of each questionnaire:
P = N / FX 100%
P = percentage of students with problems.
F = frequency of students answering answer.
N = number of respondents.
1.7. Organization of the study
A table of contents with cover page will give readers a clear overview of the
research suggestion. It also gives readers the impression that they will be able to find
the part they require more quickly and easily. This study is divided into five chapters,
which are as follows:
Chapter 1: The study's overview provides an overview of the study's content.The

most important part of this chapter will be the reason for selecting this research.
The others are the purpose, previous studies, research method, and Organization
of the study .
Chapter 2: The review of the literature. This section contains the conceptual
foundation for the research. The goal of this chapter is to provide a foundation of
information on the topic, to develop better understanding of existing research and
discussions relevant to a specific topic or field of study, and to present that knowledge
in the written report.
13
Chapter 3: This study relies heavily on research findings. This chapter discusses
the analysis and research results data from the survey, as well as conducting interviews
students at Nha Trang University to obtain the necessary information and discuss the
survey findings.
Chapter 4: Recommendations and suggestions.
Based on the findings of the analysis and assessment in Chapter 2, this section
concentrates on suggestions/solutions for first-year English majors at NTU in learning
speaking skills.
Chapter 5: Conclusion
This chapter will summarize the research obtained result, as well as identify
major limitations.
14
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Overview of speaking .
2.1.1. Definition of speaking.
There are different conceptions of the word "speaking" presented by language

learning researchers. Speaking, according to Chaney (1998), is the process of creating
and communicating ideas through the use of verbal or nonverbal symbols in various
contexts. Brown (1994) and Burns and Joyce (1997) identified speaking as an engaging
process of meaning creation that contains data production, reception, and processing.
Bygate (1987) identified speaking as the manufacturing of acoustic signals in order to
elicit a variety of choice of words from listeners. It is thought to systematically combine
sounds to form meaningful sentences. Speaking, according to Abd El Fattah Torky
(2006), is a two-way process involving true communication of opinions, information,
or emotions. This leading information from different verbal texts as the cooperation of
two or more people in a common time and context.
According to the definitions given above, speaking ability will always be linked
to communication. Speaking ability can be defined as the ability to use language
correctly to express meanings throughout order to switch or obtain information and
knowledge from others in a given situation.
2.1.2. Speaking Aspects
When deciding to speak, a speaker should consider some aspects of speaking.

According to Brown (2001), there are four factors of speaking that students should
consider:
15
 Pronunciation
The problem of sounds that we used to make meaning is referred to as
pronunciation. It includes paying attention to the specific sounds of a language
(segments), as well as aspects of speech that are beyond the individual level of analysis
sound. Including intonation, phrasing, stress, timing, and rhythm (consonant and vowel
aspects), how the tone is parametric (voice quality), and, through its largest context,
focus to expression and gestures that are directly connected to how we communicate a
language.
 Grammar
Grammar is an essential language aspect in learning languages. Because of their ability
and understanding of grammar, speakers and writers can speak and express their
messages clearly and meaningfully.
 Fluency
Fluency is a type of language ability that refers to how quickly and easily a language
learner performs one of the four main language skills of speaking, listening, reading,
and writing. Although fluency applies to all four language skills, it is commonly linked
with speaking.
 Vocabulary
The knowledge of words and their meanings is referred to as vocabulary. The
vocabulary, however, seems to be more complicated than this definition implies. First,
there are two kinds of words: oral and written. Oral vocabulary refers to the words we
realize and use when listening and speaking. Print vocabulary refers to the words we
identify and use when reading and writing. Second, there are two types of word
knowledge: receptive and productive. Sayings that we appreciate when we hear or see
them are included in our receptive vocabulary. Words that we use when we speak or
write are examples of productive vocabulary.
Receptive vocabulary is generally bigger than verbal abilities which could include
several words to which we associate even if we don't know their full definitions and
meanings or use them ourselves when speaking or writing. The researcher assesses
students' perceptions of their speaking skills using the above-mentioned speaking aspect.
16
2.1.3. Characteristics of speaking skills
Speaking in such a foreign or second language is frequently regarded as the most
difficult of the four skills. When trying to speak, students must try to focus their thoughts
and transmit their ideals in the target language's vocabulary and syntactic structures.
According to Kathleen M. Bailey and Lance Savage (1994), learners may also
attend to monitor their output depending on the decorum and significance of the speech
situations and also their own language perversions (speaking skills).
These two language learners already add that in communication and other
collaborative speaker events, speakers must pay attention to their communicators'
feedback and follow the respectful dialogue rules of the cultural context. Pronunciation
aspects complicate the task, particularly for adult learners, as speakers attempt for
"good" pronunciation. The frequency of such communication is also a concern and there
will not be enough time to process either departing presentation or received messages
at the typical price of native speaker contact.
According to Levelt (1989, edited in Carter and Nunan, 2001), speech consists
of four major methods: conceptualization, formulation, articulation, and self-monitoring.
These processes occur very quickly, and the first three are almost involuntary in L1
speakers. According to Bygate, the context influences speaking abilities as well. People
can interact to one another immediately when they speak. He also suggested that people
can take part in the same communicative activities with the exception of varying degrees
of equitable speaking rights. Besides that, speaking is a physiologically centered facial
expression contact, and speakers must make a decision on their message without
checking it.
2.1.4. Importance of speaking skills

Speaking is widely considered the most important of the four skills. As such, one
common complaint among students was indeed that they would have spent a long time
studying English but still cannot communicate.
People need to speak in a variety of situations in their everyday life, which
including trying to talk with somebody face to face, talking over the phone, giving
answers, ask directions, in stores, discussions, or chatting with friends, to mention a few.
17
Language teaching courses' goals are generally defined in terms of the four
english skills: listening, reading, speaking, and writing. Widdowson (1978) categorizes
language users as responsive or productive based on their activity. Reading and listening
are productive skills, while speaking and writing are receptive skills. Because
appropriate foreign language learning usually requires the acquisition of all four skills,
SLA appears to be both a difficult and thing process. Because they involve language
production, speaking and writing are referred to as productive skills.
Lindsay and Knight (2006) state that we speak for a variety of purposes,
including being sociable, needing something, wanting other people to do something,
doing something for someone, responding to someone else, conveying our feelings and
opinions about something, exchanging information, referring to an activity or action in
the past, present, or future, the opportunity of something actually occurring, and so on.
As a result, the importance of speaking skills for language students of any
language is enormous. A language is limited to a script when it lacks speech. Language
use is an activity that occurs within the boundaries of our community. Language is used
in a variety of contexts. People at work, such as researchers in a medicinal chemist or a
language laboratory, are expected to speak efficiently and consistently in order to
communicate successfully with one another. Any switch difference cause
misunderstandings and problems.
To become a well-rounded good speaker, one must be competent in all four
language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing; however, the ability to speak
expertly offers the speaker with many significant benefits. The ability to express one's
thoughts, opinions, and feelings with in form of meaningful words gives the speaker
with all of these benefits. The satisfaction that comes from sharing one's ideas with each
other is enormous. When we communicate with others, we gain an understanding of
ourselves, as Robert Frost stated: "I am a writer of books in someways, I talk to
understand, I teach to learn." Without a doubt, specificity in speech represents
understanding in thought.
An effective speaker can capture the viewer's attention and keep it until the end of
his message. Speaking abilities are important for professional success, but they are not
restricted to one's career goal. Speaking abilities can also benefit one's private life.
18
2.2. Factors affecting Speaking skills.
Speaking demonstrates a person's knowledge of language and community. It is
affected by a combination of factors that can either encourage or restrict a person's
ability to articulate himself or herself. The influencing factors in this study are listening
ability, topical understanding, use of mother language, classroom atmosphere, verbal
factors, affective factors, and teacher roles.
• Listening ability
Listening is necessary for the development of speaking skills. Basically,
speaking and listening are intimately connected. According to Doff (1998), learners
cannot improve their speaking however if they improve their listening skills. To have a
successful dialogue, learners must understand what is said to them. Shumin (1997)
discovered that when students speak, the other students respond by attending through
the listening process. That is to say, speakers must act for both listeners and speakers.
• Use of mother tongue
When all of the students discuss that very same mother tongue, those who
strongly favor it across the target culture. This causes code switching. Insufficient
vocabulary and poor sentence construction skills could be the culprits.
• Classroom Environment
The classroom environment has an impact on a student's willingness to
participate in speaking activities. The environment of the class, the amount of the class,
the configuration of seats, and a wide range of certain other class-related factors always
have an effect on student motivation. Teachers pay as much feedback to students, and
students are becoming more engaged in speaking activities. Beside that , a different
ability class would be another aspect that impedes language development. The quick
and strong students typically dominate the weak learners in these classes.
• Linguistic factors
Pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary are examples of linguistic factors.
According to (Latha, 2012), linguistic competence can assist learners in correctly
applying and recognizing the arrangement of the English language, which will lead to
proﬁciency. It has also been noticed that learners struggle to transmit grammar correctly
to their speaking. Pronunciation is also important when speaking. Misunderstandings
19
can result from mispronouncing a single word or from incorrect use of pressures and
intonations. Speaking requires access to a broad range of vocabulary. ESL students are
frequently required to look for a correct word that fits the context/content.
• Affective factors
Anxious, shyness, consciousness, motivation, fear of making mistakes, lack of
enthusiasm, and other factors are all associated with speaking. They are afraid of the
focus that their speaking will draw. They are also concerned about being chastised or
looking weak in front of the class. As a result, they whether make numerous errors
despite having a thorough understanding of the subject or remain completely silent. ESL
students should be encouraged to speak confidently in order to improve their speaking
skills because "motivation is probably the biggest factor that teachers can reach in
attempt to optimise learning" (Olson, 1997 ).
• Role of teachers
The importance of the teacher in making students willing or unwilling to speak
cannot be overstated. If a teacher pays due coverage to all students in the class,
encourages everyone to participate in classroom activities and discussions, and allow
learners enough time to play a role, he or she can significantly increase students'
willingness to speak. Teachers should establish a strong professional relationship with
their students. It is the responsibility of teachers to remind students that making a
mistake is part of the learning process. Teachers must switch their worries into issues
and challenges into successes in the classroom by incorporating a range of interesting
and ‘ motivation. Learning and teaching can be more useful if many aspects are
incorporated into their techniques.
2.3. Difficulties in learning English speaking skills.

One of the most difficult skills for language better learning outcomes is speaking.
Despite it has conventionally been pushed to the back of the classroom while we, as
teachers, expended all of our time trying to teach students how to write, read, or
sometimes to listen in such an L2 since grammar has such a long composed tradition.
(2006) (Bueno, Madrid, and McLaren).
20
The most challenging aspect of spoken English is that it is often achieved through
contact with at least another speaker, that's why most of us were surprised and
disappointed if we used our foreign or second language for about the first time in real
communication: we were not ready for active communication and were unable to meet
all of its related to the concentration.
Furthermore, Rababa (2015) stated that there are various factors that contribute
to difficulties in speaking English between many Language learning. Most of these
factors linked towards the learners themselves, while others are linked to the
instructional methods, and atmosphere. Many learners, for instance, lack basic
vocabulary to convey their meaning and, as a result, are unable to maintain the
interaction. Lack of strategic and interaction competence may also contribute to the
inability to maintain the interaction.
Some students are also unmotivated to speak English. They do not see a
compelling reason to learn as well as speak English. "Motivation is a critical factor that
causes whether a learner begins an assignment in anyway, what further energy he
decided to devote to it, as well as how long he maintains." The innovation of
communicative skills must only occur if learners are motivated and given the chance to
express his\her identity and interact with those around them.
Some teachers use L1 to manage their classes. Nonetheless, this could be another
factor contributing towards the issue of speaking difficulties. This is due to the fact that
using L1 means foregoing important opportunities for the well foreign users.
Dil (2009) researched Turkish Efl students' communication problems in English
language classrooms and found that fear and lack of willingness to speak English are
affected by a fear of being treated differently when making mistakes, especially in front
of their friends. This research also discovered that people who experienced their English
to be "poor" are more nervous and unwilling to convey in English classes than students
who recognize there own English to be "very good, good, and O.K."
21
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH FINDINGS
The survey questionnaire was created throughout the collect information for the
study's objectives. The questionnaire was distributed to 60 NTU students. They are
freshman that chosen at random from first-year English majors. I distributed the survey
to those students in order to explore the difficulties encountered in the first-year
students' learning of English speaking skills at NTU, since there are many issues in
learning English as during transition from high school to university. As a result, the
first-year English students' learning speaking skills receive the most attention. With 3
interview questions and 14 questions survey for first-year English major students at Nha
Trang University are the main data gathering methods in this chapter. The questions
will assist us in understanding the students' difficulties and restrictions, particularly
those of first-year English major students, and this will allow us to offer teaching
methods and approaches to solve them and improve teaching and learning speaking
ability.
3.1. Questionnaire findings.
The students received 60 copies of the questionnaire. In this section of the research, the
data were collected throughout the tables and charts below, which illustrate the answers
to the survey questionnaires.
3.1.1. Students’ real situations of learning English speaking skills

Question: How long have you been learning English?
Duration of English
Number of students Percentage
learning
Less than 7 years 3 5%
7 years 42 70%
More than 7 years 15 25%
Table 3. 1: The students’ English learning time
22
The majority of students with in personal information section are from rural areas.
It means that all of them began learning English in high school (7 years) and did not
have enough opportunity to practice English skills in high school. This group of students
accounts for 70% of the total. The mountain area has the highest percentage of students
(5%) learning English in less than 7 years. Students (25 percent) from cities or towns
typically learn English while they are young since they have more advantages than
others. Then as result, their speaking abilities have improved. Students from rural and
mountainous areas must learn very hard to keep up with students from big cities.
Even if they have only had a short time learning English, they can still control
speaking skills. On the other hand, due to having had the opportunity to approach
English since kindergarten, their English speaking is only average. As a result, we have
to look into a lot of aspects in assessing and discover the difficulties in English speaking
skills of first-year English major students.
3.1.2. Students’s attitudes toward speaking skills.
Question: In your opinion, English speaking skill is…
Very difficult
5%
13% 18%
Difficult
Quite difficult
64%
Not difficult
Chart 3. 1: The students' assessment of learning the speaking skills
The chart clearly shows that speaking skill is a difficult skill to learn. Sixty-four
percent of students believe that speaking is difficult. Speaking English is difficult
skills for most of students. Furthermore, 18% of students agree that learning speaking
skills is difficult for them. Only 13% of the participants find it extremely difficult. A
small percentage of students think that they have no trouble learning English speaking
23
skills. In fact, as evidenced by analysis, the top students are those who confirm that
learning speaking skills is simple. In short, the survey validates the statement about the
difficulty of speaking and learning English.
Almost all English students believe that speaking is the "most difficult" skill to
master. They recognized that listening and reading were stages to 'gather' knowledge,
and speaking and writing were stages to 'create' the knowledge gained from listening
and reading. Furthermore, students spend a lot of money in the English center to study
only speaking skills, but the results do not accomplish their goals. This increases their
anxiety and frustration.
A small number of learners who consider English is difficult or easy find an
appropriate method for themselves. Because everybody has a unique personality,
choosing an appropriate method is really the good way to learn speaking skills.
Question: Do you like English speaking lessons in the class?
21% 16%
20% I like very much

I like
43% I don’t mind
I don’t like
Chart 3. 2: Students’ interest in learning English speaking.

According to the graph above, 36 percent of students (16 percent like very much;
20 percent like) have a really positive attitude toward learning English speaking. This
finding is not surprising, so it demonstrates that they are well knowledgeable of how
important and interesting English is to them. Moreover, the percentage of students who
24
dislike learning English remains high, accounting for 21 percent of all students, as well
as nearly one-fourth of all students who do not focus on to learning English, while 43
percent of students enjoy speaking English generally. Then how to make the learning
process more exciting in strategies to grab these participants is a worry.
One reason for student quietness is that the classroom activities are tedious.
When students collaborate or pairs, those who finish having a chat in their native
language. Teachers must ensure that students already have most of the necessary tools
and language to finish the assignment. If the language becomes too top achieving, they
may return to their L1, so if the assignment is easy they may get bored to their L1.
Furthermore, keep in mind that some students, particularly beginners, will
frequently use their L1 as emotional needs first, transferring everything word by word
to ensure they understand the assignment before trying to talk. Generally be cooperative
with these students, as their relying on their L1 could most probably fade away as their
positivity in English develops.
Question: What do you think about the importance of English speaking skills?
0%
8%
26%
Very important
Important
Quite important
66%
Not important
Chart 3. 2: Students attitude toward learning English speaking
25
According to the chart, we saw that 66 percent of students believe that speaking
is an important skill. 26 percent of them thought it was very important. Only 8% of
participants thought speaking was very important, and no one underestimated its
significance. The findings demonstrated that first-year English majors were all able to
understand the importance of speaking skills. The main reason a student goes to
university in Vietnam is to get a better job. Students at the English faculty, in particular,
no one has any chance of finding a good job if they are unable to speak English well.
Because most jobs require an interview in English, speaking skills are important for the
sustainable job.
A further reason is that knowing a foreign language makes every trip much more
exciting. We can consider somebody who speaks English anywhere around the world.
There are more than 500 million native English speakers in countries where English is
the main language, such as the United Kingdom, Australia, the United States of America,
Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, and Caribbean countries.Therefore, all students realize
English as an international language.
3.1.3. Difficulty in learning English speaking skills .
Question: How often do you have problems with your speaking skills?
100%
90%
80%
Axis Title
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Have problem in
Speak English learning English
speaking
Rarely 12 2
Sometimes 24 7
Often 19 28
Always 5 23
Chart 3. 3: The frequency of students speaking and having problems in learning
English speaking skills.
26
The facts in chart 4 show the number of students speaking and facing difficulties
learning speaking skills. It could be deduced that 8%, 32%, 40%, and 20% of students
always, commonly, occasionally, and rarely speak English in class. Interestingly, the
number of students who speak English regularly is not higher than the number of
students who speak English infrequently. And according to data obtained, 47 percent of
students frequently and 39 percent still have difficulty speaking. Furthermore, 12
percent of the time and only 3 percent of the time do this. It can be concluded that the
further attendees experience English speaking, so less problems they have with it.
Question: What are the errors that occur while you speaking?
Sales
Grammatical problems
2%
18% 17% Mother-tongue use
Low vocabulary
23%
Lack of competence of
40% constructing sentence
Others
Chart 3. 4: Main difficulties that students face while learning speaking skills.
Chart 5 depicts a huge fraction of the people taking part who already have
linguistic difficulties. When speaking English, 17 percent, 18 percent, and 23 percent
of NTU students have troubles with grammar, mother tongue, and sentence construction.
The most impressive aspect here seems to be that up to 40percent of the total of survey
participants frequently make mistakes due to a lack of vocabulary. Only 2 percent
students make other errors. Despite the fact that most of the students polled are English
majors, they all struggle with language's issues and try to improve their English
speaking skills
27
Question: While practicing speaking English, you:
60
52
50 48
40
33
30 28
23
20
10
0
Feel shy Are worried Are fearful of Cannot think of Have no
about making criticism or anything to say motivation to
mistakes losing face express
themselves
Chart 3. 5: Students' psychological speaking problems
When questioned about the difficulties they faced in speaking classes, the
majority of respondents (45 students) accepted when they spoke almost nothing at all.
48 students seemed to be concerned with making mistakes in English. 28 of them said
they really can not find the words. 23 students stated that they lacked motivation to
engage in speaking class. When participating in speaking in public activities, 33
students were embarrassed by the focus their speaking received. 52 respondents agree
that they were afraid of being judged or looking weak. And those are the main
difficulties that my survey revealed to me.
28
3.1.4. Activities for improving English speaking skills .
Question: How often do you Use to study English speaking skills?
100% 0 0
6
90% 11 14
16
80%
70% 38 18 26
60% 22
23
50%
40% 16
30% 17
11
20% 21 24
10% 8 15 11
0% 3
Use Internet Use television Join English Speak with a Practise by
speaking club partner yourself
Always Often Sometimes Rarely
Chart 3. 7: Activities for improving English speaking skills
Students theses days use the Internet to study English speaking because of its
convenience. 35% of students are using the Internet to improve their English speaking
skills . 65 percent of students use the Internet to learn English frequently or occasionally.
Because of the growth of internet, watching tv to study was becoming obsolete.
Over than half the students (63%) in the study learned how to speak by watching tv.
Only 5%, 13%, and 18% of students watch tv constantly, frequently, or occasionally,
respectively.
The best way to implement English is to join an English speaking club. However,
18 percent of students infrequently take part in the English speaking club. A sizable
proportion of the respondents (30%) occasionally joins such a club. 52 percent of
respondents attend the English club on a regular and consistent basis.
Speaking with a partner is an effective way to learn English speaking skills,
according to the English speaking club. Nonetheless, finding an appropriate mate is
difficult. As a result, approximately half (43%) of students occasionally keep practicing
English speaking with a partner, while 10% of students infrequently speak English with
29
a classmate. 47 percent of participants say they always or frequently speak English with
a classmate.
The most self-motivated method is to practice by yourself. This method is used
by 40% of the students in the classroom. 37 percent of them frequently practising by
themself, and 23 percent occasionally study English speaking skills by themself.
3.2. Interview findings.
Question: What do you think about the importance of English speaking skills?
All of the students taking part in the questionnaire understand the value of good
communication skills. Speaking was deemed the most challenging of the four skills.
Despite having studied English for more than seven years, they have little chance to
practice appropriately. They clearly had a lot of difficulties at university that they did
not have in high school or secondary school. Factors may explain they give me for
finding it important:
• It is easier to get a job if you speak English well.

• Use the internet to your advantage.
• It is easier to find a job if you speak English well.
• Communicate with such a foreign friend, colleague, or partner......
Question: What do you think of the difficulty of English listening skills?

Three of the students interviewed believed that speaking English was challenging for
them. The following are the main issues they encountered:
 Students' wondering in their native language while speaking English;

 Over-crowded classes;
 Students’ lack of collocational knowledge;
 Students’ being afraid of making mistakes;
 Students’ mispronunciation;
 Shyness and low self-confidence;
30
Question: What are the causes of speaking difficulty that students face while they
speak?
The researcher noted the interview and discovered that there are several aspects that
relate to communication problems, the students are unable to speak fluently in English.
The following elements affect to difficulty speaking:
 Many students lack the required vocabulary to convey their meaning, and as a
result, they are unable to continue the interaction. Lack of strategic and
communication competence may also contribute to the inability to maintain the
communication.
 Students are worried about making mistakes, fearful of criticism, or simply shy.
 Learners who express the same mother tongue are more likely to do that because
it is convenient and because they feel less likely to be subjected when speaking
their mother tongue.
 Many students lack the basic vocabulary to convey their meaning, and as a result,
they are unable to continue the communication. Lack of strategic and information
exchange could also contribute to the inability to maintain the communication.
 Some learners also lack the motivation to speak English.
 Another issue is the lack of a target language environment, that further, of course,
leads to lack of participation in real life .
 Another cause of speaking difficulties is not allowing learners to engage in
conversation.
3.3. Summary
In summary, we understand the difficulties that first-year English major students

face during the speaking process as a result of the survey questionnaire and data analysis.
They should overcome numerous challenges in order to practice their English speaking
skills. Appropriate encouragement and assistance will ensure their achievements in
perfecting English speaking skills.
31
CHAPTER IV: RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
There are significant differences between the time in our lives when we learned
the language and the time when we attempted to establish changes in order to speak
second language. In the final analysis, we may recall memorable moments of what our
parents taught us; from the latter, it will become a horrible experience that appears to
produce incomplete results. We will need a lot of effort and time to deal with these
issues.
4.1. For English faculty and teachers at Nha Trang University

Many people consider speaking to become the most important skill users can
learn, and they way of measuring their development in improving of their spoken
communications skills. As a result, teaching speaking is essential but difficult.
To begin, the coursework objectives in the English faculty language must focus
communication rather than research, and the amount of English contact time should be
increased. Almost all schools in Vietnam are primarily concerned with assessing
students' lexico - grammatical knowledge. As a result, students focus solely on their
writing and reading abilities in order to pass their exams.
Secondly, students in the English faculty at Nha Trang University must be
motivated for using English more than possible in their information exchange at home
and at school. At university, students can participate in an English conversation club
at school to improve their speaking skills, and they can communicate and discuss about
anything in English during that time, and while at home, they can listen to English
programs and films on Youtube or Internet as many as possible.
Third, any conversation between the English teacher and your classmates in to
the english classroom should be conducted in English. To motivate his/her students to
speak English pronunciation in front of your classmates, the language teacher should
offer a variety of ways such as verbal issue, position, appearance, intonation, and body
language.
To teach English effective advanced technology such as videos, smartphones,

and computer systems are required. New and more effective teaching approaches are
being formed as a result of the modernization of the world. Different learning methods,
such as social networks, blogs, and talk shows, are now being used by professors and
teachers. Online meeting technologies are now used in many public universities.
32
Teachers are also employing some result to enable students to learn of all types. Many
students have special needs, so it is no longer difficult to teach them. Content adapters,
voice control, audio system, and translators have created teaching and learning more
enjoyable.
It is also a challenge for the teacher because the number of students was
excessive. The teacher found it very difficult to manage the teaching of English
speaking. To resolve issues. The percentage of participants in the speaking class should
be reduced by the English faculty (not to exceed 30 students).
There are significant differences between the time in our lives when we try to
speak our first language and the time when we began to make serious effort to
communicate our second or foreign language. In the former scenario, we may recall
memorable moments of what our parents taught us; from the latter, it becomes a
miserable experience that appears to produce imperfect results. There are significant
differences between the time in life when we learned the language our first language
and the time when we began to make serious effort to speak our second or foreign
language.
The teacher should model the tasks to guarantee that time is allotted to each
subskill. This is the necessary time to prepare to assist students in developing their
allowed to speak skills and knowledge of both content and form. Moreover, the
activities must be appropriate for students of varying levels of skill. The reliability of
students in a class is very seldom comparable; they may reach different results despite
being learned in the same environments.
Learners also require chances for customization. This signifies that it is also very
beneficial for students to have opportunities to practice with their own way, as this will
help students remember the evaluate the response for a longer period of time and
recognize them more easily. As a result, students can express themselves and achieve
success. They will see how well they learn and how much they have improved as a
result of teacher staring.
After offering learners time to practice, teachers should provide information to
help them assess their progress. Throughout this case, students must distinguish
between errors and mistakes. Some mistakes that learners make unknowingly can be
forgotten; moreover, the common error system should be fixed and acknowledged so
students can avoid these mistakes in the future. Giving feedback can be considered an
art form. The teacher must identify both the positive and negative aspects of students,
and the things that students have done poorly but can be fixed smooth manner and save
33
their face. Teachers can influence students' attitudes positively or negatively by
providing feedback.
The prepared speech is another regular activity in the verbal skills class. Speech
subjects will influence the level of the classmates and the concentrate of the class. For
instance, getting students to "tell us about an extraordinary experience you could have"
enables them to discuss something private while also encouraging description and
summary.
A third main category of speaking skill is role play, which really is especially
useful for practicing socially constructed different variants in conversational
implicature such as skills associated and complaining. Role plays could be managed to
perform from able to prepare screenplays, produced from a set of requests and body
language, or written applying trying to consolidate acquired knowledge from guidance
or conversation of the speaker and its differences leading up to the role performs
themself, based on the scale of the students.
Many English teachers believe that communicating with others is the best way
to develop one's speaking skills. This goal is achieved through interactive language
teaching and cooperative activities. Interactive language education is related to real
scenarios that necessitate communication. Based on this method in ESL classes,
students were able to share information with their partners in the speaking skill.
4.2. For first-year English-major students .

The global language now is English. As a result, it is critical to master English.
We must study English correctly in order to make use of all the time we have available
to us. Many students have difficulty to figure out how to improve their English speaking
skills. There are numerous ways to improve your English.
The students themself are the most significant element of learning to speak. It is
recommended that children be more courageous in speaking up without feeling nervous.
They should be innovative in developing their speaking abilities. Students should make
every attempt to practice English, both in and outside of class. They might make
promises to their classmates for using English much as possible throughout their
interactions. Furthermore, students require assistance from their environment, that also
includes classmates and colleagues, in order to practice their English both inside and
outside of the classroom by offering interesting and fun facilities and appropriate
educational techniques. It would be ideal if they had an English club run by teachers or
students who are fluent in English to help students improve their English. English
34
commonly performed communication within and without the classroom, students
should be able for using their English and eventually speak English fluently.
Furthermore, conversing in English is the best way to improve one's speaking
abilities. It would also be ideal if students could converse with English native speakers,
but conversing with English learning partners also collaborates well. Theses days,
students can easily find someone to talk with via the internet, or that we should wanted
to communicate with native English speakers who will provide you with interaction
practice.
Don't be scared to speak up or to be mocked. It will be difficult to reverse our
speaking skills if we never learn to take risks and open our mouths. There really is no
main cause to be embarrassed about your English. Failure can become an able to achieve
these goals if we recognize. In fact, failure may hold the best strategy.
Another tip for speaking with confidence is to organize whatever it is you're
going to say. Once participants can begin preparing a careful speaker that presents
accurate information, they will be on their way to trying to speak achievement. A well-
prepared first-year English major has the self belief to announce the subject,
communicate their views, and pique the attention of the audience.
By finding the internet, students can find a wealth of information about the
subject. Knowing enough about the topic allows respondents to learn questions about it
and motivates audience participation. Consequently, by participating in the discussion,
students in improving their speaker and ignore their feeling of shyness while speaking.
Grammar is significant not only through academic tests, but also in everyday
communication activities. Speaking becomes more effective when speakers recognize
how to use correct grammar and fluently to express and share knowledge. In my opinion,
learners can improve learning grammar allowed at home every day, and first-year
English majors just need 10 minutes to read statements in correct grammatical rules.
They can then speak with proper sentence grammatical structures without searching at
them. Continuously, students who speak with english grammar and develop the habit of
selecting the best grammatical structures for utterance rather than the not-so-good ones
with grammatical errors.
Because attempting to learn to know how to spell a second language entails
developing new pronunciation practices and resolving first-language leanings. As a
result, it must be strongly contemplated and practiced on a regular schedule by learners
in order for speakers to be able to captivate listeners with their pronunciation. To
improve their pronunciation, first-year English students need to practice learning to
speak English in their own ways, which including listening to native speakers as well
35
as imitating the sound with almost the same pressure, pronunciation, and intonation.
And after that, pronounce the word and speak in a natural manner.
Students must have a large vocabulary in order to speak obviously and
effectively, in addition to improving their pronunciation and grammar. Vocabulary is
an important aspect of language because it makes it appear in all four language skills:
listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Through keeping new words in different
contexts and revising them on such a regular basis. First-year English major students
could well keep in mind them vividly for a long period of time and will have a large
vocabulary as a result.
The final suggestion is to improve reading skills since reading is thought to be
an effective practice for achieving speaking expertise. It entails comprehension words,
understanding vocabulary, and users with reliable between those and readers' leading
up knowledge and experience to define reading comprehension is the process. Reading
increases learners' vocabulary, control of the language, and language skills by exposing
them to new vocabulary, phrases, idiomatic expressions, and writing on a regular basis.
Students can have context culture and knowledge to convey their views and suggestions
when speaking thanks to the development of reading comprehension.
Finally, there is no shortcut to learning English. The key to success is
perseverance. If you are using English as your first language, never give up on your
dreams. We will be effective if we are willing to put in the effort.
36
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION
It is undeniable that English is important in our lives. Learning to speak English

is a must for everyone. Moreover, learning English in Vietnam is fraught with
difficulties. I conducted this study throughout the goal of finding recommendations to
better the learning of speaking skills among first-year English students at Nha Trang
University.
 Summary of the research
As previously stated, the purpose of this research is to determine the difficulties

that first-year English major students face when learning speaking skills then aimed at
providing background knowledge on speaking skills, speaking instructional methods,
and speaking instructional strategies. Based on the data analysis, it is possible to
conclude that the students of the English Faculty at NTU had some difficulty in
speaking. Most students struggled with speaking due to a "poor vocabulary" and "lack
of confidence." The most common source of problems among most students was indeed
a fear of criticism. The researcher discovered two types of speaking troubles among
students in this study: language difficulties and psychological issues. Based on the
study's findings, some suggestions were suggested for both teachers and students at Nha
Trang University.
 Limitations of the study.
Mistakes are probably inevitable due to a lack of time and knowledge. Even
though the study has some good points, such as methods of data collection, including
such interviews and survey questions for students, it is clear that the study really does
have a lot of weaknesses. To begin with, due to lack of time and experience, the
researcher was unable to conduct numerous different methods including such classroom
observation, which could have made the achieved results more reliable. Second, due to
the authors of the study requirement limitations, the study concentrates only on the first
students in the Faculty of English, which accounts for a small amount of people at Nha
Trang University. As a result, the study's findings can be applied.
37
 Suggestions for further studies.
Furthermore, in order to get the result from future studies, the researcher should
encourage more participants from other universities. In addition to survey interviews
and questionnaires, observation is required to reach more convincing findings.
Furthermore, the researcher was unable to cover all aspects of the difficulties.
Furthermore, the techniques proposed in this study are drawn from a variety of
dependable but restricted causes. Despite the difficulty mentioned, I hope that this
research design will lead to a better scenario of learning English listening skills at Nha
Trang University's English Faculty.
Once again, I'd like to express my gratitude to my supervisors, Ms. Bui Van Anh,
for their unwavering assistance in my research, as well as to all of my teachers, friends,
and family members who have motivated me to complete this graduation report.
38
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16. Tanveer, M. (2007), Investigation of the factors that cause language anxiety for
esl/efl learners in learning speaking skills and the influence it casts on
communication in the target language, Dissertation, University of Glasgow.
17. Tuan, N. & Mai, T. (2015), Factors Affecting Students’ Speaking Performance at
LE ThanhHien High School, Asian Journal of Educational Research, 3(2), 8-23.
40
APPENDIX
Questionnaire
This survey questionnaire is designed for my graduation paper namely:

“Research on difficulties in learning speaking skills of first-year English majors
students at Nha Trang University and solutions for improvement”. In completing these
questions, please choose the answer by circling the letter next to your choice, ticking
off the items in a checklist or expressing your idea in the blanks. All your
personalinformation as well as your answers will be kept confident and not be used for
the other purposes.
Personal information:
1. What is your gender ?
A. Male.
B. Female.
2. How long have you been learning English?

A. Less than 7 years B. 7 years
C. More than 7 years
3. How would you rate your English speaking skills?

A. Very good C. Poor
B. Good D. Very poor
I. Your opinion about studying speaking skill:
4. In your opinion, English speaking skills is……………………………….

A. Very difficult B. Difficult
C. Quite difficult D. Not difficult
E. Others…………………………………………………………………
5. Do you like English speaking lessons at class?

A. I like very much B. I like
C. I don’t mind D. I don’t like.
41
6. What do you think about the importance of English speaking skills?
A. Very important B. Important
C. Quite important D. Not important
E. Others…………………………………………………………………
II. Difficulties in learning English speaking skills
7. How often do you .........when learning English speaking skills ?

Speak English
Face English speaking problems
8. How often do you… when leaning English speaking skills?

Face problems related to
vocabulary
Face problems related to grammar
Face problems related to
pronunciation
9. While practising speaking English, you:

A. Feel shy
B. Are worried about making mistakes
C. Are fearful of criticism or losing face
D. Cannot think of anything to say
E. Have no motivation to express themselves
F. Other: ……………………………………………………………..
10. What are the errors that occur while you speaking?
A. Gramatical problems.
B. Mother-tongue use
C. Low vocabulary
D. Lack of competence of constructing sentence
42
E. Other
11. What factors influence your ability to speak English?

A. Lack of motivation
B. Fear of making mistake
C .Lack of confidence
D. Shy to speak in public
E. Other
III. Activities for improving English speaking skills
12. How often do you Use to study English speaking skills?

Use internet (Youtube,…)
Use television
Join English speaking club
Speak with a partner
Practise by yourself
13. What do you do to improve your speaking skills?

A. Listen to the English songs
B. Read English short stories or English newpapers
C. Listen to the programs on the radio and English tapes
D. Practice speaking with foreigners
E. Other
14. What are your suggests for improve learning speaking skills?
A. Learning fixed phrases
B. Use simple English word and understandable sentences
C. Communicating and discussing different topics with native English speaker
D. Working with synonymy
E. Other
Thank you for your cooperation!
43
Teaching Speaking Skills in English Language using Classroom Activities in
Secondary School Level in Eldoret Municipality, Kenya
Benter Oseno Gudu

Moi University, PO box 3900 -30100, Eldoret, Kenya
Abstract
There is a general public concern in Kenya that majority of Form Four school
leavers lack communicative and linguistic competence and thus cannot sustain
conversation in English language without occasionally code switching to Sheng or
Kiswahili. This study sought to find out the classroom activities used by teachers to
promote learners’ active participation in speaking skills lessons in eight secondary
schools in Eldoret Municipality, Kenya. The study was based on Krashen’s (1985),
Monitor Model specifically the input and the affective filter hypotheses which
emphasize that learners acquire target language when they are motivated and
involved actively in the learning process. The study adopted mixed methods design
and simple random sampling to select schools, students and English language
teachers from National, Provincial and District schools. In certain cases, purposive
sampling technique was also used. Data on classroom activities used to teach
speaking skills were collected using Questionnaires administered to teachers and
students, direct observation during speaking skills lessons in Form three
classrooms. The data collected was analyzed using descriptive statistics. The study
found out that: there was variation in use of classroom activities for example
discussion was the most used classroom activity while oral drill was the least used,
during classroom discussions, students code switched to Kiswahili or Sheng due to
low oral skills and teachers did not integrate various classroom activities in one
lesson thus denied learners chances of using authentic language in context. The
study recommends that: 1) students should be given chances to practice using
authentic English language in context, 2) teachers should integrate various
activities in a lesson to meet learners’ needs and 3) Curriculum to acknowledge
learners’ cultural backgrounds in order to enhance their learning outcomes. This
study is useful to language educators and teachers of English language.
Keywords: speaking skills, classroom activities, English, language, motivation,
teacher, learner
1. Introduction
In Kenya English is taught as a second language, it has been given a high status
than native languages by the Government due to its status as a national and
international language (Chesang, 2005). It is used in all government
communications, compulsory subject in educational system hence taught from
standard one to university and a language for instruction from standard four to
university (Ongondo, 2009; Sewe, 2009). This recognition has enhanced
penetration of English language even to domains such as inter-ethnic and social
communications where the indigenous languages were being used (King’ei, 2004;
Chesang, 2005; Kembo and Ogechi, 2009). Although, it has been used for
linguistic imperialism by the colonialists to perpetuate their own culture and interest
( Nabea, 2009; Kembo and Ogechi, 2009), it still holds a prestigious position in the
country because it is the language used across the curriculum in Kenyan
Educational system, official language used in office, media houses, courts,
diplomacy, used to conduct all government business and an international language
(Chesang, 2005). As such, the importance of one attaining communicative
competence in English language in Kenyan Education system cannot be
overemphasized.
However, globally, there is debate that majority of high school graduates

cannot speak English language properly (Alonzo, 2014; Sarwar, et al., 2014;
Alharbi, 2015). Even the bright students who get high scores in written
examinations are unable to express themselves orally in English language (Sarwar
et al, 2014). In Kenya, students lack communicative and linguistic competence and
often code switch to use Sheng, Kiswahili and English languages during
conversation or in group discussions in class (Abenga, 2005: Gudu, 2010). A
research done in Kenya by Mwamba (2005) found out that many students in
secondary schools were shy and preferred remaining quiet in class because they
were unable to express themselves properly in spoken English. This observation is
consistent with that of Richards (old.fltrp.com/down//080403001.pdf) who found
that learners who have no linguistic competence often speak slowly, take too long
to compose utterances, do not participate actively in conversation, their spoken
English language do not sound natural, have poor grammar and pronunciation.
Similar observation was made by Alharbi (2015) in Saudi Arabia where

learners have low oral skills due to absence of authentic language learning
situations outside and inside classroom. According to the author, there are several
factors that influence learning of speaking skills for instance use of mother tongue
outside and inside classroom environment, low status of English in a country,
learners’ negative attitude towards English language, use of mother tongue by
teachers to explain difficult concept, use of teacher-centered methodology and
passiveness of learners in classroom (Ibid). These factors influence successful
speaking skills lessons. The problem of low communicative and linguistic
competence from secondary school is carried to the university where it has also
been observed that some of the first year students in Kenyan universities are not
able to sustain class discussions in English language without code switching or
making grammatical mistakes (Barasa, 2005; Mwamba, 2005; Gudu, et al., 2014).
This is a serious problem which could affect the students learning of other subjects
and long term professional career development.
8-4-4 system of education has interfered with teaching of English language

because of loaded curriculum. The curriculum does not provide enough time for
learners to practice using language in context due to large number of students in
class, students’ low proficiency and cultural related factors (Al-Hosni 2014; Alharbi,
2015). Consequently it encourages the use of traditional teaching approaches by
teachers because enable teachers to cover the syllabus in good time (Lumala,
2007; Ngagi et al, 2014). Krashen (2005) recommend that learners should be
motivated so that they do not feel threatened. Al-Hosni (2014) observe that anxiety
and unwillingness to learn by learners in speaking skills lesson are the two main
obstacles for learning English. These are caused when learners fear being
negatively evaluated in error correction in front of their friends. In addition, those
learners with low proficiency and rate self as ‘poor’ become more anxious and are
not willing to communicate (Ibid).
The problem of poor spoken English language among Form four graduates
has led to a general feeling that there is a need to re-examine the teaching of
English language in Secondary Schools in Kenya (Mwamba, 2005). According to
many researchers, the reasons for poor speaking skills could emanate from lack of
emphasis on speaking skills in the curriculum since it is not examined in national
examinations, teachers’ own limited English proficiency, class conditions that do
not favor oral activities and limited opportunities outside class for practicing using
English language (Mwamba, 2005; K. I. E, 2002; Kioko and Muthwii, 2001; Alharbi,
2015; Bashir et al., 2011; Soureshjani and Riahipour, 2012; Alharbi, 2015).
Critics also blame the poor grasp of speaking skills of secondary school
leavers to the introduction of 8:4:4 curricula by the Kenya Government in 1986
which according to them distorted the teaching of English speaking skills in
secondary schools (Lumala, 2007; Njagi et al., 2014). In this system of education, a
student must undertake 8 years of learning in primary school, 4 years in secondary
school and 4 years at university. At the end of primary and secondary levels, there
is a summative national evaluation done by Kenya National Examinations Council
(KNEC). Introduction this system has interfered with teaching of English language
and encouraged traditional teaching methods due to overloaded English language
curriculum consequently learners are not given chance to practice English
language in context (Ong’ondo, 2009; Otunga, et al., 2011; Barasa, 2005;
Mwamba, 2005). The summative evaluations done by KNEC are used by the
subject panelists at the Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development (KICD) to
evaluate the teaching, curricular implementation and review processes at primary,
secondary and tertiary colleges.
The problems identified above could be as a result of various reasons

advanced by scholars. First, due to lack of assessment of speaking skills, learners
do not pay attention to it thus graduates have low oral skills (Sarwar, et al., 2014).
Researchers observe that speaking is the most difficult skill for most learners who
learn it as a second or foreign language due to their low proficiency (Alonzo 2014;
Alharbi 2015; Al-Hosni, 2014; Zhang 2009). Al-Hosni (2014) identifies factors
causing speaking difficulties as:
Students are worried about making mistakes fearful of criticism, or simply

shy. Students have no motivation to express themselves… only one
participant can talk at a time because of large classes and the tendency of
some learners to dominate while others speak very little or not at all…
learners who share the same mother tongue tend to use it because it is
easier and because they feel less exposed if they speak their mother
tongue (Hosni, 2014: 123).
Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development (KICD), formerly KIE (2002: 3),

charged with the development of English syllabus and all syllabi taught in primary
and secondary schools in Kenya, the current teaching of English Speaking Skills in
secondary schools in Kenya is based on the Revised Syllabus released by KIE in
2002. The main aim of the Revised Syllabus was to improve communicative
competence of secondary school learners in Kenya. The specific objectives were to
enhance learners: (i) attentive listening for comprehension, correct inference,
interpretation and appropriate response from spoken discourse, (ii) fluency and
confidence in speaking in a variety of contexts, (iii) effective use of non-verbal cues
while speaking, (iv) capacity to read, analyze and appreciate literary works, (v)
capacity to use a variety of sentence structures and vocabularies correctly (vi) think
creatively and critically and (vii) communicate appropriately in functional and
creative writing. With these clear objectives and correct implementation of the
syllabus KICD and most English language scholars believe that graduates of
secondary school education should have no problem expressing themselves in
English.
Teachers who implement the recommended English language syllabus

should ensure that learners are equipped with comprehensive language usage and
can express themselves in all situations. However, based on persistent lack of
communicative competence by secondary school leavers, English language
scholars observe that there is still a problem with teaching of speaking skills in
secondary schools in Kenya (Mwamba, 2005). In addition, researchers believe that
speaking is an undervalued skill (Alonso, 2014; Al-Hosni, 2014; Alharbri 2015;
Mwamba, 2005). Yet little research has been conducted into the teaching of
speaking skill and possible remedy for generally low English language proficient
learners in Kenyan context (Abenga 2005; Barasa 2005; Gudu, 2010).
Talley and Hui-ling (2014) observe that curriculum for teaching speaking
skill should endeavour to expose learners to authentic, practical settings for
speaking English and encourage active learner involvement in the lesson. Talley
and Hui-Ling (2014) argue that English speaking curriculum should take
cognizance of international and local cultures which should coexist mutually. In
addition, Ngagi et al (2014) recommend that a curriculum should be designed in a
manner that it recognizes the classroom activities of learners in order to enhance
learning outcomes. Tuan and Mai (2015) pinpoint the factors that affect students’
speaking performance such as motivation, confidence, anxiety, time, planning,
amount of support, standard performance, listening ability and feedback during
speaking activities. For students to have a successful conversation, they must
have good listening skills in order to understand what is said to them. The
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approaches require that learners
actively participate by sharing ideas, speaking freely, thus every speaker plays the
role of listener and speaker (Tuan and Mai, 2015).
According to English language scholars, use of learner-centered classroom

activities including group discussions, speeches, storytelling, drama, debates,
poem recitation, songs, and tongue-twisters could alleviate the problem of low oral
skills (Johnson, 2006, Villegas and Lukas, 2002, Gathumbi and Masembe, 2005;
Okech, 2005). These classroom activities improve student’s active participation,
motivate and expose students to authentic use of English language in context.
Many researchers have also proven that students are much more ready to interact
with each other with more complex responses than with their teacher (Achmad and
Yusuf 2014: 151) ‘students feel comfortable working, interacting and making
mistakes with their partners rather than with their teachers and corrective feedback
from peers are found to be less daunting than the correction by teachers. This
study therefore sought to establish classroom activities employed and how they are
used by teachers in form three English lessons to enhance learners’ active
participation in secondary schools.
2. Method
The study was carried out in Eldoret Municipality which has three districts, namely
Eldoret East, Wareng, and Uasin Gishu West, Uasin Gishu County, Kenya. The
municipality was selected for this study because it experiences problem of low
communicative competence of Form four graduates like other parts of Kenya. The
study employed descriptive survey research design (Orodho and Kombo, 2002).
Simple random sampling procedure was followed as described by Mugenda

(2008). A table of random numbers was employed to sample the Provincial and
District secondary schools except national school category where there was only
one in the entire Municipality thus purposively sampled. A total of eight out of
twenty three secondary schools, constituting about 30 % of sampled population of
secondary schools in the Municipality were selected. The same technique was
again used to select 30% of form three students per school. Purposive sampling
was used to select two form three teachers of English from each school. In this
study two data collection instruments were used namely: questionnaire and
observation schedule. Tape recording was used alongside observation to capture
verbatim communication (Mutai, 2000). The data was analyzed using SPSS
computer package.
3. Results
Based on questionnaires from teachers and students and classroom observations,

the activities used by teachers of English language in their lessons included
dramatization, discussion, debating, impromptu speeches, storytelling, role play,
dialogue, oral narratives, , poems recitation, songs and tongue twisters. What
differed was the mode of delivery and preferences as shown by frequency of use of
the class activities.
3.1 Teachers’ Responses

Fourteen teachers (100%) indicated that they use different classroom activities
depending on the situation. The most preferred classroom activity among the
teachers was discussion used by 92.9% of teachers, dramatization (85.7%), songs
(78.6%), impromptu speeches and tongue twisters each (71.4%). Moderately
preferred activities included short stories and role play (64.3%), debating and poem
recitation each (57.1%). The less preferred activity was oral drills (42.9%).
The study also established that teachers used many recommended

integrated classroom activities including dramatization, discussion, debating,
dialogues, role play, impromptu speeches, tongue twisters, oral drills and poem
recitation, but to various degrees (Table 1). This study found out that teachers
preferred some combinations compared to others. The most preferred combination
by teachers consisted of dramatization, discussion, debating and dialogues which
50% of teachers used in classroom activities, followed by dramatization, discussion
and role-play (14.3%). The rest of the activity combinations were less preferred but
nonetheless used by at least one teacher. However, short stories, oral narratives,
language games and songs combination were not used at all by any teacher.
Table 1: Integrated Activities in Speaking Skills Lesson
3.2 Students’ Responses
According to the student responses, the most widely used classroom activities
included discussion which was confirmed by 88.9% of the students, story-telling
(82.7%) and poem recitation (82.9%). Other activities that are moderately used
include dramatization confirmed by 69.4% of students, debating (67.1%), songs
(56.7%), tongue twisters (58.3%) and role play (53.6%). According to the
respondents, impromptu speeches (37.3%) and oral drills (35.3%) are rarely used.
3.3 Observed Lessons
One major observation was that classroom activities were carried by teachers in
varying degrees. Discussion was more popular than oral drills in all school
categories. In general, teachers in the National school were able to integrate several
classroom activities within a lesson for instance dialogues, discussions, impromptu
speeches and role play as opposed to provincial and district schools. Provincial
school teachers used question and answer sessions, whole class discussion and
group discussions. In the District school category, whole class discussion and
story-telling were the mostly used classroom activities and students were noisy in
their discussion groups. Although, observed lessons revealed that most teachers
across the school categories used discussion comprising of whole class discussion,
group discussion and pair discussion, in some cases learners code switched to use
Kiswahili and Sheng in their group discussions.
In general, teachers tried to integrate at least two classroom activities within

a single lesson to achieve integration of the four skills (listening, reading, speaking
and writing). It was also observed that teachers chose an activity within a
combination without using all the integrated activities. The emphasis though was
however on listening and the students only spoke when answering the questions
asked by their teachers. It was also observed that reading was only done by the
teacher as students listened. Students were not properly given chances to practice
their speaking and reading skills.
Where story-telling was used as classroom activity, only one to two students
got the opportunity to tell a story before the end of a lesson and only one activity
was undertaken throughout the lesson. In some observed lessons, oral narratives
were also used to teach students but teachers tended to employ whole class
discussion with less opportunity for students to tell their own oral narratives to
enhance their speaking skills and sub-skills such as non-verbal cues, stress,
intonation and fluency.
In all the lessons observed, there was no language game and songs used,
even though in the questionnaire students and teachers indicated that these were
used to some extent. The songs only came out in oral narratives. In some schools
teachers provided enough time for practice for example in situations where
teachers taught intonation as an initiated activity of pair practice using model
sentences. During such lessons it was noted that some students could not even
pronounce the sounds in words written on the board let alone reading them.
Teachers in all school categories were able to integrate the four main language
skills (listening, reading, speaking and writing) in a single lesson which enabled the
skills to complement each other.
4. Discussion
In the light of the above given research findings, the discussion is based on;
variation on use of classroom activities, motivation, teacher’s role and learner’s
role. I will start by discussing the variation on use of classroom activities.
4.1 Variation on use of Classroom Activities
The observation between students and teachers on variation of use of the

classroom activities was not similar. However, it showed a general agreement that
some activities such as discussion were used more than oral drills. Although in the
questionnaires teachers indicated that they use the learner-centered classroom
activities, observed lessons by the researcher revealed that a majority of them
adopted lecture method, explanation, question and answer which are mainly
teacher-centered teaching methods. It was also observed during class
observations that students’ participation was low as most learners were passive.
A study done in Oman by Al-Hosin (2014) also indicated that learners were
passive in class and when given chance to discuss they used Arabic in their study
groups due to inadequate vocabulary, weak sentence building skills, grammar
structures, fear of making mistakes in front of their classmates thus kept quiet.
Kenya just like Saudi Arabia the curriculum is wide. This has led to teachers using
teacher centered methodology like repetition drills, memorization and lecture
method (Mwamba, 2005).
Boring and stressful classroom environments do not encourage students to

be creative or analytical, and tasks that only require students to listen and
imitate demotivate them. Students have no responsibilities in the classroom
and are negative learners. Even if they have the opportunity to participate,
they will not take it, because they are afraid to make mistakes. (Alharbi
2015: 108).
Although classroom activities for instance discussion, role play, speeches,
dramatization encourage learners to practice using language in context, learners
cultural factors make them passive thus there is need for more effort by both
teachers and students to engage in learner centered strategies (Achmad and Yusuf
2014). In addition, the learner centered classroom activities also encourage shy
learners to speak by communicating face to face, work independently, minimal
involvement of the teacher hence improve their speaking skills through practice
(Alharbi, 2015: Achmad and Yusuf, 2014).
Pair work, group work, role playing and interviews … encourage shy
students to participate and discuss their opinions with their classmates
instead of only with teachers. Employing various techniques in the
classroom also challenges students and caters for diversity in students’
learning styles (Alharbi 2015: 109).
In addition, cultural factors have been found to hamper effective

implementation of communicative language teaching methodologies (CLT). The
classroom activities which were of interest in this study are based on CLT
principles. A study done in Thailand by Methitham (2014)) found that teachers were
unable to implement CLT methodologies due to cultural factors that make learners
passive. Talley and Hui-Ling (2014) observe that CLT despite its benefits has met
cultural barriers which have frustrated its implementation for instance in China CLT
did not work due to learners’ cultural background which make them “reticent and
Quiete” ( Talley and Hui-ling 2014). This could have been one of the factors that
made teachers not to integrate several activities within a lesson. Teachers should
therefore take cognizance of learners’ cultural backgrounds in order to be able to
identify the most effective EFL speaking strategies when learners are reluctant to
speak and implement them according to learners’ needs (Talley and Hui-ling,
2014).
Furthermore, problem on frequency of use of classroom activities was that

most teachers tended to use less of some of the classroom activities especially
oral drills and language games. Language scholars observe that oral drills help
students improve by practicing and consequently perfect their skills in speech
(Broughtton et al, 1980; Kochhar, 1992; Ayot, 1984; Oketch, 2005). In this study,
this was done at low level. The designers of the curriculum assumed that all these
interactive classroom activities would be used in equal proportion to promote
learner participation and thus enhance acquisition of oral and communicative
competence.
Alonso (2014) observe that fluency controlled activities for instance

storytelling, discussions, debates, simulations and role play provide learners with
room to practice using language for instance the use of vocabulary and formulaic
expressions are communicative and interactive. These activities focus more on
fluency and the teacher is a facilitator. Students also benefit from these classroom
activities because in real life performance is dynamic and improves with practice in
context. (Gathumbi and Masembe 2005; Alonso 2014). A study done by Alonso
(2014) in Spain found that Institutions and State Language School teachers used
role play, problem solving, discussions and debates and simulations more than
Secondary Education (SE) teachers. These activities were found to give learners
enough time to practice using language in context thus improvement of
communicative competence.
Similarly a recent study done by Achmad and Yusuf (2014) in Indonesia

found that pair work was effectively being used by teachers in teaching English.
The students were actively speaking and the class was noisy. Later they reported
what they had discussed in whole class discussion. These helped in improving their
proficiency. However, the use of pair work also had limitations because stronger
students intimidated the weaker students thus they did not acquire language. The
impact of preferential use of these classroom activities remain unclear and could
be the subject of another study.
Another problem was that although discussion was a major group activity
across schools, in some groups in some school categories, students code switched
to Kiswahili and/or Sheng in their discussion groups. However teachers did not
discourage this bad practice. Research has found that learners use mother- tongue
in class when the topic of the lesson is difficult, for cultural identity and lack of
encouragement to use target language by their teachers during English lessons
(Tuan and man 2015). Similarly research done in Vietnam by Tuang and Mai
(2015) revealed that learners speak in mother-tongue in English lessons. This
finding is similar to a study done in Saudi by Alharbi (2015) where teachers use
mother tongue (Arabic) in the classroom to clarify difficult concepts, grammatical
points and explaining new vocabulary which decrease student motivation,
encourage students to think in mother-tongue. Besides, a study done by Alhosni
(2014) also revealed that some teachers use Mother-tongue for classroom
management.
In addition, research done in Saudi Arabia found that English language is

not important in the nation, even in educational arena because students use
mother-tongue (Arabic) to get what they want including lucrative white collar jobs
(Alharbi, 2015). Although in Kenya English enjoys high status in the society as I
had said in the introduction, students just like those in Saudi Arabia have low
proficiency which could be alluded to several factors for instance the language
policy that lower primary be taught using language of catchment area (mother
tongue) does not encourage learners to achieve proficiency due to lack of
authentic situations inside and outside English language classroom (Ayot 1984;
Alharbi 2015). For this problem to be solved, teachers and students should be
exposed to courses that increase language awareness for instance grammar,
phonetics and phonology and they be provided with authentic situations to
practice language in context (Borg, 2006; Alharbi 2015). For group discussion to
achieve its objective, it must be carried out in the target language. Achmad and
Yusuf (2014:153) observe that learners must be told the benefit of speaking in
target language in the classroom because it helps ‘mimic the real life’ situations.
Al-Hosni (2014) argue that the use of mother tongue in English language
lessons by teachers and students devalue the use of English for communication,
sacrifice valuable opportunities for English language use and learners see it as
language used for oral drills and dialogues which are not important. The teaching
methodologies being used by teachers are inadequate as they do not put emphasis
on speaking skill thus meager development in English language (Ibid). This is also
emphasized by Alonso (2014) contend that:
Although the practice of speaking in the classroom is a key element in the
development of the second language, oral skills have not always been
central in second language teaching methodologies (146).
Teachers are not integrating various class activities in one lesson. Very few
teachers managed to integrate several activities in a lesson. According to Kochhar
(1992) a good lesson is evaluated basing on the varied activities the teacher used
to actively involve the learners and how productive the activities were. Al-Abn
(2008) in Al – Hosni (2014) observe that learners have difficulty in learning
speaking skills due to lack of oral activities in the text book and recommended oral
activities for instance songs, stories, rhymes and more conversational language to
encourage students to practice using language , have fun and to enjoy learning in
speaking skills lesson. Talley and Hui-ling (2014) recommend that topics should be
creative to allow the teacher to mix varied classroom activities for instance videos,
songs, role play and storytelling which help in promoting learner regular inclusion
and participation.
4.2 Motivation
Motivation is an important factor which determines the rate at which learners
undertake the activities. According to Littlewood, (1984: 53) ‘Motivation is the crucial
force which determines whether a learner embarks in a task at all, how much energy
he/she devotes to it, and how long he/she perseveres.’ This is an indication that the
communicative skills are developed when the learner is motivated and is provided
with opportunity to practice using language in context. Al-Hosni (2014) observes that
some learners lack motivation to speak English because they do not see the need to
learn or speak English. This means that teachers should endeavor to explain to their
learners the importance of learning English language in order to develop internal
motivation.
4.3 Teacher’s Role

Teachers should facilitate the learning process by providing learners with
knowledge (Alharbi, 2015). This requires that teachers use teacher centered
methodology but be tactful to be aware of the culture of the community in order to
take care of the learner cultures (Methitham, 2014). Identification of these cultural
aspects provides warm, friendlier, and good relationship between teachers and
students by reducing the cultural distance. In addition, teachers should also be fair
in error correction so that they do not overcorrect a student (Borg 2006). This
makes students’ error correction to be a natural part of learning process (Alharbi
2015). Teachers should provide learners with authentic language in context
(Alharbi, 2015; Hosni, 2014). Achmad and
Yusuf (2014: 153):
In speaking class, teachers are required to create communicative and

interactive activities by giving students a great deal of opportunities to
practice the target language. Essentially, the class manifests
student-centred backdrop rather than teacher centered… teachers are to
prepare classroom activities that are devoted and best facilitate speaking
exercises.
Teachers also carry the burden of knowing how learners from specific
communities learn so that the teaching styles are uniform with the learners’
learning styles in order to enhance learning (Talley and Hui-Ling, 2014). Tsui (1996)
identified six speaking strategies to be employed by teachers when teaching
speaking skills lesson for instance i) lengthen wait time between question and
answer, ii) to improve questioning techniques, iii) focus on content iv) Establish a
warm rapport with the students, v) to accept variety of answers and vi) To allow for
student rehearsals. Learners also expect their teachers to give them feedback on
their performance. A teacher should only correct when there is a problem but
should not correct every time a student makes a mistake because this will affect
the flow of conversation, destroy the purpose for the speaking activity, demotivating
students and learners may become afraid to speak. Thus a teacher should
endeavour to correct mistakes positively and with a lot of encouragement (Tuan
and Mai, 2015).
4.4 Learner’s Role
Learners also lay an important role in speaking skills lesson. First, students should
be ready to interact with the curriculum being provided. This requires learners who
have internal motivation. This increases self esteem, confidence and willingness to
communicate (Alharbi 2015). The learners then develop long-term self motivation
and determination wich will enable them to put more effort by participating actively
in classroom activities and speaking in English outside the classroom.. Archmad
and Yusuf (2014) recommend that when a teacher is using the uncontrolled
classroom activities, it is important to take cognizance of culture of the learners as
it impacts on their learning outcomes. Talley and Hui-ling (2014) observe that
learners are expected to agree to initiate, respond, manage and negotiate their part
in speaking skills lesson. In addition, they should select, sequence, arrange words
and sentences and utterances in order to have unified spoken English.
Consequently, learners demonstrate their comprehension and express self through
meaningful and grammatical sentences verbally (Ibid)).
Talley and Hui-ling (2014: 40) propose four strategies in classroom

communication interaction. A learner should: Think of what they are going to say,
think about the structures they are using but do not let them interfere with what they
want to say, do not be afraid to make mistakes (mistakes are normal as you are
learning a language) and when you are not understood, use repetition, gestures,
synonyms, definitions, acting out, whatever comes naturally as you begin to feel
more proficient in the language.
5. Conclusion
The study then made conclusion as follows: First, all the classroom activities
including discussion, dialogues, drama, oral narratives, songs, tongue twisters,
debate, poem recitation, story-telling and role play were used during lessons but
with different frequencies. For example, discussion was used more across schools
than oral drills. This could bring imbalance in the contribution of these classroom
activities to the learner.
Two, code switching to use Kiswahili or Sheng by students was a problem in

certain class group discussions which could hamper learning of the target
language. It was found that learners speak in mother tongue in their discussion
groups (Kiswahili and Sheng). This was a sign of low proficiency in the target
language. Teachers should endeavour to teach using the target language
(vocabulary, grammar, difficult concept which will encourage their learners to speak
using the target language. The students should also be made to know the
importance of attaining communicative competence in English language for
instance job interviews, attainment of decent jobs and positive attitudes towards
English language. These will increase motivation for learners. There are several
causes that make students to have low proficiency in English language for instance
teachers’ lack language awareness thus learners lack models to emulate; learners
are passive; teacher centered methodology; lack of motivation by learners and
students think in mother tongue and then translate to English language (Alharbi,
2015).
Teachers should invite native speakers. A study done in Spain by Alonso

(2014) found that teachers do not invite native speakers of English to interact with
learners. Although, this strategy usually motivate and enable learner to acquire the
sounds as pronounced by native speakers (role modeling). Teachers underrate the
contribution of interaction with native speakers which is a key pillar in motivation of
students. A study done by Wu (2006) in Talley and Hui-ling (2014) indicated that
EFL learners often lack exposure to native speaker models for their linguistic input
because they have been exposed to non native models and are also non-native in
host culture. This calls for teachers who take cognizance of learners’ home culture
and target culture in order to support their learners’ learning. Talley and Hui-ling
(2014:44) recommend that:
Provide students with numerous opportunities of intercultural exploration.

When students encounter new cultural aspects or reflect on their own culture
through the perception of foreign eyes, it is possible to gain their interest.
Three, teachers prefer teaching classroom activities singly not integratively. English
language teachers tended to integrate the various classroom activities differently
with those in national schools doing it better than those in provincial and district
schools. Together these observations could be responsible for low communicative
competence of secondary school graduates.
5.1 Recommendations
The study then made four recommendations: First, teachers to discuss the
importance of learning English language in national/international arena to motivate
their learners to put a concerted effort in achieving communicative competence. Two,
the curriculum design and teaching approaches should acknowledge cultural
diversity and learning styles of learners in order to respond to the students’ needs.
Three, teachers should speak using target language in the classroom frequently in
order to expose students more to English language and to encourage them to use
English in the classroom discourse (Tuan and Mai, 2015) . In addition, for learners to
improve their speaking skills, they should speak using target language when
undertaking classroom tasks and outside classroom, speak English at home with
classmates, should be made to understand why it is important to acquire speaking
skills, join speaking club for instance drama, debate and speak in front of a mirror
(Tuan and Mai, 2015).
Suggested further research include: i) The reasons for the low
communicative competence of secondary school graduates. ii) It is not apparent in
this study why teachers find it difficult to integrate several classroom activities to
achieve the set objectives in speaking skills lessons.
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USING TED TALKS TO ENHANCE PRESENTATION SKILL FOR THE 1ST YEAR
ENGLISH MAJORS AT THAI NGUYEN UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION
Article in TNU Journal of Science and Technology · March 2020

DOI: 10.34238/tnu-jst.2020.03.1561
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ISSN: 1859-2171 TNU Journal of Science and Technology 225(03): 181 - 188
USING TED TALKS TO ENHANCE PRESENTATION SKILL FOR 1ST YEAR

ENGLISH MAJORS AT THAI NGUYEN UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION
Nguyen Thi Hong Chuyen*, Tran Thi Thu Tra, Nguyen Thi Hoang Trang
TNU - University of Education
ABSTRACT
Along with industrialization and modernization process in our country as well as globalization and
international integration, presentation skills in general and English presentation skills in particular
play a crucial part to perform effective communication activities. Presentation skill is considered
one of the meaningful ways to express opinions and gain achievements in life, career and business.
This paper aims to investigate the effectiveness of a new English presentation learning strategy -
using TED Talks in teaching presentation at Thai Nguyen University of Education. This course
framework adopts TED Talks as the useful materials in teaching and learning presentation. In the
meantime, it aims to identify difficulties affecting the presentation skills of students and the
outcome of using TED Talks to help students improve their presentation skills. The participants of
the study are the first-year English majors at Thai Nguyen University of Education ranging from
18-19 years old. The study has collected the presentation errors that students have and suggested
solutions to improve and enhance them by applying videos of Ted Talks. The findings of the study
will be useful for first year English majors at Thai Nguyen University of Education in particular as
well as for English majors in general.
Keywords: TED Talks; presentation skills; English major; students; presentation errors.
Received: 20/5/2019; Revised: 23/3/2020; Published: 29/3/2020
NÂNG CAO KỸ NĂNG THUYẾT TRÌNH TIẾNG ANH CHO SINH VIÊN
CHUYÊN NGỮ NĂM NHẤT TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC SƯ PHẠM
– ĐẠI HỌC THÁI NGUYÊN THÔNG QUA TED TALKS
Nguyễn Thị Hồng Chuyên*, Trần Thị Thu Trà, Nguyễn Thị Hoàng Trang
Trường Đại học Sư phạm – ĐH Thái Nguyên
TÓM TẮT
Trong thời kỳ công nghiệp hoá, hiện đại hoá đất nước, với chính sách đổi mới và chính sách mở,
hội nhập quốc tế của Đảng và Nhà nước, kỹ năng thuyết trình, đặc biệt là kỹ năng thuyết trình
tiếng Anh đóng một vai trò rất quan trọng. Kỹ năng thuyết trình hiệu quả là một phần của giao
tiếp. Tất cả các kỹ năng thuyết trình giúp định hướng quan điểm và giải thích về những thành tựu
một cách có hiệu quả nhất. Đó là lý do tại sao kỹ năng thuyết trình đóng vai trò rất quan trọng
trong cuộc sống, sự nghiệp và trong kinh doanh. Mục tiêu của nghiên cứu này là điều tra hiệu quả
của việc sử dụng TED Talks như một công cụ học tập giúp học sinh năm nhất trường Đại học Sư
phạm – Đại học Thái Nguyên nâng cao kỹ năng thuyết trình tiếng Anh. Cách học tập này sử dụng
các video của TED Talks làm tài liệu học tập để khuyến khích học sinh đạt được kết quả tốt hơn
trong thuyết trình. Trong khi đó, nhằm tìm ra những khó khăn mà ảnh hưởng đến kỹ năng trình
bày của học sinh và kết quả của việc sử dụng TED Talks để giúp sinh viên nâng cao kỹ năng
thuyết trình. Đối tượng nghiên cứu là sinh viên năm nhất chuyên ngành Sư phạm Tiếng Anh tại
Trường Đại học Sư phạm – Đại học Thái Nguyên, trong cùng một nhóm tuổi 18-19 tuổi. Thông
qua việc áp dụng phương pháp phân tích của sinh viên, nghiên cứu đã thu thập các lỗi thuyết trình
mà sinh viên gặp phải và đề xuất các giải pháp để cải thiện các lỗi đó. Những phát hiện của nghiên
cứu sẽ hữu ích cho sinh viên chuyên ngữ năm nhất tại Trường Đại học Sư phạm – Đại học Thái
Nguyên nói riêng cũng như sinh viên chuyên ngành tiếng Anh nói chung.
Từ khóa: TED Talks; kỹ năng thuyết trình; sinh viên chuyên ngành Sư phạm tiếng Anh; sinh viên
tại TUE; lỗi thuyết trình.
Ngày nhận bài: 20/5/2019; Ngày hoàn thiện: 23/3/2020; Ngày đăng: 29/3/2020
* Corresponding author. Email: chuyenknn@gmail.com

DOI: https://doi.org/10.34238/tnu-jst.2020.03.1561
http://jst.tnu.edu.vn; Email: jst@tnu.edu.vn 181

Nguyen Thi Hong Chuyen et al TNU Journal of Science and Technology 225(03): 181 - 188
1. Introduction native speakers are unable to deal with or

English is an international language in the understand English in its entirety, and
world and the official language in a large therefore “need to be shown that making
number of countries; an increasing number of guesses is not a sign of failure” in [6]. This is
people are concerned about the purposes of how non-native English speakers can cope
learning English. Especially, when Vietnam is with everyday situations that complete and
in the process of developing and integrating thorough understanding is not always the most
with other countries in the world, the use of important factor. This research aims to shed
English as a bridge helps learners exchange light on teachers and learners to enhance
with foreign partners, associate friends, and presentation skills, supply materials, and
exchange experience as well as knowledge design syllabus for the students’ need.
with other countries. Therefore, English has Therefore, in the research paper, the researcher
become a subject, an important task in the studies “Using Ted Talks to enhance
education and training of each country, presentation skills for 1st year English majors
including Vietnam. However, in our country, at Thai Nguyen University of Education
the investment in teaching English to students (TUE)” with the hope that it can help 1st year
is not really effective because the curriculum English majors at TUE to improve presentation
is not suitable and focuses too much on the skills in particular and gradually improve
language. Because of the lack of confidence effectively communicating abilities and
and soft skills in presentation, several English speaking skills in general.
students, specially, the first year English 2. Methodology
majors could not make a fluent presentation. The tools used in this study to collect data
However, in order to have a great command were questionnaires, face-to-face interview
of English, Vietnamese students in general and observation.
and first year English majors at Thai Nguyen The researcher firstly used questionnaire to
University of Education in particular have collect information about students’
many difficulties in using English in presentation skills, the specific difficulties
presentation. The materials that are used by and challenges that students have to face up in
most teachers are acceptable for some developing professional capacity. The
learners; however, the nature of these typical researcher provided some suggestions for
textbook activities fails to promote most students to choose. To exploit more
students, according to H. Reinders [1]; R. information from respondents, the researcher
Waring [2] and W. Renandya’s research [3]. used open-ended questions.
This has led to the increasing use of authentic The researcher then used face-to-face
materials. The genuine nature of TED Talks interviews with the teachers of first-year
[4] provides students, especially English- English majors to explore more deeply about
majored students, the opportunity to study the current situation of students’ presentation
and expose to speeches and presentations that skills. Furthermore, from face-to-face
are actually intended for English input. Field's interviews, the researcher was aware of the
research in 2002 [5] found that authentic objective assessments of the teachers for
materials used provided students with students’ competences, and then elicited them
“hesitations, stuttering, false starts, and long, to some solutions in enhancing students’
loosely structured sentences” (p.244). In this presentation skills.
research, readers can easily see that authentic Thirdly, observation was also used as the
materials directly reflect what students will main source of collecting data in this study.
face in real life problems which many non- The observation process was divided into two
182 http://jst.tnu.edu.vn; Email: jst@tnu.edu.vn
distinct parts: pre-presentation and post- practiced presenting. Two students (5%) also
presentation which were observed in 2 revealed poor presentation skills.
groups (the control group studied with Nevertheless, five students asserted that they
traditional method and the experimental were so good at presentation skills. These
group studied with Ted Talks). After five students need to improve their presentation
weeks of process, the scores of pre- skills more. Therefore, these findings showed
presentation and post-presentation of two that most students possessed the presentation
groups were compared to draw a conclusion capacity at an acceptable level.
on the effectiveness of using TED Talks to
enhance presentation skills.
3. Findings and discussions
The researcher gave a report in this chapter
on the results of analyzing the data collected
from the participants' questionnaires,
interviews, and observations. Results on the
following aspects were shown: (1) results of
questionnaire; (2) results of interview; (3) Figure 2. Students' self-evaluation
results of observation. At the same time, the on their presentation skills
researcher presented substantial results- Thirdly, the researcher carried out some
based discussions. difficulties in developing presentation
3.1. The results of questionnaire capacity students had to encounter in the
Firstly, the researcher examined the students’ learning process. The results were described
experience of English study. The result was in Figure 3.
shown in Figure 1. It is clear from Figure 3 that most of students
had problems in the process of developing
presentation competences. In fact, in 20
students, the number of students lacking soft
presentation skills was the largest. Similarly,
there were no good presentation skills for all
20 students. General speaking, students
tended to learn more theories, and most of
them did not have many chances to practice
or else there is not enough time for students to
Figure 1. The student’s experience of studying English practice presentation. Moreover, self-studying
As can be seen from Figure 1, most subjects at home is always a good solution with
have been learning English for more than 7 suitable conduction. Therefore, they should
years (95%). This fact revealed that they study theories at home and then have
seemed to have a good foundation for presentations in classes to improve their
English learning. presentation soft skills. In addition, more than
Secondly, Figure 2 gives a self-evaluation on half of the students thought that it was
the presentation skills of students. The results difficult to have English public speaking and
from the descriptive statistics indicated that have good interaction with listeners. In
the subject found it difficult to deal with the contrast, they seemed to be better at preparing
lack of presentation competencies. As shown a presentation. It is obvious that an English
in the chart, 84 percent of students said their presenter is not only required to have good
capacity for presentation was basic. They are knowledge but also needed to have enough
in the first year and for a few lessons they've techniques, experiences and soft skills.

Figure 3. Students' challenges in the process of developing presentation skills

Obviously, audiences have little respect for an
unconfident presenter. Moreover, 20%
students said that a successful presenter
should have interaction with students as they
are speaking by movement, eye contacts... In
addition, soft skills are extremely necessary
for the presenter to finish the objective.
3.2. Results of classroom observations
Figure 4. Characteristics of a successful presenter
One of the effective strategies was using TED
Then, Figure 4 indicates that 36% students
Talks. However, not every student was aware
chose the knowledge. It is not denied that
of the role of TED Talks in enhancing
good knowledge is the firm basis of a
presentation skills. The researcher observed
successful presenter. In addition, the presenter
two groups. Each group has 20 students who
could not lack confidence. If speakers are
have the same educational level and academic
always timid in front of audiences, they will
ability. The researcher designed an observation
not surely get audiences' attention as well as
checklist to assess students’ skills. The results
provide them with good knowledge.
are displayed from table 1 to table 4.
Table 1. Results of observation checklists (week1)
Unit: %
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
a. Range 10 20 40 10 20
I – Grammar
b. Accuracy 20 20 20 20 20
a. Range 40 10 10 10 10 10
II - Vocabulary
b. Accuracy 10 50 20 10 10
a. Stress and rhythm 20 20 50 10
III -Pronunciation b. Intonation 10 40 10 20 10 10
c. Linking/elision/assimilation 80 10 10
a. Speed of talking 70 10 10 10
IV – Fluency b. Hesitation while speaking 10 20 60 10
c. Hesitation before speaking 80 20
a. Eyes contact and body posture 40 30 20 10
V – Non-verbal
b. Gestures, facial expressions 70 10 10 10

Table 2. Results of observation checklists (group 1 – week 5)

Unit: %
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
a. Range 30 40 10 20
I – Grammar
b. Accuracy 10 30 20 20 20
a. Range 20 20 20 20 10 10
II - Vocabulary
b. Accuracy 10 30 30 20 10
a. Stress and rhythm 10 10 60 20
III - Pronunciation b. Intonation 40 20 20 10 10
c. Linking/elision/assimilation 70 20 10
IV – Fluency b. Hesitation while speaking 20 70 10
a. Eyes contact and body posture 20 40 30 20
V – Non-verbal
b. Gestures, facial expressions 50 20 20 10
Table 3. Results of observation checklists (group 2/ experimental group – week 5)
Unit: %
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
a. Range 20 20 10 40 10
I – Grammar
b. Accuracy 20 20 20 20 10 10
a. Range 10 20 20 20 10 20
II - Vocabulary
b. Accuracy 10 10 30 20 20 10
a. Stress and rhythm 50 20 10 10 10
III - Pronunciation b. Intonation 50 10 20 10 10
c. Linking/elision/assimilation 30 20 30 10 10
IV – Fluency b. Hesitation while speaking 10 20 50 10 10
c. Hesitation before speaking 20 40 10 10 10 10
a. Eyes contact and body posture 10 20 20 30 10 10
V – Non-verbal
b. Gestures, facial expressions 10 20 20 20 10 10 10
Table 4. Results of observation checklists
(Compare student progress between group 1 and group 2 after 5 weeks)
Unit: %
The increased The increased percentage
percentage of of group 2
group 1 (experimental group)
a. Range 1 9
I – Grammar
b. Accuracy 1 11
a. Range 10 22
II – Vocabulary
b. Accuracy 3 10
a. Stress and rhythm 4 16
III – Pronunciation b. Intonation 2 2
c. Linking/elision/assimilation 1 12
a. Speed of talking 1 4
IV – Fluency b. Hesitation while speaking 2 12
a. Eyes contact and body posture 9 24
V – Non-verbal
b. Gestures, facial expressions 3 21

According to table 1 and 2, create their own speech. After finishing their
+ Table 1: Grammar – Range: speech, they are willing to answer questions
raised by their peers, which indicates they are
Average: 2.5 x 10% + 3 x 20% + 3.5 x 40% +
eager to interact in English and are very active
4 x 10% + 4.5 x 20% = 3.55
in being a language creator. The transfer of
+ Table 2: Grammar – Range: roles is critical for teaching and learning.
Average: 3 x 20% + 3.5 x 20% + 4 x 10% + The observation aims to investigate the use of
4.5 x 40% + 5 x 10% = 4 body language in the delivery of presentation.
Presentation point of students has increased The results of the data show that students are
from 3.55 to 4 in Grammar-Range. From fully aware of the role that nonverbal
there, researchers can calculate: language plays in making a public speech. For
example, students respond positively in
x 100% = 9%. speech delivery about the importance of facial
Similarly, researchers can calculate the expression and are willing to display their
statistics in table 4. body language in speech delivery. Despite
recognizing the importance of nonverbal
Through statistical tables, the factors, that language, students are not entirely satisfied
impact on students' presentations, have with their performance in body language,
improved significantly over the process used indicating that there is room for further
TED Talks within 5 weeks. improvement in future practice.
After using TED Talks, the result is The results shown here approve that TED
concerned with the effectiveness and Talks works effectively to improve the skills of
motivation of language input. Students are critical thinking and presentation. A significant
willing to explore among the topics as number of students agree that they are given
researchers had expected and find the one food for thought by TED-motivated speech
which they are interested in. Moreover, most class, motivate them to think, and the content
students watch not just one video before is enlightening. TED Talks has successfully
finally deciding which one they want. motivated language learning for students and
Moreover, self-motivated language input can has greatly enjoyed the learning process; at the
be found to reveal results. Most students same time, it shows that in this context,
agree that they prefer to imitate the video students have successfully transferred roles
speaker's intonation and pronunciation as well from a passive learner to an active explorer,
as using words and phrases in the video to and the result has confirmed that this process is
form their own speech. The result also both rewarding and fruitful.
indicates that during video watching 3.3. Results of interviews
vocabulary acquisition is improved. In
Question 1: Are the common problems related
addition to language input, it has been shown
to presentation skills that students have?
that the role of note-taking in the presentation
is very positive. According to the teacher of English teaching
Presentation skills course of Course 50, they
The observation result focuses on the
students' language output. As shown in table were rarely satisfied with students’
2, students must continue to practice until presentation skills. Most of students were
they can speak fluently before giving the hard-working and had good knowledge;
classroom speech. Increasingly, students not however their presentation skills are
only retell what they have heard from the preliminary level. Some of them have strong
video, but also integrate their own idea to background and make the teacher proud.

They were willing to broaden their knowledge most of the responsibilities belong to lecturers
and learn experience from each other. who teach students presentation skills.
Question 2: Which strategies do teacher do to Therefore, they should pay attention to such
help students improve presentation skill? aspects as selecting the professional
presenters from the talented student groups;
The teacher interviewed complained that make sure that presenters are fully equipped
theory was the students’ strengths while with necessary knowledge and skills to do
practice was their weaknesses. Some students their presentation well; establish a quick and
even had not been good at knowledge, reliable channel of communication (email or
especially vocabulary and non-verbal e-learning system).
presentation skills. Therefore, they could not
In conclusion, enhancing students’
do the best presentation, or gave complex and
presentation capacity is very important.
unclear explanation. The reason of this
Student using TED Talks is one of the
drawback was that they are lacked
strategies to improve students’ presentation
experiences in presentation.
skill. This strategy brings many benefits to
Question 3: Did teacher use Ted Talks as an students, teachers and schools. In the current
educational tool to improve students’ conditions, the recruitment, training and
presentation skills? management of student using Ted Talks
The teacher has never used TED Talk as an effectively may be difficult to fully
educational tool to improve Students' implement; however, this research applied the
presentation skills before. strategy which creates all favorable
4. Recommendation conditions for students to become a good
presenter. From that, the researcher hopes that
From the findings revealed, the implication of first-year English majors could improve their
a good presenter is believed to have gained presentation skills
distinct advantages for lecturers, students who
lack presentation skills. However, the 5. Conclusion
application of this strategy might have certain The main findings discussed above helped the
several difficulties. These problems would researcher draw some conclusions in the
soon be tackled if there is more attention and current study on the three research questions.
support from faculty and school. Therefore, The first research question examines the
the researcher recommended some strategies common presentation skills problems that
based on the consensus between teachers in English majors in TUE have in the first year.
charge of the module and the teacher The findings demonstrated that the juniors
assistants. In order to achieve this below had to face with several problems in the
model, each of factors takes responsibilities: process of developing presentation skills. In
In term of TED Talks users: They need to be particular, they found it difficult to pronounce
more self-motivated and attend outdoor correctly and limited amount of vocabulary.
activities at university to improve soft skills; Moreover, students also feel confuse, worry,
regularly observe presentation performance embarrass, shy and unconfident when they are
talking in front of the class or in the crowd. In
Regarding the Department: the Department addition, students should pay attention to
should organize professional presentation improve their skill when they at home every
Contest in order to create opportunities for day. The researcher explored students’
students to learn experiences from each other presentation skills. The researcher found that
in order to encourage students to improve 30% of them had acceptable level. Findings
their presentation skills. from interview and observation also indicated
With reference to the teaching staff: Under that students had a tendency to be good at
the policy and regulation of the department, theory in comparison with practicing. In
addition, teachers said that they were not Second Language, vol. 14, no. 2, 2010.
fairly satisfied with students’ competences [Online]. Available: http://www.teslej.org/
both knowledge and practical skills. wordpress/issues/volume14/ej54/ej54m2/.
[Accessed May 11, 2019].
Therefore, students needed to put more efforts
[2]. R. Waring, “Starting an extensive listening
into their learning as well as practicing. program. Extensive Reading in Japan,” The
The second research question concerns How Journal of the JALT Extensive Reading
TED Talks can help 1st year English majors Special Interest Group, vol. 1, no. 1, 2008.
overcome the weaknesses in presentation [Online]. Available: www.robwaring.org/el/
skills at TUE. The primary duty is that articles/Starting_Extensive_Listening_ERJ_Ju
ne_2008.pdf. [Accessed May 11, 2019].
students needed to practice hard in order to [3]. W. Renandya and T. Farrell, “Teacher, the tape
widen their skill. A good teacher could not is too fast! Extensive listening in ELT,” ELT
lack the basic skills. Moreover, the results of Journal, vol. 65, no. 1, pp. 52-59, 2010. [Online].
the study revealed that students must be Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccq015.
practiced speaking regularly and using TED [Accessed May 11, 2019].
Talks like a best resource to improve the [4]. TED, “Ideas Worth Spreading”, (n.d.), [Online].
vocabulary, grammar even in eyes contact Available: http://www.ted.com/. [Accessed May
01, 2019].
and body posture, movement, speed of
[5]. J. Field, “The changing face of listening,” in
talking, fluency... Methodology in language teaching: An
In addition, enhancing students’ presentation anthology of current practice, J. C. Richards
capacity through TED Talks need to be & W. A. Renandya (Eds.), Cambridge
promoted, and paid more attention to University Press, Cambridge, England, pp. 242-
presenters with adequate guidance of teaching 247, 2002. [Online]. Available: http://dx.doi
.org/10.1017/CBO9780511667190.033.
English presentation as well as the other skills.
[Accessed May 11, 2019].
REFERENCES [6]. A. Bhattacharya and K. Chauhan,
“Augmenting learner autonomy through
[1]. H. Reinders and M. Y. Cho, “Extensive
blogging,” ELT Journal, vol. 64, no. 4, pp.
listening practice and input-enhancement
376-384, 2010. [Online]. Available: http://dx.
using mobile phones: Encouraging out-of-
doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccq002. [Accessed May
class learning with mobile phones,” TESL-EJ:
11, 2019].
The Electronic Journal for English as a
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LỜI MỞ ĐẦU
Bộ Thông tin & Truyền thông cấp giấy phép hoạt động báo chí in số
580/GP-BTTTT vào ngày 21 tháng 12 năm 2016 cho Tạp chí Khoa
học của Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ có tên chính thức là Tạp chí Khoa
học Ngôn ngữ và Văn hóa, tên tiếng Anh là Journal of Inquiry into
Languages and Cultures. Tạp chí Khoa học Ngôn ngữ và Văn hóa là
sự phát triển và kế thừa kinh nghiệm xuất bản ấn phẩm khoa học
Thông báo khoa học của Trường được phát hành định kỳ 3 số mỗi
năm từ năm 2004 đến 2016. Tạp chí được phát hành bằng tiếng Việt
và tiếng Anh, định kỳ 4 tháng 1 số. Cục Thông tin Khoa học và Công
nghệ Quốc gia - Bộ Khoa học và Công nghệ cấp mã số quốc tế ISSN
2525-2674 cho Tạp chí vào ngày 26 tháng 5 năm 2017. Tạp chí đăng
tải các kết quả nghiên cứu khoa học có chất lượng, có tính mới trong
lĩnh vực ngôn ngữ và văn hóa, cập nhật thông tin khoa học với mục
đích đáp ứng nhu cầu chia sẻ kinh nghiệm nghiên cứu về khoa học
trong lĩnh vực ngôn ngữ và văn hóa của các nhà giáo dục, nhà nghiên
cứu trong nước và quốc tế.
Chúng tôi trân trọng kính gửi đến Quý vị độc giả tập 3, số 3, 2019
của Tạp chí gồm 12 bài viết thông báo kết quả nghiên cứu của các nhà
khoa học, nhà nghiên cứu từ các trường đại học, học viện trong và
ngoài nước như Trung tâm Anh ngữ AMES; Học viện Kỹ thuật
Quân sự; Trường Đại học Cần Thơ; Trường Đại học Quảng Bình;
Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội; Trường Đại
học Văn Lang; Trường Đại học Đà Lạt và Trường Đại học Ngoại
ngữ, Đại học Huế.
Trong số này, các bài viết trình bày kết quả nghiên cứu về nhiều lĩnh
vực khác nhau: phương pháp giảng dạy tiếng Anh (6 bài), phương
pháp giảng dạy tiếng Nga (2 bài), phương pháp giảng dạy tiếng
Trung Quốc (1 bài), ứng dụng CNTT vào giảng dạy ngoại ngữ (1
bài) và ngôn ngữ học ứng dụng (2 bài).
Đặc biệt, độc giả quan tâm đến nghiên cứu dạy học phát âm tiếng
Anh có thể tìm đọc các bài viết của tác giả Nguyễn Thị Triều Thảo và
của tác giả Trần Thảo Uyên. Ngoài ra, về phân tích và so sánh thể loại
văn bản, tác giả Nguyễn Thị Bích Phương trình bày kết quả nghiên
cứu về những đặc điểm cú pháp của các khẩu hiệu giáo dục đại học
(educational mottos) tại Việt Nam và các nước nói tiếng Anh.
Hội đồng biên tập xin gửi lời cảm ơn sâu sắc đến các tác giả đã gửi
đăng bài viết cho Tạp chí trong thời gian qua, cảm ơn các nhà khoa
học đã tham gia phản biện, góp phần hoàn thiện chất lượng các bài
viết của Tạp chí. Hội đồng biên tập rất mong nhận được bài viết cũng
như những ý kiến đóng góp của Quý vị độc giả để Tạp chí Khoa học
Ngôn ngữ và Văn hóa ngày càng phát triển và trở thành một tạp chí
có uy tín khoa học.
Trân trọng.
TỔNG BIÊN TẬP
Bảo Khâm
Tạp chí Khoa học Ngôn ngữ và Văn hóa
Journal of Inquiry into Languages and Cultures
Tập 3, Số 3, 2019
Vol. 3, No 3, 2019
MỤC LỤC – CONTENTS
1. Trần Thị Trâm Anh Implementing community service learning 299
Trương Viên for pre-service teachers: The case at
University of Foreign Languages, Hue
University
Triển khai học tập phục vụ cộng đồng cho giáo
viên trước khi dạy học: Trường hợp tại Trường
Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Huế
2. Trương Thị Dung Phát huy năng lực tự học, tự sáng tạo cho 309
học viên học Tiếng Nga chuyên ngành tại
Học viện Kỹ thuật Quân sự thông qua
phương pháp dự án
Developing self-learning and self-creation
abilities in students, which study Russian for
specific purposes at military technical academy
through project-based method
3. Huỳnh Thị Long Hà Nghiên cứu chiến lược đọc hiểu của sinh 317
Nguyễn Thị Phương Lan viên tiếng Anh không chuyên tại Trường
Nguyễn Phạm Thanh Vân Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Huế
Lê Thị Hồng Phương An investigation into the use of reading
strategies by non-majored English students at
University
4. Đồng Thanh Hải Suitable use of Vietnamese vocatives and 330
request structures: Effective communication
strategies among student youth leaders
Sử dụng phù hợp các từ vựng tiếng Việt và cấu
trúc yêu cầu: Chiến lược giao tiếp hiệu quả giữa
những sinh viên cán bộ đoàn trẻ
5. Mai Thị Như Hằng Redefining a flipped learning classroom: 339
Using outside-classroom listening portfolio
to boost inside-classroom speaking tasks
Lớp học đảo ngược: Sử dụng tập bài nghe ngoài
lớp học để tăng cường hiệu quả hoạt động nói
trên lớp
6. Lê Thị Hồng Phương Việc luyện nói tiếng Anh của sinh viên Đại 349
Nguyễn Phạm Thanh Vân học Huế để đạt đầu ra bậc 3/6
The English speaking practice of Hue University
students for the output standard of 3/6 level
7. Nguyễn Thị Bích Phương Educational mottos of tertiary institutions 359
in Vietnam and English-speaking countries:
A study of syntactic features
Khẩu hiệu giáo dục đại học tại Việt Nam và các
nước nói tiếng Anh: Nghiên cứu dưới góc nhìn
từ đặc trưng cú pháp
8. Nguyễn Thanh Sơn Đánh giá của sinh viên về hiệu quả của việc 377
sử dụng yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ trong giảng
dạy Tiếng Nga tại Khoa Tiếng Nga, Trường
Students' evaluation of the efficiency of using
non-verbal communication in teaching Russian
at the Russian Department of University of
Foreign Languages, Hue University
9. Nguyễn Thị Triều Thảo Ways of learning English pronunciation 386
among first-year English majors at Van Lang
University
Cách học phát âm tiếng Anh của sinh viên năm
nhất tại Trường Đại học Văn Lang
10. Trần Thị Thanh Thảo Phản hồi của sinh viên về việc ứng dụng 394
Lê Thị Hồng Phương phần mềm Schoology để đánh giá quá trình
kỹ năng nghe
An investigation into the students’ reflection
about the use of schoology in formative
assessment: A case study in a Vietnamese
University
11. Nguyễn Văn Tư Vận dụng phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ 407
theo nhiệm vụ” vào dạy học kỹ năng nói
trong Tiếng Trung Quốc
Applying “task-based language teaching" into
teaching and learning Chinese speaking skills
12. Trần Thảo Uyên Major problems in pronouncing English: A 418
case study at The University of Dalat
Những vấn đề nghiêm trọng trong phát âm
tiếng Anh: Nghiên cứu thực tế tại Trường Đại
học Đà Lạt
Tạp chí Khoa học Ngôn ngữ và Văn hóa ISSN 2525-2674 Tập 3, Số 3, 2019
IMPLEMENTING COMMUNITY SERVICE LEARNING

FOR PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS: THE CASE AT UNIVERSITY
OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES, HUE UNIVERSITY
Tran Thuy Tram Anh*1; Truong Vien2
AMES English Center1; University of Foreign Languages, Hue University2
Received: 02/09/2019; Revised: 08/10/2019; Accepted: 25/12/2019

Abstract: The term Community Service Learning (CSL) is known as an effective learning
program that helps the student produce reflective assignments. Due to its practicality, CSL
is thus considered as one of the most useful supports for pre-service teachers and has
gradually developed over the recent decades. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the
attitudes of pre-service teachers towards CSL as well as enhance their awareness towards
community teaching, then find out the ways to extend this type of education program.
Taking these aims into accounts, the questionnaire was used to help the author easily
research the attitudes, obstacles, and needs of the participants. Moreover, the semi-
structured interview technique was used to have a detailed insight into CSL problems.
Consequently, the main findings initially revealed that pre-service teachers had a relatively
high awareness of the necessity and benefits of CSL. Secondly, the results implied that
problems encountered during the program and the lack of supports was noticeably pointed
out. Additionally, the pre-service teachers also agreed that one of the major contributions to
CSL success was teachers’ consistency. Interestingly, participants showed different
opinions when they were questioned whether CSL was compulsory in the learning
curriculum. By exposing some limitations, the research implied some significant
considerations for the community, universities and pre-service teachers. Finally, some
suggestions for further studies were offered to hopefully help the CSL programs become
more popular and effective.
Key words: Community service learning, SL, pre-service teachers
1. Introduction
1.1. Background
The term Community Service Learning (CSL) is increasingly popular all over the world in
the field of education and language teaching, especially at tertiary level (Benson & Harkavy,
2000; Bringle & Hatcher 1996; Enos & Morton, 2003; Williams, 2009; Yaman & Özdemir,
2012; Filiz & Durnali, 2019). Kesten (2012) showed in his study that CSL plays an
indispensable role in connecting the society and universities and putting universities in the
“hearts of individuals” (Benson & Harkavy, 2000; Bringle & Hatcher 1996; Enos & Morton,
2003). Despite the important role of CSL, there is little research considering the problem that
professional community constitutes a resource for teacher learning and innovations in teaching
practice (Wilson & Berne, 1999). Furthermore, there are a limited number of studies related to
CSL in the Vietnam context, particularly the studies on pre-service teachers’ perceptions and
their opinions of CSL courses. However, the study, which was implemented at Phuoc Duyen
pagoda in Hue city by Cao Thi Xuan Lien (2015) has greatly contributed to the success of the
* Email: tranthuytramanh95@gmail.com
299
Journal of Inquiry into Languages and Cultures ISSN 2525-2674 Vol 3, No 3, 2019
present study with valuable findings and implications. She concluded that CSL is highly
appreciated as a teaching tool providing the connections between life and academics. Training
pre-service teachers through CSL programs, which aims to provide pedagogical students
teaching skills and experience before they become in-service staff, thus should be taken into
more consideration.
1.2. Aims of the study
This research aims to examine EFL pre-service teachers’ beliefs, attitudes towards the
community service learning and enhance their awareness towards community teaching as required
tasks before they become in-service teachers with a particular context in Hue city. Additionally, the
study is supposed to find out the ways to support the development of this type of education program.
The study will be conducted to answer the following questions:
1. What are the attitudes of pre-service teachers at HU-UFL towards the concept of CSL in
higher education?
2. What are the perceptions of pre-service teachers of implementing CSL activities?
3. What difficulties did pre-service teachers encounter when they implemented CSL?
1.3. Significance of the study
This study investigated of the attitudes of pre-service teachers towards CSL, who used to
teach or who are teaching at the English community in Hue. Through the questionnaires and the
interview, the study explored some deeper aspects of community teaching as a teaching practice
process, some difficulties the teachers had to encounter when they implemented CSL activities
and also suggested some solutions to conduct CSL projects more effectively. This research also
gave some practical implications to help CSL programs become more effective and popular.
This research was conducted in some charitable classes at pagodas in Hue city. Although
there were not enough cases to describe CSL activities comprehensively, studying these classes
would hopefully provide valuable data on this kind of CSL program. Accordingly, the reality of
CSL practice could be reflected accurately. In particular, the study aimed at some certain
aspects: the perceptions of pre-service teachers to CSL’s significance and benefits; the important
factors to conduct and maintain CSL in the long term; some difficulties pre-service teachers may
meet during CSL programs.
2. Literature review
2.1. Theoretical background
Campbell (1996) defined the pre-service teacher as an individual engaged in his or her
teacher preparation program with no more than two semesters or terms remaining to complete
the course of studies. Discussion of how to define the term service-learning (SL) is often the
source of disagreement among proponents. Bringle and Hatcher (1996) defined SL as “a credit-
bearing, educational experience in which students participate in an organized service activity
that meets identified community needs and reflect on the service activity in such a way as to
gain further understanding of course content, a broader appreciation of the discipline, and an
enhanced sense of civic responsibility” (p. 112). Yet, they do not provide a comprehensive
definition of SL.
300
Service learning could be considered as a preparation stage for students’ internship, which
students have opportunities to bring their knowledge to real situations and increase their
educational experiences - a powerful instrument improving students’ practical abilities
(Manathunga, 2007). Furco (1996) clarified this type of training that SL programs need to be
more institutionalized with higher responsibilities from participants compared to volunteer
activities. Also, he suggested that kind of learning should be conducted in the long run since it
takes constant efforts by students to perceive and satisfy society requirements.
CSL has been investigated and experimented on multi-aspects in various parts in the world
so far. As discussed above, there were a number of studies on identifying and differentiating the
term CSL with other volunteer projects. Initially, Sigmon (1979) considered CSL as a
probationary method in relation with “reciprocal learning” which means both sides (the CSL
servers and the recipients) would benefit from this kind of program. In fact, there were only a few
studies which examine exactly how SL impacts on students, particularly pre-service teachers.
Kesten (2012) found in his study that CSL contributes to educational and professional success and
mapping profession performance (Gökçe, 2011; Luchs, 1980; Warburton & Oppenheimer, 2000).
SL is a shared collaborative process that can involve not only students and learning institutions but
also every unit of the society, including the communities (Sandaran, 2008).
It is reported that SL exists in every state in the U.S. and spread out internationally:
64% of all public schools and 83% of public high schools organize some form of community
service for their students (National Center for Educational Statistics, 1999). However, CSL
has witnessed a downward trend in recent years. Scale and Roehlkepartain (2005) explained that
SL is more likely to have more positive effects on students’ involvement in the low-income
areas. It is highly valued in these regions owing to the belief that CSL can also bring
opportunities for young people to work with adults and develop leadership skills as well as have
benefits. According to the article Community Service and SL in America’s Schools (2008), the
schools which apply SL in their curriculum are more likely to have more encouragements and
practices than in 1999; it is, however, still hardly in compliance with institutions due to the
limitations of supporting staff, improvement strategies and compulsory requests as well as the
lack of assistance to participants.
Noticeably, there have been still a few studies regarding CSL as a method to support
pedagogical students in learning. The most recent study implemented by Lien (2015) has shown
the significance of CSL to education in general and in English teaching and learning context. By
using questionnaires and End-of-semester reflections for 40 students as well as interviewing 8
teachers who teach some English classes at Phuoc Duyen pagoda in Hue city, she concluded
that CSL also brings lots of advantages for faculties of universities or education agencies.
However, some other issues such as the perceptions of pre-service teachers towards CSL and
how to implement this kind of program sustainably create the research gap for this study to
continue discovering.
2.2. The study context
Normally, fourth-year students of the Pedagogy sector at HU-UFL implement the teaching
internship in a very short time, from 1 to 2 months. Furthermore, students are trained with some
practical teaching methodology courses and as a result, most of the students are worried when they
301
carry out their internship. Therefore, community teaching would be a good opportunity for these
students to have more practical teaching experiences before they graduate from the university. The
study was conducted at some English charity classes of some pagodas in Hue city.
3. Methodology
3.1. Research methods
According to Condelli and Wrigley (2004), quantitative approach, in addition to
qualitative one, can help researchers deepen their understandings of findings and infer from
those results. Therefore, this study used both quantitative and qualitative methods to obtain a
more reliable understanding of its results. Accordingly, the questionnaire was conducted to
provide data relating to the agreement degree of participants towards some previous opinions
while the semi-structured interview helped the researcher figure out other characteristics of
CSL, the attitude as well as experience of pre-service teachers during the time implementing
CSL.
3.2. Participants
Due to some difficulties with contacting, the number of participants in this study is 20 English
pedagogical students in HU-UFL who have experience in teaching at the community in Hue city.
They are pre-service teachers (pedagogical students) with a wide range of experience (teaching at a
community for over 1 month). As pre-service teachers have gained a great deal of experience in
teaching process, the study would have an in-depth analysis of the results. All participants were
asked to do the questionnaire. Among them, 5 teachers who had taught community classes for
over 3 months were chosen to participate in the interview. They have more comprehensive
opinions and CSL teaching experience.
3.3. Instruments
To accomplish the primary purpose of this study, the questionnaire is chosen as the main
method for statistical data collection. It includes 2 main parts: The first part is intended to get
the background information of the participants; the second part is presented in a 5-point-Likert
scale ranging from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree”. Most of the items in this section
were adopted and adapted from previous studies to make comparisons and find implications.
Since the questionnaire is designed for students, the questionnaire will be expounded clearly in
English to ensure the understandings of the participants. After that, the quantitative data
collected from the questionnaire was coded to be analyzed by the Statistical Package for the
Social Science (SPSS) software version 20. The descriptive statistics were run then to gain the
mean scores and standard deviations of each cluster. These data were helpful in making
comparisons between cluster-cluster and items in one cluster. Additionally, the one-sample T-
test was also conducted to determine the differences between participants’ perceptions towards
CSL and the hypothesis. In addition to data illustrated by tables, some bar charts were created
accordingly to facilitate visible demonstrations. Data were analyzed by referring to results from
previous research.
The semi-structured interview is used for this research in order to collect quite sufficient
responses in a short time. Also, the semi-structured interview provides the opportunity for
identifying new ways of seeing and understanding the topic at hand. According to Newcomer,
Hatry, and Wholey (2015), in mixed methods research, this technique can be considered as an
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extension and “add depth” to other methods. The participants will be more comfortable because
they can talk about the topic according to their flow of speech. By asking attendants’ experience
and listening to their stories, the author may have a more general and profound overview of
CSL problems. Therefore, the data would be explored more effectively. Apart from the
questionnaire, the interview is conducted using Vietnamese to help participants express their
ideas precisely and thoroughly. The recorded qualitative data from the interview were first noted
down carefully in Vietnamese to make the respondents express their opinions more thoroughly;
the answers were then translated into English for later analysis. After that, the responses were
grouped following the research questions for easy referring and analyzing.
4. Findings
This section presents and interprets the collected data. First, the effects of community
teaching towards pre-service teachers have presented thanks to the statistical results of the
questionnaire. Then, the results from the interviews are also analyzed in order to get insights
into the results.
4.1. Questionnaire
First of all, the questionnaire is confirmed to be reliable with the reliability coefficient of
the questionnaire α= .913 (reliability coefficient of .70 or higher is considered "acceptable",
according to Garth, 2008).
Table 1. Mean scores of clusters
Std.
N Minimum Maximum Mean
Deviation
Mean score of Cluster 1 20 2.67 4.83 4.3833 .50175
Valid N (listwise) 20
Generally, pre-service teachers showed their high expectations of the necessity as well as
advantages brought from CSL. All of the clusters saw the high rank of “degree”. After having
analyzed, Clusters 1, 2, 3 all showed the mean scores above 4 (4.38; 4.16; 4.23 respectively),
which implies that most of the pre-service teachers have positive attitudes towards CSL and
awareness of its benefits. The mean score of cluster 4 was by far different from three others
(M=3.21). This figure expresses that most of the participants did not hold a high level of
agreement with CSL difficulties.
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4.1.1. Attitudes of pre-service teachers towards the necessity of CSL

Table 2. Mean score of Cluster 1: Necessity of CSL in relation to institution and community of CSL
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std.
Deviation
Universities build better communication with 20 3 5 4.35 .587
both the students and the environment
Students are familiar with other institutions and 20 2 5 4.30 .733
society
Prospective teachers can continue involvement 20 3 5 4.70 .571
in society and become caring citizens
CSL involves special knowledge 20 1 5 4.35 .933
CSL can deepen the tie between university and 20 2 5 4.20 .951
community
CSL meets the needs of community and generate 20 2 5 4.40 .821
multi-experiences for Ss
The results from the table point out that pre-service teachers acknowledge and show a
high level of agreement with the necessities of CLT towards the institution and community. In
detail, the mean score of Prospective teachers can continue involvement in society and become
caring citizen was the highest among these items (M=4.70, SD=.571). This finding is in line
with the results of Shelley (2000) that the percentage of students in the U.S involving in-service
programs increased because their parents and teachers believed CSL helped to create “better
citizen.’ Also, the high level of participants’ agreement with four remaining items was in line
with Williams (2009) and her colleagues that service provided meets the needs of the people
they serve and brought a plentiful experience for all participants.
4.1.2. Benefits of CSL
In Cluster 2, the item Improve self-confidence and leadership skills showed the highest
mean score (M=4.50) which could be interpreted that pre-service teachers highly valued these
benefits. However, the data in Table 4.3 showed the relative difference in distance between the
min and max score. Some items such as Promote empathy and responsibility for students;
Reduce stereotypes; facilitate cultural and racial understanding; Enhance teaching quality, find
opportunities for further research point out the high degree of SD, at above .85.
4.1.3. Making CSL sustainable
In Cluster 3, participants had similar ideas about the key factors to maintain CSL in the
long term (t=1.865; df=19) although there was some disagreement with the first and second
items of this cluster more courses should be incorporate with SL, CSL must be a strategy/ policy
of the institutions. By constrast, Guo (2013) showed that educators consider SL as an effective
teaching tool. Especially, there were many participants showing agreement with the last item
CSL should be known by all staff and students, which is explained in the Interview’s findings.
4.1.4. Problems and difficulties of CSL
The mean score of Cluster 4 was significantly different from three others (M=3.21),
which expressed that most of the participants did not hold a high level of agreement with CSL
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difficulties, which means that participants have different opinions about the problems they can
encounter during the teaching program. The participants chose a wide range of answers, from
“completely degree” to “completely agree” level, which can be interpreted from SD numbers (most
SD scores were over 1.0). Otherwise, most of the participants agreed that implementing CSL was
difficult due to the lack of supports (M=3.70). Similarly, Guo (2013) stated in his study that once the
program is widely supported, the benefits will overweigh the negatives.
4.2. Interview
The result was taken from 5 responses of 5 pre-service teachers who have been involved
in the CSL program over 3 months. All the answers were recorded and written down for
reliability. There were some noticeable points shown during the interview. Firstly, almost all
participants have not understood CSL thoroughly; they could not even distinguish between CSL
and volunteer activities. The result revealed that students did not have a comprehensive look at
CSL though they put great efforts to maintain it. Secondly, all of the participants shared the
same opinion that CSL helped them to improve social skills and gain valuable knowledge of the
society. Importantly, students mostly agreed with three key factors to CSL’s success and
durability: the requirement of CSL coordinators who connect all parties together and manage
CSL activities; teachers’ dedication and teaching ability; the right evaluation of community’s
need. Finally, most of participants agreed that they sometimes find hard to cope with other pre-
service teachers who have different expectations of CSL.
5. Discussion and implications
5.1. Discussion
The findings from the questionnaire concluded that CSL has a great effect on pre-service
teachers’ practice and it should be implemented as a supplemental teaching method besides
traditional learning programs. In particular, there was a high level of participants’ agreement
with the items in Cluster 1, which was in line with the study by Williams (2009) and her
colleagues: service provided meets the needs of the people they serve and brought a plentiful
experience for all participants. Another agreement is that CSL should be taken into account by
principals and conducted with the supports from CSL coordinators. Without their help, all
respondents claimed, they would have faced numerous problems such as lack of consistent
organization and local interaction. This finding matched with the results in the study of Guo
(2013), stating that CSL needs the collaboration from all parties. The pre-service teachers also
concurred with the idea that the most important contributions to CSL success were teachers’
passion and enthusiasm. In addition, there is no significant disparity among the clusters, except
for cluster 4 which implies that problems encountered during the program are not the most
affecting factors and variables to participants.
However, there were different points of view regarding implementing CSL mandatorily
in universities in the interview. Most of the interviewees had objections to this proposal because
it could lead to the unwillingness and ineffective outcomes. The responses from participants
showed that students would feel annoyed and only attend the CSL with personal purposes.
Interestingly, all participants concur with the idea that CSL should be regarded as an
extracurricular activity in university curriculums. When CSL is used as a pedagogical tool, the
students may pay more attention and spend a significant amount of their time and attempts to
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serve programs with higher responsibilities. Although students encountered some obstacles
during the program, these limitations can be considered as a part of the learning process, which
encourages them to show their high level of performance.
5.2. Implications
The positive feedbacks from CSL participants have proven the essential importance and
effectiveness of the CSL program. The following implications aim to provide the most sufficient
insight into CSL’s reality and some solutions to implement CSL more extensively and
effectively.
5.2.1. Implications for organizations conducting CSL
It can be seen from the findings that students in general, pre-service teachers, in particular,
should be encouraged to participate in this program as a kind of learning due to the lack of
professional practice time. Students may feel reluctant to participate and make CSL lose its
original purpose; this kind of learning thus should be added into the current curriculum like an
extracurricular activity which can get more students involved in and provide high-quality service.
Additionally, as the lack of supports was seen as the biggest difficulty, all related
organizations, from authorities to universities, should give more supports for these projects and
make efforts to popularize them to people. There should be coordinators who are eligible for
managing CSL activities and connecting students to the community as well as universities. Once
CSL programs are applied officially, they will have valuable contributions to society, universities,
and students.
5.2.2. Implications for pre-service teachers
Firstly, students should have a proper conceptualization of the term CSL before
participating. One anticipated problem before conducting this research is that students do not have
a certain understanding of this kind of education. CSL is usually known as voluntary work and the
community is supposed to be the only object benefiting from CSL. Therefore, students should be
made aware of the CSL purposes before taking part in it. Once they understand that CSL not only
brings benefits to the community but also helps them to improve personal skills like a learning
program, they can be more willing to contribute to CSL.
Secondly, pre-service teachers should always train themselves to gain the best knowledge
and pedagogical competence. Within this context, the program aims to help poor students
overcome some of their prejudice about English and get closer to this subject, so teachers must
try their best to bring valuable lessons to their students and maintain learners’ interests. In
addition, this program has met a variety of difficulties due to the mixed level, learning styles
and different ages of students. Teachers hence must have the ability to solve these problems
with necessary teaching skills and the application of diverse activities. Another important aspect
is the teachers’ passion. Teaching charity classes is a durable process that requires lots of
responsibility from participants. Therefore, teachers must identify their goals clearly before
conducting and keep going in the long term.
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6. Conclusion
Conducted at some charitable classes in Hue city, the research aimed to find out the
perception of students who are going to become in-service teachers towards CSL and the
essential factors to maintain this kind of learning. From the findings of the questionnaire and the
interview, the research went to some following conclusions. Firstly, the high level of agreement
showed that CSL plays a significant role in connecting students with universities and the
community. Secondly, participants showed high awareness of the huge benefits that community,
universities and students received after conducting CSL. Apart from that, pre-service teachers
indicated that the problems they encountered during the program were not the most affecting
factors which depended on each participant’s condition. Most students agreed that CSL should
be taken into accounts by principals and conducted with the supports from CSL coordinators.
Without the help from them, all students claimed, they would have faced numerous problems
such as lack of consistent organization and local interaction. The pre-service teachers also
passion and enthusiasm.
However, the proposal relating to implementing CSL as a requirement at schools should
be discussed and conducted carefully. Once students understand that CSL not only brings
benefits to the community but also improve their personal skills, they can be more willing to
contribute to CSL.
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TRIỂN KHAI HỌC TẬP PHỤC VỤ CỘNG ĐỒNG CHO GIÁO VIÊN
TRƯỚC KHI DẠY HỌC: TRƯỜNG HỢP
TẠI TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ, ĐẠI HỌC HUẾ
Tóm tắt: Thuật ngữ Học Tập Phục Vụ Cộng Đồng (HTPVCĐ) được biết đến như một
chương trình học hiệu quả giúp sinh viên thực hiện được những bài tập có tính phản biện
hơn. Nhờ tính thực tiễn của nó, HTPVCĐ được xem như một trong những sự hỗ trợ hiệu
quả nhất cho những giáo viên trước khi dạy học (GVTRDH) và đã dần phát triển trong thời
gian qua. Do đó, nghiên cứu này có mục tiêu điều tra thái độ của những GVTRDH đối với
HTPVCĐ cũng như nhằm nâng cao nhận thức của họ đối với việc dạy học cộng đồng, bên
cạnh đó tìm ra các giải pháp mở rộng chương trình này. Từ những mục tiêu trên, bảng hỏi
đã được sử dụng nhằm giúp tác giả có thể dễ dàng tìm hiểu được thái độ, những khó khăn
và nhu cầu của sinh viên. Bên cạnh đó, phỏng vấn bán cấu trúc được tiến hành để có cái
nhìn sâu hơn về những vấn đề tồn tại của HTPVCĐ. Sau khi tiến hành nghiên cứu, những
kết quả chính bước đầu thể hiện rằng các GVTKDH nhận thức khá tốt về tính cần thiết và
những lợi ích mà HTPVCĐ mang lại. Hai là, kết quả cho thấy những vấn đề gặp phải trong
suốt chương trình và sự thiếu hỗ trợ cần được chú ý xem xét. Ngoài ra, GVTKDH cũng tán
thành rằng một trong những yếu tố quan trọng dẫn tới sự thành công của HTPVCĐ là tính
kiên trì của giáo viên. Đáng thú vị là, những người tham gia đã đưa ra những quan điểm
khác nhau khi họ được hỏi về việc có nên đưa HTPVCĐ vào chương trình học bắt buộc hay
không. Từ những giới hạn được nêu ra, nghiên cứu gợi ý những cân nhắc kỹ về cộng đồng,
các trường đại học và GVTKDH. Cuối cùng, một vài đề xuất cho những nghiên cứu sau
cũng được cung cấp để hi vọng có thể giúp HTPVCĐ trở nên rộng rãi và hiệu quả hơn.
Từ khóa: Học tập phục vụ cộng đồng, học tập - phục vụ, giáo viên trước khi dạy
308
PHÁT HUY NĂNG LỰC TỰ HỌC, TỰ SÁNG TẠO

CHO HỌC VIÊN HỌC TIẾNG NGA CHUYÊN NGÀNH
TẠI HỌC VIỆN KỸ THUẬT QUÂN SỰ
THÔNG QUA PHƯƠNG PHÁP DỰ ÁN
Trương Thị Dung*
Học viện Kỹ thuật Quân sự
Nhận bài: 30/08/2019; Hoàn thành phản biện: 20/09/2019; Duyệt đăng: 25/12/2019
Tóm tắt: Nhận thức rõ vai trò, tầm quan trọng của tiếng Nga đối với nhiệm vụ xây dựng
Quân đội, bảo vệ Tổ quốc, những năm gần đây việc dạy và học ngôn ngữ này tại Học viện
Kỹ thuật Quân sự luôn là một trong những vấn đề được quan tâm hàng đầu. Mục tiêu cuối
cùng là trang bị cho học viên kĩ năng đọc hiểu tài liệu tiếng Nga chuyên ngành. Để nâng
cao chất lượng dạy và học, đội ngũ giảng viên cũng không ngừng học tập, nâng cao trình
độ, đổi mới phương pháp giảng dạy. Một trong những phương pháp đang được đánh giá là
phù hợp và có khả năng phát huy những thế mạnh của học viên học viện Kỹ thuật Quân sự
là phương pháp dự án. Bài viết dưới đây đề cập đến phương pháp dự án như một công cụ
phát huy năng lực tự học, tự sáng tạo của học viên Học viện Kỹ thuật Quân sự khi học tiếng
Nga chuyên ngành, mô tả các giai đoạn chính, các hoạt động và kết quả ứng dụng thực tế
của phương pháp dự án.
Từ khóa: Tiếng Nga, tiếng Nga chuyên ngành, dạy và học ngoại ngữ, phương pháp giảng
dạy, phương pháp dự án
1. Mở đầu
Tại Học viện Kỹ thuật Quân sự (HVKTQS) tiếng Nga được giảng dạy như một môn học
bắt buộc đối với hầu hết các chuyên ngành đào tạo. Sau khi hoàn thành chương trình tiếng Nga
trình độ B1, học viên chuyển sang học tiếng Nga chuyên ngành. Căn cứ thời lượng thực tế (45
tiết) dành cho môn học và mục tiêu cuối cùng của việc học ngoại ngữ (tiếng Nga) tại HVKTQS,
việc trang bị kĩ năng, kĩ xảo đọc hiểu các văn bản tiếng Nga chuyên ngành cho học viên được
coi là nhiệm vụ được ưu tiên hàng đầu. Trên cơ sở phân tích các điều kiện dạy-học tiếng Nga tại
HVKTQS, chúng tôi cho rằng, phương pháp phù hợp mà có thể phát huy những điểm mạnh và
khắc phục những khó khăn trong giảng dạy môn tiếng Nga chuyên ngành tại HVKTQS là
phương pháp dự án.
2. Cơ sở lý luận
Theo các nhà nghiên cứu Koll (1997), Apel và Knoll (2001), Bastian và Gujons (1991),
khái niệm dự án bắt nguồn từ lĩnh vực kinh tế và được đưa vào sử dụng trong lĩnh vực giáo dục
- đào tạo như một phương pháp hay hình thức dạy học (Lê Khoa, 2015). Về phương pháp dạy
học theo dự án đã có nhiều quan điểm định nghĩa khác nhau. Nhà lí luận người Mỹ - Kilpatrick
nhấn mạnh vào hai đặc điểm của phương pháp dự án là định hướng vào sự hứng thú và tính tích
cực cao của người học. Frey - nhà sư phạm người Đức lại nhấn mạnh tới đặc điểm tạo ra sản
phẩm của phương pháp này (Lê Khoa, 2015). Tác giả Nguyễn Văn Cường viết: “Dạy học
* Email: tiengngadung@gmail.com
309
Project hay dạy học theo dự án là một hình thức dạy học, trong đó người học dưới sự điều khiển
và giúp đỡ của giáo viên tự lực giải quyết một nhiệm vụ học tập mang tính phức hợp không chỉ
về mặt lí thuyết mà cả về mặt thực hành thông qua đó tạo ra các sản phẩm có thể giới thiệu,
công bố được” (Nguyễn Văn Cường, 1997). Cùng quan điểm với Nguyễn Văn Cường sau này
có Nguyễn Thị Diệu Thảo (2009) và Đỗ Hương Trà (2011). Tuy nhiên, Đỗ Hương Trà nhấn
mạnh thêm đến vị trí trung tâm của người học trong quá trình dạy-học: “Dạy học theo phương
pháp dự án đặt học sinh vào vai trò tích cực như: người giải quyết vấn đề, người ra quyết định”
và người học thường thực hiện các dự án học tập thông qua hình thức làm việc nhóm (Lê Khoa,
2015). Trên cơ sở các quan điểm đó, chúng tôi cho rằng, bản chất của phương pháp dạy học
theo dự án chính là: người học là trung tâm của quá trình dạy-học; giáo viên là người hướng
dẫn, giúp đỡ, khuyến khích người học thực hiện các dự án học tập; làm việc nhóm là hình thức
học tập chủ yếu; mục tiêu của các dự án học tập là tạo ra các sản phẩm.
Cho đến nay việc ứng dụng phương pháp dạy học theo dự án vào dạy-học ngoại ngữ đã
được nhiều nhà khoa học quan tâm, nghiên cứu và đã đạt được những kết quả tích cực nhất định.
Điều đó được trình bày trong các nghiên cứu của Stoller (2006) tại Đại học Cambridge University
Press, Beckett (2002) G. H. tại Canada, Ibrahim Farouck (2016) tại Đại học Thương mại Otaru,
Nhật Bản, Almeida Mendex (2011) tại Hàn Quốc,... tại Việt Nam có Nguyen Thi Van Lam (2011)
tại Đại học Vinh, Nguyễn Thị Thanh Thanh (2010) tại trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Đà
Nẵng,... Tuy nhiên, ứng dụng phương pháp dự án vào dạy và học ngoại ngữ chuyên ngành cho
sinh viên các trường đại học kỹ thuật trong quân đội hiện còn là vấn đề mới mẻ.
3. Phương pháp nghiên cứu
Trong nghiên cứu này chúng tôi lựa chọn phương pháp nghiên cứu hành động, bao gồm
bốn bước: bước 1- xác định vấn đề cần giải quyết; bước 2- đề xuất giải pháp can thiệp; bước 3-
đưa giải pháp can thiệp vào thực nghiệm; bước 4- đánh giá kết quả thực nghiệm.
3.1. Xác định vấn đề
Vấn đề giảng dạy tiếng Nga chuyên ngành tại HVKTQS vẫn còn mang tính truyền thống
khi việc giảng dạy tập trung vào cung cấp kiến thức hơn là phát triển năng lực tự học. Mặt khác,
cải cách phương pháp học nhằm phát triển năng lực đọc hiểu tiếng Nga chuyên ngành của học
viên đôi khi bị lãng quên. Đặc biệt, quá trình dạy-học còn phụ thuộc nhiều vào vai trò của giáo
viên. Đó là lý do mà chúng tôi nhận thấy năng lực đọc hiểu tiếng Nga chuyên ngành của học
viên chưa đạt được kết quả mong muốn. Để kiểm chứng vấn đề này, chúng tôi đã tiến hành một
cuộc thăm dò với giáo viên và học viên học tiếng Nga tại khoa Ngoại ngữ - HVKTQS. Kết quả
thăm dò đã chỉ ra, 90% số học viên được hỏi cho rằng việc đọc hiểu các văn bản tiếng Nga
chuyên ngành là cần thiết, 85% cảm thấy kết quả học đọc hiểu tiếng Nga chuyên ngành phụ
thuộc nhiều vào giáo viên và có 93% đưa ra câu trả lời là mong muốn được cải thiện kỹ năng
đọc hiểu. Kết quả thăm dò với giáo viên giảng dạy cũng cho thấy 100% giáo viên đồng ý với ý
kiến rằng phương pháp giảng dạy, công nghệ giảng dạy ảnh hưởng đến việc dạy-học ngoại ngữ
hiện nay. Tuy nhiên, không phải tất cả các giáo viên đều sử dụng các phương pháp tích cực
trong giảng dạy đọc hiểu các văn bản tiếng Nga chuyên ngành mặc dù họ có hiểu biết về các
phương pháp dạy học đó.
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3.2. Đề xuất giải pháp can thiệp

Phân tích đặc điểm dạy-học tiếng Nga chuyên ngành tại HVKTQS chúng tôi nhận thấy có
nhiều điều kiện thuận lợi để áp dụng phương pháp dạy học theo dự án. Thứ nhất, học viên sống,
học tập, rèn luyện và sinh hoạt theo các chế độ đã quy định nên họ có thời gian biểu trong ngày
gần giống nhau. Đây là điều kiện thuận lợi để các học viên sắp xếp thời gian làm việc nhóm; thứ
hai, học viên sống tập trung trong cùng một doanh trại, thông thường các học viên học cùng một
lớp được bố trí ở các phòng gần nhau trong doanh trại và khoảng bốn học viên ở một phòng.
Điều này giúp học viên thuận lợi trong việc gặp gỡ, trao đổi học thuật, tiếp nhận thông tin từ
giáo viên một cách nhanh chóng, chính xác; thứ ba, trước khi vào học tại HVKTQS, các học
viên đã trải qua sáu tháng rèn luyện tân binh nên hầu hết học viên đã rèn luyện được tính kỷ
luật, nghiêm túc, tự giác trong sinh hoạt, học tập, rèn luyện; thứ tư, bên cạnh giáo viên duy trì
giờ giấc, nền nếp học tập của học viên còn có cán bộ quản lí làm nhiệm vụ kiểm tra, giám sát.
Vì vậy giáo viên hoàn toàn không phải lo lắng việc học viên có lên lớp đầy đủ, đúng giờ hay
không, có hoàn thành bài tập về nhà trước khi đến lớp hay không, v.v.; thứ năm, học viên
HVKTQS được miễn phí hoàn toàn học phí, được đảm bảo đầy đủ về quân tư trang cho sinh
hoạt và học tập. Ngoài ra, hàng tháng mỗi học viên còn được nhận một khoản phụ cấp nhất
định. Điều này, ít nhiều giúp học viên HVKTQS yên tâm học tập, và có thể mua sắm các đồ
dùng học tập cần thiết; thứ sáu, tại HVKTQS hiện nay có hai phòng học được trang bị máy tính
(54 chiếc) cài các phần mềm học tiếng Nga tiên tiến, có kết nối internet dành riêng cho học viên
học tiếng Nga do giáo viên khoa Ngoại ngữ quản lí. Điều này góp phần hỗ trợ học viên về
không gian cũng như công cụ học tập; thứ bảy, đội ngũ giáo viên trẻ, năng động, dễ dàng tiếp
cận với các phương pháp dạy học mới. Phần lớn trong số họ tốt nghiệp hoặc có trải qua các
khóa thực tập nâng cao nghiệp vụ sư phạm tại các trường Đại học của Liên bang Nga. Câu hỏi
nghiên cứu được đặt ra là: Liệu có sự tiến bộ đối với học viên học ngoại ngữ tiếng Nga tại
HVKTQS trong việc đọc hiểu các văn bản tiếng Nga chuyên ngành nếu giáo viên giảng dạy
theo phương pháp dự án hay không?
3.3. Đưa giải pháp can thiệp vào thực nghiệm
Để kiểm chứng hiệu quả của phương pháp dạy học theo dự án đối với dạy đọc hiểu tiếng
Nga chuyên ngành, năm học 2018-2019 chúng tôi có đề nghị áp dụng phương pháp này vào dạy
cho lớp Xe quân sự. Tiến trình dạy học được xây dựng dựa trên lí luận về phương pháp dạy học
theo dự án đã được các nhà khoa học nghiên cứu và trình bày trong các tài liệu khoa học. Theo
đó, có khá nhiều quan điểm khác nhau về sự phân chia các giai đoạn trong tiến trình thực hiện:
như K. Frey xây dựng tiến trình gồm có các bước: sáng kiến dự án, thảo luận về sáng kiến, lập
kế hoạch, thực hiện dự án, kết thúc dự án và đi đôi với nó còn có phần kiểm tra, trao đổi và điều
chỉnh trong quá trình thực hiện dự án; Tác giả Đỗ Hương Trà phân chia tiến trình dạy học dự án
thành các pha: chuẩn bị, thực hiện và khai thác một cách sư phạm các hoạt động học sinh thực
hiện trong quá trình tương tác giữa họ và đặc biệt là tương tác với mạng tin học. Trong luận án
tiến sĩ của mình, tác giả Lê Khoa xây dựng quy trình dạy học theo dự án gồm ba bước: chuẩn bị
dự án, thực hiện dự án và đánh giá dự án (Lê Khoa, 2015). Khi ứng dụng phương pháp dạy học
dự án vào dạy đọc hiểu văn bản tiếng Nga chuyên ngành cho học viên tại HVKTQS chúng tôi
tiếp thu các ý kiến của các nhà khoa học, tuy nhiên có sửa đổi cho phù hợp với đặc thù môn học
và điều kiện học tập. Tiến trình thực hiện cụ thể như sau:
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Bước 1: Chuẩn bị dự án
- Giáo viên gợi ý học viên lựa chọn đề tài cho dự án học tập. Đề tài đó học viên có thể tự do lựa
chọn nhưng phải đảm bảo phù hợp với nội dung, chương trình môn học. Ví dụ, khi dạy đọc hiểu
các văn bản tiếng Nga chuyên ngành Xe quân sự, chúng tôi có gợi ý học viên chọn một trong
các chủ đề để làm đề tài dự án. Đó có thể là: Dự án tìm hiểu về xe bán phà GSP (Гусеничный
самоходный паром ГСП), dự án tìm hiểu về Xe khắc phục vật cản IMR-2M (Инженерная
машина разграждения ИМР-2М), dự án tìm hiểu về Máy ủi B12 (Бульдозер Б-12), dự án tìm
hiểu Xe vượt sông PTS-2 (Плавающий гусеничный транспортер ПТС-2)...
- Học viên lựa chọn thành viên để lập nhóm, thống nhất lựa chọn đề tài, thảo luận và đưa ra mục
tiêu dự án, các hướng giải quyết, những công việc cụ thể cần thực hiện, thời gian thực hiện,
người thực hiện, phương pháp thực hiện, v.v.
- Giáo viên hướng dẫn học viên lập kế hoạch thực hiện dự án, định hướng mỗi nhóm có thể lựa
chọn một loại xe quân sự và khai thác các khía cạnh về: lịch sử xuất hiện, vai trò, cấu tạo, đặc
tính kỹ thuật, nguyên tắc hoạt động, sử dụng trong điều kiện chiến đấu, bảo dưỡng, bảo trì...
Giáo viên gợi ý phương thức trình bày sản phẩm có thể là: thuyết trình, quay video clip, phỏng
vấn, tổ chức gameshow, hoặc làm sản phẩm mô hình... tài liệu tham khảo là giáo trình, tài liệu
do giáo viên cung cấp và tự khai thác các nguồn khác nhau.
Bước 2: Thực hiện dự án
- Các nhóm bắt tay vào nghiên cứu, tìm kiếm, thu thập thêm tài liệu, tập trung vào thực hiện
nhiệm vụ được giao, thường xuyên thảo luận báo cáo tiến độ công việc, đánh giá, chỉnh sửa để
đạt được mục tiêu của dự án, tạo ra sản phẩm dự án có chất lượng.
- Giáo viên theo dõi tiến độ làm việc, giải quyết những thắc mắc của các nhóm, khuyến khích
các nhóm thực hiện dự án nghiêm túc, chất lượng, đúng tiến độ. Ở giai đoạn này giáo viên cần
tôn trọng kế hoạch đã xây dựng của các nhóm, cần tạo điều kiện cho học viên làm chủ hoạt
động học tập của mình.
Bước 3: Hoàn thành dự án
- Các nhóm hoàn thiện sản phẩm và báo cáo sản phẩm trước giáo viên và tập thể lớp. Sau phần
trình bày của mỗi nhóm, các nhóm khác và giáo viên nhận xét, bổ sung, đánh giá, cho điểm.
- Học viên cũng tự đánh giá mình và đánh giá các thành viên khác trong nhóm của mình theo
các tiêu chí: thái độ làm việc, mức độ đóng góp, chất lượng công việc.
- Giáo viên nhận xét, đánh giá, rút kinh nghiệm toàn bộ quá trình thực hiện dự án và sản phẩm
của các dự án. Tuyên dương các nhóm có thái độ làm việc nghiêm túc, các dự án có sản phẩm
chất lượng. Rút kinh nghiệm các học viên còn chưa tập trung vào thực hiện nhiệm vụ của dự án.
Môn học tiếng Nga chuyên ngành tại HVKTQS gồm 45 tiết được giảng dạy trong 15
tuần, mỗi tuần một buổi, mỗi buổi ba tiết. 13 tiết đầu (tương đương 5 buổi học) chúng tôi giới
thiệu cho học viên về từ vựng và ngữ pháp đặc trưng của văn bản tiếng Nga chuyên ngành kĩ
thuật quân sự. Học viên sẽ được làm quen, củng cố, ghi nhớ, luyện tập các thuật ngữ quân sự và
các thuật ngữ chuyên ngành hẹp, phân tích, dịch ra tiếng mẹ đẻ các câu chứa các cấu trúc ngữ
pháp đặc trưng thông qua các dạng bài tập khác nhau. Nghĩa là học viên được trang bị các kĩ
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năng ngôn ngữ (từ vựng, ngữ pháp) chuẩn bị cho giai đoạn đọc hiểu tiếp theo. Sau khi kết thúc
13 tiết đầu tiên, giáo viên giới thiệu cho học viên về phương pháp dự án (2 tiết). Trong hai tiết
học này, giáo viên và học viên cần thực hiện xong giai đoạn chuẩn bị dự án. Học viên thực hiện
dự án trong thời gian 8 tuần. Tuần thứ 9 và tuần thứ 10 là thời gian hoàn thành dự án.
3.4. Kết quả thực nghiệm
Sau thời gian 8 tuần thực hiện, 100% các nhóm hoàn thành mục tiêu dự án, có sản phẩm
trình bày trước giáo viên và tập thể lớp. Để đánh giá kết quả thực hiện dự án của học viên,
chúng tôi xây dựng các tiêu chí đánh giá về hai mặt: đánh giá năng lực đọc hiểu các văn bản
tiếng Nga chuyên ngành và đánh giá thái độ học tập, mức độ đóng góp thực hiện các dự án. Với
môn học tiếng Nga chuyên ngành, việc đánh giá năng lực đọc hiểu chính là đánh giá khả năng
tự vận dụng kiến thức ngôn ngữ (từ vựng, ngữ pháp) đã được trang bị vào giải quyết những khó
khăn gặp phải trong khi đọc, khả năng hiểu chính xác nội dung các văn bản chuyên ngành, khả
năng phân tích, truyền tải thông tin sang tiếng mẹ đẻ... Nội dung đánh giá này do các giáo viên
phụ trách lớp trực tiếp thực hiện. Việc đánh giá khả năng sáng tạo, thái độ làm việc, mức độ
đóng góp vào dự án được học viên tự thực hiện và các bạn cùng nhóm đánh giá lẫn nhau. Để có
thêm cơ sở kết luận hiệu quả của việc dạy đọc hiểu văn bản tiếng Nga chuyên ngành cho học
viên tại HVKTQS theo phương pháp dự án sau khi hoàn thành môn học, chúng tôi tiến hành lấy
ý kiến người học và giáo viên giảng dạy.
Kết quả cuộc khảo sát thu được như sau:
- 10/10 học viên được hỏi tỏ ra hứng thú hoặc rất hứng thú với việc thực hiện dự án đọc hiểu các
tài liệu tiếng Nga chuyên ngành;
- Việc thực hiện các dự án học tập giúp cải thiện:
+ Kĩ năng phát hiện và tự giải quyết vấn đề (7/10),
+ Kĩ năng làm việc nhóm (10/10),
+ Kĩ năng thu thập, xử lí tài liệu (7/10),
+ Khả năng tư duy phản biện (7/10),
+ Khả năng đưa ra nhiều phương án để giải quyết một vấn đề (8/10).
Tuy nhiên, các học viên cũng đề cập đến những khó khăn khi thực hiện dự án học tập là:
việc thực hiện các dự án học tập đòi hỏi phải:
+ Đầu tư nhiều thời gian (7/10),
+ Có kiến thức liên môn tốt như hiểu biết nhất định về chuyên ngành bằng tiếng mẹ đẻ (10/10),
+ Sử dụng thành thạo máy vi tính (6/10),
+ Sử dụng thành thạo các công cụ tìm kiếm, xử lí tài liệu (8/10),
+ Có kĩ năng làm việc nhóm (10/10),
+ Tự đưa ra quyết định và tự chịu trách nhiệm (10/10).
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Khi được hỏi, giáo viên giảng dạy cho rằng, các dự án học viên thực hiện đã đạt được
mục tiêu dạy học. Cụ thể là:
Về kiến thức: Sau khi thực hiện xong các dự án, học viên học được các kiến thức về các
loại xe-máy quân sự như: lịch sử xuất hiện, vai trò, cấu tạo, đặc tính kỹ thuật, nguyên tắc hoạt
động, sử dụng trong điều kiện chiến đấu, bảo dưỡng, bảo trì...
Về kĩ năng: Học viên biết vận dụng các kiến thức ngôn ngữ, các kiến thức liên môn đã
học vào đọc, phân tích, tóm tắt, chuyển tải nội dung văn bản tiếng Nga chuyên ngành sang tiếng
mẹ đẻ, xây dựng các bài báo cáo, trình bày, nêu được các vấn đề cần nghiên cứu, giải quyết
được các vấn đề đó... Mặc dù sản phẩm đôi chỗ chuyển dịch sang tiếng mẹ đẻ còn gượng gạo,
chưa thoát ý, song cũng thể hiện sự cố gắng, nỗ lực của các nhóm để đạt được mục tiêu dự án.
Về thái độ: Học sinh có hứng thú, có trách nhiệm với việc thực hiện dự án học tập, tích
cực tìm kiếm, xử lí tài liệu, hợp tác, lắng nghe và tiếp thu ý kiến góp ý của của giáo viên, cũng
như đồng đội.
Tuy nhiên, giáo viên cũng đưa ra các hạn chế khi giảng dạy theo phương pháp dự án đối
với kĩ năng đọc hiểu văn bản tiếng Nga chuyên ngành là: thay vì cung cấp kiến thức một lần cho
tất cả lớp thì giáo viên cần nhiều thời gian hơn để hướng dẫn từng nhóm học viên thu thập, xử lí
tài liệu, hoàn thành dự án, báo cáo, trình bày dự án, đánh giá từng dự án... Liên tục động viên
học viên hoàn thành dự án đúng tiến độ, đảm bảo chất lượng.
4. Kết quả nghiên cứu, thảo luận và khuyến nghị
Như vậy, kết quả thực nghiệm đã phần nào phản ánh được hiệu quả của việc ứng dụng
phương pháp dự án vào dạy-học đọc các văn bản tiếng Nga chuyên ngành tại HVKTQS. Kết
quả thực nghiệm cho thấy phương pháp này phù hợp với các điều kiện dạy và học tại môi
trường quân đội cụ thể là HVKTQS, phù hợp với đặc điểm tâm lí của học viên. Đây là cơ sở
thực tiễn để chúng tôi xây dựng khung phương pháp làm tài liệu giảng dạy cho giáo viên, cũng
như công cụ học tập cho học viên học tiếng Nga chuyên ngành tại HVKTQS.
Một số ý kiến đề xuất nhằm nâng cao chất lượng dạy và học tiếng Nga chuyên ngành tại
HVKTQS là:
Về phía giáo viên: Thống nhất việc đổi mới phương pháp giảng dạy theo hướng phát huy
tính chủ động, tích cực, tự học, tự nghiên cứu. Mặt khác giáo viên cũng cần quan tâm hơn đến
việc hướng dẫn phương pháp học ngoại ngữ cho học viên để giảm bớt các khó khăn về tâm lý
cũng như ngôn ngữ khi tiếp cận với ngôn ngữ mới, phương pháp dạy học mới ở bậc đại học.
Về phía học viên: Cần hình thành phương pháp tự học ngoại ngữ bằng cách rèn luyện các
kỹ năng làm việc nhóm, kĩ năng phát hiện và tự giải quyết vấn đề, kĩ năng thu thập, xử lí tài
liệu, kĩ năng phản biện, bảo vệ ý kiến,...
5. Kết luận
Nhìn chung kết quả nghiên cứu đã đáp ứng những mong đợi và trả lời được câu hỏi
nghiên cứu, góp phần vào nghiên cứu đa ngành, đạt được các mục tiêu nghiên cứu đã đề ra.
Đóng góp của nghiên cứu theo chúng tôi quan trọng nhất là: trên cơ sở ứng dụng phương pháp
dạy học theo dự án, học viên đã có những tiến bộ nhất định trong việc đọc hiểu các tài liệu tiếng
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Nga chuyên ngành, phục vụ các mục tiêu học ngoại ngữ lâu dài. Tuy nhiên, nghiên cứu này vẫn
chưa được hoàn chỉnh do chưa thể đưa vào thử nghiệm đại chúng. Đó là lý do chúng tôi mong
muốn có thể tiếp tục hướng nghiên cứu này trong tương lai.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Almeida-Mendes, M.P. (2017). Project-based learning in foreign language classes for Korean students.
Russian Linguistic Bulletin, 3(11),17-19.
Apel, H.J., & Knoll, M. (2001). Aus Projiekten lernen. Grundlegung und anregungen. Munchen :
Oldenburg.
Bastian, J., & Gujons, H. (1991). Das Projektbuch. Theorie - praxisbeispiele - erfahrungen. Hamburg.
Beckett, G.H. (2002). Teacher and student evaluations of project-based instruction. TESL Canada
Journal, 19(2), 52-66.
Đỗ Hương Trà (2011). Các kiểu tổ chức dạy học hiện đại trong dạy học vật lí ở trường phổ thông. NXB
Đại học Sư phạm.
Farouck, I. (2016). A project-based language learning model for improving the willingness to
communicate of EFL students. Proceedings of IMCIC-ICSIT 2016, 145-150. Retrieved from:
http://www.iiis.org/CDs2016/CD2016Spring/papers /EB193TO.pdf.
Ibrahim, F. (2016). A project-based language learning model for improving the willingness to
communicate of EFL students. Systemics, Cybernetics and Informatics, 14(2), 11-18.
Kilpatrick, W.H. (1918). The project method: The use of the purposeful act in the education process.
Teachers College Record, 19, 319-335.
Knoll, M. (1997). The project method: Its vocational education origin and international development.
Journal of Industrial Teacher Education, 34(3), 59-80.
Lê Khoa (2015). Vận dụng phương pháp dạy học theo dự án trong dạy học kiến thức về sản xuất và sử
dụng điện năng cho học sinh trung học phổ thông. Đề tài cấp trường. Trường Đại học Sư phạm - Đại học
Thái Nguyên.
Nguyễn Thị Diệu Thảo (2009). Dạy học theo dự án và vận dụng trong đào tạo giáo viên Trung học cơ sở
môn công nghệ. Luận án Tiến sĩ. Trường Đại học Sư Phạm Hà Nội.
Nguyen Thi Van Lam (2011). Project-based learning in teaching English as a foreign language. Journal
VNU Journal of Science: Foreign Studies, 27, 140-146.
Nguyễn Văn Cường, & Meier, B. (2010). Một số vấn đề chung về đổi mới phương pháp dạy học ở trường
Trung học phổ thông. Dự án phát triển giáo dục Trung học phổ thông. Berlin - Hà Nội, Nxb GD Hà Nội.
Nguyễn Văn Cường (1997). Dạy học Project hay dạy học theo dự án. Thông báo khoa học, 3, 3-7.
Trường Đại học Sư phạm Hà Nội.
Stoller, F. (2006). Establishing a theoretical foundation for project-based learning in second and foreign
language contexts. In G.H. Beckett & P.C. Miller (Eds.), Project-based second and foreign language
education: Past, present, and future (pp. 19-40). Greenwich, Connecticut: Information Age Publishing.
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DEVELOPING SELF-STUDY ABILITIES OF STUDENTS WHO

STUDY RUSSIAN FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES AT MILITARY
TECHNOLOGY ACADEMY THROUGH PROJECT-BASED METHOD
Abstract: Thanks to the full awareness of the important role of Russian in the task of
building the Army and the Fatherland protection, the teaching and learning of this language
at Military Technical Academy has been one of the top issues in recent years. The final
purpose is to equip students with specialized Russian reading comprehension skills. In order
to improve the quality of teaching and learning, Russian lecturers also constantly learn,
improve their qualifications, and innovate teaching methods, etc. One of the methods
allegedly exerting positive effects when teaching Russian for specific purposes is the
project-based method. The following article refers to the project-based method as a tool to
promote self-learning and self-creation ability of students at Military Technical Academy
when studying Russian for specific purposes, describing the main stages and activities and
showing practical application results of this method.
Key words: Russian, Russian for specific purposes, teaching and learning foreign
languages, teaching methods, project-based method
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NGHIÊN CỨU CHIẾN LƯỢC ĐỌC HIỂU

CỦA SINH VIÊN TIẾNG ANH KHÔNG CHUYÊN
Huỳnh Thị Long Hà*; Nguyễn Thị Phương Lan;
Nguyễn Phạm Thanh Vân; Lê Thị Hồng Phương
Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Huế
Tóm tắt: Đọc hiểu là một trong những kỹ năng ngôn ngữ quan trọng nhất cần được phát
triển ở người học ngôn ngữ, vì “người học có thể sử dụng tài liệu đọc như một nguồn đầu
vào dễ hiểu” (Chastain, 1988, tr. 216). Tuy nhiên, để việc đọc hiểu có hiệu quả, người học
cần có những chiến lược đọc khác nhau cho những bài đọc khác nhau. Nghiên cứu này điều
tra các chiến lược đọc được sử dụng bởi sinh viên tiếng Anh không chuyên bậc 2/6 và bậc
3/6 tại trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Huế thông qua bảng khảo sát về các chiến lược
đọc (SORS) của Mokhtari và Reichard (2002). Nhìn chung, cả hai nhóm đều sử dụng các
chiến lược đọc hiểu ở mức độ trung bình. Nghiên cứu này cũng đưa ra một số gợi ý cho các
giáo viên và sinh viên trong quá trình dạy và học kỹ năng đọc tiếng Anh.
Từ khóa: Hiệu suất đọc, chiến lược đọc, trình độ tiếng Anh, sinh viên tiếng Anh không
chuyên
1. Mở đầu
Tiếng Anh không chỉ là một phương tiện giao tiếp mà còn là chìa khóa để tiếp cận những
thành tựu mới nhất của khoa học và công nghệ. Vì vậy, số lượng người Việt Nam muốn có trình
độ tiếng Anh tốt để thỏa mãn các nhu cầu trong công việc cũng như cuộc sống ngày càng tăng.
Tuy nhiên, ở Việt Nam, tiếng Anh được dạy và học trong môi trường không phải tiếng mẹ đẻ
nên kỹ năng đọc không những là một phương tiện quan trọng để có được kiến thức mà còn là
một phương tiện được sử dụng cho nhiều mục đích khác nhau như: học hỏi, tìm hiểu hay giải
trí. Bằng cách cải thiện khả năng đọc hiểu, người học cũng sẽ cải thiện khả năng viết và nói của
mình. Theo Carrell (1989), đối với nhiều sinh viên, đọc sách là kỹ năng quan trọng nhất trong
bốn kỹ năng học ngôn ngữ và được xem như là yếu tố cần thiết trong quá trình học tập suốt đời.
Sinh viên ngày nay không những cần lĩnh hội kiến thức và các lý thuyết từ các tài liệu đọc tiếng
Anh, mà còn phải đọc nhiều sách hoặc tạp chí bằng tiếng Anh để tiếp thu những kiến thức và
thông tin mới. Cải thiện năng lực đọc tiếng Anh sẽ rất cần thiết cho sinh viên phát triển các kỹ
năng ngôn ngữ khác cũng như việc lĩnh hội các kiến thức chuyên môn cần thiết.
Có rất nhiều nhân tố ảnh hưởng đến năng lực đọc hiểu tiếng Anh của sinh viên như loại văn
bản, môi trường trường đại học và môi trường xã hội, trí thông minh của sinh viên, động cơ học
tập, hay các phương pháp dạy học (Hsu, 2008), và một trong những nhân tố quan trọng là việc sử
dụng các chiến lược đọc hiểu của sinh viên. DeMoulin và Loye (1999) cho rằng sự phòng ngừa tốt
nhất cho các khó khăn về đọc hiểu là sự can thiệp sớm về các chiến lược, bởi vì độc giả của ngoại
ngữ hai có thể “bù đắp cho sự thiếu hụt năng lực tiếng Anh bằng cách sử dụng các chiến lược
tương tác, các kiến thức có sẵn, và nhận thức về sự lựa chọn các chiến lược của họ.”
*Email: htlongha@hueuni.edu.vn
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Với tầm quan trọng đó, rất nhiều nghiên cứu đã được thực hiện để khám phá bản chất của
việc đọc cũng như các yếu tố góp phần vào việc đọc hiểu thành công như nghiên cứu của Zhang
(2001), Mónos (2004), và Typamas (2012) về mối liên hệ giữa nhận thức về chiến lược đọc và
khả năng đọc. Các nghiên cứu chỉ ra rằng nhận thức của người đọc về việc sử dụng các chiến
lược đọc là một trong những nhân tố được nghiên cứu nhiều trong việc đọc của ngôn ngữ mẹ đẻ
cũng như ngôn ngữ thứ hai. Đọc là một quá trình xây dựng ý nghĩa tương tác tâm lý học, trong
đó người đọc sử dụng vô số chiến lược để đạt được sự hiểu biết. Việc áp dụng các chiến lược
đọc hiểu đã được chứng minh là mang lại kết quả tích cực trong việc nâng cao kĩ năng đọc hiểu
tiếng Anh.
Nghiên cứu này nhằm mục đích trả lời hai câu hỏi nghiên cứu sau đây:
1. Những chiến lược đọc hiểu nào được sinh viên tiếng Anh không chuyên tại trường Đại học
Ngoại Ngữ, Đại học Huế sử dụng trong quá trình đọc của mình và tần suất sử dụng các chiến
lược đó như thế nào?
2. Có sự khác biệt nào trong việc sử dụng các chiến lược đọc hiểu của sinh viên tiếng Anh
không chuyên ở bậc 2/6 và 3/6?
Mục đích của nghiên cứu là tìm hiểu các chiến lược đọc hiểu được sử dụng bởi sinh viên
các lớp tiếng Anh không chuyên bậc 2/6 và 3/6 tại trường Đại học Ngoại Ngữ, Đại học Huế,
đồng thời tìm hiểu sự khác nhau trong việc sử dụng các chiến lược này ở hai nhóm người học.
Ngoài ra, nghiên cứu còn đưa ra một số khuyến nghị về cách hướng dẫn các chiến lược đọc.
2.1. Khái niệm “đọc”
Thuật ngữ “đọc” được hiểu theo nhiều cách khác nhau bởi các học giả khác nhau. Anderson
(1999) đã đưa ra định nghĩa về khái niệm “đọc” rằng “đọc là một quá trình chủ động, thành thạo
liên quan đến người đọc và tài liệu đọc trong việc xây dựng ý nghĩa”. Đọc hiểu là một quá trình
nhận thông tin từ bối cảnh và kết hợp các yếu tố khác nhau thành một tổng thể mới. Đó là một quá
trình sử dụng kiến thức mà độc giả hiện có (schemata) để giải thích văn bản, để xây dựng ý nghĩa,
là một quá trình nhận thức của người đọc để tìm ra ý nghĩa từ một văn bản.
Aebersold và Field (1997) cho rằng đọc bao gồm ba yếu tố: người đọc, văn bản và sự
tương tác giữa người đọc và văn bản. Ông nêu rõ “đọc là những gì sẽ xảy ra khi người đọc nhìn
vào một văn bản và gán ý nghĩa cho những biểu tượng trong văn bản đó. Các văn bản và người
đọc là hai thực thể vật chất cần thiết cho quá trình đọc diễn ra. Tuy nhiên, chính sự tương tác
giữa văn bản và người đọc mới cấu thành nên ý nghĩa thực sự”.
Tóm lại, đọc là quá trình xây dựng ý nghĩa thông qua sự tương tác giữa người đọc với các
kiến thức hiện có, thông tin được đề xuất bởi ngôn ngữ viết và bối cảnh của người đọc. Theo
Dubin (1982) đọc sách dường như là kỹ năng ngôn ngữ dễ đạt được nhất dành cho sinh viên ở
những nước không nói tiếng Anh.
2.2. Các chiến lược đọc
Brantmeior (2002, tr. 1) định nghĩa các chiến lược đọc là “các quá trình tri nhận mà người
đọc sử dụng để hiểu điều họ đọc”. Các quá trình này có thể liên quan đến việc đọc lướt lấy ý
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chính, đọc lướt tìm ý chi tiết, phán đoán, nhận dạng các nhóm từ cùng gốc, dự đoán, vận dụng
kiến thức hiểu biết chung, suy luận, tham chiếu và phân biệt các ý chính với các ý bổ trợ. Theo
định nghĩa của O’Malley và Chamot (1990), các chiến lược đọc có thể được hiểu là “những suy
nghĩ hoặc hành vi đặc biệt mà các cá nhân sử dụng để giúp họ hiểu, học và lưu giữ thông tin
mới từ văn bản đọc”.
Chiến lược đọc được phân loại thành nhiều nhóm khác nhau. Ví dụ, Carrell (1989) phân
36 chiến lược thành hai loại: chiến lược đọc cục bộ và chiến lược đọc tổng thể. Trong khi các
chiến lược đọc cục bộ, còn được gọi là chiến lược từ dưới lên hoặc giải mã, đối phó với việc
giải mã ý nghĩa, chiến lược đọc tổng thể có liên quan đến các kiểu đọc từ trên xuống, bao gồm
cả việc đọc, sử dụng kiến thức nền và nhận thức về văn bản.
Rubin (1981) đã xác định hai nhóm chiến lược là gián tiếp và trực tiếp. Nhóm chiến lược
trực tiếp gồm sáu chiến lược là phân loại / xác minh, giám sát, ghi nhớ, phán đoán/suy luận quy
nạp, lập luận diễn dịch và thực hành. Còn hai chiến lược tạo cơ hội thực hành và thủ thuật trình
bày thuộc nhóm chiến lược gián tiếp. Tuy nhiên, hạn chế của cách phân loại này không bao gồm
các chiến lược xã hội và tình cảm. Bảng phân loại được xem là hữu ích nhất và được chấp nhận
rộng rãi là bảng phân loại các chiến lược đọc của O’Malley và Chamot (1990) trong bảng phân
loại của hai tác giả này, các chiến lược đọc có thể được phân loại thành 3 nhóm chính, bao gồm:
các chiến lược siêu nhận thức, các chiến lược nhận thức và các chiến lược tình cảm/xã hội.
Trong một nghiên cứu rất quan trọng của Anderson (1999), tác giả đã phát triển các chiến
lược đọc dành cho đọc hiểu để giúp người đọc đọc thành công hơn, ông chia chúng thành hai
nhóm, bao gồm chiến lược đọc nhận thức (tư duy) và chiến lược đọc siêu nhận thức. Các chiến
lược nhận thức đã được coi là các quá trình tinh thần liên quan trực tiếp đến việc xử lý thông tin
để học hỏi; bao gồm các chiến lược hiểu, chiến lược ghi nhớ, chiến lược truy xuất. Các chiến
lược có chức năng giám sát hoặc điều chỉnh các chiến lược nhận thức được gọi là chiến lược
siêu nhận thức. Nói cách khác, các chiến lược siêu nhận thức được sử dụng để lập kế hoạch,
theo dõi và điều chỉnh việc đọc khi nó xảy ra.
Dựa vào các phân loại của Carrell (1989) và Anderson (1999), Mokhtari và Reichard
(2002, tr. 4) phân loại các chiến lược đọc thành ba nhóm: chiến lược tổng thể, chiến lược giải
quyết vấn đề và chiến lược hỗ trợ. Các chiến lược tổng thể, còn được gọi là chiến lược siêu nhận
thức, được định nghĩa là các kỹ thuật được lên kế hoạch cẩn thận, theo kế hoạch cẩn thận, theo
đó người học theo dõi hoặc quản lý việc đọc của họ. Các chiến lược này nhằm mục đích thiết
lập giai đoạn để đọc, ví dụ, có một mục đích trong tâm trí để đọc, xem xét các đặc điểm văn bản
trước khi đọc. Các chiến lược giải quyết vấn đề, còn được gọi là chiến lược nhận thức, được bản
địa hóa và sử dụng khi gặp sự cố hay khi văn bản trở nên khó đọc, ví dụ, đọc lại và hiển thị
thông tin trong văn bản. Chiến lược hỗ trợ là các công cụ hỗ trợ để hỗ trợ sự hiểu biết như sử
dụng các tài liệu tham khảo bên ngoài và ghi chú.
Nói tóm lại, các chiến lược đọc có thể được xem là hành động có chủ ý mà người đọc chủ
động triển khai trong khi đọc để theo dõi quá trình đọc của chính họ và tránh những thất bại
trong việc hiểu, và do đó, để hoàn thành nhiệm vụ đọc. Các chiến lược đọc đã được phân loại
theo nhiều cách khác nhau, tuy nhiên, trong nghiên cứu hiện tại, sơ đồ phân loại của Mokhtari
và Sheorey (2002) sẽ được sử dụng.
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2.3. Những nghiên cứu liên quan đến việc sử dụng các chiến lược đọc hiểu của sinh viên
trong quá trình học ngoại ngữ
Từ những năm 1970, đã có sự quan tâm ngày càng tăng trong nghiên cứu về kỹ năng đọc
nói chung và độc giả sử dụng chiến lược nói riêng (Carrell, 1989). Nhiều nghiên cứu đã tìm thấy
bằng chứng hỗ trợ về mối tương quan tích cực giữa việc sử dụng chiến lược của người học ngôn
ngữ và khả năng đọc của họ.
Zhang (2001) nhận thấy rằng nhận thức về chiến lược và khả năng đọc có mối tương
quan đáng kể. Trong nghiên cứu của mình, những người học tiếng Anh được cho là có hiệu quả
đọc tốt hơn khi họ sử dụng các chiến lược khác nhau trong quá trình đọc của mình. Đặc biệt,
những độc giả đã xem xét và sử dụng hiệu quả các manh mối theo ngữ cảnh đã đạt được mức độ
hiểu cao hơn. Cụ thể, những người ghi điểm cao hơn trong nghiên cứu của Zhang (2001) đã chỉ
ra nhận thức của họ về sự phù hợp của việc áp dụng các chiến lược đọc nhất định để giải quyết
các khó khăn về đọc. Ví dụ: dịch sang tiếng mẹ đẻ và sử dụng từ điển để hiểu chi tiết về ý nghĩa
có xu hướng tránh bởi những sinh viên với khả năng đọc cao hơn bởi vì họ biết rằng những kỹ
thuật này sẽ có khả năng làm chậm tốc độ hiểu của họ. Các chiến lược như đọc lại, đoán ý nghĩa
từ ngữ cảnh và hợp tác với văn bản được sử dụng thường xuyên hơn bởi độc giả có khả năng
đọc tốt hơn. Do đó, Zhang đề nghị rằng đào tạo người đọc ngoại ngữ hai cách gọi các chiến lược
phù hợp và sử dụng chúng hiệu quả để hoàn thành các nhiệm vụ đọc phải là một trong những
vai trò quan trọng của giáo viên trong lớp.
Zhang và Wu (2009) đã thực hiện các nghiên cứu để đưa ra cái nhìn tổng thể về nhận
thức của sinh viên đại học và học sinh phổ thông tại Trung Quốc về các chiến lược đọc được sử
dụng, nhằm đưa ra các gợi ý để phát triển các chương trình cải thiện kỹ năng đọc. Kết quả tiết lộ
sinh viên nhận thức khá cao về tất cả các chiến lược trong khảo sát, với ưu tiên cho các chiến
lược giải quyết vấn đề, tiếp theo là các chiến lược tổng thể và hỗ trợ. Các kết quả tương tự cũng
được công nhận cho những người học tiếng Anh trưởng thành ở Thái Lan trong nghiên cứu của
Typamas (2012).
Ngoài ra, nhiều nghiên cứu cũng cung cấp những quan sát có giá trị về sở thích của người
học tiếng Anh như là ngoại ngữ hai về việc sử dụng các chiến lược đọc cá. Những người học
tiếng Ấn Độ thường sử dụng các chiến lược liên quan đến trực quan hóa thông tin từ văn bản,
đọc lại và điều chỉnh tốc độ đọc của họ. Mặt khác, họ hiếm khi nghĩ bằng cả tiếng Anh và
thường dịch từ tiếng Anh sang tiếng mẹ đẻ (Madhumathi & Ghosh, 2012). Một cách khác biệt,
các sinh viên học tiếng Anh chuyên ngành (ESP) của Iran lại thể hiện sự ưu tiên cao hơn cho
các chiến lược hỗ trợ như sử dụng tài liệu tham khảo, suy nghĩ bằng cả tiếng Anh, tiếng mẹ đẻ
và dịch thuật. Họ ít ưa thích các chiến lược như điều chỉnh tốc độ đọc, đọc to, đánh giá những gì
được đọc, sử dụng hình ảnh và phân biệt giữa những gì nên đọc kỹ và những gì nên bỏ qua
(Jafari & Ketabi, 2012). Sự đa dạng của các ưu tiên cho các loại chiến lược và chiến lược cá
nhân cho thấy rằng các hành vi chiến lược của những người học tiếng Anh có thể khác nhau
dưới ảnh hưởng của ngôn ngữ đầu tiên và nền tảng giáo dục và văn hóa của họ.
Trong bối cảnh Việt Nam, tác giả Nguyễn Thị Bích Thuỷ (2007) đã tiến hành một
nghiên cứu nhằm tìm hiểu các chiến lược nhận thức áp dụng trong đọc hiểu tiếng Anh của
sinh viên không chuyên ngữ. Nghiên cứu được thực hiện trên 180 sinh viên năm 1 không
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chuyên ngữ ở các trường đại học khác nhau tại Việt Nam. Kết quả của nghiên cứu chỉ ra rằng
có sự khác biệt lớn về số lượng và tần suất sử dụng các chiến lược đọc hiểu giữa sinh viên có
khả năng đọc hiểu tốt và sinh viên có khả năng đọc hiểu kém. Những sinh viên đọc hiểu tốt có
xu hướng sử dụng nhiều, đa dạng hơn các chiến lược đọc hiểu so với những sinh viên đọc
hiểu kém. Đồng thời, họ cũng sử dụng những chiến lược này một cách phù hợp và có hiệu quả
hơn. Kết quả tương tự cũng đã được tìm ra trong nghiên cứu khác được tác giả thực hiện năm
2018. Trong nghiên cứu này, tác giả đã phát hiện rằng cả hai nhóm sinh viên ESL và EFL
Việt Nam đều sử dụng các chiến lược đọc hiểu giống nhau, nhưng lại có sự khác biệt trong
thứ tự và mức độ thường xuyên của việc sử dụng các chiến lược đó; nhóm sinh viên ESL nhận
thức tốt hơn về tầm quan trọng của những chiến lược này và thích sử dụng chúng trong quá
trình đọc hiểu của mình.
Đỗ Minh Hùng và Võ Phan Thu Ngân (2015) cũng phát hiện ra kết quả tương tự khi điều
tra những chiến lược đọc hiểu được sử dụng bởi các sinh viên tiếng Anh năm 1 và năm 3 tại
trường Đại học Đồng Tháp. Kết quả cho thấy hai nhóm ít nhiều sử dụng tất cả các chiến lược.
Nhóm sinh viên năm 1 thường sử dụng các chiến lược đọc lướt lấy ý chính, đọc lướt lấy chi tiết,
dịch, làm nổi bật, đặc biệt là hợp tác và tìm kiếm hỗ trợ. Trong khi đó, các sinh viên năm 3 không
còn thường xuyên sử dụng chiến lược dịch thuật, xoay xở và làm nổi bật; thay vào đó họ tăng tần
suất sử dụng các chiến lược phân tích, xây dựng, xác định mục đích và các chiến lược khác. Điều
này nói lên rằng khi năng lực ngôn ngữ của sinh viên cao lên, họ có xu hướng sử dụng các chiến
lược phức tạp hơn trong quá trình đọc. Nghiên cứu khuyến nghị rằng việc đào tạo chiến lược đọc
nên được xem xét nhiều hơn bởi cả giáo viên và học sinh EFL để có thể kích hoạt và củng cố các
công cụ chiến lược đọc này cho việc học trong hiện tại và tương lai của sinh viên.
Gần đây nhất, vào năm 2018, Trần Thị Thu Hiền và Trần Thanh Phương đã tiến hành
nghiên cứu việc sử dụng các chiến lược đọc hiểu nhằm nâng cao kĩ năng đọc hiểu trong môn
tiếng Anh cho sinh viên tại Học viện Nông nghiệp Việt Nam. Thông qua việc dạy các chiến
lược đọc hiểu cho 170 sinh viên năm thứ nhất hệ tiên tiến - chất lượng cao khoá 61 của Học
viện Nông nghiệp Việt Nam, các tác giả đã kết luận rằng việc áp dụng các chiến lược đọc góp
phần phát triển khả năng đọc hiểu của sinh viên, giúp người đọc vượt qua những khó khăn khi
tìm hiểu văn bản, do đó nâng cao khả năng hiểu văn bản ngoại ngữ của họ. Thông qua đó, giảng
viên còn giúp họ trở thành những người học tự chủ, có khả năng giải thích, tích hợp, phê phán,
suy luận, phân tích, kết nối và đánh giá ý tưởng trong các văn bản, nhờ đó, kĩ năng đọc hiểu của
họ sẽ ngày càng phát triển.
Những nghiên cứu trên đây đã chỉ ra rằng, việc sử dụng các chiến lược đọc có mối tương
quan tích cực với khả năng đọc hiểu tốt ở những sinh viên học tiếng Anh. Những người đọc giỏi
và trưởng thành hơn có xu hướng sử dụng nhiều chiến lược hơn và có ý thức lựa chọn những
chiến lược này theo loại nhiệm vụ đọc và độ khó của văn bản. Hơn nữa, họ giỏi hơn trong việc
đánh giá sự thành công của việc sử dụng chiến lược của riêng họ. Mặt khác, những người đọc
kém sử dụng một loạt các chiến lược nhỏ hơn, chủ yếu dựa vào các chiến lược cục bộ và theo
cách kém hiệu quả hơn.
Mặc dù vậy, vẫn còn rất ít nghiên cứu tập trung vào tìm hiểu nhận thức và mức độ sử
dụng các chiến lược đọc hiểu của sinh viên tiếng Anh không chuyên trong các lớp học tiếng
Anh tại Việt Nam, cũng như điều tra sự khác biệt trong việc sử dụng các chiến lược này đối với
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các sinh viên có năng lực tiếng Anh khác nhau. Vì vậy, nghiên cứu này được tiến hành nhằm
mục đích tìm hiểu những vấn đề nêu trên nhằm có những gợi ý giúp cải thiện việc học kỹ năng
đọc tiếng Anh nói riêng và việc học tiếng Anh nói chung.
3.1. Khách thể nghiên cứu
Để có được dữ liệu toàn diện và xác thực, hai nhóm lớp học đã được chọn ngẫu nhiên từ
Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Huế. Tổng cộng có 80 sinh viên đã học tiếng Anh trong
gần mười năm. Độ tuổi của những sinh viên này dao động từ 18 đến 22 tuổi. Những người tham
gia được chia thành hai nhóm theo học phần họ đang theo học, một nhóm gồm 41 sinh viên
đang theo học học phần A2 (tương đương với cấp độ 2/6 trong khung NLNN 6 bậc dành cho
Việt Nam) và nhóm 39 sinh viên đang theo học học phần B1 (tương đương với cấp độ 3/6 trong
khung NLNN 6 bậc dành cho Việt Nam). Tất cả các sinh viên này đều đã học tiếng Anh từ 7
đến 9 năm theo chương trình tiếng Anh phổ thông.
3.2. Công cụ nghiên cứu
Để phục vụ cho mục đích của nghiên cứu này, bảng câu hỏi đã được sử dụng để thu thập
dữ liệu. Bảng câu hỏi được tạo thành từ hai phần: phần đầu yêu cầu sinh viên cung cấp thông tin
về tuổi, giới tính, chuyên ngành học thuật, v.v... để tìm hiểu về nền tảng của họ; phần thứ hai là
bảng khảo sát các chiến lược đọc (Survey of Reading Strategies (SORS)) được phát triển bởi
Mokhtari và Reichard (2002) để đo lường nhận thức và tần suất sử dụng các chiến lược đọc
trong khi đọc tài liệu học tập. SORS đã được sử dụng rộng rãi ở các nước phương Tây và nó
bao gồm nhóm chiến lược:
Bảng 1. Các mục thuộc từng loại chiến lược đọc trong SORS
Chiến lược đọc Tổng số câu hỏi Số câu hỏi
Chiến lược tổng thể 13 S1, S3, S4, S6, S8, S12, S15, S17, S20, S21,
S23, S24, S27
Chiến lược giải quyết vấn đề 8 S7, S9, S11, S14, S16, S19, S25, S26
Chiến lược hỗ trợ 9 S2, S5, S10, S13, S18, S22, S28, S29, S30
Chiến lược đọc tổng thể (GLOB) bao gồm 13 mục "là những kỹ thuật có chủ đích, được
lên kế hoạch cẩn thận, theo đó người học theo dõi hoặc quản lý việc đọc của họ", có mục đích
trong tâm trí, xem trước bài kiểm tra về độ dài và tổ chức của nó. Ví dụ 1 minh họa một mục từ
bảng khảo sát về danh mục chiến lược đọc tổng thể.
Ví dụ 1: Tôi có một mục đích trong đầu khi tôi đọc
Chiến lược giải quyết vấn đề (PROB) bao gồm 8 mục và "kỹ thuật tập trung, tập trung"
(Mokhtari & Sheorey, 2002, tr. 4) mà người đọc sử dụng để giải quyết các vấn đề hiểu trong khi
làm việc trực tiếp với văn bản, ví dụ, điều chỉnh tốc độ đọc khi tài liệu trở nên khó khăn hoặc dễ
dàng, đoán nghĩa của các từ chưa biết và đọc lại văn bản. Ví dụ 2 cho thấy một mục khảo sát
một mục từ bảng khảo sát về danh mục chiến lược giải quyết vấn đề.
Ví dụ 2: Tôi cố gắng lấy lại phong độ khi tôi mất tập trung.
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Chiến lược hỗ trợ (SUP) bao gồm 9 mục và được định nghĩa là "các cơ chế hỗ trợ cơ bản
nhằm hỗ trợ người đọc hiểu văn bản như sử dụng từ điển, ghi chú, gạch chân hoặc làm nổi bật
thông tin văn bản" (tr. 4). Một mục chiến lược hỗ trợ được hiển thị trong ví dụ 3.
Ví dụ 3: Tôi ghi chú trong khi đọc để giúp tôi hiểu những gì tôi đọc.
Mức tần suất sử dụng chiến lược của độc giả được đo theo thang đo Likert năm điểm có
sẵn sau mỗi tuyên bố, từ 1 (“tôi không bao giờ hoặc gần như không bao giờ thực hiện điều này”)
đến 5 (“Luôn luôn hoặc hầu như luôn luôn thực hiện điều này”) (Mokhtari & Sheorey, 2002).
Vào cuối cuộc khảo sát, Mokhtari và Sheorey (2002) cung cấp một hướng dẫn chấm điểm và
phiên dịch. Tần suất sử dụng chiến lược được nhóm lại như sau: 3,5 hoặc cao hơn = Cao; 2,5 -
3,4 = Trung bình; 2,4 hoặc thấp hơn = Thấp. Việc giải thích các điểm số tần số trung bình của
Mokhtari và Sheorey đã được áp dụng để phân tích kết quả của nghiên cứu hiện tại.
Về độ tin cậy, Mokhtari và Sheorey (2002) đảm bảo rằng SORS đã được thử nghiệm thực
địa trên số học viên học tiếng Anh tại hai trường đại học ở Mỹ và độ tin cậy bên trong của nó
được tìm thấy là 0,89, "cho thấy mức độ nhất quán hợp lý trong đo lường nhận thức và việc sử
dụng các chiến lược đọc của những học sinh không phải là người bản ngữ tiếng Anh" (tr. 4).
Ngoài ra, tính nhất quán bên trong của các mục khảo sát còn được xác định rõ hơn bằng phân tích
độ tin cậy thông qua bài kiểm tra alpha của Cronbach trong một số nghiên cứu.
3.3. Tiến trình thực hiện
Với sự giúp đỡ của giáo viên đứng lớp, các sinh viên đã được thông báo về mục đích của
cuộc khảo sát và thực tế là không có câu trả lời đúng hay sai. Phiếu điều tra được phát cho toàn
bộ sinh viên hai nhóm lớp vào tuần cuối cùng của học kì 2, năm học 2017-2018.
SORS được thiết kế để đo lường nhận thức siêu nhận thức về chiến lược đọc sử dụng bởi
người nói tiếng Anh không bản ngữ. Vì lý do này, Mokhtari và Sheorey (2002) đã đảm bảo cho
tất cả các mục khảo sát đủ rõ ràng để người học tiếng Anh hiểu. Ngoài ra, để đảm bảo rằng tất
cả những người tham gia đều hiểu bảng câu hỏi trước khi trả lời, giáo viên đã kiểm tra và đưa ra
lời giải thích ngắn gọn cho các mục mà người tham gia không hiểu. Sau đó, những người tham
gia được hướng dẫn trả lời khảo sát bằng cách đọc kỹ từng tuyên bố và sau đó khoanh tròn số áp
dụng cho họ trong vòng tối đa 20 phút.
Sau đó, mỗi bảng câu hỏi được kiểm tra và mã hóa để phân tích thống kê nhằm trả lời các
câu hỏi nghiên cứu được nêu ở trên. Gói thống kê cho khoa học xã hội (SPSS, phiên bản 22.0)
được sử dụng để phân tích thống kê dữ liệu và mức ý nghĩa của p.<0,05 đã được đặt. Dữ liệu
được phân tích bao gồm hai điểm sau:
- Sử dụng số liệu thống kê mô tả để tìm ra điểm trung bình và độ lệch chuẩn của các chiến lược
đọc tổng thể và từng loại chiến lược.
- Sử dụng các t-tests độc lập để kiểm tra xem có sự khác biệt nào trong việc sử dụng chiến lược
đọc giữa sinh viên cấp độ A2 và cấp độ B1 không.
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4. Kết quả nghiên cứu và thảo luận

4.1. Các chiến lược đọc hiểu được sử dụng bởi sinh viên tiếng Anh không chuyên
Đầu tiên, tổng số điểm trung bình của ba nhóm chiến lược (tổng thể, giải quyết vấn đề và
hỗ trợ) được trình bày. Chúng được theo sau bởi điểm trung bình cho chiến lược cá nhân trong
mỗi nhóm. Bảng 1 tóm tắt các thống kê mô tả cho ba nhóm chiến lược đọc.
Bảng 2. Thống kê mô tả cho ba nhóm chiến lược đọc
Các loại chiến lược N Min Max Mean SD
Chiến lược tổng thể 80 1,46 4,08 2,9962 ,50803
Chiến lược giải quyết vấn đề 80 1,38 4,50 3,1531 ,65421
Chiến lược hỗ trợ 80 1,78 4,22 3,1750 ,44996
Dựa vào Bảng 1, cả ba loại chiến lược đọc đều được các sinh viên sử dụng với tần suất
vừa phải và không có sự khác biệt lớn về điểm số trung bình giữa ba loại chiến lược. Điểm
trung bình 3,15 và 3,17 tương ứng cho các chiến lược giải quyết vấn đề và hỗ trợ. Kết quả cũng
cho thấy rằng trong cả ba nhóm chiến lược, các chiến lược hỗ trợ được sử dụng thường xuyên
nhất. Các chiến lược tổng thể nhận được điểm trung bình thấp nhất là 2,99; tuy nhiên, chỉ thấp
hơn một chút so với điểm trung bình của hai nhóm chiến lược còn lại. Trong số ba loại chiến
lược đọc được nghiên cứu trong nghiên cứu này, chiến lược hỗ trợ được người tham gia sử dụng
thường xuyên nhất, với tần suất trung bình là tỷ lệ cao tương đối (M=3,25). Các chiến lược giải
quyết vấn đề theo sau về tần suất sử dụng, có tần suất (M=3,15). Các chiến lược tổng thể đã
được sử dụng ở mức tần số thấp nhất với tổng điểm trung bình là 2,99. Kết quả này hoàn toàn
khác với kết quả tìm được trong nghiên cứu của các tác giả Zhang và Wu (2009) và Typamas
(2012) với sự ưu tiên cho các chiến lược giải quyết vấn đề.
Dựa trên các số liệu thống kê tần suất, có vẻ như các sinh viên này có nhận thức siêu
nhận thức về quá trình đọc ở một mức độ nào đó và sử dụng các chiến lược đọc khá thường
xuyên. Việc người đọc sử dụng các chiến lược đọc thường xuyên có thể là kết quả của giáo dục
tiếng Anh dài hạn của họ. Vào thời điểm nghiên cứu, tất cả những người tham gia đã học tiếng
Anh từ bảy đến chín năm. Do đó, có thể cho rằng họ đã có kinh nghiệm đáng kể về việc đọc
bằng tiếng Anh, điều này có thể dẫn đến nhận thức rõ ràng và tiềm ẩn về việc sử dụng các chiến
lược đọc. Ngoài ra, bởi vì những người tham gia là sinh viên đại học, tất cả họ đều có được kỹ
năng đọc viết bằng ngôn ngữ mẹ đẻ của họ ở mức độ cao.
Như được tìm thấy trong các nghiên cứu trước đây (Mokhtari & Sheorey, 2002), những
người đọc có kỹ năng về ngôn ngữ thứ nhất và ngôn ngữ thứ hai có xu hướng hiểu biết về siêu
nhận thức tương đối đơn giản. Do đó, những sinh viên tham gia trong nghiên cứu này có thể đã
chuyển một số chiến lược của họ trong việc đọc các văn bản bằng ngôn ngữ một sang đọc các
văn bản bằng tiếng. Theo quan điểm của các nghiên cứu liên quan, kết quả tương tự cũng đã
được tiết lộ cho các sinh viên ESP của Iran trong nghiên cứu của Jafari và Ketabi (2012) về
những người Hungary học tiếng Anh như ngoại ngữ hai. Cụ thể, điểm tương đồng giữa người
Việt Nam học tiếng Anh và người Hungary học tiếng Anh là cả hai nhóm người học tiếng Anh
dường như có sở thích về chiến lược hỗ trợ. Và cả hai nhóm người học này đều xem chiến lược
tổng thể là loại chiến lược ít được ưa thích nhất. Tương tự, Mokhtari và Sheorey (2002) phát
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hiện ra rằng những người học tiếng Anh như ngoại ngữ hai ở Mỹ, bất kể khả năng đọc của họ,
đã sử dụng các chiến lược hỗ trợ thường xuyên hơn so với hai loại chiến lược khác. Sự ưu tiên
nhất quán cho các chiến lược hỗ trợ trong số một số nghiên cứu với những người học tiếng Anh
của các ngôn ngữ một khác nhau cho thấy rằng các chiến lược hỗ trợ có thể đóng một vai trò
quan trọng đối với một số người học tiếng Anh như ngoại ngữ hai.
Ngược lại, các nhóm người học tiếng Anh khác dường như ủng hộ các chiến lược giải quyết
vấn đề hoặc nhận thức. Typamas (2012) phát hiện ra rằng những người học tiếng Anh trưởng thành
ở Thái Lan thích chiến lược giải quyết vấn đề nhất, chiến lược tổng thể là chiến lược thứ hai và chiến
lược hỗ trợ ít nhất. Tương tự như vậy, những sinh viên ESL Ấn Độ (Madhumathi & Ghosh, 2012)
đã báo cáo việc sử dụng chiến lược nhận thức thường xuyên nhất.
Nghiên cứu này cũng điều tra sở thích của sinh viên ESL Việt Nam đối với các chiến
lược đọc cá nhân. Không chiến lược nào trong số 30 chiến lược đọc cá nhân được báo cáo sẽ
được sử dụng với tần số thấp bởi những sinh viên ESL Việt Nam và 21 chiến lược có mức độ sử
dụng cao (trên 50% thời gian và thường xuyên). Bảng 2 tóm tắt các chiến lược đọc được ưa
thích nhất và ít được ưa thích nhất của những sinh viên ESL Việt Nam.
Bảng 2. Các chiến lược đọc được sử dụng nhiều nhất và ít thường xuyên nhất
Mean Tần suất
Chiến lược được sử dụng thường xuyên nhất
Khi đọc, tôi dịch từ tiếng Anh sang ngôn ngữ mẹ đẻ của tôi 3,81 Cao
Tôi gạch chân hoặc khoanh tròn thông tin trong văn bản để giúp tôi nhớ nó 3,68 Cao
Khi đọc, tôi nghĩ về thông tin bằng cả tiếng Anh và tiếng mẹ đẻ 3,51 Cao
Tôi cố gắng xây dựng hình ảnh hoặc hình dung thông tin để giúp tôi nhớ những 3,45 Cao
gì tôi đọc
Tôi cố gắng đoán nội dung của văn bản là gì khi tôi đọc 3,45 Cao
Chiến lược ít sử dụng nhất
Tôi đọc lui đọc tới trong văn bản để tìm mối quan hệ giữa các ý tưởng trong đó 2,70 Trung bình
Tôi tự hỏi mình những câu hỏi tôi muốn trả lời trong văn bản 2,62 Trung bình
Tôi xem lại văn bản trước bằng cách lưu ý các đặc điểm của nó như độ dài và 2,57 Trung bình
tổ chức
Tôi phân tích và đánh giá thông tin được trình bày trong văn bản 2,56 Trung bình
Như được trình bày trong Bảng 2, tần suất sử dụng cao nhất được báo cáo liên quan đến
chiến lược hỗ trợ, cụ thể là dịch từ tiếng Anh sang ngôn ngữ mẹ đẻ (M=3,81), tiếp theo là gạch
chân hoặc khoanh tròn thông tin trong văn bản để giúp tôi nhớ nó (M=3,68), và nghĩ về thông
tin bằng cả tiếng Anh và tiếng mẹ đẻ (M=3,51), hai chiến lược còn lại thuộc về chiến lược tổng
thể và chiến lược giải quyết vấn đề với tần suất sử dụng bằng nhau (M=3,45). Mặt khác, chiến
lược hỗ trợ đọc lui đọc tới trong văn bản để tìm mối quan hệ giữa các ý tưởng (M=2,70), hai
chiến lược tổng thể xem lại văn bản trước bằng cách lưu ý các đặc điểm của nó như độ dài và tổ
chức (M=2,57), phân tích và đánh giá thông tin được trình bày trong văn bản (M=2,56), và
chiến lược giải quyết vấn đề tự hỏi mình những câu hỏi muốn trả lời trong văn bản (M=2,62) là
bốn chiến lược ít được ưu tiên nhất bởi những sinh viên ESL Việt Nam. So với các nhóm người
học tiếng Anh khác, sinh viên ESL Việt Nam nói chung giống và khác biệt trong việc sử dụng
các chiến lược đọc cá nhân của họ.
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Ví dụ, sinh viên ESL Ấn Độ cũng đã sử dụng 14 chiến lược với tần suất cao và hình ảnh
được ưa thích cao (Madhumathi & Ghosh, 2012). Tuy nhiên, không giống như những sinh viên
ESL Việt Nam, họ thường xuyên sử dụng chiến lược đọc lại và điều chỉnh tốc độ đọc và tránh suy
nghĩ bằng cả tiếng Anh lẫn tiếng mẹ đẻ và dịch thuật.
4.2. Sự khác nhau trong việc sử dụng các chiến lược đọc giữa hai nhóm sinh viên
Để đánh giá sự khác nhau trong việc sử dụng các chiến lược đọc hiểu của sinh viên hai
nhóm cấp độ, các mẫu t-test độc lập đã được sử dụng. Bên cạnh đó, để kiểm soát lỗi Loại I và
tránh xác suất của bất kỳ t-test nào có ý nghĩa giả, mức alpha ban đầu là 0,05 đã được điều chỉnh
thành 0,0016 (0,05/30). Sau đó, các mức ý nghĩa được tính toán cho mỗi t-test được so sánh với
alpha=0.0016. Hơn thế nữa, theo quan điểm của Cumming (2012) về phương pháp tiếp cận mới
đối với việc giải thích ý nghĩa thống kê dựa vào giá trị của effect size hơn là dựa vào giá trị p, các
giá trị d của Cohen cũng được tính toán để xác định mức độ khác biệt giữa hai nhóm.
Bảng 3. Kết quả mẫu t-test độc lập cho các nhóm chiến lược đọc
Nhóm chiến lược Cấp độ N Mean S. D t (80) p Effect size
A2 41 3,12 ,484 2,371 ,020 0,530
Chiến lược tổng thể
B1 39 2,86 ,503
A2 41 3,25 ,577 1,365 ,176 0,306
Chiến lược giải quyết vấn đề
B1 39 3,05 ,719
A2 41 3,33 ,451 1,643 ,104 0,44
Chiến lược hỗ trợ
B1 39 3,16 ,507
Kết quả trong Bảng 3 cho thấy chỉ có sự khác biệt có ý nghĩa thống kê trong việc sử dụng
các chiến lược đọc tổng thể giữa nhóm sinh viên A2 và B1. Đối với hai nhóm chiến lược còn
lại, không thấy sự khác biệt trong việc lựa chọn sử dụng các chiến lược này giữa hai nhóm
người học.
Có một số cách giải thích cho việc không có sự khác biệt trong việc sử dụng các chiến
lược đọc giữa hai nhóm sinh viên ở hai cấp độ khác nhau này. Lí do có thể là tất cả những người
tham gia đều là sinh viên cấp đại học, sau 12 năm học phổ thông và hơn 2 năm học đại học, họ
đã đạt được một mức độ nhận thức và sử dụng chiến lược nhất định trong việc đọc ngôn ngữ
một. Do đó, có thể suy đoán rằng họ sẽ chuyển một số chiến lược đọc từ ngôn ngữ đầu tiên sang
đọc bằng tiếng Anh như ngôn ngữ thứ hai.
Ngoài ra, những người tham gia đại diện cho một nhóm khá đồng nhất theo quan điểm về
trình độ tiếng Anh, nền tảng văn hóa xã hội và giáo dục. Tất cả trong số họ đã được học tiếng
Anh trong hơn 9 năm từ cấp trung học cơ sở đến đại học, và họ được dạy trong cùng một
chương trình giảng dạy. Tất cả các yếu tố này có thể giải thích lý do tại sao họ sử dụng các
chiến lược đọc tương tự bất kể khả năng đọc của họ.
Tuy nhiên, những người đọc thành công và không thành công có thể sử dụng các chiến
lược giống nhau, nhưng hiệu quả của việc sử dụng chiến lược của họ là khác nhau. Nghiên cứu
hiện tại đã so sánh các độc giả có cấp độ cao và thấp chủ yếu dựa trên tần suất sử dụng chiến
lược.
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Do đó, một khả năng khác là mặc dù cả người thành công cao và thấp đều báo cáo tần
suất sử dụng tương tự cho ba loại chiến lược, hiệu quả sử dụng chiến lược của họ có thể khác
nhau và ảnh hưởng đến hiệu suất của họ.
Bên cạnh đó, cũng nên đề cập ở đây rằng hiệu suất đọc là kết quả của sự tương tác của
nhiều yếu tố. Mức độ thành thạo ngôn ngữ có thể là một trong số đó, và sự khác biệt cá nhân
trong động lực và lo lắng cũng có thể ảnh hưởng đến hiệu suất của độc giả.
Tuy nhiên, một lý do khác cho việc thiếu sự khác biệt đáng kể trong việc sử dụng chiến
lược giữa các sinh viên cấp độ A2 và sinh viên cấp độ B1 có thể là do hầu hết các nghiên cứu
trước đây đã so sánh về điểm trung bình chung của từng loại chiến lược. Nói cách khác, trong
mỗi loại chiến lược có thể có các chiến lược được sử dụng thường xuyên hơn bởi các sinh viên
cấp độ A2 hơn các sinh viên cấp độ B1 và ngược lại, nhưng những khác biệt này có thể bị bỏ
qua trong điểm trung bình tổng thể; là tổng hợp của điểm trung bình cho từng chiến lược. Cân
nhắc điều này, nghiên cứu hiện tại đã nỗ lực xem xét xem liệu có sự khác biệt đáng kể nào giữa
sinh viên cấp độ A2 và sinh viên cấp độ B1 trong việc sử dụng các chiến lược đọc cá nhân. Với
mục đích đó, nhiều t-test độc lập đã được sử dụng và bên cạnh giá trị p, giá trị kích thước hiệu
ứng (effect size) được coi là một tiêu chí để chỉ ra sự khác biệt đáng kể trong việc sử dụng chiến
lược giữa hai nhóm sinh viên.
Cumming (2012) tuyên bố rằng xu hướng mới trong nghiên cứu định lượng đang xem xét
kích thước hiệu ứng là một tiêu chí quan trọng hơn. Tuy nhiên, số liệu cho thấy rằng chỉ có sự
khác biệt mang tính thống kê trong việc sử dụng chiến lược tổng thể giữa hai nhóm nghiên cứu.
Chỉ một chiến lược đã được sử dụng thường xuyên hơn bởi nhóm sinh viên cấp độ A2 là “Tôi
kiểm tra sự hiểu biết của tôi khi tôi gặp thông tin mới.” Và kết quả tương tự đối với mức độ sử
dụng các chiến lược đọc tổng thể nói chung (effect size=0,536).
Vài nghiên cứu khác cũng so sánh việc sử dụng các chiến lược đọc riêng lẻ giữa người học
tiếng Anh đọc có trình độ ngôn ngữ cao và thấp. Theo Mokhtari và Sheorey (2002), những người
học tiếng Anh có khả năng đọc cao khác biệt đáng kể so với những người học tiếng Anh có khả
năng đọc thấp trong việc sử dụng một số chiến lược đọc, ví dụ, xem trước văn bản trước khi đọc,
ghi chú trong khi đọc và hiển thị thông tin. Trong nghiên cứu của Madhumathi và Ghosh (2012),
trong số những người Ấn Độ học ESL, những người đọc có hiệu suất thấp thường sử dụng các
chiến lược như chú ý kỹ hơn, đọc lại nhiều hơn và hiếm khi sử dụng các tài liệu tham khảo, trong
khi các sinh viên có hiệu suất cao thường tránh dùng chiến lược dịch thuật.
Những kết quả này cho thấy các độc giả ở cấp độ thấp hơn và cấp độ cao hơn khác nhau
trong việc sử dụng các chiến lược đọc nhất định mặc dù chúng có thể không khác nhau trong
việc sử dụng chung các chiến lược đọc tổng thể, hỗ trợ và giải quyết vấn đề. Rõ ràng, thực tế
này cho thấy cần phải có thêm những so sánh thực tiễn giữa các độc giả ở cấp độ thấp hơn và
cấp độ cao hơn về việc sử dụng các chiến lược đọc riêng lẻ. Nếu đủ số lượng nghiên cứu kiểm
tra vấn đề này, thì có thể xác định những chiến lược có liên quan đến độc giả tốt và độc giả cấp
thấp hơn và trên sự khác biệt trong các ngôn ngữ một, nền tảng giáo dục và văn hóa.
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5. Kết luận
Nghiên cứu này đã mô tả kết quả về nhận thức cũng như mức độ sử dụng các chiến lược
đọc hiểu của sinh viên tiếng Anh không chuyên. Hầu hết các sinh viên đều sử dụng các chiến
lược đọc vào quá trình đọc tiếng Anh của mình ở mức độ trung bình. Dựa vào kết quả thu được
của nghiên cứu này, có thể nói rằng với nỗ lực nghiên cứu về siêu nhận thức trong việc đọc
tiếng Anh, nghiên cứu hiện tại đã cung cấp cái nhìn sâu sắc về việc sử dụng các chiến lược đọc
của người Việt Nam học tiếng Anh nói riêng, và nhiều bằng chứng và hiểu biết hơn về việc sử
dụng các chiến lược đọc của người học tiếng Anh nói chung. Nhìn chung, hầu hết các sinh viên
đại học đều nhận thức được tầm quan trọng của các chiến lược đọc đối với quá trình đọc hiểu và
ít nhiều sử dụng chúng trong quá trình đọc của mình. Về mặt sư phạm, những phát hiện của
nghiên cứu có ý nghĩa như sau đối với việc dạy đọc tiếng Anh và cho việc thiết kế các tài liệu
đọc tiếng Anh.
Nghiên cứu hiện tại đã quan sát một mô hình ưa thích sử dụng chiến lược đọc của những
người Việt Nam học tiếng Anh, sự giống và khác với các nhóm người học tiếng Anh khác. Nó
hỗ trợ những kết quả của nhiều nghiên cứu thực nghiệm rằng ngôn ngữ và nền tảng đầu tiên của
người học tiếng Anh có thể có một số tác động đến hành vi chiến lược của họ. Ngoài việc sử
dụng một số chiến lược đọc tương tự nhau, những người học tiếng Anh ở các nền tảng khác
nhau có sở thích cụ thể cho các loại chiến lược nhất định và chiến lược đọc riêng lẻ.
Do đó, việc hướng dẫn tất cả những người học tiếng Anh bằng cách sử dụng các cách tiếp
cận và phương pháp giảng dạy tương tự trong các lớp học tiếng Anh không phải lúc nào cũng hiệu
quả và công bằng. Vì thế, việc thiết kế tài liệu đọc tiếng Anh và dạy đọc tiếng Anh nên xem xét cả
tính phổ quát và tính độc đáo của sở thích của người học ESL đối với việc sử dụng chiến lược.
Mặc dù trên thực tế, nghiên cứu hiện tại không tìm thấy mối tương quan đáng kể giữa ba
nhóm chiến lược đọc (tổng thể, giải quyết vấn đề, hỗ trợ), các nhà thiết kế tài liệu tiếng Anh và
giáo viên đọc tiếng Anh nên thúc đẩy việc sử dụng các chiến lược liên quan đến việc đọc hiệu
quả. Hơn nữa, các chiến lược như vậy nên được đưa vào các mục tiêu của chương trình giảng
dạy về đọc sách và người học tiếng Anh nên được dạy rõ ràng và tăng cường cách sử dụng
những chiến lược đó một cách hiệu quả.
Aebersold, J., & Field, M. (1997). From reader to reading teacher: Issues and strategies for second
language classrooms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Anderson, N. (1999). Exploring second language reading: Issues and strategies. The Electronic Journal
for English as a Second Language,4(1), pp. xi+129. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
Brantmeior, C. (2002). Second language reading strategy research at the secondary and university
levels: Variations, disparities and generalizability. The Reading Matrix, 3, 1-14.
Carrell, P.L. (1989). Metacognitive awareness and second language reading. Modern Language
Journal, 73, 120-133.
Chastain, K. (1988). Developing second language skills, theory and practice. United States of
America: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.
Cumming, G. (2012). Understanding the new statistics: Effect sizes, confidence intervals, and meta-
analysis. New York: Routledge.
DeMoulin, & Loye (1999). Helping children to learn to read. Education, 120(1), 40-43.
328
Do, M.H., & Vo, P.T.N. (2015). Investigating reading strategies used by EFL students at Dong Thap
University. Asian Journal of Educational Research, 3(4), 10-20.
Dubin, F. (1982). What every EFL teacher should know about reading. English Teaching Forum, 20,
14-16.
Hsu, L.W. (2008). Taiwanese hospitality college students’ English reading strategies in English for
specific purpose courses. Journal of Hospitality and Home Economics, 5(1), 53-67.
Jafari, D., & Ketabi, S. (2012). Metacognitive strategies and reading comprehension enhancement in
Iranian intermediate EFL setting. International Journal of Linguistics, 4(3), 1-14.
Madhumathi, P., & Ghosh, A. (2012). A wareness of reading strategy use of Indian ESL students and
the relationship with reading comprehension achievement. English Language Teaching, 5(2), 131-140.
Mokhtari, K., & Reichard, A.C. (2004). Investigating the strategic reading processes of first and
second language readers in two different cultural contexts. System, 32, 379-394.
Mokhtari, K., & Sheorey, R. (2002). Measuring ESL students’ awareness of reading strategies. Journal
of developmental education, 25(3), 2-10.
Mónos, K. (2004). Learner strategies of Hungarian secondary grammar school students. Akademiai
Kiado, Budapes.
Nguyen, T.B.T. (2007). Chiến lược nhận thức áp dụng trong đọc hiểu tiếng Anh của sinh viên không
chuyên ngữ. Ngôn ngữ, 4, 63-77.
O’Malley, J.M., & Chamot, A.U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition.
Rubin, J. (1981). Study of cognitive processes in second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 11,
117-131.
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trong môn tiếng Anh cho sinh viên tại Học viện Nông nghiệp Việt nam. Tạp chí Giáo dục, 428, 61-64.
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International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences, 6(9), 83-95.
Zhang, L. (2001). Awareness in reading: EFL students’ metacognitive knowledge of reading strategies
in an acquisition-poor environment. Language Awareness, 10(4), 266-288.
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reading-strategy use. Reading in a Foreign Language, 21(1), 37-59.
AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE USE OF READING STRATEGIES
BY NON-MAJORED ENGLISH STUDENTS
AT UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES, HUE UNIVERSITY
Abstract: Reading is probably one of the most important language skills that need to be
developed in language learners. Since learners “can use reading materials as a primary
source of comprehensible input as they learn the language” Chastain (1988, p. 216). The
present study thus was carried out to examine reading strategies used in reading English
texts by non-majored English students at Hue University of Foreign Languages. A
questionnaire of 30 statements related to 3 categories of reading strategies; namely global
strategies, problem solving strategies and supporting strategies; was delivered to two
groups of students. Results showed that the two groups more or less used all the strategies.
In general terms, though there are some differences in level of English proficiency in the
two groups, they reflectively reported the use of those strategies at a medium level.
Accordingly, reading strategy training should be taken into greater considerations by both
EFL teachers and students in order to purposely enhance students’ lifelong learning.
Key words: Reading performance, reading strategies, English proficiency, non-majored
English students
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SUITABLE USE OF VIETNAMESE VOCATIVES AND REQUEST

STRUCTURES: EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES
AMONG STUDENT YOUTH LEADERS
Dong Thanh Hai*
Can Tho University

Abstract: The researcher, at his position as a lecturer and a secretary of the youth union,
tries to investigate how the way people use words and structures influences the
effectiveness of communication. In this case, he would like to know how using correct
vocatives and imperative structures results in making requests to members of the youth
union at his college, most of whom are students. The study was conducted in the contexts
of regular meetings or meetings for some specific purposes mentored by the researcher, the
youth union secretary of the college. Methods used were observing, interviewing and
analyzing the data collected from the responses of participants. The results showed the
suitable use of vocatives and imperatives positively affected the communication purposes in
terms of the efficiency of the activities needed to be done, the participants’ willingness and
their motivation in conducting the activities.
Key words: Vocatives, requests, imperative structures
1. Introduction
In Vietnamese culture, the use of vocative cases and imperative structures is inseparable
parts in communication. However, the question is how to use them effectively? It is quite hard
even to Vietnamese native speakers because Vietnamese vocatives are very complicated.
According to Nguyen Thi Diem Phuong (2011), there are more vocatives in Vietnamese than in
any other languages in the world. Moreover, the use of vocatives and imperative greatly
depends on the relationship between the speaker and the hearer; the purpose, the situation of the
conversation; or the background of the speakers. In her study, Nguyen Thi Diem Phuong (2011)
also stated that Vietnamese people have a copious spoken language, especially the vocatives
that they often use. It always makes learners of Vietnamese confused for the vocatives do not
only have the language functions but also the cultural ones.
Instead of the pronouns such as “I, we, they, he, she, you” which are used in English,
Vietnamese tend to use various pronouns like “tôi, tớ, tao, chúng tôi, chúng tớ, bọn họ, bọn
chúng, anh ta, nó, hắn, mày, bọn mày, etc”.
The vocatives in Vietnamese language are also based on the age, the class, the job
positions, etc. When people want to address the elderly or the ones who have higher status in the
society, nouns are used instead. For example, chú, bác, cô, dì, ông, bà, etc. are used for
addressees who are older or in a higher position. Thanks to Vietnamese cultures, positions must
be clearly recognized, and it has been proved by history.
* Email: dthai@ctu.edu.vn
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Requests, in addition to the vocatives, in my opinion, may contribute to the success of

communication in which the speaker wants the addressees to do something for him or for the
organization. When the speaker makes a request, he expects the addressee’s expenditure of time,
energy or material resource. In other words, requests impose the speaker’s interest on the
addressee. And requests may occur in two types, direct and indirect ones. There are, in fact, a lot
of layers of meanings which send different messages under what is uttered, so it is hard to
realize which intention is wanted by the speakers. Similarly, requests are complicated speech
acts involving many different elements. Blum-Kulka (1991) showed that requests are the ones
including requesting goals, linguistic encoding, situational parameters and the social meanings
of the requests according to cultural and situational factors.
Vocatives and requests are diverse and complicated, especially in the Vietnamese
language. They are both challenging for the people, even Vietnamese native speakers, to use
them correctly and effectively due to many factors in which the environment and situation play
an important role. This means that using appropriate vocatives to appropriate addressees and
giving the right request to the hearer in the right situation contribute enormously to the goal of
communication.
Vocatives and imperative structures are always the necessary factors contributing to the
success of the communication. They have their own roles in certain contexts to certain speakers and
hearers, and they also receive so much attention from researchers and are identified in many ways.
Vocatives are addressee-oriented linguistic units that are used in different speech acts
such as greetings, calls, commands, or requests (Parrott, 2010; Poynton, 1990). Their main
discourse functions are to identify participants’ roles and characterize the speaker in relation to
the addressees, as they are especially relevant as markers of power and solidarity (Ahmed, 2007;
Brown & Levinson, 1987).
Vocatives are also defined as “noun phrases that refer to the addressee, but are not
syntactically or semantically incorporated as the arguments of a predicate” by Levinson (1983).
And they generally have three functions: “(1) helping to get attention, (2) helping to identify
people as a speaker or an addressee, and (3) help to maintain and enhance social relationships”,
Biber et al. (1999). According to Zwicky (1974), vocatives also express attitude, politeness,
formality, status, intimacy, or a role relationship, and most of them mark the speaker, which
show the relationship between the speaker and the addressee. Others have observed how
vocatives are used as markers of power and solidarity. There were other researchers who
observed that vocatives are also used as the marker of power and solidarity like Hook (1984); or
as pseudo-intimacy like McCarthy & O’Keeffe (2001), as equality (Troemel-Ploetz, 1994), as
initiators of the conversation and cues for changing topic contextually (Ostermann, 2000); and
as an action that redresses for some face-threatening acts (Brown & Levinson, 1978;
Ostermann, 2000). Vocatives, therefore, help us to identify the roles of participants, to modulate
the politeness, and to set positions within the discourse.
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Vietnamese vocatives are the words used to call and address each other in communication.
According to Diep Quang Ban and Hoang Van Thung (2002), Vietnamese vocatives are words
which are used to replace and represent the participants in a communication process.
Vocatives, especially Vietnamese ones, are quite various. It can be said that Vietnamese
vocatives are actually more numerous than those of many other languages in the world. In fact,
in real communication, people tend to use different vocatives in different situations depending
on their purposes and the addressees of the communication. Most Vietnamese people live in the
countryside and they live mostly on agricultural cultivation. This living environment has
brought them closer together; therefore, the ways they call themselves and call the others have
been also seriously affected in that way. They tend to call each other as if they are members of a
family. They may use so many words to address the same person according to their social
positions, gender, ages, etc. They may call “cô (aunt), chú (uncle), anh (brother), chị (sister),
etc”, which are dependent on their ages and their genders, right at the first time they meet. It
occurs similarly at the university setting where there are various kinds of relationships.
Nguyen Thien Giap (2000) gave a definition of imperative in his book “Dụng học Việt
ngữ” as an act which speaker uses to make addressees do something. Imperatives have some
functions as (1) telling the addressees what to do, (2) giving them instructions and advice, (3)
giving suggestions and making recommendations, and (4) making offers, and they can be
expressed in a sentence. According to the previous research by Alisjahbana (1978), Ramlan
(2001), Rahardi (2005), and Alwi et al. (2003), the imperatives can be realized if they are
expressed based on formal construction structures. Yet in daily discourse, imperatives are
expressed both by formal imperative structures and by other structures in context.
Requests in Vietnamese have been rarely discussed in pragmatics literature. Among a few
research studies in Vietnam, Vu Thi Thanh Huong (1997, 1999) has shown an insight into
requests in Vietnamese. Her studies were requests made by a group of Vietnamese native speakers
in social communication contexts. And the results showed that Vietnamese speakers prefer
requests made with high level of directness with supportive elements to show the politeness rather
than the ones made in an indirect way to express politeness. Indirectness is considered as a
politeness device; however, it is not appreciated as highly as the mitigated direct requests.
Although there has been a growing interest in doing research in requests and politeness in
the last few decades, most of earlier studies have focused on a limited range of languages, most
of which are European ones, and only a small number of studies investigated Asian languages,
especially in Vietnamese. It is, therefore, necessary to do more research in order to know how
requests are expressed across languages, and to what extent strategies for making requests
occurs in communication in different languages. Our study sets out to investigate the strategies
for making requests and using Vietnamese vocatives in a specific context of the university
where the communication was among a group of Vietnamese native speakers who have special
social relationships.
In the discussion below we will see how Vietnamese vocatives and imperative structures are
preferred to use for an effective communication in certain circumstances with specific attendants.
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3. Objectives
This study aims to discover whether the language we use very regularly is effective or not,
and to findout the most effective way in using vocatives and requests in teachers’ daily
communication with students, especially with the ones who are also in other positions as members
of a political system like Youth leaders of the school youth union. The findings are expected to be
applied to the author’s current job as a faculty youth union secretary in order to improve his
communication strategies for the sake of professional effectiveness.
4. Methods
With the research objectives above, the study was done under the writer’s real experience
and by observing during a long period, with the participation of all members of faculty youth
union executive board.
It is a preliminary research on the communication among members of the youth union at
the regular meetings of the organization and focuses on the ways Vietnamese vocatives and
structures of requests are used.
The data were collected in two ways: questionnaire and open interview questions, which
were mainly about addressees’ preference and satisfaction in the ways Vietnamese vocatives are
used in their communication in the formal meeting context, and their appreciation in the
requests being used as well. The interview and the questionnaire were delivered to the
participants, who are all student youth leaders; and accessed during the research, to collect their
responses.
The data were analyzed statistically, quantitatively and qualitatively and then the
discussion was made based on the theory reviewed.
5. Findings and discussion
In the environment of the university, there are relationships among colleagues, among
students, and between teachers and students. The vocatives used, therefore, are much fewer than
in the society. Thầy/cô - các trò, thầy/cô - các em, tôi - các bạn/các em, tôi - các anh, chị, etc.
are used as the most common vocatives to address the hearers.
Our observation was on specific cases with other kinds of relationship: the relationships
among students and between teachers and students. However, it was in a different position -
between the youth leaders (maybe, teachers or students), another way to name interpersonally is
đồng chí (‘comrade’). The context of our study was the regular meetings aimed to discuss the
coming activities to be held and to inform the important policies or plans of the organization, in
which the researcher is the secretary - the top leader of youth union of the faculty. In these
meetings, many tasks were assigned to all members of the executive committee, and so, many
requests, or even commands were made to get the job, the activities done effectively.
After some meetings passed, I got all 15 together and a warm and friendly interview was
made as if it was a reunion to share what they have thought and how they have felt about the
communication strategies used. All of their sharing and opinions were carefully recorded, taken
notes and analyzed to go to the findings.
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Figure 1. Vocatives used broadly accepted
The findings showed that 13 out of 15 (87%) agreed that the teacher should call them
đồng chí (‘comrade’) at such meetings of the organization. However, also 10 out of 15 (67%)
agreed that “thầy - các em” is also acceptable in case the youth union secretary talks to other
members because our organization is also in the university where teacher-student is the core
relationship. Also, they believed that when they, student youth leaders, discuss together, đồng
chí (‘comrade’) should be used. A few members (3 out of 15-20%) preferred to use “tôi -
bạn/các bạn” in the communication with other student leaders, but “thầy - em, các em” when
talking with the secretary.
It is certain that the majority of the youth leaders are good and active students, and they
understand that they are taking part in the political organization. They, therefore, consider that
the title they use to call each other at formal meetings must be official and formal, therefore
“đồng chí” is more preferable. Nguyen Thi Diem Phuong (2011) agreed that the vocatives we
use in communication also show whether we respect or are respected by the others or not.
“…I totally agree that we ought to use ‘đồng chí’ as a vocative to name at official meetings.
Thanks to that, we will be aware that it is a formal case. And more, when being called “đồng chí”
we think that we are respected and highly appreciated. This will strengthen our motivation at
work….” (Minh Khoi (C41)).
Also, some respondents believed that when we call them a serious title like “đồng chí”, it
shows that we recognize their position in the group and in student community. In fact, youth
union is a political organization, so “comrade” is normally and popularly used.
“…when we are called “đồng chí”, we know that our roles are recognized, and that is what we
need beside the experience. To tell the truth that we are really happy when other people know what
we have done and recognize them. We do not do things just for ourselves but the whole student
community…” (Thanh Danh & Thanh Thao (C42)).
While most of the respondents agreed that the way we call them in the organization show
that we respect them and position them rightly, and they also believed that it is a way to show
our recognition toward their contribution; others- also including some in the previous group-
think the neutral way. According to these interviewees, they need to be respected, recognized.
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However, they also thought that the relationship between teacher and students should be paid
more attention, so they supposed “thầy - em, các em” should be a considerable way, too.
“… I really want to be called ‘comrade’ to show that I am appreciated as a companion. However, I
also think that in addition to the relationship in the organization, we also have the relationships
between teacher and students, and friendship among us, the students. Therefore, ‘đồng chí, thầy,
bạn, các bạn’ are all accepted to me….” (Thuy Linh (C40)).
Vocatives are a crucial part of language in communication. They play an important role in
showing the politeness, the respects, and recognitions to the hearers. Using the correct vocatives
in making requests, which aims to require the addresses to do something for the speaker or for
the public purposes, is also an important factor contributing to the goal of communication.
In Vietnamese, people make requests in two ways, direct and indirect; and in three types,
interrogative, imperative and declarative, among which interrogative is used most often.
Figure 2. Addressees’ preferences in direct requests used
Most student youth leaders (10/15 - 67%) are actually into the direct requests with the clear
explanation instead of the indirectness. They think that when the direct request is made, they can
get the points and certainly do/follow it in the right way. They also argue that saying something
indirectly sometimes makes them confused although “indirectness is is often associated with
politeness” (Brown & Levinson, 1987). Responses also showed that they agreed with the
indirectness in their communication because they needed to be politely treated, but they did not
think it is a good way to make request at the meetings with the aims to give commands and assign
tasks. On the other hand, a few respondents did still think that the indirect use of requests or
suggestions seemed to be softer to their ears and they did not feel some ways to be hurt. Neither
did they think that indirectness is the effective way in giving something like a command or a
request. This group of respondents also said that indirectness should be used in communication
between lower-to-higher speakers for it could better show their respects to the older.
Among the direct requests, the majority of respondents believed that interrogative should
be used in making an effective request. “Danh, em hoàn thành kế hoạch hoạt động này vào thứ
Sáu được không?/ Danh, could you finish the plan for this activity by Friday, please?” seems to
be more effective than “Danh, em nên hoàn thành kế hoạch hoạt động vào thứ Sáu./Danh, you
should finish the plan for the activity by Friday.” While the previous sentence seemed to be
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softer and mitigated, and it also gave the hearer a choice; the later one gave no choice to the
addressee. Therefore, the clear preference is for the first one.
Figure 3. Addressees' ideas on using imperatives as clear-cut suggestions
Even an imperative like “Làm xong bản kế hoạch này ngay trong tuần này nhé!/ Finish this
plan within this week, please!” can be also widely accepted in this case. Most of respondents
(73%) agreed that imperative can bring certain benefits, too. It may be clear-cut instructions,
especially to the new students, in guiding them what to do and how to do what are expected to be
finished while there are still some considerations on whether this kind of suggestion may bring the
effectiveness for the communication or not. In fact, the participants of the recent study showed
that they strongly preferred the directness, especially, imperatives when making requests (Byon
2006; Hassall, 1999; Lee-Wong, 1994; Matsumoto, 1988; Ogiermann, 2009; Upadhyay, 2003; Vu
Thi Thanh Huong, 1997, 1999; Wierzbicka 1985). This study showed a similar result from Vu Thi
Thanh Huong (1997, 1999), in which he suggested that imperatives are not necessarily in relation
to impoliteness in Vietnamese language. When asked, in fact, 76.7% of the Vietnamese
participants in Vu Thi Thanh Huong’s (1997, 1999) studies did not believe that barely mitigated
imperatives are inappropriate, while 64% considered mitigated ‘imperatives’ to be polite.
“…Although I sometimes feel serious about the imperatives, they are more like commands not
requests, I still prefer them to the indirect statements. That is because I can find it is easy to
understand and follow the request. I do not think they are in relation with impoliteness….” (Thao
(C42) & Thu (C44))
Beside the requests used, the intonation, the body language and speaker’s face also
contribute to the effectiveness of the conversation, and the hearers’ preference. The speaker’s
accent also represents the respect to the hearers, and it may hurt them if the one who gives request
talk as if he shouts at them with the serious face. In general, no one denies the contribution of the
request structures, but the way the speaker makes requests is not less important.
“…I do not have any ideas about what you requested us, they are okay to me; however, I was
sometimes scared because of your frightening accent. When I was frightened, I could not
remember even a word you said…” (Toan, a freshman).
Overall, based on the above findings and discussion, it is apparent that in order to make
an effective request to hearers, student youth leaders in this case; suitable vocatives and request
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structures play an important role. The aims of the conversation may fail if a lack of attention is
paid to these elements.
6. Conclusion and application
The study showed that the suitable use of vocatives in the right situation can bring the
satisfying results for the conversation because they may help the respondents/addressees feel that
they are respected. The hearers also feel that their positions and roles are correctly recognized.
In addition to vocatives, the ways we make requests also have positive or negative effects
to the success of the communication. Thanks to the study, we found that using direct requests
and imperatives may bring positive results for the hearers who have lower position than the
speaker. This finding is equivalent to Vu Thi Thanh Huong (1997, 1999) that direct requests
were used more often in the equal power or in higher-to-lower relationships, whereas in lower-
to-higher power scenarios, indirect requests were required.
The study was conducted in a rather small scale, so it could not be representative of
Vietnamese people or the Vietnamese language. However, in some ways, it may run well in the
similar situations in which the teacher may apply to communicate with his students who are
doing some jobs in a political organization like the youth union at schools and universities.
Thanks to the findings, at the formal situations in which people have equal power
relationship (we did not count for the age of the speaker and the hearers), the vocatives like
‘đồng chí, các bạn, các anh chị’ are preferable. Therefore, the speaker should make sure that
everyone is equally respected to achieve the goals of communication.
The findings also suggested that in the equal power relationships or in higher-to-lower
power conversations, the speakers may use direct requests more often to successfully reach the
goals of communication. Whereas, if the speakers are at the lower power position in the
communication, indirect requests should be considered more frequently to avoid negative
effects that may lead to failed communication. Besides, we should alo pay attention to our face
expressions, intonations and gestures while giving requests so that we can avoid hurting the
addressee’s feelings.
The writer, with the hope to reduce the limitation of small population, expects to do some
further research which can attract more participants involved in some various environments like
in the companies or in the state organizations, so that it can represent as communication
strategies and help equip students the skills required in working environment.
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Matsumoto, Y. (1988). Reexamination of the universality of face. Journal of Pragmatics, 12, 403- 426.
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Ogiermann, E. (2009). Politeness and in-directness across cultures: A comparison of English, German,
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CÁCH GIAO TIẾP HIỆU QUẢ VỚI LỜI XƯNG HÔ,

ĐỀ NGHỊ, YÊU CẦU HỢP LÝ
Tóm tắt: Tác giả thực hiện nghiên cứu nhằm tìm hiểu tính hiệu quả của việc sử dụng cách
xưng hô và lời đề nghị phù hợp trong giao tiếp giữa cán bộ đoàn là sinh viên. Đề tài được
thực hiện trong bối cảnh của các cuộc họp hàng tuần, hàng tháng và các cuộc họp triển khai
các hoạt động, phong trào thanh niên tại Khoa Ngoại ngữ, Trường Đại học Cần Thơ. Các
cuộc khảo sát lấy ý kiến về sự hài lòng và sự ưa thích của cán bộ đoàn sinh viên về cách
xưng hô phù hợp tại các cuộc họp, và thái độ của họ đối với các yêu cầu, đề nghị của bí thư
Đoàn của Khoa trong việc phân công thực hiện các hoạt động phong trào tại đơn vị. Kết
quả khảo sát cho thấy việc sử dụng phù hợp cách xưng hô và câu mệnh lệnh/đề nghị sẽ
mang lại hiệu quả giao tiếp tích cực trong các tình huống trên.
Từ khoá: Xưng hô, lời đề nghị, cán bộ đoàn
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REDEFINING A FLIPPED LEARNING CLASSROOM:

USING OUTSIDE-CLASSROOM LISTENING PORTFOLIO
TO BOOST INSIDE-CLASSROOM SPEAKING TASKS
Mai Thi Nhu Hang*
Quang Binh University

Abstract: With the limited time in the classroom, many English language teachers have
held a big concern as to how to create more spaces, more time, and more opportunities for
learners to use the target language in a meaningful way. By using a qualitative method with
different approaches of interviews, document analysis, and classroom observations, this
study aims at exploring the effect of adopting a flipped learning model with the integration
of listening and speaking on the development of these skills. The study participants were 17
third-year English-major students enrolling in a listening-speaking 6 course at Quang Binh
University. The findings showed that learners’ listening skills were significantly improved
and they appeared to be more confident and more productive when participating in inside-
classroom speaking tasks with a well-prepared listening porfolio at home. The article drew
an implication that to boost learners’ independent learning and maximize the effect of the
classroom time, it is vital to apply homework-in-class and classwork-at-home model while
integrating skills in language education.
Key words: Flipped learning, listening portfolios, listening-speaking integration
1. Introduction
The mobilized world of the 21st century appears to require its citizens to be equipped with
necessary skills and knowledge to respond to its astounding developments, and language
learners are also involved in this stream. In the arena of English language teaching and learning,
Zwiers (2014) claims that our learners have to learn to use that language in a more complicated
way such as analyzing complex texts, arguing, evaluating evidence, and engaging in academic
discussions. In fact, in order to prepare for more advanced language to meet different purposes,
rather than just daily expressions, such as the academic language standards for higher education
or international tests like IELTS or TOEFL, technical languages for future jobs, and deeper
language for taking part in more complicated interactions, learners need to be well-prepared.
However, with simply asking them to do speaking tasks in the traditional classroom is not
adequate. In fact, although language teachers perhaps allow their students a certain amount of
time to prepare and generate academic discussions in the classroom, it has been seen that many
learners cannot fulfill the tasks due to lack of knowledge, lexical resources on a particular topic
as well as their nagging anxiety when using a second language. It causes a common problem in
many English-speaking classrooms that students remain silent and unresponsive, participating
only to a minimal degree. It poses a need for allowing learners enough time, space and
opportunities to access academic language before class by assigning out-of-class work.
* Email: hangmainhu88qb@gmail.com
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Although in many cases the curriculum has separated language skills into different
courses, in the very essence they are integrated and cannot be apart, such as listening and
speaking skills. While listening is a receptive skill, speaking is a productive one. When referring
to learning a foreign language, Tavil (2000) regards these skills to be very important for
communicative competence and states that “it is essential for students to understand the
language they are exposed to and to respond appropriately so that they can become competent
users of that particular language” (p. 765). There are a variety of studies claiming the positive
effect of integrating listening and speaking on learners’ oral communicative competence;
however, there is still a research room for innovative teaching and learning approaches to
resolve this issue, particularly adopting the flipped learning model in order to maximize the
classroom time.
2.1. Definition of flipped learning
The term “flipped learning” dated back to 2000 with Baker’s college context in
Southwest Ohio, United States. With a goal to change the role of the teacher from a mere
lecturer or a knowledge transferor to a guide-by-the-side and to reduce class time wasted on
students copying the slides, Baker’s idea was to let students access learning materials online
before class and utilize the classroom time to assist them in dealing with daunting exercises.
This model is called homework-in-class and classwork-at-home model as traditionally students
acquire knowledge in a classroom context and then do more practice out of the classroom. In the
flipped classroom, students acquire knowledge before the class and use class time to practice
and apply concepts and ideas through interaction with peers and teachers. After the class,
students reflect upon the feedback they have received and use this to further their learning. This
learning approach has brought great benefits to students in many disciplines (Honeycutt &
Garrett, 2014). In the field of teaching English as a foreign language (EFL), adopting flipped
learning approach has attracted considerable attention; however, there is still a limited number
of empirical studies in this field regarding how to perform it in skill-integration classroom and
how effective it is.
2.2. Benefits of the flipped learning model
With the aim of exploring the effects of the flipped learning approach in a grammar
classroom through students’ perceptions on its effectiveness and feasibility, Pudin (2017)
adopted a quantitative method. A number of 120 students with higher Malaysian University
Entrance Test (MUET) were asked to complete a questionnaire which is then analyzed through
SPSS version 24. The findings indicated that most of the students were keen on learning
grammar through the flipped classroom as opposed to the traditional grammar one. The study
provided ESL practitioners a better insight into students’ preference in learning grammar and
ways to create better teaching through blended learning.
In the Vietnamese context, Cao Thi Xuan Lien’s (2017) study examined the effect of the
flipped learning approach on students’ learning satisfaction. The study conducted a survey on 67
second-year English-major students at University of Foreign Languages, Hue University. The
findings showed that the majority of participants held a positive attitude towards the concerted
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classroom model. Some advantages were commented by the participants such as considerably
improving writing skill, more time spent on practice, more interesting than the traditional
method, attracting more students in classroom activities. However, some difficulties were also
pointed out such as overloaded assignments outside class and lack of support from teachers. In
line with this, Tran Thi Thanh Quyen (2017) also investigated students’ awareness of the
flipped learning model administered on 30 ESP students at Can Tho University. In the study, the
social network, Facebook, was employed to deliver online lectures and discussions. The results
suggested that Facebook is a convenient and effective learning tool in flipped learning method
helping learners improve vocabulary, pronunciation, and communication skills.
Overall, the flipped learning model has been increasingly adopted in ESL language
classrooms but it appears to be mainly used for a single skill like writing skill or grammar
learning. There are no studies found regarding teaching listening and speaking in integration
using flipped learning approach. The following part will continue to discuss the benefit of
integrating these two skills in developing learners’ language performances.
2.3. The integration of listening and speaking skills
In terms of integrating listening and speaking, Tavil’s (2010) study aims at examining the
effect of applying listening-speaking skill integration in the classroom by implementing tasks
and using pre-post tests administered to 180 students from the preparatory classes of Hacettepe
University, Turkey. The findings show that students practicing the skills in integration are more
successful than those practicing them separately. The study contributes to accustoming learners
to combing listening and speaking, in natural interaction, through information-gap tasks.
However, its limitation is just using in-classroom-tasks without emphasizing out-of-classroom
tasks with skill-integration approach.
Many studies have proposed the benefits of using speaking skill to achieve language
learning goals in listening classrooms. It is said that integrating speaking can assist in
“facilitating metacognition development, enhancing comprehension and retention of listening
content, and creating opportunities for focus on form” (Newton & Nguyen Duc Chi, 2018, p. 4).
In line with this, De la Fuente (2002) also claims that a combination of listening and speaking is
more effective for learning the meaning of new vocabulary items introduced in aural input than
the alternative approach of repeated listening.
Despite its valuable findings, these studies still have some caveats such as putting more
emphasis on the benefits of speaking on listening, or productive skill on receptive one, rather
than vice versa. Therefore, the data on how listening can boost speaking appears sparse;
especially, effective teaching approaches to fulfill this goal are still rare. Moreover, none of
them pay attention to using out-of-class work to boost inside-classroom activities. This study
fills the gap by adapting a flipped learning method to teach listening and speaking skills with an
aim of activating their acquired knowledge from outside into the classroom to maximize the
advantage of the classroom time. The research aims to answer the following questions:
- How can outside-class portfolios improve learners’ listening skill?
- How can out-of-class listening boost learners’ in-class speaking task performances?
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3. Methodology
3.1. Instruments
3.1.1. Interview
Interviewing is considered as one of the core data collection methods in qualitative
research. Interviews are valuable because if they are properly conducted, they can provide deep
insights into people’s experiences, beliefs, perceptions and motivations (Creswell & Plano
Clark, 2011). This method is usually employed as a valuable source of data to triangulate
findings of studies. Therefore, in this study, 17 interviews were conducted to gain a
comprehensive understanding of learners’ opinions on the effects of out-of-class listening
portfolio on improving learners’ listening skills and on in-class speaking activities. Learners
were interviewed immediately after their speaking tasks, particularly in post-task stage. After
each learner finished their small-group talk, they were asked some questions in English relating
to the issue mentioned above. Each interview lasted for about 2 minutes.
3.1.2. Participant observation
Observation methods provide a variety of benefits for researchers, such as checking
nonverbal expression of feelings, determining who interacts with whom, grasping how
interlocutors communicate with each other, and checking for how much time is spent on various
activities (Schmuck, 1997). In this study, the researcher observed learners’ speaking task
performances and took notes of comments on their strengths and weaknesses. The observation
approach was conducted before interviews in order to collect more information on learners’
performances before asking key questions to find more data for research questions.
3.1.3. Field note analysis
Field notes which are generated during the researcher’s observations help to remember
and record the behaviors, activities, events, and other features of the observations. Field notes
are intended to be read by the researcher as evidence to produce meaning and an understanding
of the culture, social situation, or phenomenon being studied. The notes may constitute the
whole data collected for a research study (e.g., an observational project) or contribute to it, such
as when field notes supplement conventional interview data (Schwandt, 2015).
3.1.4. Document analysis
Document analysis is a systematic procedure for reviewing or evaluating documents
which are printed or electronic materials. Data of document analysis requires to be examined
and interpreted in order to elicit meaning, gain understanding, and develop empirical knowledge
(Corbin & Strauss, 2008). In this study, learners’ listening portfolios were analyzed to gain
more information on how they helped to improve learners’ listening and speaking skills. In
particular, portfolios were analyzed based on different parts such as self-evaluation, useful
vocabulary, and main ideas.
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3.2. Participants and the classroom context

The teaching context was a speaking-listening 6 course for third-year English-major
students at university level in Quang Binh University. This course focused on developing the
necessary skills and strategies to further students’ abilities in listening and speaking (although
other language skills were integrated). The classroom participants included in the observation
notes were 17 Vietnamese students who majored in English language. Participants’ ages ranged
between 20 and 21. The number of females accounted for 88.2% while that of males was 11.8%.
During the course, learners were required to complete practicing at minimum three pieces
of listening per week and make a portfolio in a guided format and structure. These files were
submitted to the instructor (the author) after class for evaluation and analysis and were returned
to learners one week later. The author wrote analysis in a small notebook when checking
students’ out-of-class work.
Teachers instructed learners how to select appropriate talks and reliable listening
resources so that learners can both practice listening skills and enrich their general knowledge
about the world. Although specific topics were optional and chosen according to learners’
interests, there were general topics stated in the syllabus to be followed.
When coming to the classroom, students carried out speaking tasks given by the teacher.
While students were working, the instructor also acted as the observer in certain classroom
activities. When observing the class, the author wrote shorthand field notes detailing the
observations of the students.
The following are teachers’ instructions to learners’ listening portfolio.
Outside-classroom listening portfolio
Listening selection guidelines
Firstly, learners were advised to choose talks below 10 minutes in length, usually 5 to 7
minutes was more advised. Talks over 10 minutes were generally long enough to easily make
the listener tired and demotivated. The reason was that learners not only just finished their
listening but also needed to look up new words and learn useful phrases. With an appropriate
duration, it appeared that learners were provided more adequate time and space to absorb and
acquire the input language in a more productive way.
In addition, choosing a good topic also accounted for a successful listening process. It
was believed that what interested you would motivate and inspire you to be persistent with it in
a long run. Listening to a second language to understand new information was a daunting task
and needed a great effort, so an interesting talk would considerably push learners in their
learning process.
Listening resources
Learners were required to choose such types of listening as news, reports and speeches as
they provided a richer resource of information and knowledge with more academic languages
necessary for learners to reproduce them in the same or relevant topics later.
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Some recommended sources were Ted.com (main source), VOA special English (these
sources were suggested but there was no limit to others, so students could use any reliable
source after discussing with the instructor).
The following is the suggested portfolio format:
Portfolio format
Learners were required to make a table of self-reflection with a specific guideline for
each listening time.
Date:
Listening 1: (Listening title)
Part 1: Self-reflection
Table 1. Self-reflection
Time What to do Percentage of
understanding
•
1st time Listen without subtitle/ subscript and figure out the general %
idea of the talk. -----
2nd – 4•th Listen without subtitle/ subscript and take notes of the %
time main points. -----
The number of times may vary depending on learners’
ability but should be 3 times at maximum.
•
5th time Listen with subtitle/ subscript to check your understanding %
and your notes. -----
• Look up new words in a dictionary and learn useful
vocabulary and phrases.
Final• Listen without subtitle/ subscript after learning new words %
time and useful phrases. -----
Part 2: Useful vocabulary and phrases

In this part, learners wrote down all new words and useful phrases from the listening
piece. New words were recorded with their main elements including spelling, international
transcript, meaning, and part of speech (these elements were recommended but not limited).
Part 3: Main ideas
In this part, learners noted down the main points of the talk so that they could share with
others what they had listened. It was advised that learners should use the mind map to organize
the main points, stimulating their brainstorming and recalling language to express an issue in
their own way. Learners needed to practice presenting these main contents at home to prepare
for classroom speaking tasks.
Inside-classroom speaking tasks
The following are learners’ instructions to inside-classroom speaking tasks:
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Pre-task: Individual work

Choose a listening topic among the ones you listened to at home and spend some time
practicing speaking about it individually (5 minutes).
Notice: Teachers encourage learners to use as many new words and useful phrases from
the listening as possible. This will help them remember vocabulary and information necessary
for their language use and production.
Main-task
Task 1: Pair-work
Imagine that you are going to meet three friends at three different times. You are very
eager to share with them what you have known from your listening. Now, start up a
conversation with a partner and talk about it.
While talking with each other, please feel free to ask questions or have a small discussion
about that issue (15 minutes for 3 conversations).
Task 2: Large-group talk
Imagine that you are going to share a particular topic with a large group. Each person will
have one chance to stand in front of the class to present a talk in 3 minutes.
Notice: Immediately after each talk, the other members of the class and teacher will raise
questions and comment on their performances.
Post-task
Think about the following questions and share your ideas with your teacher and classmates:
1. How useful is portfolio-making to your listening improvement?
2. How can out-of-class listening practice boost your speaking activities on a particular
topic in the classroom?
3. Did you have any difficulties when making listening portfolio?
4.1. How portfolio making improves learners’ listening skill
4.1.1. Findings from document analysis
The data from document analysis revealed a significant effect of portfolio-making activity
on learners’ listening skill development, particularly enhancing listening comprehension, and
improving vocabulary and general knowledge, which will be presented below.
Enhancing listening comprehension: The analysis from 17 collected portfolios by
students showed that for the first time they did not understand much about the content of the
talk (with below 50 percent of understanding for all learners) but many of them could figure out
the general idea of the talk. Their understanding improved considerably after three times of
listening and 90 percent of the students could note down the main points and the average level
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of understanding increased to around 75 percent for most of them. After looking up new words
and learning useful phrases, learners listened again without the subtitle, and it appeared that the
understanding went up to 95 to 100 percent for all learners.
Enhancing vocabulary and general knowledge: It was also seen that many academic
words and useful phrases were recorded by learners for later language use. For example, in a
listening titled “climate change”, a student took notes of useful vocabulary, such as:
atmosphere, carbon dioxide, fossil fuel, emission, global warming, and greenhouse gas. This
activity helped learners improve their vocabulary on a particular topic. In addition, the main-
idea part demonstrated that learners had a chance to gather a lot of useful information and
knowledge on a certain issue which was substantially essential to their comprehension and
language production.
4.1.2. Findings from interviews
The data from interviews showed that all of the learners were in favor of doing portfolio-
making task to improve their listening skill because of the following benefits.
Providing more time for practice: All of the participants held a positive attitude toward
making listening portfolios outside the classroom. One of the main reasons was that it provided
them more time to learn useful vocabulary and phrases, which remarkably enhances their
listening comprehension.
Providing an effective way of listening: Most of them (87%) agreed that listening skill
could be done by themselves at home without much difficulty as they just needed to used online
materials that the teacher provided. With the guided steps, all of the participants approved that
they learned the way how to practice English listening in a more effective way.
Providing a chance for self-evaluation: Interestingly, many of them expressed a satisfaction
with what they did in the portfolio. In particular, when they had a chance to evaluate their
competence after each time of listening, they would recognize their listening ability by themselves.
That, in fact, generated an intrinsic motivation in learners who desired to improve themselves.
4.2. How making listening portfolio outside classroom boosts inside-classroom speaking
tasks
4.2.1. Findings from classroom observations
The results from classroom observations indicated many benefits of at-home-listening
portfolio activity on learners’ speaking task engagement and performances in the class,
including making learners more focused, lowering second language (L2) anxiety, enhancing
comprehension, and providing more accurate grammar and enhancing vocabulary range in
classroom interactions.
Making learners more focused: Data from classroom observations showed that learners
were more focused on the topic when they worked individually or with their partners. All of
them showed that they were very eager to share their knowledge about the topic. It was also
observed that learners were always ready and showed an enthusiastic attitude toward speaking
346
activities in the classroom when they were well-prepared for the needed knowledge as well as
useful topic-relevant language in advance.
Lowering L2 anxiety: Importantly, many of them appeared to overcome L2 anxiety and
were very confident when speaking in front of a large group. Many of those who had been too
shy to speak before appeared to be more comfortable and enthusiastic about speaking.
Enhancing comprehension: It was also easier for them to understand what their partners
or other classmates shared as they had a certain level of understanding about the general idea of
the topic while searching and doing out-of-class listening work.
Providing more accurate grammar and enhancing vocabulary range: The participants
also showed that they used a variety of academic vocabulary, complicated phrases, and
advanced grammar structures in small discussions or when making a presentation.
4.2.2. Findings from the interviews
The data from the interviews also revealed some benefits of listening portfolios to
learners’ speaking performances regarding learner-centeredness and productivity.
Learner-centered: All of the interviewees agreed that the classroom time was indeed
learner-centered when all of the time students had to work and perform tasks given by the teacher.
More productive: Many learners commented that they gained more knowledge about a
prompted topic as well as acquiring more academic vocabulary in that topic, so they were more
eager to participate in discussion activities and more ready to share their ideas with their
classmates about what they knew.
5. Conclusion
Listening is seen to be an effective strategy to scaffold academic language and knowledge
for speaking. However, the important point is that students are asked to make listening
portfolios at home rather than in class. By using outside-classroom listening portfolio before
inside-classroom speaking tasks, teachers allow students to accumulate more knowledge or
information on a particular topic, better organize their thoughts, and ultimately lower their L2
speaking anxiety. The study findings indicated that academic speaking following prepared
listening outside the classroom were more time-saving and engaging, with students using more
accurate grammar and more precise vocabulary when they spoke. The study suggests that to
apply flipped learning model more effectively in language classrooms, it is necessary to adapt it
to a particular teaching and learning context. In skill-integration teaching, flipped learning can
be understood that using the outside-classroom time to enhance knowledge through a receptive
skill and prepare for another productive skill in the classroom time. In this study, listening
portfolios significantly enhance inside-classroom speaking task engagement as well as
performances.
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References
Cao Thi Xuan Lien (2017). The application of flipped classroom model to teach writing skills to EFL
students at University of Foreign Languages, Hue University. Journal of Inquiry into Languages and
Cultures, 1(3), 36-48.
Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2008). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for
developing grounded theory (3rd edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Creswell, J.W., & Plano Clark, V.L. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed methods research.
Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications.
De La Fuente, M.J. (2002). Negotiation and oral acquisition of L2 vocabulary. Studies in Second
Language Acquisition, 24, 81-112.
Honeycutt, B., & Garrett, J. (2014). Expanding the definition of a flipped learning environment. In M.
Bart (Ed.), Blended and flipped: Exploring new models for effective teaching and learning (pp. 12-13).
USA: Faculty Focus.
Newton, J., & Nguyen Duc Chi (2018). Integrating listening and speaking. The TESOL Encyclopedia of
English Language Teaching. Doi: 10.1002/9781118784235.eelt0602.
Pudin, C. (2017). Exploring a flipped learning approach in teaching grammar for ESL students.
Indonesian Journal of English Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, 2(1), 51-65.
Doi:10.21093/ijeltal.v2i1.47.
Schmuck, R. (1997). Practical action research for change. Arlington Heights, IL: IRI/Skylight Training
and Publishing.
Schwandt, T.A. (2015). The SAGE dictionary of qualitative inquiry (4th edition). Thousand Oaks, CA:
SAGE.
Tavil, M.Z. (2010). Integrating listening and speaking skills to facilitate English language learners’
communicative competence. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 9, 765-770.
Tran Thi Thanh Quyen (2017). Students’ perceptions of flipped model on Facebook for educational
purposes. Journal of Research & Method in Education, 7(3), 7-14.
Zwiers, J. (2014). Building academic language: Meeting common core standards across disciplines,
grades 5-12 (2nd edition). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
LỚP HỌC ĐẢO NGƯỢC: SỬ DỤNG TẬP BÀI NGHE

NGOÀI LỚP HỌC ĐỂ TĂNG CƯỜNG HIỆU QUẢ
HOẠT ĐỘNG NÓI TRÊN LỚP
Tóm tắt: Với thời lượng giảng dạy hạn hẹp trong lớp học, nhiều giáo viên ngoại ngữ tiếng
Anh đã gặp nhiều trở ngại trong việc làm thế nào để tạo ra được nhiều không gian, thời gian
và cơ hội hơn cho người học sử dụng ngôn ngữ đích một cách ý nghĩa. Thông qua phương
pháp định tính với các cách tiếp cận như phỏng vấn, phân tích tài liệu học tập và quan sát
lớp học, bài nghiên cứu tìm hiểu hiệu quả của việc ứng dụng mô hình lớp học đảo ngược
với sự tích hợp giữa hai kĩ năng nghe và nói. Khách thể tham gia của đề tài là 17 sinh viên
chuyên ngành tiếng Anh đang tham gia vào khoá học nghe-nói 6 tại Khoa Ngoại Ngữ
trường Đại học Quảng Bình. Kết quả nghiên cứu đã cho thấy rằng kĩ năng nghe của người
học đã phát triển đáng kể, sinh viên tự tin hơn và tham gia vào các hoạt động nói hiệu quả
hơn khi được chuẩn bị về chủ đề đó thông qua kĩ năng nghe ở nhà. Bài báo đề xuất rằng để
tăng cường tính tự học của người học và tối đa hoá hiệu quả trong thời gian lớp học, việc áp
dụng mô hình đảo ngược như bài tập ở nhà làm việc tại lớp và công việc tại lớp chuẩn bị ở
nhà với sự kết hợp của các kĩ năng khác nhau đóng vai trò quan trọng trong việc giảng dạy
ngoại ngữ.
Từ khoá: Học đảo ngược, tập bài nghe, tích hợp kĩ năng nghe và nói
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VIỆC LUYỆN NÓI TIẾNG ANH CỦA SINH VIÊN

ĐẠI HỌC HUẾ ĐỂ ĐẠT ĐẦU RA BẬC 3/6
Lê Thị Hồng Phương*; Nguyễn Phạm Thanh Vân
Tóm tắt: Luyện nói là một trong những kỹ năng quan trọng của việc học tiếng Anh. Hiện
nay, việc đánh giá trình độ tiếng Anh đối với sinh viên ĐH Huế (Đại học Huế) cũng được
thực hiện với cả bốn kỹ năng riêng biệt. Với dữ liệu qua 100 bản điều tra cho thấy các em
đã và đang gặp phải những khó khăn khách quan và và chủ quan trong việc phát triển kỹ
năng nói của mình. Bài viết này xin được đưa ra một số khó khăn và chiến lược nhằm nâng
cao chất lượng lớp học luyện nói tiếng Anh và cải thiện kết quả đầu ra đạt chuẩn bậc 3/6
một cách hiệu quả cho sinh viên không chuyên ngữ ở ĐH Huế.
Từ khóa: Chiến lược, kỹ năng thực hành tiếng, sinh viên không chuyên ngữ, năng lực ngôn
ngữ
1. Mở đầu
Học tiếng Anh đã và đang trở thành một yêu cầu cấp thiết đối với sinh viên ĐH Huế khi
mà kì thi B1 bậc 3/6 là điều kiện bắt buộc để sinh viên tốt nghiệp đại học ở ĐH Huế và đã trở
thành một yêu cầu có tính thực tiễn và bắt buộc đối với mọi sinh viên của ĐH Huế.
Trong số các kĩ năng tiếng Anh, kĩ năng nói được cho là một kĩ năng quan trọng và cần
được chú trong nhất bởi nó là yếu tố then chốt cấu thành khả năng giao tiếp bằng ngôn ngữ mục
tiêu của người học mà đây lại là một kĩ năng khó nhất trong số 4 kĩ năng nghe-nói-đọc-viết.
72% sinh viên đã được khảo sát thừa nhận rằng cảm thấy rất khó khăn khi muốn diễn đạt ý
tưởng của mình bằng tiếng Anh thậm chí là có cảm giác sợ khi phải giao tiếp bằng ngôn ngữ
này dù đã rất cố gắng và đã có ý thức luyện tập trước đó. Thực vậy, theo thống kê gần đây ở
một số trường ĐH trên cả nước trong đó có ĐH Huế thì kết quả kĩ năng nói của sinh viên không
chuyên ngữ là thấp nhất so với các kĩ năng ngôn ngữ khác. Thực vậy, một tỉ lệ tương đối cao
sinh viên có kết quả thi môn nói dưới 7 nên không được công nhận đã qua kì thi kiểm tra năng
lực tiếng Anh bậc 3/6. Ngoài ra, tỉ lệ sinh viên tốt nghiệp ĐH giao tiếp được bằng tiếng Anh là
rất thấp, thậm chí các em không dám và không nói được tiếng Anh trong những tình huống giao
tiếp thông thường.
Trước thực trạng đó, đề tài này được thực hiện nhằm mục đích đưa ra và phân tích một
số khó khăn của sinh viên không chuyên ngữ ở ĐH Huế trong việc học và thi môn nói cũng như
sử dụng tiếng Anh trong giao tiếp thông thường. Bài báo cáo cũng đề cập đến những vấn đề của
người dạy kĩ năng này và trên cơ sở đó phân tích những bất lợi trong công tác giảng dạy nhằm
đề xuất một số chiến lược giúp cho giáo viên làm tốt hơn việc dạy kĩ năng nói và giúp sinh viên
khắc phục được phần nào những hạn chế và khó khăn gặp phải khi học, thi nói và giao tiếp bằng
tiếng Anh.
* Email: hongphuong@hueuni.edu.vn
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Nghiên cứu này tập trung tìm câu trả lời cho những câu hỏi sau:
- Những khó khăn nào sinh viên đang gặp phải trong quá trình học và thi môn nói bậc 3/6?
- Những chiến lược nào khả thi để cải thiện khả năng nói của sinh viên không chuyên ngữ ở ĐH
Huế nhằm giúp các em thành công trong kì thi đầu ra bậc 3/6?
Nội dung chính của báo cáo là đề cập đến những vấn đề gặp phải của sinh viên không
chuyên ngữ của ĐH Huế trong việc học kĩ năng nói nhằm đảm bảo kì thi đầu ra bậc 3/6. Điều
tra phân tích kết quả nghiên cứu để đưa ra một số chiến lược đề xuất cho thực trạng này
2.1. Kỹ năng nói tiếng Anh
Một quá trình nói được nhận định là tốt khi nó được hình thành trên cơ sở kết hợp một
cách hợp lí và logic giữa yếu tố thông tin và sự diễn đạt thông tin theo đó nhằm đạt được mức
độ lưu loátvà tính chính xác (Mazouzi, 2013). Chính vì vậy mà các bài giảng kĩ năng nói phải
được thiết kế dựa trên tiêu chí là vừa phát triển khả năng ngôn ngữ để hình thành sự thể hiện
ngôn ngữ hợp lí vừa khích lệ người học lĩnh hội kiến thức nền tảng để sở hữu thông tin một
cách chính xác và logic. Như vậy, một học viên nói lưu loát và chính xác ngôn ngữ mục tiêu của
mình thì học viên đó phải đạt được kiến thức nền tảng về ngữ pháp, ngữ âm, từ vựng và cả sự tư
duy logic về ngữ nghĩa. Mọi giáo viên dạy nói đều nhằm vào mục tiêu giúp người học nói vừa
trôi chảy vừa chính xác. Theo Thornbury (2005), nói lưu loát là khả năng có thể diễn đạt một
vấn đề nào đó một cách liên tục mà dễ hiểu để khiến người đồng giao tiếp với mình không cảm
thấy chán khi thực hành giao tiếp với mình. Với Nunan (2003) thì nói lưu loát là nói nhanh và tự
tin và gần như không dừng lại một cách thiếu tự nhiên. Vậy nên, dạy kĩ năng nói phải đồng
hành với dạy ngữ pháp, từ vựng theo ngữ cảnh và phát âm. Chaney (1998) cho rằng nói là quá
trình hình thành và chia sẻ ý nghĩa thông qua việc sử dụng các biểu tượng ngôn ngữ và phi ngôn
ngữ theo nhiều ngữ cảnh khác nhau. Theo quan điểm của Snow (2006), nói một ngoại ngữ liên
quan đến nhiều hoạt động khác nhau và người học phải học cách thực hiện những hoạt động đó
một cách nhanh nhẹn và luyện tập mở rộng là điều cần phải có. Trong thời đại toàn cầu hóa,
việc dạy và học nói tiếng Anh không còn là học thuộc lòng một đoạn hội thoại nào đó được cho
là đặc trưng hay cứ lặp đi lặp lại một dạng bài tập áp dụng theo một mẫu cho sẵn mà mục tiêu
của nó là phải nâng cao kĩ năng giao tiếp thực sự bởi có như vậy người học mới có thể tự diễn
đạt ý tưởng của riêng mình và học cách tư duy tuân theo các qui tắc về văn hóa và xã hội một
cách hợp lí trong từng bối cảnh giao tiếp.
2.2. Các yếu tố ảnh hưởng đến kĩ năng nói
2.2.1. Kiến thức ngữ pháp
Theo Thornbury (2005), chính kiến thức ngữ pháp sẽ giúp cho người nói nói chính xác,
diễn đạt đúng và được hiểu đúng nghĩa nội dung cần truyền đạt. Ngữ pháp tốt làm nên những
phát ngôn có kết cấu logic, súc tích, dễ hiểu và đặc biệt việc chọn từ hay cụm từ hợp lí cho mỗi
ngữ cảnh giao tiếp.
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2.2.2. Khả năng diễn ngôn

Năng lực diễn ngôn là khả năng diễn đạt giúp kết nối các ý tưởng một cách mạch lạc, hợp
lí và logic. Năng lực này được hình thành trên cơ sở kết hợp của các yếu tố sau: goals,
strategies, grammar, intonation, pronunciation, word choice, gestures and facial expression,
listener’s background, theo Snow (2006, tr. 110-111)
2.2.3. Kiến thức chung về xã hội, khoa học và con người
Quá trình giao tiếp được thực hiện với 2 yếu tố thông tin và cách thể thông tin. Việc học
nền tảng ngôn ngữ cung cấp cho người học kiến thức ngữ pháp, từ vựng và ngữ âm để hình
thành những phát ngôn đúng, được hiểu đúng và dễ hiểu. Đây là yếu tố diễn đạt và thể hiện.
Trong khi đó, ý tưởng diễn đạt, nội dung muốn trình bày là vốn kiến thức chung hay cụ thể về
cuộc sống về thế giới, con người, khoa học, tự nhiên... Người học, người giao tiếp phải tự trang
bị bằng các nguồn tư liệu trong cuộc sống qua quan sát, sách, báo, phim ảnh, từ người khác và
internet... Kiến thức này càng phong phú thì người học càng có nhiều ý thưởng để trình bày hay
bảo vệ một lập trường nào đó trong quá trình giao tiếp.
2.2.4. Môi trường học tập
Theo Snow (2006), trong suốt quá trình luyện nói trong lớp học, người càng được tạo
điều kiện nói nhiều bao nhiêu thì càng nói tốt bấy nhiêu, và giáo viên nên thiết kế hoạt động
theo từng cặp hay từng nhóm nhỏ thì hiệu quả thực hành tốt hơn là cho các em thảo luận theo
nhóm đông hay hoạt động người dạy là trung tâm. Theo đó người học làm việc theo đơn vị nhỏ
thì dễ thể hiện, được điều chỉnh và tự điều chỉnh dễ dàng hơn và đặc biệt là cơ hội và thời gian
nói sẽ nhiều hơn. Khi làm việc trong nhóm đông thì các em sẽ bị hạn chế khả năng thể hiện
ngôn ngữ và ý tưởng vì vậy mà hạn chế sự tiến bộ trong kĩ năng này. Snow (2006) cũng nhấn
mạnh rằng, trong một lớp học nói tiềm năng là lớp học có người giáo viên tiềm năng về phương
pháp và tâm lí giảng dạy. Theo ông, sửa lỗi cho người học có thể là có ích hầu như không có
bằng chứng nào chứng minh rằng sự sửa sai đó lại nâng cao tính chính xác khi nói cho người
học. Việc sửa lỗi quá thường xuyên sẽ khiến cho người học tự ti và làm mất hứng thú luyện nói.
2.3. Những khó khăn thường gặp trong quá trình nói
Richards (2006) cho rằng tình trạng sinh viên học nói kém là do thiếu sự coi trọng kĩ
năng này trong khung chương trình học chính thức. Do đó, người học không được đầu tư một
cách bài bản và chuyên sâu cho việc đào tạo kĩ năng này cả về nội dung lẫn thời gian, và kĩ năng
nói được xem như là yếu tố phụ, không quan trọng trong một chương trình học chính thức, điều
này rất ảnh hưởng đến quan điểm, ý thức và sự tri nhận trong môn nói. Khả năng ngôn ngữ hạn
chế của người dạy cũng được xem như một trở ngại lớn cho người học nói. Trong một số trường
hợp, giáo viên không thường xuyên sử dụng các kĩ năng ngôn ngữ nên tính thông thạo và chuẩn
xác nhất định cũng bị mai một, do một số lớp học dùng nhiều hay chủ yếu là tiếng mẹ đẻ trong
giờ giảng nên giáo viên càng hạn chế dùng ngôn ngữ mục tiêu vì thế ảnh hưởng thói quen ngôn
ngữ này cho người học. Đây là một trong những vấn đề phổ biến đáng lo ngại đặc biệt đối với
lớp học của sinh viên không chuyên ngữ. Như thế, như một chuỗi tương quan, giáo viên hạn chế
về năng lực ngôn ngữ thì sẽ dẫn đến năng lực ngôn ngữ của sinh viên cũng bị hạn chế.
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Điều kiện lớp học không thích hợp cho các hoạt động luyện nói và giao tiếp như lớp quá
đông (too large class) và nhiều trình độ người học. Thực vậy, khi lớp học đông thì rất khó quản
lí lớp học và khó tổ chức các hoạt động giao tiếp. Lớp đông cũng gây cản trở giáo viên trong
việc giúp đỡ và hướng dẫn cá nhân mỗi người học. Đối với những lớp nhiều trình độ thì việc
thiết kế các hoạt động học tập rất khó khăn, sự chênh lệch trình độ rất dễ gây ra sự nhàm chán
cho sinh viên khá tốt và sự quá sức đối với học sinh kém. Ngoài ra, để tạo điều kiện tốt và tạo
hứng thú cho người học nói, thì các hoạt động ngoài lớp học cũng rất ảnh hưởng, tuy nhiên khó
khăn là người học hiếm có cơ hội để luyện tập theo mô hình này do nhiều yếu tố.
2.4. Về kì thi kĩ năng nói bậc 3/6 cho sinh viên không chuyên ngữ ĐH Huế
Sinh viên thực hiện bài thi trên máy tính và bài thi nói được ghi âm lại. Đề thi kĩ năng nói
bậc 3/6 dành cho sinh viên không chuyên ngữ của ĐH Huế gồm 3 phần:
- Phần 1: Một giáo viên người nước ngoài sẽ đặt các câu hỏi cá nhân liên quan đến bản thân, đời
sống học đường, gia đinh, bạn bè, sỡ thích... sinh viên phải lắng nghe và hiểu câu hỏi của
thầy/cô giáo để trả lời.
- Phần 2: Một chủ đề cùng với 3 câu hỏi gợi ý xuất hiện trên màn hình máy tính cùng với giọng
đọc của giáo viên hỏi thi. Sinh viên đọc và nghiên cứu câu hỏi để trình bày.
Ví dụ: Talk about your admirable teacher. In your answer. You should say:
- Who he is and what subject he taught you
- What achievevments or prizes he won
- Why you admire him/her
- Phần 3: Giáo viên sẽ hỏi sinh viên 2 câu hỏi liên quan đến chủ đề được đề cập ở phần 2.
3.1. Cách tiếp cận nghiên cứu
Nghiên cứu này được thực hiện bằng phương pháp phối hợp giữa định tính và định lượng
. Theo Dornyie (2007) phương pháp nghiên cứu này giúp người nghiên cứu có thể khảo sát vấn
đề mà họ quan tâm một cách toàn diện thông qua việc khảo sát được một số lượng lớn đối tượng
nghiên cứu tại cùng một thời điểm thông qua các câu hỏi khảo sát mang tính định tính đồng thời
họ có thể hiểu sâu hơn về vấn đề đó thông qua các phản hồi mang tính định lượng từ các đối
tượng tham gia đối với các câu hỏi mở. Ngoài ra theo Cohen và cộng sự (2007) việc kết hợp hai
nguồn dữ liệu định tính và định lượng sẽ giúp phát huy thế mạnh của mỗi bên đồng thời hạn chế
những điểm yếu mà mỗi loại dữ liệu có thể có.
Đề tài này được thực hiện với sự tham gia của gần 100 sinh viên năm 2 của các Trường
ĐH Kinh tế, ĐH Luật và ĐH Khoa học, ĐH Huế đang theo học chương trình tiếng Anh cấp độ
B1 trong học kỳ 2 năm học 2017-2018. Những sinh viên này ở độ tuổi 19-21 và đã học tiếng
Anh 7 năm. Những sinh viên này đã hoàn thành các học phần tiếng Anh A1 và A2 tại trường
ĐH Ngoại ngữ, ĐH Huế.
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Công cụ nghiên cứu được sử dụng đó là một bảng khảo sát bao gồm cả câu hỏi đóng và
câu hỏi mở để có thể thu thập cả dữ liệu định tính và định lượng để trả lời các câu hỏi nghiên
cứu. Cuối học kỳ, bảng khảo sát được phát cho gần 100 sinh. Bảng khảo sát gồm hai phần. Phần
1 gồm 25 câu hỏi trắc nghiệm nhiều lựa chọn để xác định mức độ đồng ý hay không đồng ý của
sinh viên đối với các câu phát biểu liên quan đến học phần. Kết quả phản hồi của 100 sinh viên
đối với các câu hỏi khảo sát được tổng hợp và phân tích để nắm bắt rỏ những hạn chế và khó
khăn về ngôn ngữ và việc học luyện nói tiếng Anh của sinh viên và đánh giá tính khả thi của các
chiến lược dạy và học kĩ năng nói của sinh viên nhằm đạt chuẩn đầu ra bậc 3/6. Từ đó, đưa ra
câu trả lời cho 2 câu hỏi nghiên cứu.
(mixed research method), công cụ nghiên cứu được sử dụng đó là một bảng khảo sát bao gồm
cả câu hỏi đóng và câu hỏi mở để có thể thu thập cả dữ liệu định tính và định lượng để trả lời
các câu hỏi nghiên cứu.
4. Kết quả nghiên cứu
4.1. Hạn chế về kiến thức ngôn ngữ là một khó khăn lớn đối việc thực hành và thi kĩ năng nói
Từ số liệu thống kê ở Bảng 1 dưới đây cho thấy hơn 80% sinh viên nhận thấy kiến thức
về ngữ pháp, từ vựng là rất quan trọng đối với kĩ năng nói. Không có đủ nền tảng ngữ pháp và
vốn từ là một khó khăn rất lớn đối với việc thực hành kĩ năng nói trong lớp học cũng như trong
kì thi. Chỉ 9% sinh viên được hỏi là không gặp khó khăn ở năng lực này trong quá trình nói. Kĩ
năng nghe luôn đồng hành với kĩ năng nói trong một quá trình giao tiếp nhưng có đến 74% sinh
viên xác nhận kĩ năng nghe còn yếu là một khó khăn đáng kể và vì thế không thể nói tốt được.
15% sinh viên không đồng ý với phát biểu về khó khăn trong kĩ năng nghe dẫn đến cản trở kĩ
năng nói. Rất có thể đây là nhóm sinh viên tương đối tự tin về khả năng nghe của mình. Cùng
với khả năng nghe hiểu, khả năng phát âm cũng là một khó khăn đáng kể đối với các sinh viên
không chuyên ngữ trong kì thi kĩ năng nói tiếng Anh. 84% sinh viên được hỏi cho rằng họ gặp
khó khăn trong khi trả lời phần 1 kĩ năng nói kì thi bậc 3/6 là do không thể nghe được và không
thể phát âm đúng. 8% số sinh viên được hỏi không đồng ý với nhận xét trên và cũng 8% không
thể đưa ra câu trả lời.
Bảng 1. Hạn chế về kiến thức ngôn ngữ là khó khăn lớn
Câu phát biểu Tỉ lệ phản hồi
Rất Không Phân Đồng Rất
không đồng ý vân ý đồng
đồng ý ý
Hạn chế về kiến thức ngữ pháp và từ vựng, đặc 2% 7% 10% 52% 29%
biệt là các cụm từ theo chủ đề là một cản trở
lớn đối với việc thực hành kĩ năng nói
Khả năng nghe hiểu còn yếu làm sinh viên mất 6% 9% 11% 55% 19%
tự tin hoàn toàn khi tham gia các hoạt động
luyện nói
Với những câu hỏi về bản thân (phần 1 5% 3% 8% 40% 44%
speaking test B1), sinh viên gặp phải khó khăn
về nghe hiểu và phát âm
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4.2. Thiếu kiến thức về thông tin nên thiếu ý tưởng khi nói
Trên cơ sở là quá trình giao tiếp được cấu thành từ yếu tố thông tin và sự diễn đạt thông
tin. Trong đó phần thông tin hay ý tưởng để diễn đạt thể hiện kiến thức nền tảng về sự hiểu biết
về thế giới xung quanh, về khoa hoc, xã hội và con người... là bộ xương, là kết cấu của quá trình
giao tiếp. Tuy nhiên, theo kết quả điều tra từ Bảng 2 dưới đây, hơn 75% sinh viên cho rằng đây
là khó khăn lớn nhất của các em khi nói, cụ thể là khi trả lời phần 2 đề thi nói bậc 3/6 cho sinh
viên không chuyên ngữ ĐH Huế là tình trạng thiếu ý tưởng diễn đạt. Mặc dù hiểu được câu hỏi
đặt ra do toàn bộ câu hỏi phần 2 đều xuất hiện rõ trên màn hình máy tính, nhưng các em không
thể có được câu trả lời tốt cho phần này do tình trạng thiếu thông tin về đề tài được nói đến và ý
tưởng diễn đạt cho chủ đề đó. Tỉ lệ khoảng 5% là phủ nhận vai trò của thông tin đối với quá
trình giao tiếp và 9% không có câu trả lời.
Bảng 2. Hạn chế về thông tin khi diễn đạt trong qua trình nói
Rất Không Phân vân Đồng ý Rất
không đồng ý đồng
đồng ý ý
Nói và luyện nói tiếng Anh không 56% 23% 10% 6% 5%
nhất thiết cần phải có kiến thức phổ
thông về xã hội, tự nhiên, con người
và thông tin thời sự
Hạn chế về ý tưởng và cách diễn đạt 5% 4% 9% 55% 27%
là vấn đề lớn trong qua trình thực
hành thi phần 2 speaking test B1
4.3. Những vấn đè về môi trường học tập
Hiện tượng lớp đông và nhiều trình độ trong 1 lớp học tiếng Anh không chuyên ngữ
không phải là vấn đề mới và luôn vẫn là một khó khăn đáng kể cho cả người dạy và người học.
Do tình trạng này mà sinh viên mất đi nhiều cơ hội thực hành kĩ năng nói trong lớp cũng như
vấn đề đề quản lí lớp học. Ngoài ra, khi tham gia một lớp học nhiều trình độ, toàn bộ sinh viên
trong lớp khó cảm thấy thú vị với bài học khi các em khá và yếu không thể tìm thấy điểm chung
về mức độ khó dễ của vấn đề thảo luận. Thực vậy, Bảng 3 dưới đây, đến 84% sinh viên được
hỏi đều không có hứng thú với lớp học luyện nói đông và 80% cảm thấy nhàm chán với lớp học
nhiều trình độ. Chỉ có 9% sinh viên được hỏi cảm thấy hài lòng về giáo trình đang học. Khoảng
80% sinh viên muốn có thêm nhiều cơ hội luyện nói trong lớp học.
Bảng 3. Những khó khăn trong hoạt động của lớp luyện nói
không đồng ý đồng ý
đồng ý
Lớp học đông càng tạo sự tự tin 28% 56% 8% 5% 3%
của sinh viên tham gia hoạt động
luyện nói trong lớp
Học trong lớp có nhiều trình độ 5% 4% 11% 55% 25%
làm cho lớp luyện nói dễ trở nên
nhàm chán
Giáo trình đang học có những 29% 52% 8% 3% 6%
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thiết kế và minh họa rất thú vị và

bổ ích cho việc luyện nói
Các buổi học tiếng Anh đều có 45% 34% 10% 7% 5%
luyện nói và sinh viên đều có cơ
hội thực hành
Trong các kĩ năng tiếng Anh, nói 4% 6% 7% 51% 32%
là kĩ năng ít được thực hành nhất
bởi mất nhiều thời gian và khó
luyện cho tất cả mọi thành viên
trong lớp
4.4. Chiến lược nâng cao chất lượng lớp học kĩ năng nói
Bảng 4 cho thấy, 45 tiết trên lớp cho chương trình tiếng Anh B1 là không thể đủ để các
em luyện tập kĩ năng nói, theo tỉ lệ rất cao 85% sinh viên cho rằng thời gian đó là quá ít. Thực
hành kĩ năng ở lớp là rất quan trọng, đặc biệt là kĩ năng nói vì người học không những cần các
bạn cùng lớp để giao tiếp cũng như cần sự hướng dẫn của giáo viên, và đặc biệt là sự quan sát
và rút ra những bài học từ những hoạt động giao tiếp của các bạn cùng lớp. Vậy nên, số tiết cho
học phần TACB 3 cần được điều chỉnh tăng từ 45 đến 60 tiết. Để giúp sinh viên tự tin hơn trong
lối diễn đạt ý tưởng của mình, giáo viên nên cung cấp và phân tích cho các em một số từ và cụm
từ hay theo chủ đề mỗi ngữ cảnh. Theo kết quả khảo sát, 67% sinh viên được hỏi cho rằng giáo
viên không thường xuyên trang bị cho các em cụm từ hay và thú vị theo chủ đề. Về những hoạt
động giờ học, hoạt động theo từng cặp được xem là hữu ích và hiệu quả đối với những sinh viên
chưa tự tin, họ cần một người khác để thực hành để chia sẻ và để giáo viên dễ hướng dẫn. Hơn
nữa, làm việc theo cặp thì người học có nhiều cơ hội thực hành hơn, có đến 77% sinh viên được
hỏi chọn pairwork cho hoạt động thực hành nói trên lớp. Ngoài ra, tiếp cận với các tình huống
giao tiếp thực tế qua phim cũng là hoạt động được đa số sinh viên (88%) đánh giá cao. Như vậy,
lồng ghép các trích đoạn phim có phần giao tiếp hợp với chủ đề và trình độ của sinh viên là một
chiến lược giúp tạo cảm hứng nói trong lớp học.
Tuy rằng các sinh viên rất muốn được lắng nghe giáo viên nhận xét, nhưng việc sửa lỗi
đó xảy ra quá thường xuyên và không hợp lí sẽ rất dễ làm các em thất vọng về bản thân dẫn đến
sự tự ti trong giao tiếp. 61% sinh viên trả lời không muốn giáo viên của mình chỉnh sửa thường
xuyên và đặc biệt là lúc đang thể hiện phần bài tập luyện nói của mình.
Bảng 4. Chiến lược lớp học kĩ năng nói
Rất Không Phân Đồng ý Rất
không đồng ý vân đồng
đồng ý ý
Với thời gian 45 tiết trên lớp cho chương 34% 51% 8% 4% 3%
trình B1 là quả đủ để giáo viên và sinh
viên có những hoạt động hiệu quả cho kĩ
năng nói
Giáo viên thường trang bị cho sinh viên 27% 40% 10% 18% 5%
những mẫu câu hay và cụm từ khả dụng
trong những tình huống luyện nói
Pairwork là hoạt động luyện nói giúp sinh 6% 8% 9% 56% 21%
viên dễ luyện tập và dễ được quan sát và
được hướng dẫn
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Thực hành kĩ giao tiếp với sự quan sát và 4% 12% 6% 67% 21%
lĩnh hội ngôn ngữ từ 1 đoạn phim tiếng
Anh là một sự kết hợp có tính thực tế và
hiệu quả
Giáo viên sửa lỗi thường xuyên làm sinh 14% 18% 7% 51% 10%
viên mất niềm tin vào khả năng nói của
chính mình dù đó là những lỗi chính đáng
4.5. Chiến lược để thành công trong kĩ năng nói của kì thi đầu ra b1 (bậc 3/6)
Hầu hết các sinh viên đều muốn làm quen với nội dung và hình thức của kì thi nói B1
ngay trong lớp học. Theo Bảng 5, có 95% sinh viên muốn được đề cập và phân tích các câu hỏi
liên quan với kì thi B1 trong giờ học ở lớp. Cũng với một tỉ lệ rất cao là 88% sinh viên được
khảo sát cho rằng các em nên được thực hành với sự giám sát và chỉnh sửa của thầy/cô giáo một
số bài thi nói B1 mẫu để các em quen với định dạng đề và cách thực hành bài thi đúng nhất. Vậy
nên, giáo viên phụ trách học phần TACB 3 nên giúp các sinh viên làm quen với hình thức và nội
dụng bài thi nói một cách hợp lí. Các em cần nắm bắt được chuẩn một bài thi tốt là thế nào để
luyện tập và phấn đấu, bảo đảm đầu ra cho môn nói.
Khi được yêu cầu phát biểu về chiến lược thực hành chủ đề với những gợi ý hay trong
sách giáo khoa trong format đề thi nói B1 là một sự luyện tập kĩ năng và sự chuẩn bị cho kì thi
nói cấp độ B1 hiệu quả thì có đến 83% đồng ý. Đây là một chiến lược nhằm giúp vừa đảm bảo
chương trình học vừa giúp sinh viên nắm rõ tiến trình và cú pháp làm bài nói tốt nhất trong khả
năng có thể.
Bảng 5. Chiến lược cho kì thi nói bậc 3/6
đồng ý
Sinh viên muốn được đề cập, phân tích và 0% 2% 5% 87%% 6%
luyện tập các câu hỏi có liên quan trong kì
thi nói bậc 3/6 trước khi tham gia thi
Thực hành chủ đề với những gợi ý hay 3% 8% 6% 68% 15%
trong sách giáo khoa trong format đề thi
nói B1 là một sự luyện tập kĩ năng và sự
chuẩn bị cho kì thi nói rất hiệu quả
Giáo viên nên cho sinh viên thực hành trên 1% 2% 9% 66% 22%
lớp một số bài thi nói B1 mẫu một số lần
để sinh viên quen với định dạng bài thi nói
cấp độ B1
Sinh viên cần được giáo viên hướng dẫn là 4% 5% 6% 65% 20%
nói rỏ, ngắn gọn và nhất định không được
bỏ sót bất cứ câu hỏi hay chi tiết gợi ý nào
trong bài thi nói bậc 3/6
5. Thảo luận và đề xuất
- Làm rõ động cơ học tập: Động cơ học tập là yếu tố rất có ý nghĩa trong việc nâng cao năng
suất học tập của sinh viên. Cole và Chan (1994) đã đề cập đến động cơ bên ngoài chính là xu
hướng và quan niệm xã hội về vai trò ngôn ngữ đó, là tính chất tác động của cộng đồng đối với
đối với sử dụng ngôn ngữ đó. Động cơ bên trong là nổ lực cá nhân với định hướng mục tiêu rỏ
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ràng. Các sinh viên cần phải hiểu đúng và đủ tầm quan trọng của việc học kĩ năng nói tiếng Anh
trong thời điểm này (cho kì thi đầu ra B1) và cho sự phát triển cá nhân sau này trong thời kì của
quốc tế hóa mọi lĩnh vực và tiếng Anh là một ngôn ngữ quốc tế. Các em cần được gieo một
động cơ học tập tích cực mới có điều kiện và cơ hội tốt để quyết tâm khắc phục những khó khăn
gặp phải. Người giáo viên sẽ đồng hành cùng sinh viên trong việc xác định động cơ học tập
đúng và hành động đúng để tạo sức mạnh nội lực vượt qua một số hạn chế trước mắt.
- Ngữ cảnh thực tế kết hợp từ vựng hợp lí: Theo Wray (2008), lồng ghép nhiều tình huống cuộc
sống đa dạng sát với thực tế đời sống và thế giới quan của người học có chức năng tạo động lực
và đề cao khả năng tri nhận của người học luyện nói. Theo đó, các cụm từ, mẫu câu đặc trưng,
các cụm từ thú vị và dễ hiếu được giới thiệu đến người học và được người học áp dụng tức thì
và dễ dàng khi giáo viên là người chủ động trong việc thiết kế ngữ cảnh giao tiếp và ứng dụng
ngôn ngữ khả dụng cho sinh viên vào thời điểm luyện nói.
- Tạo tâm lí tích cực bằng hành vi tích cực: Một trong những khó khăn lớn nhất mà người học
đang gặp phải theo Tanveer (2007), là cảm giác lo sợ, hồi hộp và căng thẳng. Cảm giác này rất
phổ biến đối với người học có những hạn chế nhất định về nền tảng ngôn ngữ như từ vựng, ngữ
pháp hay phát âm. Vậy nên, người giáo viên cần phải đủ kiên nhẫn để hạn chế chỉ trích hay sửa
lỗi cho các em lúc các em đang thực hành nhằm tạo niềm tin tạm thời để các em tiếp tục phấn
đấu. Về sau sẽ hướng dẫn hay các em sẽ dần tự điều chỉnh.
- Hoạt động xem phim tiếp cận tình huống giao tiếp: Hình ảnh sinh động và thực tế đi kèm với
ngữ cảnh giao tiếp phù hợp trong những bộ phim tài liệu hay trích đoạn phim bằng tiếng Anh
được đánh giá cao trong ảnh hưởng ngôn ngữ mục tiêu đối với người học. Các em cảm thấy vui
hơn, thú vị hơn khi mà vấn đề mình đang áp dụng lại được thực tế hóa trong một bối cảnh cụ
thể. Vậy nên, một TV và trang thiết bị âm thanh hình ảnh nhằm thực tế hóa ngữ cảnh ngôn ngữ
là một ý tưởng có tính chiến lược.
+ Hoạt động xem phim tiếp cận tình huống giao tiếp: Chủ đề ở sách giáo khoa hiện nay là giáo
trình Life Pre-intermediate rất thú vị và phong phú, được thiết kế bởi những câu hỏi gợi ý có
tính thực tế cao và dễ hiểu. Tuy nhiên, những chủ đề được nhận xét là thú vị đó nên chăng được
lồng ghép vào định dạng của đề thi B1 bậc 3/6 đang được thực hiện ở Trường Đại học Ngoại
Ngữ, Đại học Huế thì tính thực tiễn sẽ cao hơn, sinh viên sẽ thấy có động lực và hứng thú học kĩ
năng nói hơn.
- Khuyến khích cách hồi đáp đơn giản: Với mục đích học và luyện kĩ năng nói nhằm bảo đảm kì
thi đầu ra bậc 3/6 thì việc sử dụng cách trả lời đơn giản, rõ ràng và dễ hiểu là điều đáng khích lệ.
Khi luyện tập cùng các bạn trong lớp học, các em đang giao tiếp với đa số đối tượng học còn hạn
chế về language proficiency (thông thạo ngôn ngữ), thì những mẫu câu giao tiếp thông dụng, đơn
giản và dễ hiểu sẽ được đón nhận một cách hào hứng. Về sau người học sẽ dần phát triển những
mẫu câu giao tiếp đó lên một cách tự nhiên và chủ động. Hơn nữa, trong kì thi kĩ năng nói cấp độ
B1, yêu cầu câu trả lời cũng ở mức độ câu đơn giản, đúng về cấu trúc và hợp lí về ngữ nghĩa. Như
vậy, các em sẽ quen và tự tin vào cách hồi đáp của mình trong kì thi nói thực.
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6. Kết luận
Kết quả nghiên cứu cho thấy, sinh viên không chuyên ngữ ĐH Huế đã và đang gặp phải
nhiều khó khăn trong việc học và thi kĩ năng nói theo chuẩn bậc 3/6. Những khó này xuất phát
từ những hạn chế về kiến thức ngôn ngữ như ngữ pháp, từ vựng và ngữ âm cũng như điều kiện
và môi trường học tập chưa hỗ trợ tích cực cho các em nâng cao năng lực về kĩ năng này và đặc
biệt là áp lực từ mục tiêu phải đạt chuẩn đầu ra trong kì thi B1 dành cho sinh viên không chuyên
ngữ ĐH Huế. Do đặc thù của kĩ năng nói nên các hoạt động lớp học cần được thiết kế mở và
sinh động để sinh viên tìm được hứng thú khi tham gia hoạt động giao tiếp trên lớp. Các em cần
được hướng dẫn và chỉnh sửa một cách nhẹ nhàng hợp lí thì vấn đề tâm lí học tập mới ổn định.
Ngoài ra, với mục tiêu đặt ra là kì kĩ năng nói thi B1, việc thực hành của các em cần được điều
chỉnh một cách hợp lí như vẫn theo các nội dung của giáo trình bắt buộc nhưng với hình thức
sát với format định dạng đề thì để giúp sinh viên làm quen và làm tốt nhất phần nói trong kì thi
đầu ra. Hoạt động thực hành giao tiếp ở lớp cần lồng ghép những ngữ cảnh thực tế và những
chủ đề quen thuộc dễ tiếp thụ để các em có tâm lí thoải mái để thực hành kĩ năng. Theo đó, rất
hy vọng sinh viên sẽ tìm được hứng thú và động lực học kĩ năng nói, một kĩ năng luôn gây áp
lực lớn cho các em trong thực tế và trong các kì thi thực hành tiếng Anh.
Cole, P.G., & Chan, L. (1994). Teaching principles and practice. Prentice Hall of Australia Pty Ltd.
Chaney, A.L., & Burn, T.L. (1998). Teaching oral communication in grades K-8. Boston: Allyn &
Bacon.
Mozouzi, S. (2013). Analysis of some factors affecting learners’ oral performance. Truy cập từ:
http:archives.univ-biskra.dz/handle/123456789/4772 vào ngày 06.09.2018.
Nunan, D. (2003). Practice English teaching. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Richards, J.C. (2006). Teaching speaking theory and methodologies. Truy cập từ: www.professorjack
richards.com vào ngày 05.09.2018.
Snow, D. (2006). More than a native speaker. Teachers of English to speakers of other languages. Inc.
(TESOL).
Thornbury, S. (2005). How to teach speaking. In Harmer, J. (Ed). London: Longman.
Tanveer (2007). Investigation of the factors that cause language anxiety for ESL/EFL learners in learning
speaking skills and the influence it casts on communication in the target language. Retrieved on
September 16th from: http://researchgate.net.
Wray, A. (2008). Formulaic language: Pushing the boundaries. Oxford University Press.
HUE UNIVERSITY STUDENTS’ LEARNING OF SPEAKING SKILL

FOR THE OUTPUT STANDARD OF 3/6 LEVEL
Abstract: Speaking is one of the most important skills in using English as a foreign
language. It does motivate learners to do other language skills positively and effectively
and heighten their language proficiency. In particular, English ability of students in Hue
University is now evaluated in separate language skill, which provides reliable results of
the students’ real communicative competence. The findings from 100 students reveal that
they have met lots of both subjective and objective difficulties in developing their speaking
skill. This study will hopefully give some strategies to improve the quality of speaking
classes and better the output result of speaking test of Hue University students.
Keywords: Strategies, language skills, communicative competence
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EDUCATIONAL MOTTOS OF TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS

IN VIETNAM AND ENGLISH-SPEAKING COUNTRIES:
A STUDY OF SYNTACTIC FEATURES
Nguyen Thi Bich Phuong*
University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi

Abstract: It should be noted that at present educational sector has clearly shown its worth
in accordance with the development of human society. The fact remains that numerous
Vietnamese universities and colleges have penetrated into overseas educational sector,
receiving thousands of foreign students annually and adopting various advertising
campaigns using a wide range of English mottos. It is inevitable that those universities and
colleges may make some mistakes when creating fitting mottos for their vision and mission.
On the basis of the analyzed results, the study is expected to give an in-depth insight in one
of the most integral aspects of linguistic characteristics of educational mottos, syntax,
which centers on investigating the way structural components are arranged. Furthermore,
similarities and differences in the way of writing educational mottos between Vietnam and
English-speaking countries (ESCs) are also briefly summarized before proposing some
useful hints for Vietnamese authorities in creating educational mottos.
Key words: Syntactic features, educational mottos, tertiary institutions, Vietnam, English-
speaking countries
1. Introduction
According to statistics from the Ministry of Education and Training (Nick Clark, 2014),
in 1987 Vietnam had just 87 higher education institutions, but this number had risen up to 235
universities (2017) and 219 colleges (2016). In the past few years, there has been growing
awareness of the need to boost international student enrolments in some key universities and
Ministry of Education and Training in Vietnam (MOET). In his statement to the National
Assembly, the former Vice-Minister of Education and Training, Bui Van Ga, has stated that
“international student enrolment is one of the criteria to rank Vietnamese universities. Attracting
foreign students is also a way for Vietnam to promote Vietnam’s education to the world” (as
cited in Tran et al., 2014). In 2016, Vietnam hosted about 20,000 international students and
most of them come from the Asia Pacific region, including China, Japan, Korea, Australia,
Laos, Cambodia and Thailand (Tran et al., 2014) and has set an ambitious target of 15,000
international student enrolments in Vietnamese universities by 2020 (MOET, 2008).
When it comes to higher educational system in ESCs, without a doubt, The United
Kingdom and The United States are seen as the most favorable destinations for any international
student to dream of. The number of international students traveling to the United Kingdom for
higher education was 431,905 by 2015 (British Council, 2013). The report from the British
Council’s Education Intelligence Service also predicts that in the upcoming time, the United
* Email: phuongntb.unesco@gmail.com
359
Kingdom will still retain its position as the world’s second most popular study destination after
the US, attracting an extra 126,000 international students between 2011 and 2024.
It appears to be a must for each university and college to compete and persuade students to
reconsider their offers and their attractors. One of these pivotal attractors which should be
considered is the motto of the university, the inspiring educational message of each institution. In
reality, not all universities and colleges possess a motto, but numerous schools have done it.
Educational motto can be seen as a key factor to make the very first strong impression on students
or potential learners, which to a great extent, determines their final success of nurturing the talent
for society. As is known to all, “the school motto is the soul of forming the school spirit and also
keeps a core position in the campus culture” (Zhao, 2003). In plain word, similar to the function of
slogans, vaunted and unique mottos enable brand identity and brand image of the schools to be
persistently left in students’ minds, also leave them with unforgettable impression.
However, not every single motto can fulfill its duty successfully, which leads to a
challenge in artistic tactics of utilizing just a handful of words to express an immense
meaningfulness along with a profound insight in an abundance of linguistic aspects.
Furthermore, while more and more cultural exchanges are conducted between Vietnam and
foreign countries, a myriad of university mottos fail to convey the spirit and their own
distinctive characteristics. Thus, a deep understanding of them can help to overcome language
barriers, promoting the educational cooperation.
From the points mentioned above, the thorny problem that is often raised for any motto-
writer is how to create a perfect motto. In order to compose a meaningful motto wrapping up the
essence of the long-standing educational tradition, it is a must-have requirement to fully exploit
all linguistic aspects from phonology, lexicology to semantics and pragmatics. Realizing the
critical value of educational mottos to each university and college, this study is conducted to
focally investigate the stylistic feature syntax of English mottos of some tertiary schools in
Vietnam and ESCs, as well as their similarities and the differences to hopefully draw out some
useful strategies for designing effective educational mottos.
With the view to achieving the aims and objectives of the study, these three following
questions would be answered:
1. What are the syntactic features of the English educational mottos of universities and
colleges in Vietnam and English-speaking countries?
2. What are the similarities and differences in terms of syntactic features of the English
educational mottos of universities and colleges in Vietnam and English-speaking countries?
2. Theoretical framework
2.1. Motto as a core value of tertiary education
According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2018), motto is defined as “a short
sentence or phrase that expresses the aims and beliefs of a person, a group, an institution, etc. and
is used as a rule of behavior”. Being synthetic, a motto concentrates on key concepts and creates a
spectrum of meanings. Some universities use mottos to increase the suggestion power for their
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potential students about their mission, in order to get more chances for building up their
competitive advantage in a strategic analysis (Carpenter & Sanders, 2007; Dess et al., 2006).
“In a global market for higher education, universities must compete for students re-thinking their
offer, and their attractors. One of these attractors is the motto of the university, which suggests an
inspiring message… A motto can be a useful attractor for the potential students, and thus many
universities associate such mottos to their vision and mission statements.”
(Management & Marketing, 2009)

2.2. Syntax
2.2.1. Notion of syntax
Through the lens of Fromkin et al. (2000), syntax is described as a part of our linguistic
knowledge that decides what constitutes a well-formed string of words and how to put words
together to form phrases and sentences. Properly speaking, those principles staying in our
subconscious mind may be acceptably employed in the language of one society but wrong in other
ones. Similarly, Jim Miller (2002) points out that basically, “syntax is to do with how words are
put together to build phrases, with how phrases are put together to build clauses or bigger phrases,
and with how clauses are put together to build sentences” (p. 7). In a word, without syntax, human
beings would be unable to construct complex messages conveying information about complex
situations, proposals or ideas (Miller, 2002). Syntactic patterns display the close-knit relationships
between words and larger units including phrases, clauses, and sentences. Nevertheless, owing to
the scope of this study, the authors can only focus on two major aspects: phrases and sentences.
Phrases
Richards (1992) claims that a phrase is “a group of words which form a grammatical
unit” and “does not contain a finite verb and does not have a subject-predicate structure.” (p.
153). Nonetheless, Miller (2002) shows his disagreement against the aforementioned perception
by affirming that “phrase is a slot in which one or more words can occur, or indeed in which
other phrases can occur” (p. 18). There are five main types of phrases in English encompassing
noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective phrase, adverb phrase and prepositional phrase.
A noun phrase must consist of two major components, namely a noun head and other
modifiers. The latter includes two other elements: a premodifier and a postmodifier (if any).
(1) Head: Get wisdom, get understanding (Eastern Kentucky University)
Premodifier(s) + Head: Create the difference (Staffordshire University)
Head + Postmodifier(s): Excellence in Diversity (Oxford Brookes University)
Premodifier(s) + Head + Postmodifier(s): The road to success (University of Economics
and Business, VNU)
A verb phrase has a verb head and five formula possibilities (Delahunty & Garvey, 1994,
p. 191).
(2) a. Head: Be Still and Know (University of Sussex)
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b. Auxiliary(ies) + Head: Freely you have received, Freely give (Pepperdine University)
c. Head + Object(s)/ Complement: Winging your wishes (Sai Gon Technology
University)
d. Head + Modifier(s): Educating for the Real World (University of Bridgeport)
e. Combination of the above: The truth shall make you free (California Institute of
Technology)
An adjective phrase includes five formula possibilities (Delahunty & Garvey, 1994, p. 179).
(3) a. Head: A Creative Constellation (University of the Arts London)
b. Intensifier(s) + Head: The most valuable possession is knowledge (Cardiff
Metropolitan University)
c. Head + Complement: Not unmindful of the future (Washington and Lee University)
d. Intensifier(s) + Head + Complement: You are extremely beautiful in this dress.
An adverb phrase combines a head and possibly an intensifier (Delahunty& Garvey, 1994, p.
180).
(4) a. Head: Educator for tomorrow (The University of Education)
b. Intensifier + Head: They may have life and have it more abundantly (York St John
University)
A prepositional phrase is a combination of preposition and noun phrase:
(5) Synergy for excellence (Hue University)
Sentences
A basic sentence is a complete thought or idea which composed of subject and predicate
(Grammar Handbook, 2011). There exists a myriad of ways to categorize sentence depending
on different criteria, and in this study, sentence is classified on the basis of discourse purposes.
Statement is sentence in which the subject is present and generally precedes verbs to “give
information” (Quirk et al., 1985, p. 803):
(6) We follow the light. (University of Exeter)
Question is employed in order to ask for information. This type of sentence is normally
marked in one of two ways including yes-no interrogatives and wh-interrogatives. In the
structure of interrogatives, the former possesses the operator positioned in front of the subject
while the later has the interrogative wh-element placed initially (Quirk et al., 1985, p. 803). In
view of structure, an interrogative sentence is typically marked by inversion of the subject and
predicate which means the verb comes before the subject. It should be noted that this type of
sentence ends with a question mark:
(7) Did you follow the class rules?
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Imperative is utilized to not only give an order, advice or instruction but also indicate a
request or a command to listeners. (John Eastwood, 2005, p. 9). Imperatives are sentences,
which normally have no overt grammatical subject, and whose verb has the base form (Quirk et
al., 1985, p. 803). An intriguing example to illustrate this type of sentence is the educational
motto of International School, VNU:
(8) Study and Create with the World
Exclamation is sentence expressing a feeling, which has an initial phrase introduced by what
and how, usually with subject-verb order (Quirk et al., 1985, p. 803). An example given:
(9) Behold, how good and joyful a thing it is, for brethren to dwell together in unity!
(University of the South)
3. Methods
Two hundred educational mottos chosen were collected from the official websites of 200
tertiary institutions in which 100 mottos are of Vietnamese universities and colleges, and the
remainder are of ESCs. As for the mottos of universities and colleges in ESCs, 50 educational
mottos were taken from British institutions and the rest were from American ones. The mottos
of tertiary institutions in ESCs were taken from the official websites of the world-famous
universities and colleges which are recorded in the world-famous ranking systems, The Times
Higher Education - World Reputation Rankings 2017 and the University League Table 2017.
In the first place, a table with nine criteria namely noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective
phrase, adverbial phrase, prepositional phrase and other sentence types such as statement,
question, imperative, exclamation will be generated to place mottos into the most fitting one. In
applying qualitative methods, each motto will be carefully analyzed by clarifying its sentence
elements. After the careful investigation of syntactic features, the next step involves working
out the proportion of mottos possessing each feature with the view to figuring out the prevailing
trends in using syntactic features in educational mottos of the investigated universities and
colleges. A general comparison between Vietnam and ESCs in using higher educational mottos
will be clearly stated in the light of the data analyzed.
4. Findings
4.1. The syntactic features of the English mottos of tertiary institutions in Vietnam
4.1.1. Phrases
Verb phrases
Table 1. Verb phrase patterns used in mottos of Vietnamese tertiary institutions
Structure Occurrence Percentage (%)

Head 6 15.38
Auxiliary(ies) + Head 1 2.56
Head + Object(s)/ Complement 28 71.79
Head + Modifier(s) 4 10.27
Combination of the above 0 0
Total 39 100.0
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From the Table 1, we can infer that verb phrase tends to be employed much less, making
up roughly 20 percent in a total of 100 collected mottos and varies in all four types. Despite the
modest number of educational mottos using verb phrase with just 18.48 %, it is still worth
taking this syntactic feature into account in some aspects. Head + Object(s)/ Complement
appears to be the major type of verb phrase possessing hefty usage rate of over 70 percent,
compared with merely 2.6% of Auxiliary(ies) + Head. It should be noted that these verb phrases
exist predominantly in one crucial type, nonfinite verb phrase encompassing the infinitive and -
ing participle.
(10) a. Invest in education – Change your life (Dong A University)
Head Modifier
b. Creating opportunities together (University of Languages and International Studies)
Head Object
Noun phrases
Table 2. Noun phrase patterns used in mottos of Vietnamese tertiary institutions

Head 32 33.33
Premodifier + Head 40 41.67
Head + Postmodifier 13 13.54
Premodifier + Head + Postmodifier 11 11.46
Total 96 100
Due to outstanding characteristics of educational mottos, namely short, easy to remember

or unique, they mainly appear in the form of phrases with incomplete sentence. Based on the
analysis of the mottos in Vietnamese tertiary institutes, the use of noun phrases is deemed the
most remarkably employed (over 46%). The Premodifier + Head is used as the most common
type in educational mottos of Vietnamese schools occupying more than 40%.
(11) a. Updated knowledge – Advanced methods (Hanoi College of Education)
Premodifier Head Premodifier Head
b. Open Education (Hanoi Open University)
Premodifier Head
c. Dynamism, aspiration, vision (Diplomatic Academic of Vietnam)
Head Head Head
The other kinds of noun phrases share the similar percentage of no more than 14%. This
reflects a fact that Vietnamese authorities only show their little interest in adopting this use of
noun phrase when writing mottos.
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a. Synergy for excellence (Hue University)

Head Postmodifier
b. The road to success (VNU University of Economics and Business)
Premodifier Head Postmodifier
Noun phrase serves a variety of roles in sentence. It can be used as a complement in a
prepositional phrase:
An object:
(13) a. Knowledge for justice (Ho Chi Minh University of Law)
A complement of a sentence:
b. Knowledge is power (Hanoi Community College)
Or merely noun phrases:
c. Creativity – Quality – Development - Effectiveness (Hanoi University of Industry)
Adjective Phrases
Table 3. Adjective phrase patterns used in mottos of Vietnamese tertiary institutions

Head 28 90.32
Intensifier(s) + Head 1 3.22
Head + Complement 2 6.46
Intensifier(s) + Head + Complement 0 0
Total 31 100.0
The adjective phrase is similar to verb phrase in the rate of occurrence with nearly 15%.
Adjective phrases are principally found in the simple form of Head rather than Intensifier(s) +
Head or Head + Complement (about 90%).
(14) a. Be international (Dong Do University)
Head
b. Active, Creative, Effective (University of Information & Communication Technology)
Head Head Head
c. Training highly qualified human resources (Thai Nguyen College of Economics & Finance)
Intensifier(s) Head
d. Creative and self-motivated spirit adaptable to the renovations (College of Food Industry)
Head Complement
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Adverb Phrases
Table 4. Adverb phrase patterns used in mottos of Vietnamese tertiary institutions

Head 11 100.0
Intensifier(s) + Head 0.0 0.0
Total 11 100.0
Adverb phrase is hardly employed in creating an educational motto when the rate just
falls in 11 times out of 100 sample mottos. Among all five categories of investigated phrases,
this type is used least, comprising just about 5% and all of the adverb phrases used are in the
Head form.
(15) Always innovative, forward-looking (Nha Trang University)
Head
Prepositional Phrases
Table 5. Prepositional phrase patterns used in mottos of Vietnamese tertiary institutions

Preposition + Noun, Pronoun, Gerund, or Clause 21 62.86
Preposition + Modifier(s) + Noun, Pronoun, Gerund, or Clause 13 37.14
Total 34 100.0
The prepositional phrases are applied with constitution of just over 16%. The major
category of prepositional phrase employed is Preposition + Noun, Pronoun, Gerund, or Clause
accounting for roughly 63 percent.
(16) a. Dream of Innovation (FPT University)
Preposition Noun
b. Across the national border to develop (Thai Nguyen University of Technology)
Preposition Modifier Noun
c. UET – Advanced Technology with Innovation (University of Engineering and Technology)
Preposition Noun
4.1.2. Sentences
Statement
With the aim of being memorable and recited, shortness and plainness appear to be a
must of educational motto. To achieve this goal, authorities at tertiary institutions can write their
mottos in many ways in which sentence is one of the effective choices. Nevertheless, the
findings show that merely 23 out of 100 sample mottos employ this linguistic device in which
statement exists in the tiny proportion of just over 30%:
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(17) a. We bridge the world (School of Foreign Language – Thai Nguyen University)
b. Learning, the key to personal fulfillment and social well-being, is the only way to
develop (Vo Truong Toan University)
Imperative sentence
Imperative sentence tends to give advice, instructions or express a request to audience.
This can be deemed a special type of sentence, which enables educational authorities to
persuade the audience, both current students and potential learners, in an appealing way. This is
the category of sentence used most commonly among educational mottos of Vietnamese higher
education institutions with a hefty proportion of approximately 70%.
(18) a. Study and Create with the world (International School – VNU, Hanoi)
b. Come to HITECH to learn and plan for your future (Hanoi College of Technology)
Nevertheless, when it comes to two remaining sentential types, namely Question and
Exclamation, their use does not occur in any educational mottos of Vietnamese schools.
4.2. The syntactic features of English educational mottos at universities and colleges in
ESCs
4.2.1. Phrases
Verb phrases
Table 6. Verb phrase patterns used in mottos of English – speaking institutions

Head 27 31.39
Combination of the above 9 10.47
Total 86 100.0
Among the collected mottos, the majority belongs to the use of non-finite verbs (49 out of
100 universities and colleges) in all three forms mentioned above. However, infinitive form makes
up the most (39 out of 49 mottos), followed by “-ing” (9 mottos) and “-ed” form (only 1 motto).
(19) a. Give invention light (University of Bradford)
V-infinitive
b. Making life better (Pennsylvania State University)
V-ing
c. Not more learned, but steeped in a higher learning (Haverford College)
V-ed V-ed
Furthermore, 37 out of 100 institutions use finite verbs for their mottos in only present form.
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d. The wind of freedom blows (Stanford University)

Present tense
It should be noted that verb phrases possess five types of structures as listed in Chapter 2.
Nevertheless, there are only two frequently used types are Head + Object(s)/Complement and
Head with the percentage of around 37% and 31% respectively.
(20) a. Laws without morals are useless (University of Pennsylvania)
Head Complement
b. Spark your imagination (Southampton Solent University)
Head Object
c. Learn and serve (Sheffield Hallam University)
Head Head
d. Enter to learn; go forth to serve (Brigham Young University)
Head Modifier
e. Through hard work, great heights are achieved (University of Birmingham)
Auxiliary Head
Noun phrases
Table 7. Noun phrase patterns used in mottos of English-speaking institutions

Head 26 42.62
Premodifier(s) + Head 28 45.9
Head + Postmodifier(s) 3 4.92
Premodifier(s) + Head + Postmodifier(s) 4 6.56
Total 61 100.0
As can be seen from table 7, the structures “Premodifier(s) + Head” and “Head” dominate
two other types with the percentage accounting for about 46% and 43% respectively in total of
61 noun phrases from 100 sampled school mottos. “Premodifier(s) + Head + Postmodifier(s)”
structure ranks the third with about 7%, followed by “Head + Postmodifier(s)”.
(21) a. Truth (Harvard University)
Head
b. The truth shall make you free (California Institute of Technology)
Premodifier Head
c. Laws without morals are useless (University of Pennsylvania)
Head Postmodifier
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d. To understand the causes of things (The London of School of Economics and Political
Science)
Adjective phrases
Table 8. Adjective phrase patterns used in mottos of English-speaking institutions

Head 18 94.74
Head + Complement 0 0
Total 19 100.0
Adjective phrases are primarily found in the form of Head with the frequency of up to 95%.
(22) Useful and agreeable (Harper Adams University)
Head Head
Adverb phrases
Table 9. Adverb phrase patterns used in educational mottos of English-speaking institutions

Head 9 90
Intensifier(s) + Head 1 10
Total 10 100.0
According to the above table, adverb phrase is hardly used in creating an educational
school motto when the use rate just falls in 10 times out of 100 sample mottos. What is more,
“Head” appears to be a preponderance with the figure accounting for 90% while “Intensifier(s)
+ Head” only making up 10%.
(23) a. To Teach, To Heal, Together (Western University of Health Sciences)
Head
b. They may have life and have it more abundantly (York St John University)
Intensifier Head
Prepositional phrases
Table 10. Prepositional phrase patterns used in mottos of English-speaking institutions

Total 24 100.0
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The prepositional phrases are applied at the rate of 24 times out of 100 educational school
mottos and the principal category of prepositional phrase employed is “Preposition +
Modifier(s) + Noun, Pronoun, Gerund, or Clause”, at roughly 62%.
(24) a. Knowledge is the adornment and safeguard of the Empire (Imperial College London)
b. The wind of freedom blows (Stanford University)
Preposition Noun
4.2.2. Sentences
Statements
Statements are used to express the validity or truth of a basic assertion. Regarding
educational mottos, a statement not only transmits the educational vision and mission of tertiary
institutions but it also states the desire or the promise of the universities and colleges towards
students. The findings show that nearly 54% of the sample mottos employ the statement
structure, the most commonly used structure. Moreover, from 100 selected mottos, there is a
predominance of SV, SVO sentence patterns together with a small number of SVC and SVOC
patterns.
(25) a. The wind of freedom blows (Stanford University)
S V
b. We follow the light (University of Exeter)
S V O
S V C
d. The truth shall make you free (California Institute of Technology)
S V O C
Questions
The purpose of using questions in school mottos is often to lay specific emphasis on
students or in other words, to keep the institutes’ image in students’ mind. The number of
questions used in educational mottos seems to be dominated by other types with the proportion
accounting for nearly 2%.
(26) For so much, what shall we give back? (Queen's University Belfast)
Imperative sentences
With the view to conveying a command, an advice or a request, motto writers tend to
make use of imperative sentences. The figure for this kind of sentence makes up for about 45%.
(27) Know thyself (Hamilton College)
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On the other hand, concerning the remaining sentential type which is exclamation, its use
does not occur in any educational school mottos of English-speaking universities and colleges.
5.1. Phrases
Figure 1. The frequency of phrases in educational mottos of in both Vietnam and ESCs
The Figure 1 provides an overview of occurrence frequency of phrases in educational

institution mottos in general. The total proportion of employed phrase category varies from type
to type with the most ubiquitous type belonging to noun phrases (about 40%). The percentage of
verb phrases also accounts a remarkable 30%, much more significant than that of adverb
phrases (about 5%). The percentages of adjective phrases and prepositional phrases are roughly
the same (12% and 14% respectively). Broadly speaking, noun phrase and verb phrase are
evidently favored over other categories of phrases. Nevertheless, there exist some similarities
and differences in the way of employing phrases in educational school mottos of tertiary
institutes in Vietnam and English-speaking countries, which will be clearly stated below.
Figure 2. The frequency of phrases in educational mottos of in Vietnam and ESCs
The majority of phrases employed in mottos of Vietnamese universities and colleges are
noun phrases which constitute nearly 46% compared with over 30% in mottos of ESCs. Unlike
verb phrases, noun phrases are much more preferred by Vietnamese authorities. One of probable
reasons for this noticeable difference can spring from the fact that most of mottos are usually
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used on the official websites of the universities and colleges and banners hung up in campuses.
Due to limit of space, it virtually appears to have no room for longer and more complicated
noun phrases or elaborated sentences. According to Bruthiaux (1996, p. 80-81), the fact that
heavy modification of noun phrase springs from spatial and financial constraints which help to
minimize the number of function words lead to the frequent use of heavy modification. In this
study, it is particularly the form: Premodifier + Head. For the sake of attracting students’
attention, mottos are found with the main use of adjectives and nouns to modify head nouns.
As shown in the chart above, universities and colleges of ESCs deem verb phrase a
predominant type in writing educational institution mottos, accounting for 43%. Meanwhile,
this usage is less observed in mottos of Vietnamese institutions with merely over 18%. In
advertising, verbal groups are mostly of maximum simplicity, consisting of only one word
(Leech, 1996). In addition, the marked frequency of using progressive forms in mottos of ESCs
can probably result from the intention of advertisers to mimic spoken language (Biber et al.,
2002, p. 158). This assists the authorities to add a conversational quality to advertisement which
can make the audience easily feel warm and familiar. Another noticeable observation is the
propensity of authorities to omit the subject and auxiliary in the progressive phrase to become
non-finite, for instance “Shaping futures” (Nottingham Trent University). The reason is that
students are supposed to form a virtual link between the implied subject of universities and
colleges and mottos, which enables schools to remove it without misinterpretation. Also be
concluded from the analysis of noun phrases, verb phrases are quite commonly used due to the
limit on spatial and financial constraints.
Other categories of phrases seem to be unremarkable and much less commonly used.
Regarding adjective phrase, while its usage makes up only 9.5% in the mottos of ESCs,
Vietnamese universities and colleges employ this linguistic feature more popularly, but with
merely 15%. One reason for this fact may arise from the preference of using noun phrase with
adjective modification. Hence, in sample mottos, adjectives just play a supplement role in noun
phrase.
Concerning prepositional phrases, they account for over 16% and 12% in mottos of
Vietnam and ESCs respectively. Prepositional phrases on educational institution mottos are
aimed to inform the readers of the vision or the missions, so readers can be attracted if they are
told what they will get from tertiary education. For example, the motto “The Road to Success”
(University of Economics and Business) tells the readers that the school will assist students to
obtain a successful career in the future. However, not many authorities think that prepositional
phrases are strong enough to fascinate the target audience.
The least used phrases are adverb ones with roughly 5% in both Vietnam and ESCs. In
general, adverbs are functioned as the modifiers in a sentence or to give further particulars about
certain conditions. For instance, the word “freely” in “Freely you have received, Freely give”
(Pepperdine University) will explain how you receive and give. However, it was found that
adverb phrases do not always become the modifiers to the other lexical categories. In mottos,
adverb phrases can stand alone as the main phrase to give further explanation about the
universities and colleges.
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In light of the abovementioned analysis, one can conclude that universities and colleges
in Vietnam are strongly in favor of using noun phrases in creating motto, while those in ESCs
pay much more attention to verb phrases. Nonetheless, they all somewhat share the same
preference for adopting adjective phrases, adverb phrases and prepositional phrases when
writing mottos. The use of nouns helps to save space and time in advertisements or other related
activities. This is absolutely beneficial when the audience can be well informed and easily
receive the imparted messages. Meanwhile, verb phrase assists school authorities to add a
conversational quality to the educational motto which can create a friendly, warm atmosphere
and a close relationship between the institutions and the audience. Plus, verb phrases are also
used quite commonly due to spatial and financial constraints.
5.2. Sentences
Figure 3. The frequency of sentences in mottos of in both Vietnam and ESCs
Figure 4. The frequency of sentences in mottos of in Vietnam and ESCs
As can be seen from Figure 3, the most frequently used type of sentence is imperative
sentence with the proportion of over 50%. It is not surprising that the authorities would employ
imperative sentences to create a motto since this is the most direct way to achieve the ideal
effects. In particular, in Vietnamese institutions, imperative sentence appears to be
predominance with around 70%. Leech (1966) argues that the reason for the ubiquitous utility
of imperative sentence is deemed the audience’s familiarity with the road signs, official forms
and instructions. However, the tendency of applying this category in Vietnam is contrary to that
in ESCs. It is evident that the figure for imperative sentence in ESCs nearly doubles that of
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Vietnamese institutions (28 versus 16 mottos). The reason for this may be the diverse use of
other categories in Vietnam.
In terms of statement, which ranks second in the frequency of using in both Vietnamese
and English-speaking universities and colleges with about 48%, the trend is different. To be
more specific, the percentage in using statements of tertiary institutions in ESCS makes up
roughly 54%, which is almost twice as much as that in Vietnam. Regarding statement, simple
sentences are the most frequently used type because with well-composed simple sentences, the
information imparted to readers will be succinct and coherent. Additionally, simple sentences
are easy to remember, while one main aim of a motto is to be memorable and recited. Hence,
statements, especially simple sentences are more reader-friendly and commonly applied in
advertisements in general and in educational school mottos in particular.
Another category is question, making up only over 1% in both Vietnam and ESCs. Leech
(1966) stated one of the functions of interrogative sentence in advertisements is to draw the
audience’s attention by raising questions, especially rhetorical questions. This approach may
have merits as well as drawbacks; therefore, it might be considered one minor reason why
questions are less used in educational school mottos.
Last but not least, it can be seen that exclamation is not used in any educational school
mottos of universities and colleges in both Vietnam and ESCs. There is no doubt that
exclamation is a sentence expressing a strong feeling; as a result, it is not suitable for serving
educational institution mottos which transmit the educational vision and mission of the
In a nutshell, on the one hand, both Vietnamese and English-speaking universities and
colleges tend to make little use of question and exclamation. On the other hand, imperative
sentence appears to be a major element employed in the mottos of tertiary institutions in
Vietnam, whereas statement contributes the highest percentage in the frequency of using in
ESCs. The notion to explain this result is that imperative sentence is applied to express the
determination and commitment to achieve the set goals of the whole university. This type of
short and concise sentence creates persuasion, serving for the purpose of boosting the learning
spirit of students to try harder for their learning cause. In terms of the sentential type of
statement, the main aim is to illustrate the visions and missions of schools, giving much more
motivations for their students to pursue their study path. Furthermore, those facts can be also
seen as reasons for them to enrol into universities and colleges.
This study aims at providing some critical insights in syntactic features of mottos, from
which students can expand their understanding in the field of advertising mottos. Particularly for
ones who work with advertising agency, this theory gives ways to understand structure of a
motto and offers some techniques for them to write a successful motto in English to attract
students’ attention. As for teachers, they can take advantage of this study to understand not only
the background information of advertising and mottos, but they also can gain a profound insight
in syntactic aspects including phrases and sentences. Hence, they can apply knowledge as well
as sample mottos as examples from this study to explain to students during the process of
teaching. When it comes to Vietnamese tertiary institutes, this work creates an opportunity for
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these universities and colleges to have a deeper understanding in the structure of each kind of
mottos. In particular, structure and the use of phrases and sentences are two major elements that
can be attained through this study. In that way, tertiary institutions will easily make decisions on
which kind of phrases or sentences is suitable and brings success to their reputation.
6. Conclusion
It is worth noting that Vietnamese universities and colleges have tendency to use noun
phrases in mottos whereas those in ESCs show their preference for adopting verb phrases. The
use of nouns helps to save space and time in advertisements. This is absolutely beneficial when
the audiences can be well informed and easily receive the delivered messages. Meanwhile, verb
phrases assist school authorities to add a conversational quality to the educational mottos, which
can create a friendly warm atmosphere and a close relationship between the tertiary institutions
and the audience. What is more, verb phrases are also applied quite commonly due to the limit
on spatial and financial constraints. Nonetheless, all universities and colleges in Vietnam and
ESCs, to a certain extent, share the same preference for adopting adjective phrases, adverb
phrases and prepositional phrases when creating mottos.
Regarding sentences, statements tend to hold up the majority in the frequency of
occurrence in ESCs thanks to its being more reader-friendly and going straight to the audience’
mind, while those in Vietnam give their preference to imperative sentences due to the
audience’s familiarity with the road signs, official forms and instructions. However, both
Vietnamese and English-speaking universities and colleges tend to make little use of questions
and exclamations.
Due to time constraint, this research has only investigated 200 educational institution
mottos, which makes the results become less generalized. Hence, a larger population of samples
is recommended to generate more precise results. Also, the scope of study on syntactic features
can be implemented in other fields, not merely limited in tertiary education mottos.
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Macmillan.
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (2013). Digest of Education
Statistics 2012 (NCES 2014-015). Retrieved from: https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2014/2014015.pdf.
University (2018). In Dictionnarycambridge.org. Retrieved from: https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictio
nary/english/university.
Zhao, J.Z. (2003). Brief comment on school motto of colleges and universities. Journal of Luoyang
University. Retrieved from: http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTotal-LYDS200301027.htm.
KHẨU HIỆU GIÁO DỤC ĐẠI HỌC TẠI VIỆT NAM

VÀ CÁC NƯỚC NÓI TIẾNG ANH:
NGHIÊN CỨU DƯỚI GÓC NHÌN TỪ ĐẶC TRƯNG CÚ PHÁP
Tóm tắt: Hiện nay nền giáo dục đang ngày càng thể hiện rõ vị thế của mình trong quá trình
phát triển của xã hội. Thực tế cho rằng rất nhiều trường đại học, cao đẳng của Việt Nam
đang nỗ lực vươn mình ra tầm quốc tế, thu hút hàng nghìn sinh viên nước ngoài tới theo
học mỗi năm, đồng thời áp dụng nhiều chiến dịch quảng bá hình ảnh, trong đó có sử dụng
các khẩu hiệu giáo dục. Tuy nhiên, các trường đều thật khó tránh khỏi những sai sót trong
quá trình định hình khẩu hiệu giáo dục phù hợp với tầm nhìn và sứ mệnh của mình. Dựa
trên kết quả phân tích, bài nghiên cứu đưa ra một cái nhìn có chiều sâu về một trong những
khía cạnh ngôn ngữ quan trọng nhất trong khẩu hiệu giáo dục, đó chính là cú pháp, tập
trung nghiên cứu sự sắp xếp của các thành tố ngôn ngữ. Hơn nữa, đặc điểm giống và khác
nhau về cách viết khẩu hiệu giáo dục của các trường đại học, cao đẳng ở Việt Nam và các
nước nói tiếng Anh cũng được chỉ ra cùng với những gợi ý cho các trường khi viết khẩu
hiệu giáo dục.
Từ khóa: Đặc điểm cú pháp, khẩu hiệu giáo dục, đại học và cao đẳng, Việt Nam, các nước
nói tiếng Anh
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ĐÁNH GIÁ CỦA SINH VIÊN VỀ HIỆU QUẢ CỦA VIỆC

SỬ DỤNG YẾU TỐ PHI NGÔN NGỮ TRONG GIẢNG DẠY
TIẾNG NGA TẠI KHOA TIẾNG NGA,
TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ, ĐẠI HỌC HUẾ
Nguyễn Thanh Sơn*
Tóm tắt: Nghiên cứu nhằm mục đích khảo sát hiệu quả của việc lồng ghép các hành vi
ngôn ngữ không lời của người Nga trong các lớp học tiếng Nga và mức độ hài lòng của
sinh viên Khoa Tiếng Nga, Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Huế đối với các tiết học
này. Kết quả nghiên cứu cho thấy việc nắm kiến thức cơ bản về phi ngôn ngữ không những
tác động tích cực đến việc học tiếng Nga và kỹ năng giao tiếp của sinh viên mà còn tạo cho
họ động lực đam mê tìm tòi, học hỏi nhiều hơn về văn hóa và ngôn ngữ Nga. Ngoài ra, bài
viết còn nêu ra một số khó khăn mà sinh viên thường gặp phải khi tìm hiểu về loại hình
ngôn ngữ này và đề xuất một số phương pháp nhằm nâng cao hiểu biết của sinh viên về
ngôn ngữ không lời và chất lượng của các tiết học ngoại ngữ.
Từ khóa: Phi ngôn ngữ tiếng Nga, đánh giá của sinh viên, lớp học tiếng Nga, dạy-học
ngoại ngữ
1. Đặt vấn đề
Trong giao tiếp, lời nói là công cụ (phương tiện) quan trọng và hữu hiệu nhất của con
người. Tuy nhiên trong ngôn ngữ, phi ngôn ngữ giữ một vị trí quan trọng không thể thiếu trong
các cuộc trò chuyện. Với xu hướng toàn cầu hóa ngày nay, việc giao lưu văn hóa giữa các quốc
gia diễn ra dễ dàng hơn bao giờ hết. Để xây dựng các mối quan hệ xã hội cũng như thành công
trong giao tiếp, ngoài nền tảng kiến thức ngôn ngữ và văn hóa tốt, chúng ta cũng cần trang bị
cho mình những hiểu biết cơ bản về giao tiếp phi ngôn ngữ. Nhận thấy việc cung cấp cho sinh
viên Khoa Tiếng Nga những kiến thức cơ bản về ngôn ngữ không lời trong giao tiếp là điều cần
thiết, chúng tôi lồng ghép yếu tố này trong các lớp học thực hành tiếng và tìm hiểu hiệu quả của
các tiết học này.
Nghiên cứu này được thực hiện nhằm mục đích tìm hiểu phản hồi của sinh viên về hiệu
quả của việc áp dụng các hành vi phi ngôn ngữ đến nhận thức và hứng thú của sinh viên Khoa
Tiếng Nga, Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Huế trong việc học cũng như tìm hiểu về văn
hóa, ngôn ngữ Nga; gợi ý một số phương pháp sử dụng yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ trong các lớp học
tiếng Nga để nâng cao hiệu quả trong giao tiếp và chất lượng dạy-học tiếng Nga.
* Email: nthanhson@hueuni.edu.vn
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2.1. Yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ trong giao tiếp
Phi ngôn ngữ hay còn gọi cách khác là ngôn ngữ không lời là một loại hình ngôn ngữ
đóng vai trò quan trọng trong quá trình giao tiếp của con người. Có rất nhiều nhận định cũng
như khái niệm về giao tiếp phi ngôn ngữ từ dưới các góc độ và bình diện khác nhau. Căn cứ vào
bình diện ngữ dụng học, tác giả Nguyễn Thiện Giáp (2005) cho rằng: “Giao tiếp phi lời là giao
tiếp bằng toàn bộ cơ thể và các giác quan”. Theo nhà nghiên cứu, trong giao tiếp bên cạnh các
phương tiện bằng lời còn có các phương tiện phi lời và những yếu tố đó bao gồm: bối cảnh, diện
mạo, cách ăn mặc, tư thế, điệu bộ, cử chỉ, khoảng cách. Ông nhấn mạnh rằng khi phân tích hội
thoại cần nghiên cứu các yếu tố phi lời và người ta chỉ có thể hiểu được cách sử dụng một ngôn
ngữ khi các yếu tố phi lời được nghiên cứu đầy đủ.
Dưới góc độ ngôn ngữ văn hóa, tác giả Nguyễn Quang (2008) nhận định: “giao tiếp phi
ngôn từ là toàn bộ các bộ phận kiến tạo nên giao tiếp không thuộc mã ngôn từ, có nghĩa là
không được mã hóa bằng từ ngữ, nhưng có thể thuộc về hai yếu tố ngôn thanh và phi ngôn
thanh. Nó bao gồm các yếu tố cận ngôn như tốc độ, cường độ, ngữ lưu… và các yếu tố ngoại
ngôn thuộc ngôn ngữ cơ thể như dáng điệu, cử chỉ, biểu hiện nét mặt… thuộc ngôn ngữ vật thể
như áo quần, trang sức, nước hoa, quà tặng… và thuộc ngôn ngữ môi trường như ngôn ngữ đối
thoại, địa điểm giao tiếp. Trong đó, ngôn ngữ cơ thể chiếm số lượng lớn trong giao tiếp không
lời.
Như vậy, có thể nhận định rằng giao tiếp phi ngôn ngữ của con người là sự giao tiếp bằng
cách nhận và gửi đi các tín hiệu phi ngôn ngữ (diện mạo, cách ăn mặc, tư thế, điệu bộ, cử chỉ,
khoảng cách, v.v…) để đạt được mục đích cụ thể trong quá trình giao tiếp.
Đã từ rất lâu, con người không chỉ giao tiếp với nhau bằng tiếng nói hay chữ viết mà còn
thông qua nét mặt, cử chỉ, ánh mắt, đồ vật, v.v… Ở công xã nguyên thủy, con người giao tiếp
chủ yếu bằng ngôn ngữ không lời và loại hình ngôn ngữ này phản ánh chính xác nhất cảm xúc
của người tham gia giao tiếp (thông qua cử chỉ, điệu bộ, ánh mắt, nụ cười, v.v…). Nhân tố làm
nên ấn tượng đầu tiên trong một buổi gặp mặt, giúp duy trì không khí của toàn bộ cuộc đối
thoại, tác động mạnh đến cảm xúc của người nghe và quyết định hiệu quả giao tiếp, chính là yếu
tố phi ngôn ngữ. Đã có nhiều nghiên cứu chỉ ra vai trò quan trọng của thứ ngôn ngữ này trong
giao tiếp.
Tác giả Phi Tuyết Hinh (1996) khẳng định trước khi ngôn ngữ âm thanh bắt đầu hình
thành (khoảng 5000 hoặc 4000 trước công nguyên) thì cử chỉ điệu bộ chính là ngôn ngữ cổ xưa
nhất của loài người.
Giáo sư Mehrabian (1981) nhận định: Trao đổi thông tin diễn ra qua các phương tiện bằng lời
là 7%, qua các phương tiện âm thanh (gồm giọng điệu, giọng nói, ngữ điệu và âm thanh) là 38%,
còn qua các phương tiện không bằng lời (yếu tố phi ngôn từ như cử chỉ điệu bộ, hình ảnh, v.v…) là
55%. Rõ ràng, yếu tố này ảnh hưởng không nhỏ đến hiệu quả giao tiếp của con người.
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2.2. Ảnh hưởng của phi ngôn ngữ đến việc dạy-học ngoại ngữ
Các tác giả Cohen, Manion vàMorrison (2007) đề cập đến các hành vi phi ngôn ngữ của
giáo viên có ảnh hưởng tích cực đến việc giảng dạy và tương tác giữa giáo viên và học viên bao
gồm: sử dụng không gian và khoảng cách tương tác, giao tiếp bằng mắt, nụ cười, gật đầu, cử chỉ
điệu bộ và thư giãn cơ thể.
Tác giả Trần Gia Nguyên Thi (2015) đã tiến hành nghiên cứu ngôn ngữ cử chỉ của người
dạy trong lớp học ngoại ngữ tại Khoa Tiếng Pháp, Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Đà
Nẵng. Bằng phương pháp thực nghiệm, quan sát thực tế, tác giả đã quan sát và ghi lại các cử
chỉ, điệu bộ mà giáo viên thường sử dụng trong các tiết học tiếng Pháp và khảo sát sinh viên để
tìm hiểu cách nhìn nhận của các em về vai trò của ngôn ngữ cử chỉ mà giảng viên sử dụng trong
quá trình giảng dạy. Kết quả khảo sát chỉ ra rằng khi sử dụng điệu bộ trong quá trình giảng dạy,
thầy cô có vẻ tự nhiên hơn và lôi cuốn được lớp học hào hứng học tập, phát biểu ý kiến. Những
điệu bộ, cử chỉ của thầy cô giúp người học hiểu hơn những gì mà họ truyền đạt.
Có thể nhận thấy rằng, vai trò của ngôn ngữ cử chỉ trong các lớp học ngoại ngữ là rất
quan trọng. Tuy nhiên, phần lớn giảng viên và sinh viên vẫn chưa quan tâm và chú trọng đến
yếu tố này trong giao tiếp cũng như trong các tiết học ngoại ngữ. Việc sử dụng các hành vi phi
ngôn ngữ vào thực tế giảng dạy và nghiên cứu thái độ của sinh viên về hiệu quả của các tiết học
này là điều cần thiết.
Để đạt được mục đích nghiên cứu như đã nêu ở phần Đặt vấn đề. Chúng tôi tập trung tìm
câu trả lời cho các câu hỏi sau:
- Tác động của việc áp dụng các hành vi phi ngôn ngữ trong dạy-học tiếng Nga và đánh giá của
sinh viên là như thế nào?
- Làm thế nào để áp dụng yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ một cách có hiệu quả trong giao tiếp?
- Tác động của các tiết học này đến việc tạo động lực tìm hiểu nhiều hơn về ngôn ngữ và văn
hóa Nga của sinh viên là như thế nào?
Khách thể nghiên cứu trong bài viết này là 30 sinh viên từ năm 2 đến năm 4 đang theo
học tại Khoa Tiếng Nga, Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Huế.
Chúng tôi đã tiến hành lồng ghép các yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ trong dạy-học tiếng Nga trong
vòng 4 tuần bằng việc dành ra 10 phút đầu tiết học môn Nghe 2 đối với sinh viên năm 2, môn
Nghe-Nói 4 đối với sinh viên năm 3. Với sinh viên năm 4, chúng tôi chọn môn học phụ đạo kỹ
năng mềm để thực hiện khảo sát này. Các trò chơi đã được tổ chức như chiếu các hình ảnh minh
họa về các cử chỉ, điệu bộ đặc trưng của người Nga, các đoạn phim Nga ngắn sau đó cùng nhau
bình luận và giải thích ý nghĩa của các hành vi đó. Đồng thời, giảng viên chủ động sử dụng
nhiều ngôn ngữ cơ thể: cử chỉ, điệu bộ… nhiều hơn trong lúc giảng bài và tương tác với sinh
viên. Nguồn tài liệu được chọn lọc từ cuốn “Словарь языка русских жестов” (Từ điển ngôn
ngữ cử chỉ của người Nga) của các tác giả Григорий Крейдлин, Светлана Григорьева,
Николай Григорьев (2001).
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Sau đó, để tìm hiểu hiệu quả của phương pháp này chúng tôi đã sử dụng một bảng khảo
sát gồm hai phần. Phần thứ nhất bao gồm 13 câu hỏi trắc nghiệm nhiều lựa chọn nhằm mục đích
xác định sự đồng ý của sinh viên về các ý kiến liên quan đến hiệu quả của việc sử dụng các yếu
tố phi ngôn ngữ trong các lớp học tiếng Nga. Phần thứ hai gồm các câu hỏi mở nhằm thu thập ý
kiến về những khó khăn và đề xuất của sinh viên để nâng cao hiểu biết về yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ
trong giao tiếp với người Nga và trong dạy-học tiếng Nga.
4.1. Thông tin chung của các đối tượng tham gia khảo sát
Nghiên cứu này được thực hiện với sự tham gia của 30 sinh viên năm 2 đến năm 4 đang
theo học tại Khoa Tiếng Nga, trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Huế. Những sinh viên này ở
trong độ tuổi 20-22 và đã học tiếng Nga gần 2 năm. Tỉ lệ nam – nữ trong số 30 sinh viên tham
gia khảo sát lần lượt là 10% - 90%.
100% các bạn sinh viên đã từng gặp gỡ và giao tiếp với người Nga. Trình độ tiếng Nga
của những sinh viên tham gia khảo sát trong nghiên cứu đạt cấp độ A2 đến B1 theo khung tham
chiếu Châu Âu.
4.2. Tác động của việc áp dụng các hành vi phi ngôn ngữ trong các tiết học đến việc học
tiếng Nga của sinh viên
Như đã đề cập ở phần Phương pháp nghiên cứu, chúng tôi đã sử dụng phiếu khảo sát
nhằm tìm hiểu sự phản hồi của sinh viên về việc lồng ghép các yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ trong các
tiết học tiếng Nga. Trong số 13 ý kiến ở phần 1 của phiếu khảo sát, có 4 ý kiến được thiết kế
nhằm mục đích xác định sự tác động của việc áp dụng các hành vi phi ngôn ngữ đến việc học
tiếng Nga của sinh viên. Kết quả được trình bày ở Bảng 1.
Bảng 1. Tác động của việc áp dụng các hành vi phi ngôn ngữ trong các tiết học đến việc học tiếng Nga
của sinh viên
Đồng ý Phân vân Không đồng ý
Ý kiến Số Số Số
Tỷ lệ Tỷ lệ Tỷ lệ
lượng lượng lượng
Tôi cảm thấy việc lồng ghép các kiến thức về phi
28 93% 2 7% 0 0%
ngôn ngữ giúp tôi học tiếng Nga tốt hơn.
Việc giảng viên chủ động sử dụng ngôn ngữ cơ
thể trong lúc giảng dạy làm cho tiết học sinh 30 100% 0 0% 0 0%
động hơn.
Tôi cảm thấy hứng thú hơn trong các tiết học có
kiến thức về ngôn ngữ cơ thể trong giao tiếp của 28 93% 1 3% 1 3%
người Nga so với các tiết học khác.
Tôi thích học những tiết học có lồng ghép kiến
thức về các hành vi giao tiếp không lời của 28 93% 2 7% 0 0%
người Nga.
Mong muốn giảng viên sử dụng nhiều ngôn ngữ
cơ thể và cung cấp nhiều kiến thức hơn về các 30 100% 0 0% 0 0%
hành vi giao tiếp không lời của người Nga.
Có 28 (chiếm 93%) trên tổng số 30 sinh viên tham gia khảo sát đồng ý rằng việc có lồng
ghép và giới thiệu cho họ kiến thức về giao tiếp phi ngôn ngữ giúp họ học tiếng Nga tốt hơn, có
380
nghĩa rằng việc được trang bị thêm những kiến thức về giao tiếp không lời giúp họ hiểu và học
tiếng Nga hiệu quả hơn. Trong khi đó, chỉ có 7% số sinh viên vẫn còn đang phân vân về hiệu
quả của phương pháp này. Phần lớn người tham gia khảo sát 94% đồng ý với ý kiến họ cảm
thấy hứng thú hơn trong các tiết học có kiến thức về ngôn ngữ cơ thể trong giao tiếp của người
Nga so với các tiết học khác. Số còn lại hoặc là phân vân, hoặc là không đồng tình với ý kiến
này. Để trả lời cho câu hỏi sinh viên có thích học những tiết học có lồng ghép kiến thức về các
hành vi giao tiếp không lời của người Nga hay không, đã có 28 người (93%) tham gia khảo sát
đồng ý và có 2 sinh viên phân vân về ý kiến này (tỷ lệ chiếm 7%). Điều này cho thấy, hiệu quả
của những tiết học này là rất cao.
Việc giảng viên sử dụng ngôn ngữ cơ thể trong lúc giảng bài làm cho các tiết học sinh
động hơn nhận được sự đồng tình của toàn bộ người tham gia khảo sát. 100% sinh viên mong
muốn giảng viên sử dụng nhiều ngôn ngữ cơ thể cũng như cung cấp nhiều kiến thức hơn về các
hành vi giao tiếp không lời của người Nga trong các tiết học tiếng Nga. Như vậy, vai trò của
ngôn ngữ cơ thể góp phần rất lớn đến thành công trong việc thu hút sự chú ý và tạo hứng thú
cho sinh viên trong các tiết học.
4.3. Tác động của việc sử dụng yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ trong các tiết học đến việc tạo động lực
tìm hiểu về ngôn ngữ và văn hóa Nga của sinh viên
Khi được hỏi về ý định sử dụng ngôn ngữ cơ thể trong giao tiếp với người Nga sau khi đã
hiểu biết về ý nghĩa và tầm quan trọng của yếu tố này trong giao tiếp, có 26 sinh viên (chiếm
87%) cho biết họ sẽ sử dụng ngôn ngữ cơ thể trong giao tiếp với người Nga, chỉ có 13% sinh
viên phân vân về ý kiến này. Phần lớn sinh viên (73%) cho rằng họ sẽ chủ động tìm hiểu về các
hành vi giao tiếp không lời của người Nga qua phim ảnh, sách hoặc qua Internet ngoài các bài
giảng của giáo viên trên lớp bởi việc hiểu biết và sử dụng ngôn ngữ cơ thể trong giao tiếp tạo
cho họ hứng thú tìm hiểu nhiều hơn về văn hóa cũng như ngôn ngữ mà họ đang theo học.
Bảng 2. Tác động của việc sử dụng yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ trong các tiết học đến việc tạo động lực tìm hiểu
về ngôn ngữ và văn hóa Nga của sinh viên
Ý kiến Đồng ý Phân vân Không đồng ý
Số lượng Tỷ lệ Số lượng Tỷ lệ Số lượng Tỷ lệ
Tôi sẽ sử dụng nhiều ngôn ngữ
cơ thể trong giao tiếp với
26 87% 4 13% 0 0%
người Nga trong tương lai.
Việc hiểu biết và sử dụng

ngôn ngữ cơ thể trong giao
tiếp tạo hứng thú tìm hiểu sâu
27 90% 3 10% 0 0%
hơn về văn hóa và ngôn ngữ
Nga.
Tôi sẽ chủ động tìm hiểu nhiều

hơn về các hành vi giao tiếp 1
22 73% 5 17% 3
không lời của người Nga qua 0%
phim ảnh, sách, Internet…
381
4.4. Hiệu quả của việc áp dụng yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ trong giao tiếpcủa sinh viên
Bảng 3. Hiệu quả của việc áp dụng yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ trong việc giao tiếp với người Nga của sinh viên
Ý kiến
Việc hiểu biết nhiều về ngôn ngữ cơ thể của
người Nga giúp tôi tự tin hơn trong giao tiếp 27 90% 3 10% 0 0%
với người Nga cũng như trước đám đông.
Nhờ những hiểu biết về yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ
đặc trưng của người Nga, tôi hiểu hơn về tâm
21 70% 9 30% 0 0%
tư, suy nghĩ của họ khi không sử dụng lời nói
trong giao tiếp.
Việc người đối thoại sử dụng ngôn ngữ cơ
thể làm cho cuộc nói chuyện lôi cuốn, không 28 93% 2 7% 0 0%
bị nhàm chán.
Việc hiểu biết về ngôn ngữ cơ thể trong lúc
nói chuyện giúp tôi nắm bắt được tâm lý của
người đối thoại (buồn, vui, thích thú, khó
24 80% 4 13% 2 7%
chịu…) qua đó tôi có thể điều chỉnh được
hành vi, lời nói… và chủ động hơn trong giao
tiếp.
Việc hiểu biết về ngôn ngữ cơ thể giúp ích tôi
trong việc tránh gây những hiểu lầm đáng có
27 90% 3 10% 0 0%
và gây ấn tượng với người đối thoại trong lúc
nói chuyện.
Sau các tiết học có áp dụng các yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ trong giao tiếp của người Nga, 90%
sinh viên đồng ý rằng việc hiểu biết nhiều về ý nghĩa của các hành vi ngôn ngữ cơ thể của người
Nga giúp họ tự tin hơn trong giao tiếp. Trong số các sinh viên tham gia khảo sát, có 70% đồng ý
với ý kiến rằng nhờ những hiểu biết về yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ đặc trưng của người Nga, họ hiểu
hơn về tâm tư, suy nghĩ của người đối thoại thậm chí khi họ không sử dụng lời nói trong giao
tiếp. Bên cạnh đó 30% người tham gia khảo sát còn phân vân về ý kiến này. Như đã đề cập ở
mục cơ sở lý luận, yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ đóng vai trò quan trọng nhất trong quá trình giao tiếp và
là yếu tố ảnh hưởng lớn đến hiệu quả của cuộc nói chuyện, bởi thông qua các hành vi, cử chỉ…
chúng ta có thể nắm bắt được tâm lý của người nói chuyện khi họ không sử dụng ngôn từ. Vì
vậy, có 80% sinh viên đồng ý với ý kiến thông qua ngôn ngữ cơ thể họ có thể nắm bắt được tâm
lý của đối phương (buồn, vui, thích thú, khó chịu...) qua đó họ có thể điều chỉnh được hành vi,
lời nói, và chủ động hơn trong giao tiếp. Không đồng tình hoặc phân vân với ý kiến này chiếm
số lượng không lớn, khoảng 20%. Đồng ý với ý kiến việc sử dụng ngôn ngữ cơ thể trong giao
tiếp sẽ làm cho cuộc nói chuyện trở nên sinh động hơn, lôi cuốn hơn có 93% người tham gia
khảo sát. Điều này cho thấy giao tiếp không lời ảnh hưởng rất lớn đến không khí của cuộc trò
chuyện. Từ việc nắm bắt được tâm lý và cảm xúc của người nói chuyện, ngôn ngữ cơ thể giúp
chúng ta tránh được những hiểu lầm đáng có và biết cách để gây sự chú ý, tạo ấn tượng tốt với
người đối diện trong cuộc trò chuyện, có 90% sinh viên đồng ý với quan điểm này. Như vậy, có
thể nhận thấy rằng, việc hiểu biết về phi ngôn ngữ giúp ích cho chúng ta rất nhiều trong giao
tiếp. Ngoài yếu tố ngôn từ, ngôn ngữ không lời đóng vai trò hết sức quan trọng trong việc giúp
con người hiểu nhau hơn.
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4.5. Khó khăn và đề xuất của sinh viên trong việc nâng cao hiểu biết về yếu tố phi ngôn
ngữ trong văn hóa giao tiếp
Để tìm hiểu những khó khăn trong việc tìm hiểu về ngôn ngữ không lời của người Nga
trong giao tiếp cũng như những đề xuất của sinh viên trong việc nâng cao kiến thức về giao tiếp
phi ngôn từ, trong Phiếu khảo sát chúng tôi đã thiết kế các câu hỏi mở và yêu cầu sinh viên trả
lời. Các phản hồi của sinh viên được tổng hợp và tóm tắt dưới đây.
Khó khăn mà sinh viên thường gặp phải khi tìm hiểu về ngôn ngữ cơ thể của người Nga
trong giao tiếp:
- Cơ hội tiếp xúc với người Nga và người nói tiếng Nga là rất ít: tại Huế thực tế sinh viên
có rất ít cơ hội được tiếp xúc và trò chuyện với người bản ngữ. Tháng 11 năm 2018, Khoa Tiếng
Nga đã mời giáo viên tình nguyện về giảng dạy cho sinh viên tại Khoa trong một tháng. Tuy
nhiên, thời gian một tháng là quá ít để tạo môi trường cho sinh viên giao lưu và trò chuyện với
giáo viên người Nga. Vì vậy, việc chú ý đến các hành vi giao tiếp phi ngôn ngữ của người Nga
trong lúc nói chuyện của sinh viên là không nhiều.
- Khó khăn trong việc tìm kiếm các nguồn tư liệu: thực tế hiện nay sinh viên không chủ
động trong việc tìm đọc các nguồn tư liệu, tài liệu tham khảo ngoài sách giáo khoa và các giáo
trình giảng dạy mà họ được học trên lớp. Như đã đề cập ở các mục trên, tại Khoa Tiếng Nga vẫn
chưa có một giáo trình hay môn học cụ thể nào cung cấp kiến thức về giao tiếp phi ngôn ngữ
trong văn hóa giao tiếp của người Nga, vì vậy đa phần sinh viên chưa ý thức về tầm quan trọng
của yếu tố này trong các cuộc trò chuyện.
- Khó khăn trong việc hiểu ý nghĩa của các cử chỉ, điệu bộ của người Nga: hệ thống ngôn
ngữ cử chỉ của con người là vô cùng phong phú. Ngoài ra, cùng một điệu bộ, cử chỉ nhưng trong
mỗi nền văn hóa khác nhau chúng lại có ý nghĩa khác nhau. Một số sinh viên cho biết, họ
thường không hiểu ý nghĩa của một số cử chỉ, điệu bộ của các nhân vật khi xem các bộ phim
Nga hay các đoạn hội thoại của người Nga, cũng như khi giao tiếp thực tế với người Nga.
Đề xuất của sinh viên để nâng cao kiến thức về yếu tố phi ngôn từ trong giao tiếp: Sau khi
được tiếp xúc và hiểu rõ tầm quan trọng của yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ trong giao tiếp, một số sinh
viên đã mạnh dạn đưa ra ý kiến của mình nhằm nâng cao hiểu biết về ngôn ngữ không lời như:
mong muốn giảng viên cung cấp nhiều kiến thức hơn về các hành vi giao tiếp không lời của
người Nga cũng như ý nghĩa của các hành vi đó trong các tiết học; mong muốn có nhiều cơ hội
được giao lưu và tiếp xúc với người Nga nhiều hơn để được giao tiếp với họ; tổ chức các trò
chơi, chiếu các hình ảnh, xem các phân đoạn phim Nga và cùng nhau bình luận về một vài cử
chỉ trong phim; tham gia các lớp học kỹ năng mềm có các kiến thức về giao tiếp không lời.
5. Kết luận và đề xuất
Căn cứ vào kết quả nghiên cứu, có thể đưa ra kết luận như sau:
Việc áp dụng ngôn ngữ cơ thể trong các tiết học có ảnh hưởng tích cực đến việc học tiếng
Nga của sinh viên. Họ cảm thấy thích thú với các tiết học này và mong muốn được tìm hiểu
nhiều hơn ý nghĩa của các hành vi, cử chỉ trong giao tiếp của người Nga cũng như cảm thấy bị
thu hút khi giảng viên chủ động sử dụng nhiều ngôn ngữ cơ thể trong giảng dạy.
383
Kiến thức về những hành vi giao tiếp không lời giúp sinh viên tự tin và chủ động hơn
trong việc học tiếng Nga và giao tiếp với người Nga. Bởi yếu tố này ảnh hưởng không những
đến thành công của một cuộc trò chuyện mà còn hiệu quả của các tiết học tiếng Nga.
Những hiểu biết nhất định về tầm quan trọng của yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ đã tạo động lực cho
sinh viên Khoa Tiếng Nga đam mê tìm tòi, học hỏi nhiều hơn về văn hóa và ngôn ngữ Nga.
Tuy nhiên, vẫn còn tồn tại một số khó khăn nhất định trong việc trang bị cho sinh viên
Khoa Tiếng Nga kiến thức về loại hình giao tiếp này trong các tiết học tiếng Nga như khó khăn
trong việc tìm các nguồn tài liệu, trình độ tiếng Nga còn hạn chế, ít có cơ hội được giao tiếp với
người bản xứ.
Trên cơ sở đó, chúng tôi xin đề xuất một số phương pháp sau nhằm nâng cao hiểu biết
của sinh viên về ngôn ngữ không lời và chất lượng của các tiết học tiếng Nga nói riêng và ngoại
ngữ nói chung như sau:
Về phương pháp dạy học: có rất nhiều phương pháp lồng ghép yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ mà
giảng viên có thể áp dụng trong những bài giảng của mình. Việc lựa chọn phương pháp dạy học
phụ thuộc vào từng môn học, trình độ của sinh viên và đối tượng người học. Chúng tôi xin được
gợi ý một số phương pháp như sau:
- Tổ chức các trò chơi có lồng ghép hình ảnh về các hành vi giao tiếp không lời của người
Nga và giải thích cho sinh viên hiểu ý nghĩa của từng hành vi, cử chỉ trong mỗi ngữ cảnh cụ thể.
Ví dụ các trò chơi nhìn tranh đoán ý nghĩa; so sánh ý nghĩa các cử chỉ, hành động trong các nền
văn hóa khác nhau.
- Giảng viên cần chú ý đến các hành vi, cử chỉ của mình và sử dụng chúng một cách linh
hoạt, chủ động hơn khi giảng bài: ví dụ các cử chỉ của tay, biểu cảm trên khuôn mặt, điệu bộ,
ánh mắt, dáng đứng, trang phục như thế nào để phù hợp với từng hoàn cảnh cụ thể.
- Phát huy những cử chỉ thân thiện như gật đầu, mỉm cười, ánh mắt nhìn động viên, khích
lệ, bởi những hành vi đó chắc chắn sẽ khiến cho người học có thêm động lực, chăm chỉ và yêu
thích môn học hơn.
- Sử dụng các phương tiện trực quan trong dạy học: sưu tầm các hình ảnh, các đoạn phim
ngắn có các hành vi phi ngôn ngữ và cùng thảo luận về ý nghĩa của từng hành vi trong từng
hoàn cảnh cụ thể.
Về việc tổ chức các hoạt động ngoại khóa: nên tạo nhiều cơ hội cho sinh viên được giao
tiếp với người bản xứ, tổ chức nhiều hoạt động giao lưu giữa người Nga và sinh viên cũng như
mời các giáo viên, chuyên gia người Nga về giảng dạy tại Khoa thường xuyên hơn nữa.
Cần nhấn mạnh rằng, ngôn ngữ không lời nếu được khai thác và sử dụng hợp lý vào việc
dạy-học ngoại ngữ sẽ giúp sinh viên học tiếng nước ngoài tốt hơn, nhanh hơn đặc biệt là kỹ
năng nói. Ngoài ra, những nền tảng kiến thức tốt về phi ngôn ngữ sẽ giúp người học tự tin, chủ
động hơn trong giao tiếp với người bản xứ, tránh gây hiểu lầm và những cú shock văn hóa
không đáng có.
384

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Phi Tuyết Hinh (1996). Thử tìm hiểu về ngôn ngữ cử chỉ, điệu bộ. Ngôn ngữ, 4, 35-41.
Trần Gia Nguyên Thi (2015). Ngôn ngữ cử chỉ của người dạy trong lớp học ngoại ngữ. Trường hợp các
giáo viên Khoa Tiếng Pháp, Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Đà Nẵng. Tạp chí Ngôn ngữ và Đời
sống, 11(241), 71-74.
Григорий Крейдлин, Светлана Григорьева, & Николай Григорьев (2001). Словарь языка русских
жестов. Москва.
STUDENTS' EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTIVENESS

OF USING NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
IN TEACHING RUSSIAN AT THE RUSSIAN DEPARTMENT
OF UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES, HUE UNIVERSITY
Abstract: The study aims at investigating the effectiveness of integrating Russian non-
verbal communication into Russian classes and the level of satisfaction of students of the
Russian Department of University of Foreign Languages, Hue University towards these
lessons. The results showed that acquiring basic knowledge of non-verbal communication
not only positively affects students’ learning and their communication skills, but also
generates motivation among students to explore the Russian language and culture. In
addition, the author also mentioned some difficulties that students frequently encounter
when learning this language and proposed some methods to improve students’
understanding of non-verbal language and the quality of foreign language lessons.
Key words: Non-verbal communication in Russian, students’ evaluation, Russian class,
teaching and learning foreign languages
385
WAYS OF LEARNING ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION

AMONG FIRST-YEAR ENGLISH MAJORS
AT VAN LANG UNIVERSITY
Nguyen Thi Trieu Thao*
Van Lang University

Abstract: Pronunciation plays an important part in language learning and teaching. English
is considered as a foreign language spoken by the most people in Vietnam. Students of
native Vietnamese are thought to be influenced by their Vietnamese pronunciation, and this
makes them pronounce English words inexactly. Though many studies about English
pronunciation have been conducted recently to help improve the students’ English
pronunciation, the implementation is still overlapping and unsuccessful. This article is an
attempt using questionnaire to discover how first-year English majors learn English
pronunciation at Van Lang University. Based on the research data, the findings of the study
are believed to apply to the learning and teaching practice at Van Lang University and
similar contexts.
Key words: Pronunciation, English learning and teaching, English majors, practice
1. Introduction
English is a very necessary language used the most popularly. As a result, pronouncing
words correctly when communicating in English language is a great demand for learners of
English who wish to understand each other effectively. In the recent final exam of the first-year
English majors on phonetics 1 at Van Lang University, many students got bad marks on this
subject. Among them, some did not know how to read the international transcription given in
the exam paper. In this article, questionnaire is employed to investigate how English
pronunciation is learnt with the view to helping students communicate more effectively in the
future. This study is an attempt to seek for appropriate answers to the questions as follows:
1. What are the best ways to help the first-year English majors learn English pronunciation
effectively?
2. How have they ever improved their English pronunciation?
2.1. Definitions of pronunciation
As defined in Cobuild Advanced English dictionary, pronunciation is the way in which a
word is pronounced. According to Seidhofer (1994) as cited in Nunan (1999), the influence of
the first language seems to be more apparent in the case of pronunciation than for grammar and
vocabulary. Similarly, Carter and Nunan (2001) stated that pronunciation plays an essential role
in the lives of an individual and society. In my point of view, the speakers are identified through
* Email: nguyentrieuthao3004@gmail.com
386
the way they speak and denote their relationship of certain communities. Lynch and Anderson
(2012) makes a change on giving advice for English learners with two important things: (1)
English learners do not need native-like pronunciation of English sounds in order to be
comfortably understood, that is, comfortably intelligible referring to the comfort of the listeners,
rather than the speaker, and (2) pronouncing a word is actually more important for their listeners
than the sounds they make.
2.2. Factors affecting English pronunciation
According to Gilakjani (2012), there are three factors affecting the students’
pronunciation learning: (1) students’ attitude – the personal characteristics of the learners, (2)
learning strategies – the planning for learning process, and (3) instructions – the emphasis on
English pronunciation teaching.
2.2.1. The students’ attitudes
Though many students are good at English pronunciation, there are differences about the
ability of pronunciation among them. It is a reality that some previous studies had been carried
out to learn about the personal characteristics among the students who learn English as a foreign
language. The attitude is “a relatively enduring organization of beliefs, feelings, and behavioral
tendencies towards socially significant objects, groups, events or symbols” (Hogg and Vaughan,
2005), and Chaiken (1993) has stated that the attitude is a psychological tendency expressed by
evaluating a particular entity with some degree of likes or dislikes. There is always a very close
relation between learning attitudes and motivation because motivation is considered as a
construct made up of certain attitudes.
2.2.2. Learning strategies
As cited in Brown (1980) has affirmed that strategies consist of planning for learning
thinking about the learning process as it is happening, overseeing someone’s production or
understanding, and assessing learning after an activity is finished. In the study of factors
affecting EFL learners’ English pronunciation learning, Mariani (2002) has expressed on a point
where learning strategies are essential components of a curriculum, as bridges
between competence and process.
The difference between a good student and a bad student is thought as just a matter of
aptitude. While it may be true in some cases, basically, the difference can actually be attributed
to learning strategies. With effective learning strategies, the language learners are able to learn
faster and easier. According to Ormrod (2010), there are seven basic strategies of teaching
English pronunciation, including (1) identifying important information – the learners can’t
remember everything presented in the class or in a textbook, they have to choose when learning
any documents, (2) retrieving relevant prior knowledge – the learners only participate in
meaningful learning when they have background knowledge that can relate new information by
encouraging them to retrieve relevant knowledge to the topic they are learning, (3) taking notes
– it plays an important role in classroom achievement, (4) organizing information – the learners
study more effectively when they take part in any activities helping them organize what they
have ever been learning, (5) intentionally elaborating on information – the learners use a
387
strategy to help learn and make sense of new information and have elaboration in improvement,
(6) creating summaries – creating a good summary is a fairly complex process, and (7)
monitoring comprehension – a process in which the learners decide if they can understand what
they are reading. In general, learning strategies include the awareness learning process as taking
notes, using the dictionaries and other procedures. It includes the interaction among the learners
in the same group; or pairs in the classroom with communicative activities. The students should
engage in any language communication activities where they have to have learning motivation
as well as good learning attitudes.
2.2.3. Instructions
English language teaching (ELT) should focus on four skills as listening, speaking,
reading and writing. According to Nunan (1999), pronunciation has to be taught in the
beginning of English learning as the target language’s alphabet and sound system. Lack of
emphasis on the development of pronunciation is due to a general lack of fervor on the part of
the second language acquisition researchers. Elliot (2012) has ever stated that there may be
absence or emphasis on pronunciation improvement with second language teaching. This may
be due to a general weakness of interest both by teachers and students. This may be due to a
general weakness of interest both by teachers and students.
2.3. Principles for pronunciation teaching
According to Fraser (2001), the teacher should base on these principles as familiar point
of view about practicing English pronunciation well, such as (1) having a suitable curriculum-
helping the learners acquire some basic concepts on which they are able to build more
complicated understanding, (2) being learner-centered – the process in a form that the students
are able to use and act upon, (3) helping learners become self-reliant – involving in both
thinking and doing, (4) giving opportunities to practice – emphasizing cognitive understanding,
(5) knowing what’s best – the need of information. Regarding the teaching of pronunciation,
Nunan (2003) has developed and specified five principles: (1) foster intelligibility during
spontaneous speech – when a teacher teaches pronunciation, he has to reinforce the
intelligibility during the free speech, (2) keep affective considerations firmly in mind – teachers
encourage learners to improve their pronunciation habits, (3) avoid the teaching of individual
sounds in isolation – teachers use integrated skills to teach pronunciation and give learners any
opportunities to have meaningful communication among learners considered as more exciting,
memorable and enjoyable activities, (4) provide feedback on learner progress – teachers should
convince and guide them in practicing English pronunciation, (5) realize that ultimately it is the
learner who is in control of changes in pronunciation – teachers give them models and
information. Basically, it is very essential for students to practice their pronunciation even
3. Methodology
3.1. Data collection
In order to collect the data, the researcher distributed questionnaire about students’
English pronunciation teaching and learning to forty first-year English majors. The
388
questionnaire includes (1) the importance of pronunciation learning, (2) the ways of learning
pronunciation effectively, (3) how to teach English pronunciation in the classroom, (4) English
pronunciation learning, and (5) attitudes towards English pronunciation learning. Based on it,
the researcher can find out the answer for the questions mentioned in introduction part.
3.2. Participants
The participants in the study were forty first-year English majors consisting of ten males
and thirty females. Based on the results of phonetics 1 among four English first-year classes that
the researcher has taught, forty English first-year majors of class K24-N2 who got high marks
ranged from 6.5 to 9.0 were chosen as good sample to investigate the ways of their English
pronunciation learning for this study as shown in the following table. Table 1 showed that
fifteen students got from 6.5 to 7.0 marks with the ratio 37.5% and twenty-five students getting
from 8.0 to 9.0 gained 62.5%.
Table 1. The final results of class K24-N2 on phonetics 1
Number of the students The final results of class K24-N2 on phonetics 1
6.5-7.0 8.0-9.0
40
15 (37.5%) 25 (62.5%)

In order to gain the results, the research data were collected from questionnaire having
directly delivered to forty first-year English majors about the opinions on the ways that the
students have ever learnt English pronunciation. The mean was used as the main measure
including all the values in the data set for its calculation. Based on the students’ answers, the
researcher used Excel to calculate mean in statistics analyzed and explained in Part 4.
The study investigated the pronunciation skills of a class with forty first-year English
majors at Van Lang University. The collected data from questionnaire were analyzed and
interpreted.
4.1. The importance of English pronunciation
Table 2 indicates that the majority of the students expressed an agreement with the items of
this statement. They strongly agreed with correct pronunciation help them communicate more
successfully and confidently, avoid misunderstanding what they say and is an important part of
English language learning proved with the mean (M=1.4; M=1.9; M=1.8). They are all aware of
pronunciation as an essential skill which needs practicing regularly with the mean (M=2.1).
In sum, the students’ evaluation for the statement mentioned above was positive. The
majority of the students realized that English pronunciation is very important in English
language learning. They were aware of the fact that pronouncing English accurately makes them
more confident in communicating it. It actually helps others understand more about what they
want to say.
389
Table 2. The importance of pronunciation

Themes The choices of the students Mean
SA A N D SD
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
The importance of pronunciation
1. It is an important part of learning English 10 30 0 0 0 1.8
2. It is an essential skill that you need to practice
7 27 3 3 0 2.1
regularly
3. Accurate pronunciation help you communicate more
25 15 0 0 0 1.4
successfully and confidently
4. It helps others avoid misunderstanding what you say 4 36 0 0 0 1.9
4.2. Factors affecting English pronunciation learning

As presented in Part 2 the factors are affecting pronunciation learning as attitude, learning
strategies and instruction.
4.2.1. Attitude
Table 3 highlights the mean of the students’ opinions on attitudes towards English
pronunciation learning with (M=1.2; M=1.8; M=1.7) about the issue is that pronunciation skill
is very important, teachers provide the students with an excellent model of English
pronunciation, and from that the students can accurately recognize the difference between native
like and nonnative pronunciation.
In summary, all items in “attitudes towards English pronunciation learning” showed that
the students put all their thought in the production that their teacher provided them, and through
that, they can distinguish the difference between native like and nonnative pronunciation for the
development of communication.
Table 3. The students’ attitudes towards English pronunciation learning
The choices of the students Mean
SA A N D SD
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
The students’ attitudes towards English pronunciation learning
1. Pronunciation is very important to me 33 7 0 0 0 1.2
2. I believe that teachers provide me with an 13 24 3 0 0 1.8
excellent model of English pronunciation
3. I can accurately recognize the difference 8 12 5 3 2 1.7
between native like and nonnative pronunciation

Theoretically, strategies consist of planning for learning thinking about the learning
process as it is happening, overseeing someone’s production or understanding, and assessing
learning after an activity is finished.
390
4.2.2.1. Planning for pronunciation learning

It is only through language that the learners could communicate with each other; share
their ideas, tell others they have experienced to express their wishes and desires, solve complex
problems by drawing on information they read or hear. To achieve these objectives, however,
they have to learn the language as communication.
It can be seen from Table 4 that the students strongly agreed and agreed with the items
through mean (M=1.8; M=1.9; M=1.7) on doing a lot of drills, trying to imitate native speakers’
sound, and learning how to pronounce the language correctly the first time. However, they
showed their uncertainty when they have to strictly listen to the teacher and pay attention or
listen and repeat with the mean (M=2.1; M=2.4). In English pronunciation learning, most of the
students expressed their agreement on trying to imitate native speakers and based on the
transcription to pronounce words.
Table 4. Planning for pronunciation learning
SA A N D SD
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Having good English pronunciation
1. Listen and pay attention 2 33 3 2 0 2.1
2. Listen and repeat 3 24 8 3 2 2.4
3. Do a lot of drills 12 26 2 0 0 1.8
4. Imitate native speakers of English 10 25 5 0 0 1.9
5. Learn how to pronounce it correctly the first time 15 22 3 0 0 1.7
4.2.2.2. English pronunciation learning

Table 5 shows the mean of the students’ opinions on the process of pronunciation
learning. The mean of the students who contented with all items in this statement was recorded
for learning with Vietnamese teachers (M=2.0), practicing with native speakers (M=1.3), and
learning through videos (M=1.8). It is remarkable that the students liked to learn with their
friends shown by the mean (M=1.1), they said that learning with native speakers helped them
develop communication quickly and improve pronunciation significantly. Since English is
spoken as a foreign language in Vietnam, students do not have a good chance to practice
speaking English.
Table 5. Ways of English pronunciation learning

SA A N D SD
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Ways of English pronunciation learning
1. Your Vietnamese teachers 4 29 7 0 0 2.0
2. Native speakers 29 11 0 0 0 1.3
3. Video (singers, actors, presenters, etc) 11 28 1 0 0 1.8
4. Friends 39 1 0 0 0 1.1
5. Parents or other members in your family 2 3 11 24 0 3.4
391
In sum, the students’ evaluation for the process of pronunciation learning was positive.
The majority of the students realized that language learning should be cooperated with native
speakers, friends, and their teachers and through videos where they could imitate the sound or
the accent of the singers, actors or presenters.
4.2.3. Instructions
Table 6. How to teach English pronunciation in the classroom
SA A N D SD
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
How to teach English pronunciation in the classroom
1. Learn how pronounce vowels and consonants 11 29 0 0 0 1.7
2. Learn how to pronounce transcription 2 33 5 0 0 2.1
5. Practice in individual and in pairs 12 25 3 0 0 1.8
6. Introduce the idea that should be reading aloud 8 31 1 0 0 1.8
7. Be encouraged to speak English as much as they
22 18 0 0 0 1.5
possibly can
Table 6 shows the mean of the students’ opinions on how teachers taught English
pronunciation in the classroom on page 5. The mean of the students who contented with the items
in this statement was recorded (M=1.7; M=2.0; M=1.8; M=1.8; M=1.5) of learning how
pronounce vowels and consonants, listening and paying attention, practicing in individual and in
pairs, introducing the idea that should be reading aloud, and being encouraged to speak English as
much as they can. It is clear that pronunciation learning was needed to help language learners
communicate and use that language knowledge. At the beginning of language learning, the
learners need to learn how to pronounce vowels and consonants, and in the process of learning,
they need to do a lot of practices by being encouraged to speak the language as much as possible.
The mean of the items learning how to pronounce transcription and trying to listen and repeat are
the same (M=2.1), but they are all aware of basing on the transcription as a good guide to
pronounce the words and think the good way of learning process is listening and repeating.
It can be concluded that in this statement the students had good chance to practice the real
language and focus on English pronunciation learning.
5. Conclusion and recommendations
The research investigated the ways of learning English pronunciation among first-year
English majors at Van Lang University. Although the topic is not new, it has been prompted that
helping the first-year English majors at university the ways of learning English pronunciation is a
very important part because it makes them more confident in communication with others. From
the results of this study, it is advised that English learners should consider the ways of learning
English pronunciation as basic principles to help them pronounce English words correctly when
392
communicating with others. Therefore, a great demand for English learners is that they can
understand what others say, and others can also identify what they want to say.
References
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England.
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fileManager/UNIT_8_Pronunciation.pdf.
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25th, 2018.
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Ormrod, J.E. (2010). Effective learning strategies. Pearson Allyn Bacon Prentice Hall
CÁCH HỌC PHÁT ÂM TIẾNG ANH CỦA SINH VIÊN NĂM NHẤT
TẠI TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC VĂN LANG
Tóm tắt: Phát âm đóng vai trò quan trọng trong việc học và dạy ngôn ngữ. Tiếng Anh được
coi là một ngoại ngữ được nhiều người ở Việt Nam nói. Học sinh người Việt Nam từng bị
ảnh hưởng cách phát âm tiếng Việt, và điều này làm cho họ phát âm các từ tiếng Anh một
cách không chính xác. Mặc dù nhiều nghiên cứu về phát âm tiếng Anh đã được tiến hành
gần đây để cải thiện phát âm tiếng Anh của sinh viên, việc thực hiện vẫn còn chồng chéo và
không thành công. Bài viết này sử dụng bảng câu hỏi để khám phá cách những sinh viên
chuyên ngành tiếng anh năm thứ nhất học phát âm tiếng Anh tại Đại học Văn Lang. Dựa
trên dữ liệu nghiên cứu, kết quả của nghiên cứu sẽ được áp dụng cho việc học tập và thực
hành giảng dạy tại Đại học Văn Lang và các bối cảnh tương tự.
Từ khóa: Phát âm, dạy và học tiếng Anh, sinh viên chuyên tiếng Anh năm thứ nhất, thực
hành
393
PHẢN HỒI CỦA SINH VIÊN VỀ VIỆC ỨNG DỤNG

PHẦN MỀM SCHOOLOGY ĐỂ ĐÁNH GIÁ
QUÁ TRÌNH KỸ NĂNG NGHE
Trần Thị Thanh Thảo*; Lê Thị Hồng Phương
Tóm tắt: Nhiều nghiên cứu hiện nay về những biến đổi từ mô hình lớp học truyền thống
sang lớp học kết hợp đã được thực hiện và thu nhận được nhiều kết quả ý nghĩa trên nhiều
phương diện khác nhau. Vì vậy, nhận thức được những lợi ích của các công cụ công nghệ,
và vai trò của đánh giá quá trình đối với giáo dục, bài báo này trình bày kết quả khảo sát
phản hồi của sinh viên khoa Tiếng Anh tại Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Huế đối với việc
ứng dụng Schoology nhằm đánh giá quá trình kỹ năng Nghe. Dữ liệu được thu thập thông
qua bảng câu hỏi và phỏng vấn sau đó được phân tích và trình bày dưới dạng bảng và trích
dẫn. Kết quả cho thấy rằng hầu hết sinh viên khẳng định vai trò của hệ thống quản lý học
trực tuyến trong việc nâng cao kỹ năng học tập theo nhóm và độc lập nhằm củng cố kiến
thức. Tuy nhiên, kết quả nghiên cứu cũng cho thấy sự ngăn trở đối với sinh viên là do
những khó khăn về kỹ năng máy tính và giao tiếp trong nhóm.
Từ khóa: Đánh giá quá trình, hệ thống quản lý học trực tuyến, phương pháp học tập kết hợp
1. Mở đầu
Trong những năm gần đây, nhiều trường đại học đã áp dụng phương pháp học tập kết hợp
giữa lớp học truyền thống và lớp học trực tuyến (Garrison & Vaughan, 2008). Nghiên cứu về
phương pháp học tập, Bransford và cộng sự (2000) đã kết luận rằng môi trường học tập tốt là môi
trường thiên về phương pháp lấy người học, kiến thức và kiểm tra, đánh giá làm trung tâm. Tuy
nhiên, làm thế nào để áp dụng phương pháp học tập kết hợp vào quá trình dạy và học hiệu quả là
một câu hỏi mà nhiều nhà nghiên cứu vẫn đang tiếp tục nghiên cứu. Ngày nay, nhiều nghiên cứu
về những biến đổi từ mô hình lớp học truyền thống sang lớp học kết hợp đã được thực hiện và thu
nhận được nhiều kết quả ý nghĩa trên nhiều phương diện khác nhau.
Nghiên cứu của Baleni (2015) được thực hiện tại trường Đại học ở Eastern Cape nhằm
nghiên cứu đánh giá quá trình trực tuyến được thực hiện như thế nào trong quá trình dạy và học
cũng như những lợi ích gì được mang lại cho người dạy và học. Nghiên cứu thu thập số liệu thông
qua bảng câu hỏi đối với giáo viên và sinh viên về đánh giá quá trình dưới sự hỗ trợ công cụ trực
tuyến (Blackboard) được thực hiện như thế nào. Nhiều phương pháp kiểm tra, đánh giá kết hợp
với các công cụ trực tuyến như thảo luận nhóm, bài kiểm tra khách quan được sử dụng. Theo kết
quả nghiên cứu, lợi ích mà người học nhận được bao gồm nâng cao tinh thần gắn kết của sinh viên
trong hoạt động trực tuyến, đưa và nhận phản hồi nhanh chóng, tính linh hoạt về thời gian và
không gian nhằm nâng cao chất lượng những hoạt động kiểm tra, đánh giá, đồng thời người dạy
có thể giảm đi thời gian chấm điểm và tiết kiệm được các chi phí quản lý khác.
* Email: tttthao_dhnn@hueuni.edu.vn
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Ở môi trường học Việt Nam, Nguyễn Việt Anh (2017) đã tiến hành nghiên cứu tại một
trường Đại học Việt Nam nhằm xây dựng một mô hình kết hợp lớp học truyền thống và trực
tuyến chú trọng vào kiểm tra đánh giá định kỳ ở mức độ môn học nhằm phân tích và đánh giá
tác động của những ứng dụng công nghệ như một đột phá trong việc đánh giá định kỳ. Kết quả
nghiên cứu cho thấy rằng hoạt động đánh giá định kỳ hiệu quả hơn khi được hỗ trợ bởi công
nghệ ví dụ như hệ thống quản lý giáo dục trực tuyến. Nghiên cứu này đã mở ra khả năng sử
dụng mô hình học kết hợp lấy đánh giá định kỳ làm trung tâm ở cấp độ môn học bằng cách sử
dụng kết hợp hệ thống quản lý giáo dục trực tuyến với phương pháp giảng dạy truyền thống.
Năm 2017, nghiên cứu được thực hiện bởi McCarthy (2017) nhằm tìm hiểu về mức độ
hài lòng của mô hình đánh giá quá trình ở bậc đại học. Kinh nghiệm chia sẻ từ người học cho
thấy rằng hầu hết người học phản hồi tích cực với việc đưa ra nhận xét, phản biện cho bạn mình,
đồng thời nhận lại những nhận xét, góp ý từ nhiều nguồn khác nhau. Một điều dễ hiểu là những
nhận xét từ người dạy vẫn là hình thức đánh giá quá trình phổ biến nhất được sử dụng trong cả
hai khóa học bởi vì người học vẫn xem người dạy là những chuyên gia trong lĩnh vực đó, cũng
như là người đánh giá chính đối với bài tập của họ, vì vậy ý kiến của người dạy vẫn được chú
trọng hơn. Đối với nhận xét từ những bạn đồng môn, hầu hết sinh viên yêu thích đưa và nhận
góp ý thông qua ứng dụng The Café. Nhận xét từ người học ở môi trường trực tuyến thông
thường chi tiết, mang tính phản biện hơn những nhận xét tại lớp, và cũng thống nhất với những
tiêu chí đánh giá hơn. Nhiều sinh viên cảm thấy không thoải mái khi tham gia góp ý cho bạn
mình trực tiếp trên lớp về bài làm của họ, vì vậy những đóng góp trực tiếp trên lớp chỉ nên chú
trọng vào những ý kiến tổng quát hơn là phân tích sâu về chất lượng bài làm của bạn đồng môn.
Tuy nhiên, sinh viên cảm thấy thoải mái hơn khi tham gia đóng góp ý kiến về công việc của bạn
mình ở môi trường học trực tuyến. Điều này phù hợp với ý kiến của Rambe (2012) rằng tương
tác giữa hai người học cùng ở môi trường trực tuyến có thể vượt qua được những rào cản như là
khó khăn về ngôn ngữ, hay những rào cản về mặt xã hội.
Bên cạnh đó, việc kiểm tra đánh giá luôn được xem là một trong những hoạt động quan
trọng trong quá trình dạy và học. Khi nhắc đến việc kiểm tra, đánh giá, hầu hết người học và
dạy thường nghĩ đến những căng thẳng của kỳ thi cuối kỳ, hoặc những áp lực của những điểm
số. Tuy nhiên, nhiều nghiên cứu đã chỉ ra rằng việc đánh giá quá trình thực sự cần thiết trong
việc giảng dạy ngôn ngữ (Gattullo, 2000; Hwang & Chang, 2011; Lawton et al, 2012). Người ta
đã nhận thức được những tác động tích cực từ việc đánh giá quá trình tiến hành song song với
quá trình học của sinh viên, tuy nhiên những nghiên cứu trong những năm gần đây cho thấy
kiểm tra, đánh giá vẫn còn phụ thuộc nhiều vào đánh giá tổng kết. Nguyên nhân đa phần là do
việc quản lý hoạt động đánh giá quá trình khá phức tạp, và khó thực hiện hiệu quả. Tuy nhiên,
cùng với sự phát triển không ngừng của công nghệ thông tin như hiện nay thì việc dạy và học
ngôn ngữ cần được phát triển theo hướng chú trọng vào đánh giá quá trình dưới sự hỗ trợ của hệ
thống quản lý trực tuyến nhằm giảm bớt áp lực thi cử cho người học, cũng như nâng cao chất
lượng giảng dạy. Vì vậy, nghiên cứu này sẽ giới thiệu mô hình kết hợp lớp học truyền thống và
lớp học trực tuyến nhằm đánh giá quá trình dựa trên hỗ trợ của ứng dụng Schoology. Mô hình
sẽ đưa ra những hoạt động đa dạng trong khóa học nhằm đánh giá, nhận xét quá trình với hy
vọng có thể nhận được những phản hồi tích cực từ người học và đồng thời đánh giá vai trò của
công nghệ thông tin nói chung trong việc đánh giá quá trình nhằm đạt được những mặt tích cực
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trong học tập. Đồng thời, nghiên cứu hy vọng góp phần khuyến khích, phát triển việc ứng dụng
đánh giá quá trình dưới sự hỗ trợ hệ thống quản lý trực tuyến cụ thể là phần mềm Schoology
không chỉ đối với Khoa Tiếng Anh, Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Huế, mà còn đối với
những khoa thành viên trong trường.
2.1. Kiểm tra, đánh giá quá trình
Đánh giá quá trình được thiết kế nhằm kiểm soát những phát triển của người học và nhằm
cung cấp những nhận xét và hỗ trợ cho quá trình học (Black & William, 1998). Đánh giá quá
trình có thể giúp người học xác định điểm mạnh và điểm yếu của mình, và chú trọng vào những
lĩnh vực cần cải thiện nhiều hơn. Vì vậy, đánh giá quá trình có thể giúp người dạy xác nhận
những lĩnh vực mà người học đang cần giúp đỡ, và chỉ ra những vấn đề kịp thời. Đánh giá quá
trình bao gồm nhiều quá trình đánh giá được người dạy sử dụng trong suốt quá trình dạy và học
nhằm nâng cao kết quả của người học. Nó chủ yếu bao gồm nhận xét định tính chú trọng vào
những sản phẩm của người học, và cung cấp những cơ hội nhằm phát triển hơn nữa những sản
phẩm đó (Huyta, 2010). Đánh giá quá trình không được tính điểm, ngược lại, đánh giá tổng kết
nhằm quản lý kết quả cuối cùng, tổng kết những sản phẩm của người học tại một thời điểm nhất
định và là một hoạt động được tính điểm (Shepard, 2005).
Đánh giá quá trình thông thường được xem là một hoạt động ý nghĩa trong quá trình học
trong nhiều trường đại học, và những nhận xét này là một phần quan trọng trong quá trình kiểm
tra, đánh giá trong khía cạnh nâng cao chất lượng người học (Lunt & Curran, 2010; Nicol,
Thomson, Breslin, 2014). Hơn nữa, những nhận xét chất lượng và hợp lý trong đánh giá quá
trình là một nhân tố quan trọng để cải thiện quá trình học đồng thời phát triển mối quan hệ giữa
người dạy - người học, giữa người học với nhau (Crook, Mauchline, Maw et al., 2012; Irons,
2008). Gould và Day (2013) nhận định rằng những nhận xét, đánh giá hợp lý từ người dạy sẽ
cung cấp những nền tảng để phát triển tính tự lập của người học. Merry và Orsmond (2008) chỉ
ra rằng những nhận xét, đánh giá nên gắn bó mật thiết với những hoạt động mà người học đã
thực hiện được dựa trên phương diện khách quan, các tiêu chí đánh giá và những tiêu chuẩn có
sẵn (Nicol & MacFarlane-Dick, 2006), và cũng nên đúng thời điểm, chi tiết, cụ thể. Mặc dù
những nghiên cứu gần đây đã phác thảo tầm quan trọng của nhận xét chất lượng và đúng thời
điểm, nhưng cách thức đưa ra nhận xét, đánh giá hiệu quả cũng như việc gắn liền người học vào
quá trình kiểm tra, đánh giá vẫn được coi là một trong những khó khăn chung ở nhiều nơi trên
thế giới (Crook et al, 2012; Merry & Orsmond, 2008). Đối với nhiều người học hiện nay, những
nhận xét, đánh giá dường như được cung cấp quá muộn, quá mơ hồ, và không thống nhất. Đối
với người dạy, việc đưa ra nhận xét, đánh giá quá trình là một quá trình lặp lại và thông thường
rất mất thời gian, đặc biệt trong những lớp có số lượng lớn học viên. Vì vậy đưa ra đánh giá quá
trình hợp lý, hiệu quả là một hoạt động không dễ để đạt được. Trong nghiên cứu của mình vào
năm 2004 về những điều kiện để kiểm tra, đánh giá hỗ trợ quá trình học, Gibbs và Simpson đã
đưa ra sáu yếu tố có thể giúp nhận xét, đánh giá có thể ảnh hưởng tích cực đến sản phẩm của
người học:
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- Đánh giá phải đầy đủ, thường xuyên, và chi tiết;

- Đánh giá phải chú trọng vào việc thể hiện của người học, vào quá trình học của họ, và vào
những hoạt động dưới sự kiểm soát của người học hơn là chính bản thân người học;
- Đánh giá cần được thực hiện đúng lúc;
- Đánh giá phải phù hợp với mục tiêu, với những tiêu chí của việc kiểm tra, đánh giá;
- Đánh giá phải phù hợp với nhận thức của người học đối với quá trình học, đối với kiến thức và
đối với ngữ cảnh;
- Đánh giá phải được quan tâm và thực hiện sau đó.
2.2. Mô hình kết hợp lớp học truyền thống và lớp học trực tuyến (Blended learning)
Sự phát triển không ngừng của Internet đang đưa chúng ta đến với những sự đổi mới và kết
hợp những môi trường học mới trong giáo dục đại học đương thời. Việc kết hợp môi trường học
tập trực tuyến vào khung chương trình đang dần trở nên phổ biến. Từ những hệ thống quản lý giáo
dục chính quy và có tính xây dựng sẵn như Moodle hoặc Blackboard, cho đến những mạng xã hội
như Facebook, Twitter và Flickr, nhiều trường đại học trên thế giới đang kết hợp việc học trực
tuyến vào khóa học của họ, sử dụng phương pháp kết hợp lớp học truyền thống và lớp học trực
tuyến được gọi tắt là phương pháp học tập kết hợp. Phương pháp học tập này là một hệ thống ở đó
người học tương tác với tài liệu khóa học, với người dạy và với bạn cùng học thông qua môi
trường học tập truyền thống và trực tuyến (Graham, 2006). Phương pháp học tập kết hợp được
xem như là một bước chuyển biến mang tính đột phá (Garrison & Vaughan, 2008) như một kết
quả của những hệ thống tiếp cận trực tuyến đang ngày càng gia tăng ở các trường đại học, và bởi
vì nó có thể đưa ra tương tác với người học trong những lớp học với số lượng sinh viên lớn tốt hơn
thông qua môi trường học tập linh hoạt hơn (Gedik, Kiraz & Ozden, 2013). Phương pháp này
đang dần trở thành một phần không thể thiếu trong giáo dục trên nhiều lĩnh vực khác nhau (Pektas
& Gurel, 2014); tuy nhiên để tạo ra được môi trường kết hợp hiệu quả không phải đơn giản chỉ là
sự kết hợp giữa môi trường học tập trực tuyến và học tập truyền thống trong một khóa học. Vì vậy
xem xét mục đích học tập của khóa học là gì, và chọn lọc cẩn thận môi trường học tập trực tuyến
hợp lý nhất là điều cần thiết.
Trong nghiên cứu này, chúng tôi đề xuất một mô hình khóa học chú trọng vào đánh giá
quá trình bằng cách sử dụng lớp học truyền thống kết hợp với hệ thống quản lý giáo dục trực
tuyến (Learning Management System), cụ thể là Schoology. Schoology là hệ thống quản lý giáo
dục trực tuyến phù hợp với giáo dục phổ thông nhằm cải thiện, kiểm tra, đánh giá kiến thức của
người học, thúc đẩy môi trường học hợp tác, và hình thành phương pháp học mang tính cá nhân.
Mặc dù ngày nay nhiều giao diện giáo dục trực tuyến được sử dụng đối với giáo dục đại học,
Schoology được lựa chọn vì giao diện đơn giản, thân thiện với người học và người dạy, hệ
thống chấm điểm tự động, bàn luận trực tuyến theo nhóm được xem là đặc biệt thích hợp đối
với người học chưa có nhiều kinh nghiệm học trực tuyến như sinh viên năm 1, đối với lớp học
kỹ năng ngôn ngữ, và đối với mục đích kiểm tra, đánh giá quá trình.
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Để đạt được mục đích nghiên cứu như đã được nêu trên, chúng tôi đề xuất những câu hỏi
nghiên cứu như sau:
1. Mức độ hài lòng của sinh viên đối với việc sử dụng phần mềm Schoology trong việc đánh giá
quá trình đối với giảng dạy kỹ năng Nghe cho sinh viên năm 1 được thể hiện như thế nào?
2. Những khó khăn sinh viên gặp phải khi sử dụng phần mềm Schoology trong việc đánh giá
quá trình đối với kỹ năng Nghe cho sinh viên năm 1 là gì?
Khách thể nghiên cứu là 60 sinh viên chuyên ngữ năm 1 tham gia học kỹ năng Nghe ở
Khoa Tiếng Anh, trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Huế đã sử dụng ứng dụng hệ thống quản
lý giáo dục Schoology trong việc hỗ trợ kiểm tra, đánh giá định kỳ trong học kỳ II năm học
2017-2018.
Trong nghiên cứu này, chúng tôi đề xuất một mô hình khóa học chú trọng vào đánh giá quá
trình bằng cách sử dụng lớp học truyền thống kết hợp với hệ thống quản lý giáo dục trực tuyến, cụ
thể là Schoology. Những yếu tố được sử dụng để xây dựng mô hình khóa học bao gồm chương
trình học, hoạt động học, lộ trình học và kiểm tra, đánh giá. Chương trình học bao gồm 15 tuần
học, và bao gồm nhiều hình thức đánh giá quá trình khác nhau như bài tập nghe hàng tuần, bài
kiểm tra hàng tháng, và hoạt động nhóm.
Nghiên cứu được thực hiện dựa trên sự kết hợp giữa nghiên cứu định lượng và định tính.
Đối với phương pháp nghiên cứu định lượng bảng hỏi khảo sát được phát cho sinh viên nhằm
khảo sát về mức độ hài lòng về việc ứng dụng chương trình học chú trọng vào việc đánh giá quá
trình dưới sự hỗ trợ của hệ thống quản lý trực tuyến (Schoology). Đối với phương pháp nghiên
cứu định tính, phỏng vấn cá nhân được thực hiện đối với 5 sinh viên nhằm hiểu sâu hơn về
những phản hồi của sinh viên cũng như những khó khăn và vấn đề gặp phải trong khi ứng dụng
phần mềm Schoology vào việc đánh giá quá trình từ góc nhìn của người học ngôn ngữ.
Các kết quả có được của nghiên cứu này được chia ra làm ba phần chính: (1) phản hồi
của sinh viên đối với hoạt động nhóm, (2) phản hồi của sinh viên đối với bài tập hàng tuần và
bài kiểm tra hàng tháng, (3) những khó khăn đối với việc ứng dụng Schoology trên phương diện
người học.
4.1 Hoạt động nhóm trên Schoology (Group discussion)
4.1.1. Nguồn tài liệu và tính tương tác trong hoạt động nhóm
Căn cứ vào Biểu đồ 1, 70% (42 trên 60) sinh viên đồng ý với ý kiến “Tôi cảm thấy được
trải nghiệm với nhiều thể loại tài liệu khác nhau trong kỹ năng Nghe”. Tuy nhiên, đối với ý kiến
“Khi làm việc theo nhóm, tôi cảm thấy dễ dàng giao tiếp với các bạn trong nhóm”, 65% sinh
viên bày tỏ phản hồi trái chiều và trung tính đối với ý kiến trên. Những kết quả ở Biểu đồ 1 thể
hiện rằng đa số người tham gia nghiên cứu có phản hồi tích cực đối với nguồn tài liệu được chia
sẻ trong nhóm nhằm hỗ trợ sự phát triển ngôn ngữ của người học, tuy nhiên chưa thực sự đánh
giá cao đối với tính tương tác khi học tập và tham gia đánh giá quá trình ở Schoology.
398
Hoàn toàn không đồng ý Không đồng ý Bình thường Đồng ý Hoàn toàn đồng ý
[] [] [] [] []
T ÍNH T ƯƠNG T ÁC
(8%) (30%) (27%) (17%) (18%)
[] [] [] [] []
NGUỒN T ÀI LIỆU
(5%) (8%) (17%) (53%) (17%)
Biểu đồ 1. Phản hồi của sinh viên về nguồn tài liệu và tính tương tác trong hoạt động nhóm
Thông qua kết quả khảo sát định lượng từ phỏng vấn cá nhân, 3 trong số 5 sinh viên chia
sẻ rằng hoạt động nhóm mang tính tương tác cao nhằm góp phần vào việc xây dựng môi trường
học tập thân thiện trong lớp học, đồng thời phát triển kỹ năng giao tiếp, học hỏi lẫn nhau. Tuy
nhiên, rào cản về kỹ năng giao tiếp và lo ngại về khác biệt trình độ khiến người học chưa thực
sự tự tin trong giao tiếp đối với hoạt động nhóm. Ngoài ra, một sinh viên tham gia phỏng vấn
đánh giá cao tính đa dạng của nguồn tài liệu được chia sẻ trong hoạt động nhóm, ví dụ như đa
dạng về thể loại, nội dung, và nhiều ngữ điệu khác nhau của tiếng Anh trên thế giới.
4.1.2. Góp ý từ những người cùng học, và tiếp nhận góp ý từ bạn cùng học (feedback receipt
& production)
Đối với tiêu chí đưa ra và tiếp nhận phản hồi từ bạn cùng lớp, dựa vào những phản hồi
của sinh viên gần như tương đồng đối với ý kiến tích cực, trung tính, và tiêu cực, điều này cho
thấy rằng không có phản hồi rõ ràng đối với khía cạnh này. Kết quả thể hiện ở Biểu đồ 2 cho
thấy rằng người học chưa thật sự cảm nhận tích cực đối với hoạt động đưa ra và tiếp nhận phản
hồi giữa người học cùng.
Hoàn toàn không đồng ý Không đồng ý Bình thường

Đồng ý Hoàn toàn đồng ý
[] [] [] [] []
T ÍN H H Ọ C H Ỏ I C A O
(17%) (18%) (28%) (27%) (10%)
[] [] [] [] []
T ÍN H LIÊ N T Ụ C
(15%) (25%) (22%) (23%) (15%)
[] [] [] [] []
T ÍN H H IỆ U Q U Ả
(14%) (20%) (25%) (23%) (18%)
Biểu đồ 2. Phản hồi của sinh viên về việc đưa ra, và tiếp nhận góp ý từ những người cùng học
399
4.1.3. Phát triển ngôn ngữ

Dựa vào số liệu từ Biểu đồ 3 có thể nhận thấy rằng người học đánh giá cao lợi ích của
hoạt động nhóm đối với sự phát triển ngôn ngữ của mình, đặc biệt không những đối với kỹ năng
chính là kỹ năng Nghe mà còn đối với kỹ năng phụ là kỹ năng Viết. Mặc dù 65% người tham
gia vào nghiên cứu có phản hồi tích cực hơn đối với kỹ năng Nghe, số lượng sinh viên cảm
nhận được lợi ích của hoạt động nhóm đối với việc phát triển kỹ năng Viết cũng khá lớn (50%).
Người tham gia phỏng vấn chia sẻ rằng họ cần phải giao tiếp với bạn cùng nhóm bằng tiếng
Anh thông qua những phản hồi, góp ý trong nhóm nên điều đó giúp họ cải thiện được kỹ năng
Viết của mình.

KỸ NĂNG NGH E
[] [] [] [] []
(5%)(7%) (23%) (54%) (11%)
KỸ NĂNG VI ẾT
[] [] [] [] []
(9%)(10%) (31%) (43%) (7%)
Biểu đồ 3. Phản hồi của sinh viên về phát triển khả năng ngôn ngữ
4.2. Bài tập hằng tuần/ Bài kiểm tra hằng tháng
4.2.1. Nguồn tài liệu
Bảng 1 cho thấy rằng 73% sinh viên đánh giá cao vai trò của bài tập hàng tuần đối với
việc cung cấp nguồn tài liệu học tập cần thiết giúp cho sinh viên rèn luyện và nâng cao kỹ năng
Nghe liên tục và thường xuyên trong suốt học kỳ. Bên cạnh đó, 75% người tham gia nghiên cứu
khẳng định rằng chức năng được nghe lại nhiều lần trong bài tập hàng tuần giúp người học có
thể rèn luyện kỹ năng Nghe theo đúng trình độ của mình. Ngoài ra, 62% sinh viên đồng ý với
quan điểm cho rằng nguồn tài liệu trong bài tập hàng tuần góp phần xây dựng môi trường rèn
luyện kỹ năng Nghe ít áp lực hơn so với hoạt động Nghe trên lớp và 54% sinh viên chia sẻ rằng
bài tập hàng tuần và kiểm tra hàng tháng giúp người học thích nghi với định dạng của bài kiểm
tra và bài thi học kỳ.
400
Bảng 1. Phản hồi của sinh viên về nguồn tài liệu trong bài tập hàng tuần
Nhận định của sinh Hoàn toàn Không Bình Đồng ý Hoàn toàn
viên đối với bài tập không đồng ý thường đồng ý
hàng tuần và bài kiểm đồng ý
tra hàng tháng (1) (2) (3) (5)
(4)
Thích nghi với định dạng
của bài kiểm tra/ bài thi 8 (13%) 8 (13%) 12 (20%) 22 (37%) 10 (17%)
học kỳ
Nguồn tài liệu đa dạng
để luyện tập kỹ năng 4 (7%) 5 (8%) 7 (12%) 29 (48%) 15 (25%)
Nghe thường xuyên
Chức năng nghe lại nhiều
lần để rèn luyện kỹ năng 1 (2%) 8 (13%) 6 (10%) 27 (45%) 18 (30%)
Nghe theo đúng trình độ
Không gian học tập thân
7 (12%) 8 (13%) 8 (13%) 27 (45%) 10 (17%)
thiện, ít áp lực
Ngoài ra, nhằm hiểu rõ hơn phản hồi của sinh viên về hoạt động bài tập hàng tuần và bài
kiểm tra hàng tháng, hầu hết sinh viên tham gia phỏng vấn bày tỏ ý kiến cho rằng bài tập và bài
kiểm tra trực tuyến mang lại nhiều lợi ích khác, ví dụ như hệ thống chấm điểm đáng tin cậy và
nhanh chóng, đa dạng về thể loại câu hỏi, linh hoạt về thời gian và không gian học tập.
4.2.2. Các chức năng cài đặt trên hệ thống Schoology
Hoàn toàn không đồng ý Không đồng ý Bình thường Đồng ý H
[] [] []
HỖ TRỢ KỸ THUẬT
(12%) (32%) (21%)
[] [] [] []
GIAO DIỆN THÂN THIỆN
(5%) (15%) (20%) (40%)
Biểu đồ 4. Phản hồi của sinh viên về các chức năng cài đặt trên hệ thống Schoology
Với kết quả khảo sát theo Biểu đồ 4, 4,68% sinh viên
[]đánh []
giá cao tính
[] năng dễ truy cập []
của phần mềm Schoology. D Ễ thời,
Đồng T R đối
U YvớiCtiêuẬchí
P giao diện, 60% người tham gia đồng ý với
(10%)(8%) (13%) (58%)
401
ý kiến cho rằng giao diện của phần mềm được thiết kế dễ theo dõi và thực hiện. Bên cạnh đó,
phần lớn sinh viên không đánh giá cao chức năng hỗ trợ khi người học gặp phải những khó
khăn về vấn đề kỹ thuật khi sử dụng phần mềm giáo dục trực tuyến như Schoology (65%).
4.2.3. Tính hiệu quả của hệ thống quản lý giáo dục trực tuyến Schoology
K H Ả N Ă N G P H Á T T R I Ể N K Ỹ N Ă N G [] [] [] [] []
KHÁC (7%)(5%) (15%) (52%) (21%)
[] [] [] [] []
T Í N H H I ỆU Q U Ả
(3%)(7%)(25%) (48%) (17%)
[] [] [] [] []
M O N G M U ỐN T I Ế P T Ụ C T R ẢI N G H I Ệ M
(5%)(11%)(15%) (54%) (15%)
Biều đồ 5. Phản hồi của sinh viên về tính hiệu quả của hệ thống giáo dục trực tuyến Schoology
Thông qua kết quả khảo sát ở Biểu đồ 5, sinh viên nhìn chung có phản hồi tích cực đối
với tính hiệu quả của phần mềm Schoology đối với việc đánh giá quá trình kỹ năng Nghe (65%)
và thể hiện mong muốn được tiếp tục sử dụng mô hình học này trong tương lai (69%). Đồng
thời, người tham gia nghiên cứu khẳng định rằng người học không những có nhiều cơ hội để rèn
luyện kỹ năng Nghe mà còn phát triển được nhiều kỹ năng khác sau khóa học. Thông qua
những chia sẻ của sinh viên khi tham gia phỏng vấn, người học có cơ hội phát triển kỹ năng làm
việc độc lập, làm việc nhóm, kỹ năng tư duy phản biện khi đưa ra phản hồi, góp ý, kỹ năng giao
tiếp, tương tác trong hoạt động nhóm.
4.3. Khó khăn khi sử dụng Schoology từ góc độ người học
Dựa vào kết quả khảo sát định lượng từ phỏng vấn cá nhân, những khó khăn của người
học khi sử dụng phần mềm Schoology được tóm tắt theo những phần chính sau đây: (1) vấn đề
kỹ thuật, (2) kỹ năng giao tiếp với người cùng học, (3) kỹ năng tự quản lý thời gian biểu.
4.3.1. Vấn đề kỹ thuật
Phần lớn sinh viên đưa ra những phản hồi tích cực đối với việc ứng dụng phần mềm
Schoology, tuy nhiên hầu hết sinh viên tham gia phỏng vấn cá nhân thừa nhận rằng đôi lúc
người học cũng gặp nhiều khó khăn trong việc truy cập Internet, cũng như một số lỗi kỹ thuật
trong việc làm bài và nộp bài trực tuyến. Hầu hết sinh viên chia sẻ rằng họ thực sự lúng túng và
thiếu kỹ năng trong việc xử lý những vấn đề kỹ thuật trong việc sử dụng phần mềm Schoology
đối với đánh giá quá trình bên ngoài lớp học. Lý giải cho khó khăn này, sinh viên cho rằng
người học chưa thực sự có nhiều cơ hội để làm quen với những công cụ hỗ trợ học tập trực
402
tuyến, cũng như kỹ năng về công nghệ thông tin nhằm tự tin để giải quyết những vấn đề kỹ
thuật xảy ra trong quá trình học vì thực tế sinh viên vẫn phụ thuộc rất nhiều vào việc kiểm tra
tổng kết ở lớp học truyền thống.
4.3.2. Kỹ năng giao tiếp
Mặc dù đa số người tham gia phỏng vấn đánh giá cao lợi ích của hoạt động đưa ra và tiếp
nhận góp ý từ những người cùng học đối với việc phát triển kỹ năng tư duy phản biện và định
hình, kích thích hứng thú trong việc học ngôn ngữ, một số sinh viên khi tham gia phỏng vấn cho
rằng họ chưa thực sự tự tin vào kỹ năng giao tiếp trong hoạt động nhóm. Cụ thể, sinh viên chia
sẻ họ cảm thấy thiếu kỹ năng để tiếp nhận những góp ý tiêu cực, cũng như trong việc làm thế
nào để đưa ra những góp ý mang tính khích lệ để thúc đẩy sự tiến bộ mà không làm tổn thương
hay làm giảm động lực học tập của bạn. Lý giải cho việc này sinh viên cho rằng họ cảm thấy rất
khó khăn khi đưa ra những nhận xét trái chiều vì lo ngại sẽ làm ảnh hưởng đến mối quan hệ đối
với những bạn cùng lứa và lo ngại những góp ý của mình không thực sự chính xác, hiệu quả. Vì
vậy, sinh viên thường có xu hướng chọn lựa những góp ý mang tính khen ngợi, tán thành hơn là
những bình luận mang tính trái chiều và phản biện.
4.3.3. Kỹ năng tự quản lý thời gian
Đa số người tham gia nghiên cứu nhận thức được rằng nếu đánh giá quá trình được thực
hiện trực tuyến, người học sẽ cảm thấy ít áp lực hơn và thoải mái hơn vì tính năng linh động của
phần mềm trực tuyến. Tuy nhiên, sinh viên cũng đưa ra ý kiến cho rằng đôi lúc họ gặp khó khăn
trong việc tự sắp xếp thời gian biểu cho việc học của mình. Hai trong số năm người tham gia
phỏng vấn đã từng không thể hoàn thành bài kiểm tra hàng tháng vì quên ngày đến hạn của bài
tập. Bên cạnh đó, một sinh viên chia sẻ vì không thể tự quản lý thời gian biểu cho việc học của
mình hợp lý nên chỉ hoàn thành bài tập hằng tuần và hằng tháng gần kề với ngày đến hạn của
bài tập nên kết quả nhận được thường không cao, và quá trình rèn luyện kỹ năng Nghe trực
tuyến không thực sự đạt hiệu quả. Lý giải cho khó khăn này sinh viên cho rằng người học vẫn
còn phụ thuộc vào hình thức kiểm tra tổng kết diễn ra trên lớp học truyền thống và phụ thuộc
vào hỗ trợ từ giáo viên, vì vậy người học chưa thực sự được phát triển kỹ năng tự quản lý thời
gian học của bản thân, cũng như thể hiện vai trò chủ động và tính trách nhiệm, tự lập trong quá
trình học.
Như kết quả nghiên cứu chỉ ra, phần lớn sinh viên có thái độ tích cực đối với việc ứng
dụng phần mềm Schoology trong đánh giá quá trình kỹ năng Nghe. Tuy nhiên, người học vẫn
còn gặp phải những khó khăn và thách thức nhất định khi tham gia đánh giá trực tuyến thông
qua hệ thống giáo dục trực tuyến.
Phản hồi của sinh viên được tóm tắt theo những ý chính như sau:
- Hoạt động nhóm: Người tham gia nghiên cứu đánh giá cao nguồn tài liệu và tính tương
tác cao trong khi tham gia hoạt động nhóm. Người học không chỉ phản hồi tích cực đối với sự
đa dạng của nguồn tài liệu về nhiều phương diện như thể loại, nội dung, ngữ điệu, mà hoạt động
nhóm còn giúp người học tương tác hiệu quả với bạn cùng lứa một cách hiệu quả. Điều đó góp
phần thúc đẩy quá trình học hỏi lẫn nhau, cũng như xây dựng môi trường học thân thiện. Ngoài
403
ra, hoạt động nhóm được đánh giá cao dựa trên phương diện hình thức đưa ra, tiếp nhận góp ý
trong nhóm một cách hiệu quả, và phương diện phát triển kỹ năng ngôn ngữ của người học. Tuy
nhiên, việc sử dụng hệ thống quản lý giáo dục trực tuyến đối với đánh giá quá trình còn khá mới
lạ, nên bước đầu người học còn gặp nhiều khó khăn trong kỹ năng giao tiếp trong hoạt động
nhóm, đặc biết đối với việc đưa ra, tiếp nhận những ý kiến trái chiều, phản biện.
- Bài tập hằng tuần, bài kiểm tra hàng tháng: Kết quả định lượng và định tính cho thấy
rằng bài tập và kiểm tra trên ứng dụng học trực tuyến cung cấp cho người học nhiều cơ hội, tiện
ích để rèn luyện kỹ năng Nghe hiệu quả bên ngoài lớp học. Cụ thể, người học được có nhiều cơ
hội làm quen không những với định dạng đề thi cuối kỳ mà còn nhiều định dạng khác nhau,
cũng như được luyện tập kỹ năng một cách ít áp lực, thường xuyên với nhiều tiện ích như nghe
theo khả năng cá nhân, kết quả nhanh chóng và chính xác. Tuy nhiên, khó khăn lớn nhất người
học gặp phải đối với hoạt động này chính những sự cố kỹ thuật trong quá trình làm bài mà
không có sự hướng dẫn của giáo viên, và việc thiếu kỹ năng tự quản lý quá trình học của mỗi
sinh viên.
- Tính hiệu quả của ứng dụng Schoology: Ứng dụng giáo dục trực tuyến Schoology
nhìn chung được người học đánh giá có giao diện thân thiện người học, dễ truy cập và dễ theo
dõi. Hầu hết người học khẳng định rằng ứng dụng Schoology vào đánh giá quá trình không
những giúp họ rèn luyện kỹ năng Nghe mà còn nâng cao triển kỹ năng làm việc độc lập, làm
việc nhóm, kỹ năng tư duy phản biện khi đưa ra phản hồi, góp ý, kỹ năng giao tiếp, tương tác
trong hoạt động nhóm. Tuy nhiên, người tham gia nghiên cứu chưa thực sự đánh giá cao chức
năng trợ giúp khi gặp sự cố về kỹ thuật trong quá trình sử dụng ứng dụng để học tập.
Trên cơ sở kết quả nghiên cứu, chúng tôi có một số đề xuất như sau:
- Phát triển kỹ năng cần thiết: Người học cần được hướng dẫn chi tiết, và bồi dưỡng
thường xuyên về những kỹ năng mềm như kỹ năng về công nghệ thông tin, kỹ năng tư duy phản
biện, kỹ năng làm việc nhóm hiệu quả, kỹ năng quản lý thời gian trước khi tham gia học tập trực
tuyến. Những kỹ năng này cần được phát triển liên tục trong lớp học truyền thống thông qua
nhiều hoạt động khác nhau.
- Phổ biến các khóa học trực tuyến: Cùng với sự phát triển không ngừng của công nghệ
thông tin ngày nay, người học cần được làm quen, tiếp tục được học tập, kiểm tra đối với nhiều
môn học khác nhau trên các ứng dụng giáo dục trực tuyến, từ đó các kỹ năng sẽ được trau dồi
và phát triền.
- Hỗ trợ từ giáo viên: Mặc dù việc học tập trực tuyến cần vai trò tích cực của người học,
giáo viên hay người hướng dẫn cần có những hỗ trợ phù hợp đối với người học, đặc biệt trong
thời gian đầu làm quen, hoặc đối với những sinh viên chưa có nhiều kinh nghiệm trong việc sử
dụng công nghệ thông tin hằng ngày.
6. Kết luận
Việc ứng dụng phần mềm Schoology đối với đánh giá quá trình kỹ năng Nghe cho sinh
viên chuyên ngữ năm 1 đã nhận được những phản hồi tích cực trên nhiều phương diện khác
nhau. Kết quả định tính và định lượng cho thấy rằng hệ thống giáo dục trực tuyến có thể cung
cấp những hỗ trợ cần thiết nhằm tạo ra môi trường học mang tính tương tác cao, môi trường
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củng cố kiến thức hiệu quả. Đồng thời, mô hình này còn góp phần thúc đẩy kỹ năng học tập hợp
tác, và phát triển vai trò chủ động của người học trong quá trình học tập khiến người học có
trách nhiệm hơn đối với việc học của mình. Tuy nhiên, dựa vào chia sẻ từ phỏng vấn cá nhân,
người học gặp nhiều khó khăn đối với những vấn đề liên quan đến kỹ thuật, cũng như khó khăn
khi thiếu các kỹ năng mềm như kỹ năng làm việc nhóm, kỹ năng quản lý thời gian học tập.
Nghiên cứu này mong muốn đóng góp vào việc phát triền vai trò của hệ thống giáo dục trực
tuyến trong đánh giá quá trình, đồng thời đưa ra những đề xuất trên phương diện giáo dục nhằm
phục vụ cho những nghiên cứu sau.
Baleni, G.Z. (2015). Online formative assessment in higher education: Its pros and cons. Electronic
Journal of E-Learning, 13(4), 228-236.
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Education:
Principles, Policy and Practice, 5(1), 7-74.
Bransford, J., & National Research Council (2000). Committee on developments in the science of
learning. How people learn brain, mind, experience, and school (Expanded ed). Washington, D.C.:
National Academy Press.
Crook, A. et al. (2012). The use of video technology for providing feedback to students: Can it enhance
the feedback experience for staff and students?. Computers & Education, 58(1), 386-396.
Garrison, R., & Vaughan, H. (2008). Blended learning in higher education: Framework, principles and
guidelines. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Gattullo, F. (2000). Formative assessment in primary (Elementary) ELT classes: An Italian case study.
Language Testing, 17(2), 278-288.
Gedik, N., Kiraz, E., & Ozden, M.Y. (2013). Design of a blended learning environment: Considerations
and implementation issues. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 29(1), 1-19.
Gibbs, G., & Simpson, C. (2004). Conditions under which assessment supports learning. Learning and
Teaching in Higher Education, 1(1), 3-31.
Gould, J., & Day, P. (2013). Hearing you loud and clear: Student perspectives of audio feedback in higher
education. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 38(5), 554-566.
Graham, C. (2006). Blended learning systems: Definitions, current trends and future directions. In C.
Bonk & C. Graham (Eds.), The handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs (pp. 3-
21). San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons.
Huyta, A. (2010). Diagnostic and formative assessment. In B. Spolsky & F. Hult (Eds.), The handbook of
educational linguistics (pp. 469-482). Oxford: Blackwell.
Hwang, G.J., & Chang, H.F. (2011). A formative assessment-based mobile learning approach to
improving the learning attitudes and achievements of students. Computers & Education, 56(4), 1023-
1031.
Irons, A. (2008). Enhancing learning through formative assessment and feedback: Key guides for
effective teaching in higher education. Abingdon: Routledge.
Lawton, D. et al. (2012). Online learning based on essential concepts and formative assessment. Journal
of Engineering Education, 101(2), 244-287.
Lunt, T., & Curran, J. (2010). Are you listening please?. The advantages of electronic audio feedback
compared to written feedback. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 35(7), 759-769.
McCarthy, J. (2017). Enhancing feedback in higher education: Students' attitudes towards online and in-
class formative assessment feedback models. Active Learning in Higher Education, 18(2), 127-141.
Merry, S., & Orsmond, P. (2008). Students’ attitudes to and usage of academic feedback provided via
audio files. Bioscience Education, 11, 1–11.
Nguyen Viet Anh (2017). Towards the implementation of an assessment-centred blended learning
framework at the course level: A case study in a Vietnamese National University. International Journal
of Information and Learning Technology, 34(1), 20-30.
Nicol, D., & MacFarlane-Dick, D. (2006). Formative assessment and self-regulated learning: A model
and seven principles of good feedback practice. Studies in Higher Education, 31(2), 199-218.
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Nicol, D., Thomson, A., & Breslin, C. (2014). Rethinking feedback practices in higher education: A peer
review perspective. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 39(1), 102-122.
Pektas, S., & Gurel, M. (2014). Blended learning in design education: An analysis of students’
experiences within the disciplinary differences framework. Australasian Journal of Educational
Technology, 30(1), 31-44.
Rambe, P. (2012). Critical discourse analysis of collaborative engagement in Facebook postings.
Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 28(2), 295–314.
Shepard, L. (2005). Formative assessment: Caveat emptor. Proceedings of the ETS invitational
conference, the future of assessment: Shaping teaching and learning. New York.
AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE STUDENTS’ REFLECTION

ABOUT THE USE OF SCHOOLOGY IN FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT:
A CASE STUDY IN A VIETNAMESE UNIVERSITY
Abstract: This study aims to investigate the reflections of students at English Department –
University of Foreign Languages, Hue University (HUFL) towards the use of Schoology in
formative assessment for listening skill. The study involved 60 first-year students in
English Department and used a mixed methods approach collecting data from a paper-
based survey, semi-structured interviews. The findings show that the students positively
perceived the use of formative assessment through the online learning platform of
Schoology. In addition, the findings suggest that the online learning platform can provide
appropriate scaffolding for the students in this study to engage in the process of interactive
learning and knowledge construction, which greatly promotes collaborative and learner-
centered language learning communities. In terms of the difficulties, the students’ lack of
technical skills and social-communication strategies are perceived to be the common
challenges.
Keywords: Blended learning, formative assessment, learning management system
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VẬN DỤNG PHƯƠNG PHÁP “DẠY HỌC NGÔN NGỮ

THEO NHIỆM VỤ” VÀO DẠY HỌC KỸ NĂNG NÓI
TRONG TIẾNG TRUNG QUỐC
Nguyễn Văn Tư*
Tóm tắt: Cùng với sự phát triển tổng hợp trên mọi lĩnh vực, đòi hỏi giáo dục cũng không
ngừng đổi mới phương pháp dạy học để phù hợp với thực tiễn. Trong bài viết này chúng tôi
tổng quan một số công trình nghiên cứu của các nhà nghiên cứu về phương pháp “dạy học
ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ”, đồng thời vận dụng phương pháp này vào dạy học, thông qua
phiếu khảo sát điều tra chỉ ra những hiệu quả cũng như hạn chế khi vận dụng phương pháp
này vào dạy học trong học phần Nói 2 tại Khoa Tiếng Trung, Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ,
Đại học Huế.
Keywords: Phương pháp dạy học, dạy học theo nhiệm vụ, dạy học tiếng Trung Quốc
1. Mở đầu
Từ thế kỷ 20 đã có những nhà nghiên cứu phương Tây như Krashen (1982) đã đưa ra mô
thức dạy học ngoại ngữ từ “hình thức” chuyển hướng sang “ý nghĩa”, từ “có ý thức” chuyển hướng
sang “vô ý thức”, từ “bộ phận” chuyển hướng sang “tổng thể”, để người học ngoại ngữ ý thức được
rằng ngôn ngữ không phải là một bộ môn khoa học cứng rắn, mà phải là “học tại chỗ dùng tại chỗ”,
từ đó người học mới có thể thực hiện được những giao tiếp thực tế, hoặc đạt được những mục tiêu
khác. Trong đó lý luận về “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ (Task-based Language Teaching)” bàn
về phương pháp giảng dạy lấy người học là trung tâm, người học là chủ yếu, người dạy là thứ yếu,
người học là chủ thể hoàn thành nhiệm vụ.
Trong những thập kỷ vừa qua, các học giả nước ngoài vẫn có rất nhiều nghiên cứu về phương
pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ”. Trong đó kể đến Robinson (2001) đã thảo luận về tác động
của tính phức tạp trong nhận thức của các nhiệm vụ đối với đầu ra ngôn ngữ và sự hiểu biết của
người học cũng như khó khăn của nhiệm vụ và nhiều vấn đề khác nữa. Bachman (2002) đã thảo luận
các vấn đề khi đánh giá hiệu quả phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ”. Lee (2004 ) đã
nghiên cứu về vấn đề sử dụng ngôn ngữ của sinh viên Trung Quốc, mối quan hệ giữa chiến lược
giao tiếp và nhiệm vụ giao tiếp và từ góc độ diễn ngôn của người học thảo luận về mối quan hệ giữa
bộ phận ngôn ngữ thứ hai và nhiệm vụ học tập. Phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ”
thực sự “bùng nổ” trong giới nghiên cứu về phương pháp giảng dạy tại đất nước tỷ dân Trung Quốc,
hàng loạt các nhà nghiên cứu, học giả, giáo viên đã tiến hành nghiên cứu cũng như vận dụng vào
trong dạy học trong mấy thập kỷ vừa qua.
Ở Việt Nam đã có các nhà nghiên cứu cũng như các giáo viên trực tiếp giảng dạy tại các
trường học đã có những bài nghiên cứu cũng như ứng dụng trong giảng dạy, tuy nhiên số lượng
còn hạn chế. Đặc biệt là những bài viết phản ánh về tình hình vận dụng phương pháp “dạy học
* Email: nguyenvantu.hucfl@gmail.com
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ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ” trong giảng dạy ngoại ngữ còn khá ít. Các tác giả đề cập đến phương
pháp này với nhiều tên gọi “dạy học theo dự án”, “dạy học theo phương pháp thảo luận nhóm”,
“dạy học theo phương pháp đóng vai,” v.v... Chúng tôi sử dụng thuật ngữ phương pháp “dạy
học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ” trong bài nghiên cứu.
Bàn về đánh giá trong dạy học theo dự án, trên “Kỉ yếu Hội nghị giảng dạy Vật lí toàn quốc
(Hà Nội-2010)”, Cao Thị Sông Hương có bài “Đánh giá trong dạy học dự án”. Tác giả đã đề xuất
một phương thức đánh giá trong dạy học theo dự án, gồm: đánh giá từ phía giáo viên, đánh giá
hợp tác, đánh giá đồng đẳng và tự đánh giá, giúp giáo viên không chỉ đánh giá được mức độ lĩnh
hội kiến thức của học sinh mà còn đánh giá được tính tích cực, tự lực, sáng tạo và khả năng vận
dụng kiến thức vào thực tiễn. Phương thức đánh giá được cụ thể hóa qua các bảng kiểm với các
tiêu chí đánh giá cụ thể kết quả học tập của học sinh.
Nguyễn Đình Bá và Đặng Thuỵ Liên (2010) trong bài viết “Giảng dạy ngoại ngữ bằng
hình thức giảng dạy theo dự án” đã đưa ra 10 bước thực hiện nhiệm vụ: (1) Giảng viên đưa ra đề
tài cho các nhóm sinh viên; (2) Sinh viên chọn đề tài và bàn luận kịch bản sẽ diễn xuất; (3) Kịch
bản được viết xong, tiến hành dịch sang tiếng Hoa; (4) Giảng viên giúp sinh viên chỉnh sửa kịch
bản và nội dung tiếng Hoa; (5) Sinh viên tự luyện nói ở nhà và học thuộc nội dung; (6) Sinh
viên tập hợp nhóm bắt đầu diễn xuất và quay phim; (7) Chỉnh sửa clip; (8) Trình chiếu ở lớp;
(9) Các nhóm sinh viên khác đóng góp ý kiến cho clip của nhóm bạn; (10) Giảng viên nhận xét
và góp ý, cho điểm. Quá trình này được thực hiện trên lớp và có sự chuẩn bị kỹ lượng ở nhà.
Thời gian thực hiện mỗi bước được tác giả tính là một tuần học (2 tiết).
Lê Thị Trâm Anh (2019) trình bày hệ thống những vấn đề cơ bản về phương pháp dạy
học theo dự án: khái niệm, ưu điểm, cách tiến hành và tình hình áp dụng phương pháp này vào
dạy học tiếng Pháp tại Đại học Đà Nẵng. Đặc biệt tác giả đã tiến hành cho thực nghiệm một số
dự án thực tiễn như: dự án du học, dự án tái sử dụng đồ cũ, v.v. nhận được phản hồi rất tích cực
từ người học.
Trên thực tế thực tế việc dạy và học ngoại ngữ, đặc biệt là dạy và học tiếng Trung Quốc ở
Việt Nam còn gặp nhiều bất cập, chưa bắt kịp với trào lưu, vẫn còn mang nặng tính hình thức, trong
đó việc dạy học kỹ năng nói - một trong bốn kỹ năng quan trọng trong dạy học ngoại ngữ vẫn còn
chưa thực sự phát huy hết hiệu quả.
2.1. Khái niệm phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ”
Theo từ điển trực tuyến Soha định nghĩa: “Nhiệm vụ là công việc do cơ quan, đơn vị hoặc
tổ chức giao cho phải hoàn thành vì một mục đích cụ thể và hoàn thành trong một thời gian nhất
định.” Đối với định nghĩa về “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ”, mỗi học giả có mỗi cách định
nghĩa riêng biệt, song có thể hiểu “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ” chính là người dạy yêu cầu
người học hoàn thành một hoạt động mang tính khả thi. Thông qua quá trình thực hiện hoạt
động bao gồm trước hoạt động, trong hoạt động và sau hoạt động mang đến cơ hội học tập và
hoàn thiện ngôn ngữ của bản thân. Dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ gắn liền với việc sử dụng
ngôn ngữ có mục đích biểu đạt rõ ràng.
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2.2. Nguyên tắc dạy học sử dụng phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ”
Nguyên tắc mang tính chân thực
Nhiệm vụ được thiết kế trong phương pháp dạy học thường gắn liền với những sở thích,
kinh nghiệm trong cuộc sống cũng như học tập của sinh viên. Nội dung của nhiệm vụ bám sát
với những vấn đề xảy ra trong cuộc sống đời thường thì sinh viên dễ dàng để tiếp nhận và hoàn
thành nhiệm vụ trong khoảng thời gian cho phép.
Nguyên tắc mang tính thực tiễn
Phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ” vừa chú trọng đến kết quả, lại vừa chú
trọng đến quá trình thực hiện nhiệm vụ. Đặc biệt nhấn mạnh quá trình thực hiện nhiệm vụ sinh
viên sẽ sử dụng kiến thức ra sao, dùng ngôn ngữ tiếng Trung Quốc vào nhiệm vụ như thế nào.
Nguyên tắc của phương pháp này cũng tập trung đến kết quả của quá trình thực hiện nhiệm vụ.
Học đi đôi với hành, học là một quá trình, vận dụng vào thực tiễn là mục đích hướng tới, đáp
ứng được lí luận cơ bản của phương pháp này trong việc “học và hành”, tức là “học để dùng,
dùng để học”.
Nguyên tắc lấy sinh viên làm trung tâm dạy học
Sinh viên là trung tâm của tiết học, là nhân tố quan trọng nhất trong mỗi nhiệm vụ. Giáo
viên chỉ đóng vai trò là người định hướng và hướng dẫn sinh viên hoàn thành nhiệm vụ.
Nguyên tắc mang tính tương tác
Chúng ta có thể hiểu tương tác ở đây là tương tác giữa sinh viên với giáo viên, giữa sinh
viên với sinh viên, giữa sinh viên với những yếu tố bên ngoài. Tương tác giữa sinh viên với giáo
viên với mục đích để truyền đạt nhiệm vụ đến sinh viên và ngược lại sinh viên hiểu được những
yêu cầu của nhiệm vụ của giáo viên hơn, trong quá trình thực hiện nhiệm vụ sinh viên bày tỏ
những trở ngại, khó khăn cần tương tác với giáo viên để tìm hướng giải quyết, tương tác để khơi
gợi ý tưởng cho sinh viên. Tương tác giữa sinh viên với sinh viên với mục đích trao đổi tri thức,
ý tưởng và thảo luận những quan điểm đơn phương, song phương thậm chí đa phương khi thực
hiện nhiệm vụ, đặc biệt trong khi thực hiện nhiệm vụ học tập ngoại ngữ thì tương tác cũng là
một quá trình trau dồi kỹ năng nói ngoại ngữ... Tương tác giữa sinh viên với yếu tố bên ngoài
(nếu cần thiết) với mục đích hỗ trợ tìm kiếm để hoàn thành các nhiệm vụ được giao.
2.3. Mô hình phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ”
Trong chương trình thực nghiệm phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ” trong
học phần Nói 2 của chúng tôi áp dụng mô hình “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ” của Ellis
(2000). Mô hình Ellis phân làm 3 giai đoạn: giai đoạn trước nhiệm vụ (giai đoạn chuẩn bị), giai
đoạn trong nhiệm vụ (giai đoạn thực hiện) và giai đoạn sau nhiệm vụ (giai đoạn báo cáo kết quả
nhiệm vụ).
Chúng tôi sử dụng phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ” trong một thời gian
nhất định (một học kỳ=45 tiết học) dựa trên mô hình Ellis, sau đó tiến hành quan sát, theo dõi
tiến trình tiếp nhận phương pháp trong học tập. Sau quá trình dạy học kết thúc chúng tôi sử
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dụng phương pháp nghiên cứu định lượng thông qua phiếu điều tra thu thập, phân tích những
con số chứng minh sự hiệu quả hoặc không hiệu quả mà phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo
nhiệm vụ” mang lại trong học phần Nói 2. Bên cạnh đó, chúng tôi còn sử dụng phương pháp
phỏng vấn. Thông qua một vài câu hỏi ngắn giành cho sinh viên ngay sau khi kết thúc tiết học,
từ đó nắm bắt được những phản hồi đến từ người học, chủ yếu kịp thời khắc phục những hạn
chế cũng như phát huy những thế mạnh trong tiết học tiếp theo.
4.1. Tính hiệu quả khi vận dụng phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ” vào học
phần Nói
Trải qua 45 tiết học áp dụng phương pháp dạy “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ” vào
học phần Nói 2, chúng tôi đã tiến hành điều tra khảo sát trên 84 sinh viên tham gia học tập, tính
hiệu quả của phương pháp thể hiện rõ qua các số liệu trong Biểu đồ 1:
Biểu đồ 1. Kỹ năng nói của sinh viên sau khi sử dụng phương pháp "Dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ"
Thông qua biểu đồ tổng hợp về tình hình chất lượng của các sinh viên khi tham gia học tập
bằng phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ”, chúng tôi cho rằng tính hiệu quả của phương
pháp này mang lại rất cao. Nguyên nhân mang lại tính hiệu quả được thể hiện rõ trong Biểu đồ 2.
Biểu đồ 2. Nguyên nhân mang lại hiệu quả của phương pháp "dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ"
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Có sự tương tác hỗ trợ kiến thức từ bạn học và giáo viên

Đặc trưng lớn nhất của phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ” là bố trí các
nhiệm vụ xoay quanh người học. Lấy người học làm chủ thể của cả quá trình học tập. Nên trong
các nhiệm vụ chúng tôi thiết kế rất phong phú, có những nhiệm vụ đơn lập do mỗi sinh viên độc
lập thực hiện, nhưng cũng có rất nhiều nhiệm vụ được thiết kế theo hình thức nhóm nhỏ, nhóm
lớn. Trong quá trình thực hiện nhiệm vụ, đòi hỏi sinh viên cần phải tương tác, hỗ trợ tìm kiếm
thông tin, cùng nhau xây dựng và hoàn thành nhiệm vụ. Mỗi một nhiệm vụ được phân công cho
sinh viên, giáo viên luôn bám sát hỗ trợ sinh viên khi cần, giáo viên là người hướng dẫn, cung
cấp những thông tin cần thiết liên quan đến nhiệm vụ.
Có nhiều cơ hội được giao tiếp bằng tiếng Trung Quốc
Hạn chế lớn nhất của sinh viên Khoa Tiếng Trung là môi trường học tập còn thiếu sự cọ
xát bằng tiếng Trung, tỉ lệ sử dụng tiếng Việt để tiếp nhận kiến thức trong các học phần tiếng
Trung là khá cao. Khi tham gia học tập với phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ”
trong học phần Nói, sinh viên được tiếp xúc và học tập hầu như tuyệt đối 100% bằng tiếng
Trung. Dùng tiếng Trung để học tiếng Trung, dùng tiếng Trung để hoàn thành nhiệm vụ, dùng
tiếng Trung để biểu đạt ý tưởng, dùng tiếng Trung để báo cáo kết quả nhiệm vụ, đấy cũng chính
là một trong những nhân tố mà khiến người học cảm thấy kỹ năng nói của bản thân tiến bộ rất
nhiều khi sử dụng phương pháp học tập này.
Biểu đồ 3. Lượng thời gian trung bình mỗi sinh viên dùng tiếng Trung Quốc khi tham gia mỗi nhiệm vụ
Từ Biểu đồ 3 thấy rõ tổng lượng thời gian sinh viên dùng tiếng Trung Quốc khi tham gia
mỗi nhiệm vụ rất khả thi. Hầu hết các sinh viên đều dùng Tiếng Trung trong khoảng thời gian từ
10-15 phút.
Có môi trường giao tiếp thông qua các nhiệm vụ được giáo viên bố trí
Chúng tôi kết hợp ba nhân tố môi trường giao tiếp vào trong các nhiệm vụ, đó chính là
nhân tố con người, nhân tố tài liệu và nhân tố không gian.
Thứ nhất, về nhân tố con người hay được gọi là giáo viên và bạn học. Giáo viên là người
đóng vai tạo dựng môi trường học tập, đưa người học vào trong môi trường học tập thông qua
các nhiệm vụ, thế nên giáo viên chính là người xây dựng nhiệm vụ, dẫn dắt và hướng dẫn chi
tiết cho người học thực hiện nhiệm vụ đó.
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Thứ hai, về nhân tố giáo trình tài liệu được giáo viên sử dụng trong học phần Nói 2. Đây
cũng là một trong những nhân tố khá quan trọng trong môi trường học tập tiếng Trung Quốc của
sinh viên. Khoa tiếng Trung hiện đang sử dụng cuốn giáo trình chính “发展汉语中级口语”
trong học phần Nói 2. Theo kết quả của người học phản ánh lại khi sử dụng cuốn giáo trình tài
liệu trên, đa số người học cho rằng nội dung giáo trình phù hợp với trình độ của người học, thể
hiện trong biểu đồ 4,5,6:
Biểu đồ 4. Nội dung quá khó Biểu đồ 5. Nội dung quá dễ Biểu đồ 6. Nội dung phù hợp
so với trình độ của bạn so với trình độ của bạn với trình độ của bạn
Thứ 3, nhân tố về không gian học tập. Tuỳ từng nhiệm vụ để áp dụng không gian học tập
phù hợp. Có những nhiệm vụ cần thực hiện ngay trong phòng học, nhưng cũng có những nhiệm
vụ chỉ có thể phát huy được hiệu quả khi thực hiện ngoài phòng học với một không gian mở
(khuôn viên trường học, công viên, quán cà phê, sân bóng đá,...).
Có cơ hội phát huy tư duy, ý tưởng của bản thân
Khi lựa chọn phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ” chúng tôi suy xét đến vấn
đề làm thế nào để sinh viên có thể phát huy được hết khả năng tư duy và phong phú ý tưởng
trong quá trình thực hiện nhiệm vụ, do vậy có những bài học được thiết kế theo “nhiệm vụ mở”,
sinh viên sẽ thoả sức thảo luận đưa ra quan điểm của cá nhân; cũng có những nhiệm vụ khơi gợi
trí tưởng tượng, tăng tính tư duy cho sinh viên.
Nhiệm vụ sinh động, thiết thực, bám sát nội dung học tập
Nhiệm vụ trong phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ” mà chúng tôi thực
nghiệm phong phú và có kết hợp với một số phương pháp lồng ghép trong các nhiệm vụ đó như
thực hiện trò chơi, thực hiện đóng vai, thực hiện nghiên cứu trường hợp điển hình, hợp tác
nhóm, phát hiện và giải quyết vấn đề.
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Tinh thần học tập thoải mái, không căng thẳng

Một trong những yếu tố quan trọng mang lại hiệu quả học tập trong học phần Nói đó
chính là tinh thần của người học. Các nhiệm vụ được bố trí luôn được chú trọng đến yếu tố tạo
môi trường học tập thoải mái, người học vừa có thể hoàn thành các nhiệm vụ, vừa là cơ hội để
giao lưu ý tưởng, thậm chí có những nhiệm vụ mang tính chất học mà chơi chơi mà học, chính
vì thế người học dễ dàng tiếp nhận kiến thức, hoàn thành nhiệm vụ với một tinh thần thoải mái.
Chính vì vậy trong mỗi buổi học sinh viên luôn cảm thấy hứng thú với tiết học, mang đến cho
sinh viên tinh thần “mỗi ngày đến trường là một niềm vui”, do đó hầu hết sinh viên đều rất thích
thú với việc giáo viên bố trí các nhiệm vụ trong mỗi tiết học, thể hiện trong Biểu đồ 7.
Biểu đồ 7. Mức độ thích của sinh viên khi giáo viên bố trí nhiệm vụ
4.2. Những vấn đề còn tồn tại trong quá trình vận dụng phương pháp pháp “dạy học ngôn
ngữ theo nhiệm vụ” trong học phần Nói
4.2.1. Khía cạnh người dạy
Giáo viên lựa chọn nội dung bài học
Một trong những đặc điểm của phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ” chính là
tính thực tiễn. Nội dung trong giáo trình học tập rất phong phú và đa dạng, lượng kiến thức bao
quát, tuy nhiên không phải bài học nào cũng có thể áp dụng được phương pháp “dạy học ngôn
ngữ theo nhiệm vụ”. Có những bài học sinh viên vẫn chưa phát huy được hết khả năng học tập
do nội dung bài học không kích thích được tính sáng tạo cũng như hứng thú của sinh viên.
Biểu đồ 8. Phản hồi sinh viên về nội dung bài học
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Hầu hết nội dung giáo viên lựa chọn ở các bài học đều nhận được phản hồi tích cực của
học viên, tuy nhiên vẫn còn tồn tại một số phản hồi về nội dung bài học chưa tốt. Cụ thể theo
Biểu đồ 8 thấy được rằng số lượng sinh viên yêu thích nội dung bài học số 12 giáo viên lựa
chọn chưa đạt mức 50% tổng số sinh viên tham gia học tập. Qua đó thấy được lựa chọn nội
dung phù hợp với nhiệm vụ học tập cũng là một vấn đề còn tồn trọng trong giáo viên.
Giáo viên bố trí nhiệm vụ chưa phù hợp với mỗi sinh viên
Giáo viên căn cứ vào nội dung bài học để bố trí nhiệm vụ phù hợp với sinh viên thực
hiện, có nhiệm vụ thực hiện theo cá nhân, cũng có nhiệm vụ làm việc theo nhóm. Tuy nhiên vì
tính chất nội dung bài học mang tính tổng thể, hơn nữa giáo viên vẫn chưa nắm rõ được tình
hình cụ thể, cũng như trình độ của từng sinh viên nên trong quá trình bố trị nhiệm vụ có thể phù
hợp với sinh viên A nhưng không phù hợp với hoàn cảnh, trình độ của sinh viên B, dẫn đến khó
khăn trong quá trình thực hiện nhiệm vụ.
4.2.2. Khía cạnh người học
Số lượng sinh viên quá đông
Bảng 1. So sánh lớp học đông người và lớp học ít người trong quá trình vận dụng phương pháp
Lớp học đông người Lớp học ít người

Sinh viên ít nhận được sự quan tâm, hỗ trợ từ Sinh viên nhận được nhiều sự quan tâm, hỗ trợ từ
giáo viên. giáo viên.
Không gian học tập bị hạn chế khi thực hiện Không gian học tập thoải mái khi thực hiện nhiệm
nhiệm vụ. vụ.
Khó quản lý việc thực hiện nhiệm vụ theo Dễ dàng quản lý việc thực hiện nhiệm vụ theo
nhóm vì có quá nhiều nhóm hoặc nhóm quá nhóm.
đông.
Hạn chế về sự đánh giá, nhận xét cụ thể sau khi Nhận được đánh giá, nhận xét cụ thể trong từng
hoàn thành nhiệm vụ. nhiệm vụ.
Thời gian trình bày báo cáo hoàn thành nhiệm Thời gian trình bày báo cáo hoàn thành nhiệm vụ
vụ ít. nhiều.
Một trong những bất cập hàng đầu trong dạy học nói chung và sử dụng phương pháp “dạy
học theo nhiệm vụ” nói riêng đó là tình trạng quá tải về số lượng sinh viên tham gia lớp học. Nó
mang lại một số khó khăn nhất định như: giáo viên khó bao quát được hết tất cả sinh viên trong
lớp; khó đưa ra lời khuyên hay hướng dẫn cho từng sinh viên; vấn đề tổ chức thực hiện nhiệm
vụ trở nên phức tạp hơn.
Cá nhân sinh viên chưa nhiệt tình tham gia nhiệm vụ
Trong quá trình thực hiện vẫn còn tồn tại những hạn chế về tinh thần tham gia học tập của
sinh viên. Một số sinh viên vẫn chưa ý thức được nhiệm vụ, tham gia với thái độ học tập mang
tính đối phó, hoặc không phát huy hết khả năng cá nhân của bản thân đóng góp vào sự thành
công của tập thể, từ đó ảnh hưởng trực tiếp đến chính cá nhân đó và cả tập thể nhóm/lớp.
Sự bất đồng đều giữa các sinh viên khi tham gia thực hiện nhiệm vụ theo nhóm
Phương thức thiết kế thực hiện nhiệm vụ theo nhóm được người dạy ưu tiên lựa chọn khi
sử dụng phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ”. Tuy nhiên chính vì sự bất đồng đều
414
về một số yếu tố của người thực hiện nhiệm vụ như giới tính, số lượng, hoặc không cân bằng về
trình độ của mỗi sinh viên trong mỗi nhóm đặc biệt ảnh hưởng trực tiếp đến tiến độ thảo luận và
chất lượng học tập.
4.2.3. Tác động ngoại cảnh
Không gian học tập chưa phù hợp
Không gian học tập có thể hiểu là phòng học, phòng thí nghiệm hoặc không gian sinh hoạt,
nơi sinh viên học tập và triển khai nhiệm vụ. Có những nhiệm vụ cần đến một không gian rộng rãi
thoải mái để sinh viên có thể tự do thảo luận, thậm chí cần có không gian để giàn dựng hoạt cảnh
giao tiếp, hoặc tránh nhiễm sự ồn ào đến từ các cá nhân hoặc nhóm khác. Do vậy đa số sinh viên
tham gia thực nghiệm phương pháp đều cho rằng không gian học tập vô cùng quan trọng.
Trong học kỳ vừa qua, học phần Nói 2 được bố trí tại các phòng học tầng 1 giảng đường
C. Những phòng học này được trang bị đầy đủ thiết bị dạy học như máy tính, máy chiếu, đèn
điện, quạt,... Tuy nhiên có một vấn đề ảnh hưởng trực tiếp đến quá trình hoàn thành nhiệm vụ
đó chính là diện tích các phòng học so với số lượng sinh viên tham gia học tập.
Biểu đồ 9. Diện tích phòng học so với số lượng sinh viên
Sinh viên thuộc nhóm 1 và nhóm 2 là những nhóm có sinh viên số lượng ít và vừa đủ cho
rằng diện tích các phòng học tại trường rộng rãi thoải mái hoặc vừa đủ cho sinh viên hoạt động.
Tuy nhiên nhìn vào biểu đồ của nhóm thứ 3 là nhóm có số lượng sinh viên đông, chúng ta thấy
được rằng sinh viên phản ánh về diện tích phòng học khá chất chội hoặc rất chật chội còn chiếm
một tỉ lệ khá cao.
Giáo trình tài liệu còn hạn chế
Các nhiệm vụ dạy học trong học phần Nói 2 được thiết kế dựa trên nôi dung của giáo
trình “发展汉语中级口语”, giáo trình này trở thành bộ tài liệu tham khảo chính cho sinh viên
trong quá trình tra cứu, tìm kiếm thông tin. Tuy nhiên để hoàn thành nhiệm vụ chất lượng cao
thì sinh viên cần phải tham vấn thêm nhiều tài liệu hỗ trợ khác. Tài liệu tham khảo khan hiếm sẽ
ít nhiều gây nên nhiều trở ngại cho sinh viên trong quá trình thảo luận và tranh luận.
415
Thời gian thực hiện nhiệm vụ không đủ

Thời gian học tập có hạn nhưng nội dung và nhiệm vụ học tập nhiều, sinh viên không đủ
thời gian để hoàn thành nhiệm vụ hoặc hoàn thành nhiệm vụ chưa đạt mức lí tưởng, hoặc bị hạn
chế về số lượng cá nhân/nhóm báo cáo tại lớp.
5. Kết luận
Trên nền tảng lý luận cơ bản của phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ”, chúng
tôi đã ứng dụng nó vào dạy học trong học phần Nói 2 tại Khoa Tiếng Trung. Sau một học kỳ
thực nghiệm (45 tiết), chúng tôi đã nhận về những phản hồi tích cực cũng như những hạn chế
của phương pháp từ giáo viên và sinh viên (mục 3.1 và 3.2). Hiệu quả mà phương pháp mang
lại rất khả quan như: Phương pháp tạo nên sự tương tác hỗ trợ kiến thức từ giáo viên và bạn
học; sinh viên có nhiều cơ hội được giao tiếp bằng tiếng Trung Quốc; sinh viên có môi trường
giao tiếp thông qua các nhiệm vụ được giáo viên bố trí; sinh viên có cơ hội phát huy tư duy, ý
tưởng của bản thân; nhiệm vụ sinh động, thiết thực, bám sát nội dung học tập; tinh thần học tập
của sinh viên thoải mái, không căng thẳng,... Bên cạnh đó vẫn còn tồn tại một số hạn chế trong
quá trình vận dụng phương pháp này vào dạy học như: Giáo viên bố trí nhiệm vụ chưa phù hợp
với mỗi sinh viên; số lượng sinh viên quá đông ảnh hưởng đến chất lượng buổi học; cá nhân
sinh viên chưa nhiệt tình tham gia nhiệm vụ; sự bất đồng đều giữa các sinh viên khi tham gia
thực hiện nhiệm vụ theo nhóm; không gian học tập chưa phù hợp; giáo trình tài liệu còn hạn
chế; thời gian thực hiện nhiệm vụ không đủ...
Thông qua bài nghiên cứu này chúng tôi cũng giải quyết được vấn đề đưa các bài học học
lý thuyết chuyển thể sang các bài học thực hành theo phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo
nhiệm vụ”, đồng thời sau khi trải qua quá trình thực nghiệm dạy học và nhận phản hồi tích cực
từ người học, chúng tôi đưa ra kết luận giáo trình “发展汉语口语版” phù hợp với học phần Nói 2
khi dạy theo phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ”.
Cuối cùng, chúng tôi đưa ra kiến nghị trong tương lai có thể áp dụng rộng rãi để dạy các
học phần thực hành tiếng, đặc biệt là kỹ năng Nói tại Khoa Tiếng Trung, Trường Đại học Ngoại
Bachman, F.F. (2002). Some reflectinos task-based language performance assessment. Language Testing,
19, 453-476.
Cao Thị Sông Hương (2010). Đánh giá trong dạy học dự án. Kỉ yếu Hội nghị giảng dạy Vật lí toàn quốc
(tr. 45). Hà Nội: NXB Đại học Sư phạm.
Ellis, R. (2000). Task-based research and language pedagogy. Teaching Research, 4(3), 193-220.
Krashen, S.D. (1982). Principles and practive in second language acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Lee, C. (2004). Language output, communication strategies and comminicative tasks. In the Chinese
context. Lanham, Md: University Press of America.
Lê Thị Trâm Anh (2019). Áp dụng phương pháp dạy học theo dự án trong giảng dạy tiếng Pháp tại Đại
học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Đà Nẵng. Tạp chí Khoa học Ngoại ngữ Quân sự, 9(21), 34-40.
Nguyễn Đình Bá & Đặng Thuỵ Liên (2010). Giảng dạy ngoại ngữ bằng hình thức giảng dạy theo dự án.
Kỉ yếu Hội nghị khoa học Đại học Duy Tân, 308-314.
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Robinson, P. (1995). Investigating second langgue task complexity. RELC Journal, 26, 62-79.
Skehan, P. (1996). A framework for the implementation of task-based instruction. Applied Linguistics,
17(1), 38-62.
Từ điển điện tử Soha (truy cập 20/05/2019) http://tratu.soha.vn/dict/vn_vn/Nhiệm_vụ.
APPLYING “TASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING " INTO

TEACHING AND LEARNING CHINESE SPEAKING SKILLS
Abstract: Along with the integrated development in all fields, constantly innovating
teaching methods is required to adapt to reality. In this article, we review a number of
research works on the method of "task-based language teaching", and at the same time
apply this method to teaching and learning. Survey questionnaires showed both the
effectiveness and limitations when applying this method to teaching and learning the
Speaking 2 module at Department of Chinese, University of Foreign Languages, Hue
University.
Key words: Teaching method, task-based teaching, teaching and learning Chinese
language
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MAJOR PROBLEMS IN PRONOUNCING ENGLISH: A CASE

STUDY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF DALAT
Tran Thao Uyen*
Dalat University

Abstract: Seeing that pronunciation is one of the most important factors influencing
learners’ speech intelligibility, this study investigated the sounds performed by English-
majoring students at the University of Dalat. In an attempt to figure out main pronouncing
errors as well as possible reasons for the students’ problems, 210 English freshmen were
chosen randomly to participate in the study. The data collected from pronunciation tests and
students’ recordings were analyzed descriptively with the application of Wavesurfer
software version 1.8.8p5, 2013. Based on the finding results, the study highlighted four
major pronunciation errors: the omission of final consonants, the mispronunciation of
consonant clusters, the substitution of certain sounds, and the mispronunciation of English
vowels. These errors were considered to originate from the learners’ lack of phonetic
knowledge, the incompatibleness between the two languages, and a negative transference to
balance with Vietnamese learners’ speech organs.
Key words: Pronunciation problems, major errors, possible reasons, English-majoring students
1. Introduction
Obviously, English pronunciation plays a vital part in mastering the international
language, permitting effective communication with native speakers (Roach, 1991, p. 6).
However, it is not always easy for learners to sufficiently pronounce English words as well as
avoid common mistakes. With a great number of books written by famous linguists such as
O’Connor (1980), Kenworthy (1987), Catford (1988), Gimson (1989), Roach (1991), Gilbert
(1993), and Baker (2006), English learners can gain general knowledge about phonetics and
phonology, but many students still struggle with pronouncing English intelligibly. To solve this
issue, Ruellot (2011) as well as Pearson and Da Silva (2011) discuss effective pedagogical
methods and teaching techniques to improve learners’ pronunciation. On the other hand, Zhang
and Yin (2009), Centerman and Krausz (2011), and Hassan (2014), in their recent articles, have
paid more attention to major difficulties in the learning of English pronunciation.
In Vietnam, there have been significant studies on English pronunciation pronounced by
Vietnamese students. These pronunciation features involved vowels, consonants, consonant
clusters, word stress, sentence stress, rhythm and intonation. Some studies analyze contrastively
the differences between English pronunciation and Vietnamese pronunciation while the other
ones highlight common errors made by Vietnamese students. For example, Nguyen Trong Anh
Tu (1991) makes a clear contrast between English and Vietnamese monophthongs; Huynh Thi
Ngoc Hoa and Le Minh Phu (1999) investigate common pronunciation mistakes in stress,
linking sounds, strong and weak forms; Bui Thi Thanh Thuy (2004) discusses difficulties in
diphthong performances of students in Quang Ngai province. Related to English consonants,
* Email: uyentt@dlu.edu.vn
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Nguyen Thi Thanh Thanh (2006) investigates the students’ pronunciation of inflectional
endings; Nguyen Thi Tich Hien (2006) studies final consonant sounds in Quang Nam’s high
school, and Nguyen Thi An (2007) does a study at Tuy Hoa Industrial College about English
stops. Particularly, Tran Thi Mong Dao (2009) conducts a study at the Pedagogical College of
Dalat, analyzing the pronunciation errors of English vowels. Tran Thao Uyen (2017) also
carries out another study to find out major problems related to the pronunciation of English
consonant clusters performed by students majoring in English at the Pedagogical College of
Dalat. Seeing that pronunciation is one of the most important factors influencing learners’
speech intelligibility, this study investigated the sounds performed by English-majoring students
at the University of Dalat. In other words, the paper is an attempt to figure out major errors as
well as possible reasons for the students’ problems in pronouncing English.The two research
questions, therefore, were:
1. What are the major pronunciation errors made by English-majoring students at Dalat
University?
2. What are the possible causes of these pronunciation errors?
2.1. Mistakes and errors
According to Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics by
Richards et al. (1993), an error is made by a learner who has incomplete knowledge. A mistake,
on a contrary, is made by a learner when writing or speaking and which is caused by lack of
attention, fatigue, carelessness, or some other aspects of performance. According to Brown
(2007, p. 257), “a mistake refers to a performance error that is either a random guess or a “slip”,
in that it is a failure to utilize a known system correctly. Mistakes, when attention is called to
them, can be self-corrected.” However, “an error, a noticeable deviation from the adult grammar
of a native speaker, reflects the competence of the learner” (2007, p. 258). The author also
notes: “The fact that learners do make errors and these errors can be observed, analyzed, and
classified to reveal something of the system operating within the learner, led to a surge of study
of learners’ errors, called error analysis”. Error analysis became distinguished from contrastive
analysis by its examination of errors attributable to all possible sources, not just those resulting
from negative transfer of the native language (2007, p. 259).
2.2. Factors affecting pronunciation
Al-Saidat (2010) clarifies three factors that affect learners’ pronunciation: age, mother
tongue influence, and personality. “The role of age is found to be more prominent in
pronunciation than in other areas” (2010, p. 122). According to Lenneberg, as cited in Al-Saidat
(2010, p. 122), there is a period of time when language learning is more successful than any
other time in one’s life. Consequently, the author strongly believes that children can acquire the
target language much easier than adults. Mentioning the impact of mother tongue, the author
confirms the powerful influence of L1 on L2 pronunciation. Specifically, students usually find it
difficult to imitate the sounds that do not exist in their own language. Finally, an individual’s
personality somehow affects their development of pronunciation skill. It is claimed that
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confident and outgoing learners are likely more sufficient in pronunciation than those who are
afraid to join conversations with native speakers.
Unlike Al-Saidat, Altamimi (2015, p. 13) points out that English pronunciation is affected
by learners’ attitude, exposure to the target language, and teaching instruction. In terms of
attitude, the author explains that students tend to pronounce English better if they are well aware
of the English pronunciation and vice versa. Moreover, the more students expose to English
input, the better their pronunciation will be. About instruction, the author believes that English
teachers should give a higher priority on English pronunciation during classroom time.
2.3. A contrastive analysis of English and Vietnamese sounds
According to Avery and Ehrlich, as cited in Altamimi (2015), mother tongue directly
influences on learners’ abilities to pronounce English words. It means that English students have
a tendency to mispronounce the sounds which do not exist in their original language.
Kenworthy (1987, p. 4) argues that “the more differences there are, the more difficulties the
learner will have in pronouncing English”. Hassan (2014, p. 32) also states that the differences
in the sound systems of the two languages - L1 and L2 - have a profound impact on learners’
pronunciation. Zhang and Yin (2009, p. 142) comment:
A particular sound which does not exist in the native language can therefore pose a difficulty for
the second language learners to produce or sometimes to try to substitute those sounds with
similar ones in their mother tongue. These sounds include both vowels and consonants.
Certainly, Vietnamese is a monosyllabic language and each letter represents only one
sound. Even though Vietnamese lexicon may consist of one or more syllables, it is easy to read
any word from a written text based on its isolating syllable. English, on the other hand, is
polysyllabic with many features of sound combinations, assimilation, rhythm, stress, and
intonation. According to Avery and Ehrlich, as cited in Nguyen Thi Thanh Thanh (2006), the
sound system of Vietnamese is absolutely different from that of English due to the little
resemblance in sounds. More specifically, there are no consonant clusters and final consonants
articulated in Vietnamese. Tran Thao Uyen (2017, p. 674) summarizes basic differences in terms of
vowels and consonants between the two languages.
Table 1. Differences in the sound systems between English and Vietnamese
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3. Methods
3.1. Population, participants and sample size
As counted by the department of training management, there are 325 freshmen majoring in
English at Faculty of Foreign Languages, Dalat University, in the academic year 2019-2020, 97 of
whom are male, accounting for 29.8%. These students come from different cities and provinces
throughout Vietnam.
In accordance with the study’s objectives, the sampling of the study was chosen randomly
in order for each sample to be relatively fair. Due to the time constraint, 210 English-major
freshmen were asked to participate in the study. All of the participants, who were between the
ages of eighteen and nineteen, already completed 30 periods of the course named English
Pronunciation Practice. With a sample size of 210 students and 95% at confidence level, the
confidence interval was 4.03. (The figures were calculated based on the guide in the website of
http://www.surveysystem.com/sscalc.htm#one).
3.2. Data collection instrument
The research data were collected through a pronunciation speaking test with 140 English
words containing different vowels and consonants in English. This test was considered
appropriate because it covered most of the sounds that the students have learned in their
pronunciation course. All of 210 participants took turns to read through 140 prepared words and
their performances were recorded for later analysis. In order to figure out significant
pronunciation errors of the participants, the software “Wavesurfer” (version 1.8.8p5, 2013) was
used to visualize the sounds made by each participant in comparison with the sounds
pronounced by an American native speaker who has been teaching English pronunciation for 11
years in Dalat city.
4. Findings
The English sounds pronounced by the participants were extracted from their recordings
of the pronunciation speaking test. The software “Wavesurfer” (version 1.8.8p5, 2013)
significantly contributed to provide visual data for this study. After 210 participants had had
their English pronunciation recorded, the sounds were visualized and compared with the
standard sounds pronounced by Paul Olivier (Ph.D.), an American teacher who has been
teaching English pronunciation for 11 years in Dalat city. Based on the differences in the
visualized sounds, English-major students’ errors of pronouncing English could be recognized
and analyzed in details. Here is an example with the word “was”.
Figure 1. Native speaker’s pronunciation of Figure 2. Students’ pronunciation of “was”

“was” (no final consonant)
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Figure 3. Students’ pronunciation of “was” (/ɒ/ instead of /ə/)

(Output extracted from Wavesurfer 1.8.8p5)
After having visualized all tested sounds, the participants’ pronunciation errors were
finally synchronized into four different categories as follow:
4.1. The omission of final consonants
Among 210 participants, 179 freshmen making up 85.2% of the total participants had to
encounter the challenges of final consonant which never existed in Vietnamese. /f/ as in “deaf”,
/s/ as in “happiness” and /dʒ/ as in “age” are typical examples of this error type.
Figure 4. Native speaker’s pronunciation of Figure 5. Students’ pronunciation of /dʒ/ as in

/dʒ/ as in “age” “age” (no final consonant /dʒ/)
(Otput extracted from Wavesurfer 1.8.8p5)
Noticeably, the word “moved” seemed to be easy but it was not pronounced correctly in
the test because many participants omitted the final sound /d/ as illustrated in Figure 7.
Figure 6. Native speaker’s pronunciation of /d/ Figure 7. Students’ pronunciation of /d/ as in

as in “moved” “moved” (no final consonant /d/)
4.2. The mispronunciation of consonant clusters

In this study, 31 out of 210 freshmen (14.8% of the total participants) eliminated the first
sound /g/ in the initial consonant cluster /gr/ of “great” and the same number of students
wrongly made the cluster /pl/ for “player”. A great number of English-majoring students
dropped the final sound of consonant clusters, e.g. there were 158 cases of omission of /t/ in
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“first”, “last” and “kept”; 179 students completely omitted /ts/ of the cluster /nts/ in
“instruments”.
Figure 8. Native speaker’s pronunciation of /pl/ as Figure 9. Students’ pronunciation of /pl/ as in

in “player” “player” (/f/ instead of /pl/)
Figure 10. Native speaker’s pronunciation of /ts/ as Figure 11. Students’ pronunciation of /ts/ as in
in “instruments” “instruments” (no consonant cluster /ts/)
Figure 12. Students’ pronunciation of /ts/ as in “instruments” (no final consonant /s/)
4.3. The substitution of certain sounds

Again, the word “moved” was pronounced incorrectly because there were 43 out of 210
participants substituting the consonant cluster /fd/ for /vd/ as illustrated in Figure 13.
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Figure 6. Native speaker’s pronunciation of /d/ as in Figure 13. Students’ pronunciation of /d/ as
“moved” in “moved” (/f/ instead of /vd/)
The sound /dʒ / as in “Germany”, for instance, was changed into /g/ and /tʃ/ by 83 and
191 participants respectively. Similarly, 58 out of 210 participants replaced the sounds /ð/ as in
“other”, becoming /d/ instead; 135 out of 210 participants substituted /tw/ for /t ʃ/when
pronouncing the word “twelve”. Besides, the palatal /ʃ/ as in “shall” was replaced with the
alveolar /s/ by 144 participants.
4.5. The mispronunciation of English vowels
In terms of vowel pronunciation, the vowel /u: / as in “soon” was mispronounced as /sɒn/
by 46 out of 210 participants. The word “opera” was also mispronounced as /ɔ:perɑ:/ instead of
/'ɒprə/. The two figures below showed a difference between native pronunciation and
Vietnamese pronunciation for the word “opera”.
Figure 14. Native speaker’s pronunciation of Figure 15. Students’ pronunciation of

“opera” “opera” (wrong vowels)

With the descriptive analysis in this qualitative study, it could then come up to the
conclusion about possible reasons for learners’ pronunciation errors. Firstly, the above errors
originated from learners’ lack of phonetic knowledge. Because all of the participants were
freshmen who hardly studied English Phonetics and Phonology at high schools, they had no
idea of the speech organs with articulators, air stream, vocal vibration, and aspiration. As
Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams (2007) state in their book, English vowels are classified
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according to four criteria: tongue position, tongue height, lip rounding, and tenseness (pp. 236-
240). However, freshmen were unfamiliar with these linguistic terms. Subsequently, there were
vowels that seemed undoubtedly tough for them to pronounce, leading to cases of vowel
mispronunciation in this study. Secondly, unavoidable errors happened due to the
incompatibleness between the two languages. Because some of the English sounds such as /θ/,
/ð/, /ʒ/, /dʒ/ have no exact equivalents in Vietnamese, they were really difficult for the
participants to make the correct sounds. Hence, many participants tended to replace the difficult
sounds with what they were much more accustomed to. Moreover, in Vietnamese, there rarely
exist two or three consonants combining together to create a cluster, resulting in a fact that the
English-major freshmen at Dalat University hardly used to pronounce complex consonant
clusters. Finally, the errors were caused by a negative transference to balance with Vietnamese
learners’ speech organs. As commented by Ehrlich and Avery (1992), the mispronunciations of
words by non-native speakers reflect the influence of the sounds, rules, stress, and intonation of
their native language. Although Vietnamese and English share similarities in sound segments
and spelling, the way native speakers pronounce English sounds is completely different from the
Vietnamese way. Consequently, language learners usually had problems with the movements of
their tongue towards the articulators due to the deeply rooted way of pronouncing Vietnamese
words. Therefore, a great number of participants would prefer to ignore some difficult sounds
rather than try to pronounce them in a correct manner.
No matter how generalized the study tried to be, there were some certain limitations.
First, the study samples should have been more various in terms of ages and language levels as
the study participants were only freshmen. Second, when the participants got their pronunciation
tests recorded, they just approached the pronunciation course for only 30 periods, which was
considered rather limited. Third, the pronunciation tests were still at word level and the words
were out of real contexts of applying the language into oral communication. Finally, it was not
enough satisfactory to pose the errors of pronunciation without suggesting any solutions to
improve students’ pronunciation of English. Thus, it is necessary to conduct another study in
this area for the purpose of recommending useful programs and strategies for English-majoring
students at Dalat University to enhance their English pronunciation.
6. Conclusion
English pronunciation is clearly a challenge for students majoring in English at the
University of Dalat. On average, over two thirds of the participants taking part in the study were
not successful in correctly pronouncing words containing English vowels and consonants. Four
remarkable errors were the omission of final consonants, the mispronunciation of consonant
clusters, the substitution of certain sounds, and the mispronunciation of English vowels.
Significantly, the errors were considered to originate from the learners’ lack of phonetic
knowledge, the incompatibleness between the two languages and a negative transference to
balance with Vietnamese learners’ speech organs. Although the research topic is not new-
fangled, this study could systematically and clearly point out important errors in the
pronunciation of English-majoring students. Therefore, this research paper could give reliable
foundation for the following studies focusing on effective methods to improve students’
pronunciation.
425
References
Al-Saidat, E.M. (2010). Phonological analysis of English phonotactics: A case study of Arab learners of
English. The Buckingham Journal of Language and Linguistics, 3, 121-134.
Altamimi, A.K. (2015). Improving English pronunciation among Arabic EFL school-age students using
minimal pairs. Master Thesis. State University of New York.
Baker, A. (2006). Ship or sheep? An intermediate pronunciation course (3rd edition.). Cambridge:
Brown, H.D. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching (5th edition.). New York: Pearson
Education Inc.
Bùi Thị Thanh Thúy (2004). English diphthongs in Quang Ngai learner’s discourse - problems and
solutions. Master Thesis. University of Foreign Languages Studies, The University of Danang.
Catford, J.C. (1988). A practical introduction to phonetics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Centerman, S., & Krausz, F. (2011). Common L2 pronunciation errors. Master Thesis. Malmö
University.
Ehrlich, S., & Avery, P. (2013). Teaching American English pronunciation. Oxford Handbooks for
Language Teachers. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Fromkin,V., Rodman, R., & Hyams, N. (2007). An introduction to language. Boston, USA: Thomson
Corporation.
Gilbert, J.B. (1993). Clear speech: Pronunciation and listening comprehension in American English.
Gimson, A.C. (1989). An introduction to the pronunciation of English (4th edition.). New York: Edward
Arnold.
Hassan, E.M.I. (2014). Pronunciation problems: A case study of English language students at Sudan
University of Science and Technology. English Language and Literature Studies, 4(4), 31-44.
Huỳnh Thị Ngọc Hoa & Lê Minh Phú (1999). Common pronunciation mistakes in stress, strong and
weak forms, and linking sounds by tenth grade students. Graduation paper. University of Foreign
Languages Studies, The University of Danang.
Kenworthy, J. (1987). Teaching English pronunciation. London: Longman Publishing.
Nguyễn Thị Ân (2007). An investigation into the pronunciation of English stops experienced by the
students at Tuy Hoa Industrial College. Master Thesis. University of Foreign Languages Studies, The
University of Danang.
Nguyen Thi Thanh Thanh (2006). An investigation into the pronunciation of inflection endings in English
by the eleventh-form students in Danang City. Graduation paper. University of Foreign Languages
Studies, The University of Danang.
Nguyễn Thị Tích Hiền (2006). English final consonant sounds experienced by tenth-form students in
Quang Nam Province. Master Thesis. University of Foreign Languages Studies, The University of
Danang.
Nguyễn Trọng Anh Tú (1991). Đối chiếu hệ thống nguyên âm đơn Anh-Việt. Luận văn tốt nghiệp. Trường
Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Đà Nẵng.
O'Connor, J.D. (1980). Better English pronunciation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Richards, et al. (1993). Longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics. London:
Longman.
Roach, P. (1991). English phonetics and phonology - a practical course (2nd edition). United Kingdom:
Tran Thao Uyen (2017). English consonant clusters: A challenge for students majoring in English at the
pedagogical college of Dalat. Graduate Research Symposium, 1, 670-682. University of Languages &
426
International Studies (ULIS) Press.

Trần Thị Mộng Đào (2009). An Investigation into the pronunciation of English vowels performed by the
students majoring in English at Dalat Teacher Training College. Master Thesis. University of Foreign
Zhang, F., & Yin, P. (2009). A Study of pronunciation problems of English learners in China. Asian
Social Science, 5(9), 141-146.
NHỮNG VẤN ĐỀ NGHIÊM TRỌNG TRONG PHÁT ÂM

TIẾNG ANH: NGHIÊN CỨU THỰC TẾ
TẠI TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC ĐÀ LẠT
Tóm tắt: Nhận thức được rằng ngữ âm chính là một trong những yếu tố quan trọng ảnh
hưởng đến khả năng giao tiếp của người học, nghiên cứu này tập trung phân tích các lỗi
phát âm của sinh viên Ngôn ngữ Anh và tìm ra các lý do có thể khiến sinh viên phát âm sai.
Khách thể nghiên cứu là 210 sinh viên chuyên ngành tiếng Anh năm thứ nhất tại Trường
Đại học Đà Lạt. Dữ liệu được thu thập từ các bài kiểm tra ngữ âm và bản ghi âm giọng đọc
của sinh viên được phân tích và mô tả với phần mềm Wavesurfer. Kết quả nghiên cứu cho
thấy bốn lỗi phát âm cơ bản của sinh viên là không phát âm các phụ âm cuối, phát âm sai
các cụm phụ âm, thay thế một số âm bằng những âm không chính xác và phát âm sai các
nguyên âm. Những lỗi sai kể trên một phần là do người học thiếu kiến thức về ngữ âm tiếng
Anh, một phần là do sự không tương thích về hệ thống âm thanh giữa hai ngôn ngữ và một
phần là do ảnh hưởng của phương thức cấu tạo từ trong tiếng Việt đã tác động đến cách
phát âm tiếng Anh.
Từ khóa: Vấn đề về ngữ âm, sinh viên chuyên ngành tiếng Anh, lỗi phát âm sai
427
THỂ LỆ GỬI BÀI ĐĂNG TẠP CHÍ KHOA HỌC NGÔN NGỮ VÀ
VĂN HÓA TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ, ĐẠI HỌC HUẾ
1. Bài nhận đăng là bài trình bày kết quả nghiên cứu khoa học có chất lượng và tính mới trong
lĩnh vực khoa học ngôn ngữ và văn hóa. Bài viết chưa được công bố ở bất kỳ ấn phẩm, tạp chí
nào và không đang được xem xét đăng ở tạp chí hay ấn phẩm khoa học nào dưới bất cứ hình
thức nào. Tạp chí không gửi lại bài viết cho tác giả trong trường hợp bài không được chọn đăng.
2. Bài viết phải được soạn thảo trên file Word, dài không quá 12 trang (tính cả phần tài liệu
tham khảo và phần phụ lục). Hình thức trình bày như sau: khổ giấy A4; kích thước lề trang: lề
trên 2cm, lề dưới 2cm, lề trái 2cm, lề phải 2cm; phông chữ Times New Roman; cỡ chữ 11;
khoảng cách dòng 1.15 lines; khoảng cách giữa các đoạn: trước 6pt và sau 3pt.
3. Ngôn ngữ trong bài viết cần có văn phong mạch lạc, không sai chính tả, chính xác, cô đọng,
súc tích. Nếu là tiếng Anh thì theo hệ chính tả của Hoa Kỳ (American English spelling).
4. Bài viết phải nêu bật được những kết quả nghiên cứu của tác giả và phải theo cấu trúc của
một bài báo khoa học bao gồm: phần tóm tắt, đặt vấn đề, nội dung bao gồm cơ sở lý luận, kết
quả nghiên cứu và thảo luận, kết luận, tài liệu tham khảo và phụ lục.
4.1. Tên bài viết (Title): ngắn gọn, cô đọng phản ánh trực tiếp nội dung của bài viết, bằng tiếng
Việt và tiếng Anh, có độ dài vừa phải không quá 15 từ, viết chữ in hoa, đậm, cỡ chữ 14, nằm
giữa trang.
4.2.Tóm tắt (Abstract): 1 tóm tắt bằng tiếng Việt và 1 tóm tắt bằng tiếng Anh, phản ánh nội
dung cơ bản của bài báo, tối thiểu 120 từ và tối đa 150 từ, cỡ chữ 10, lề trái 1cm, lề phải 1cm,
cách dòng 1.0 line.
4.3.Từ khóa (Keywords): quan trọng đối với nội dung của bài viết, gồm 2 phần bằng tiếng Việt
hoặc tiếng Anh, tối đa 5 từ, đặt ở dưới phần tóm tắt.
5. Quy định trình bày bảng biểu, hình vẽ, ký hiệu, công thức: Số bảng biểu, hình vẽ, được đánh
số thứ tự liên tục (từ số 1), tên bảng, biểu ngắn gọn, không quá 12 từ, nếu trích phải ghi nguồn
rõ. Tên của bảng, biểu đặt trên bảng, biểu; tên của sơ đồ, hình đặt dưới sơ đồ, hình; cỡ chữ 10.
Trong bài viết, khi tham chiếu bảng, biểu, sơ đồ, tác giả cần chỉ rõ số của bảng, biểu, sơ đồ đó
(ví dụ Bảng 1), không sử dụng cụm từ như “hình trên” hay “bảng dưới đây”.
6. Trích dẫn trong bài viết: Nếu là tác giả nước ngoài thì trích họ của tác giả, ví dụ: “Theo Smith
(2013),…” hoặc… (Smith, 2013). Nếu tác giả là người Việt Nam thì trích đầy đủ họ và tên, ví
dụ: “Cao Xuân Hạo (2003) cho rằng…” Các phần trích nguyên văn thì phải đi kèm số trang từ
bản gốc. Chỉ trích dẫn các tài liệu quan trọng với nội dung bài viết. Hạn chế trích dẫn từ các
nguồn không chính thức hoặc chưa xuất bản (Ví dụ: luận án, luận văn).
7. Bài viết không sử dụng chú thích (footnote). Lời cảm ơn (nếu có) đặt ở ngay sau phần kết
luận và không quá 25 từ, sử dụng diễn đạt cố định sau: (Các) tác giả bài báo cảm ơn…
8. Tài liệu tham khảo (References): Sắp xếp danh mục tài liệu tham khảo theo thứ tự ABC của
họ tác giả (surname). Liệt kê toàn bộ các tài liệu có trích dẫn trong bài viết, số lượng không quá
428
12 tài liệu. Không đánh số thứ tự tài liệu tham khảo. Cách thức trình bày theo format của Hiệp
hội Tâm lý Hoa kỳ (APA - American Psychology Association Citation format - 6th edition), là
hình thức trích dẫn phổ biến trong các văn bản khoa học ngôn ngữ xã hội. Xem các ví dụ dưới:
- Sách:
Họ, T. (năm xuất bản). Tên sách. Nơi xuất bản (thành phố): Nhà xuất bản.
Ví dụ:
Calfee, R.C., & Valencia, R.R. (1991). APA guide to preparing manuscripts for journal
publication. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Cao Xuân Hạo (1999). Câu trong tiếng Việt. Hà Nội: Nhà xuất bản Giáo dục.
- Chương sách:
Họ, T. (năm xuất bản). Tên chương sách. Trong/In + Tên. Họ + (Ed./Eds.), Tên sách (pp.
trang đầu-trang cuối của chương). Nơi xuất bản (thành phố): Nhà xuất bản.
Ví dụ:
White, C. (2008). Language learning strategies in independent language learning: An
overview. In T.W. Lewis & M.S. Hurd (Eds.), Language learning strategies in independent
settings (pp. 3-24). Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.
- Bài báo trên tạp chí:
Họ, T. (năm xuất bản). Tên bài nghiên cứu. Tên Tạp Chí Khoa Học, tập(số), trang đầu-trang
cuối.
Ví dụ:
Harlow, H.F. (1983). Fundamentals for preparing psychology journal articles. Journal of
Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 55(2), 893-896.
- Tài liệu Internet:
Tên tác giả (Họ, T.)/Tổ chức. (thời điểm đăng tải). Tựa đề tờ báo. Tựa đề tài liệu tham khảo
trên Internet. Tập(số). Truy cập từ (link tàiliệu) http://www.abcdefghklmn.com/.
Ví dụ:
Bernstein, M. (2002). Ten tips on writing the living Web. A list apart: for people who make
websites, 149. Retrieved on May 3rd 2015 (Truy cập vào ngày 3 tháng 5 năm 2015) from:
http://www.alistapart.com/articles/writeliving.
-Bài báo đăng trong Kỷ yếu Hội thảo:
Họ. T. (năm). Tên bài báo trích trong Kỷ yếu. Tên của Kỷ yếu Hội thảo (pp. trang đầu-trang
cuối). Nơi xuất bản.
Ví dụ:
429
Wang, W. (2006). Exploring teachers’ beliefs and practice in the implementation of a new
English language curriculum in China: Case studies. Proceedings of the Conference on Asia-
Pacific Educational Research (Kỷ yếu Hội thảo Nghiên cứu giáo dục Châu Á - Thái Bình
Dương) (pp. 3-14). Hong Kong.
-Luận văn, luận án chưa xuất bản:
Họ, T. (năm). Tên luận án/luận văn. Luận án Tiến sĩ/Thạc sĩ chưa xuất bản. Nơi xuất bản.
Ví dụ:
Garskof, M.S. (2004). Motivating teachers with nonfinancial incentive: The relationships of
compensatory time, job, and the need to achieve to the job satisfaction of high school
teachers in New York City. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. New York University.
9. Phần phụ lục trình bày các công cụ thu số liệu có kết quả trình bày trong bài viết.
10. Tác giả bài viết hoàn toàn chịu trách nhiệm trước pháp luật về nội dung bài viết, xuất xứ tài
liệu trích dẫn.
Để hỗ trợ quá trình phản biện khách quan và bảo mật, tác giả bài viết cung cấp trên trang
đầu tiên của tệp (File) bài viết các thông tin theo thứ tự sau:
Tên của bài viết - Họ tên đầy đủ của tác giả - Tên và địa chỉ cơ quan công tác - Địa chỉ
email.
Từ trang thứ 2 của file tác giả trình bày bài viết và không để lại bất cứ thông tin gì thể
hiện danh tính tác giả của bài viết.
Địa chỉ liên hệ và gửi bài:
57 Nguyễn Khoa Chiêm, Huế
ĐT: (0234)3.938577, Fax: (0234)3.830820
Email: tapchinnvh@hueuni.edu.vn, tcngonnguvanhoa@gmail.com
Website: www.hucfl.edu.vn
BAN BIÊN TẬP TẠP CHÍ KHOA HỌC NGÔN NGỮ VÀ VĂN HÓA
430
INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS
1. The article to be published is the result of scientific research with quality and originality in
the field of language and culture sciences. The article has not been published in any journals or
periodicals and is not being considered for publication in any scientific journals. The Journal
will not return the manuscript if the paper is not selected.
2. The text of the article must be typed as a Microsoft Word document (doc file) of no more
than 10 pages (including references and appendices). The format is as follows: A4 paper size;
margins: top 2cm, bottom 2cm, left 2cm, right 2cm; Times New Roman font; font size 12; line
spacing 1.15 lines; paragraph spacing: before 6pt and after 3pt.
3. The language in the article should be coherent, accurate, concise, and free of spelling
mistakes. English manuscripts must be in American English spelling.
4. The paper must highlight the research results and follow the organization and layout of a
scientific article, including such parts as abstract, introduction, literature review, methodology,
research results, discussion, conclusion, references and appendices.
4.1. The article title: concise and specific, informative, in both Vietnamese and English, in not
more than 15 words, in bold capital letters, size 15, center-aligned.
4.2. Article abstract: basically reflecting the contents of the article, in both Vietnamese and
English, about 120-150 words, font size 11, left margin 4cm, right margin 3cm, line spacing 1.0.
4.3. Keywords: relevant to the contents of the article, in both Vietnamese and English, up to 5
words, following the abstract.
5. Formatting rules for tables, charts, figures, symbols, formulas: Tables, figures are numbered
continuously (from 1); table and figure captions should be brief, in no more than 12 words with
specified source (if quoted). The caption of a table is put above it, and the caption of a figure, is
placed below it, font size 10 and center-aligned. In the article, when referring to a table or figure
the author should specify its number (for example, Table 1), instead of using phrases like "the
picture above" or "the table below".
6. Citation in the article: If a citation is from a foreign author, use his/her last name, for
example, "According to Smith (2013),..." or ... (Smith, 2013). If the author is Vietnamese, use
the full names, for example: "Cao Xuan Hao (2003) states that...". All direct quotations must
have the bibliographic source indicated, including the number of the page where they appear in
the source. Citation must be relevant to the article contents and citation from unofficial or
unpublished sources (e.g., theses, dissertations) should be limited.
7. Use no footnote in the text. Acknowledgment (if any) is placed immediately after the
conclusion and in no more than 25 words, using the following expression: The author(s) would
like to thank... for…
8. References: Arrange references in alphabetical order by the author’s surname. List all
references cited in the article, whose number is no more than 12. Do not number the references
in any way. Use APA format (American Psychology Association Citation format-6th edition),
431
which is a commonly used way of citing references in the documents of linguistics and social
sciences. See the illustrating examples below:
- Book:
Last name, Initials. (year of publication). Book's title. Place of publication (city): Publisher.
Example:
- Book chapter:
Last name, Initials. (year of publication). Title of the chapter. (giving information about the
editor(s) and book: “In” + initials of the editor’s names + Surname "(Ed./Eds.),") Title of the
book (pp. page numbers). Place of publication (city): Publisher.
Example:
- Journal article:
Last name, Initials. (year of publication). Article title. Title of Scientific journal, volume
(issue), first page-last page.
Example:
- Reference from the Internet:
Author's name. (Last, Initials)/Institution. (Time of posting). Article title. Internet reference
title. Volume (issue). Retrieved from (reference link) http://www.abc.com/
Example:
Bernstein, M. (2002). Ten tips on writing the living Web. A list apart: For people who make
websites, 149. Retrieved on May 3rd 2015 from: http://www.alistapart.com/articles/
writeliving
-Article published in conference/workshop proceedings:
Last name, Initials. (year of publication). Article title. Proceedings title (pp. page numbers).
Place of publication (city): Publisher.
Example:
Exa Wang, W. (2006). Exploring teachers’ beliefs and practice in the implementation of a
new English language curriculum in China: Case studies. Proceedings of the Conference on
Asia-Pacific Educational Research (pp. 3-14). Hong Kong.
432
- Unpublished thesis/dissertation
Last name, Initials. (year of publication). Article title. Unpublished thesis/dissertation. Place
of publication (city): Publisher.
Example:
teachers in New York City. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. New York University.
9. The appendix is for presenting the data collecting tools for the results presented in the article.
10. Authors are fully responsible and legally held liable for the contents of the article, the
sources of the citations.
To assist the objective and confidential review process, the article author(s) should
provide the first page of the text with personal information in the following order:
Name of the article-Full names of the author(s)-Name and address of the institution where
the author works-E-mail address.
From page 2 onward, the author(s) types the article contents only, not including any
personal or institutional information leading to their identity.
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Ấn phẩm của Tạp chí Khoa học Ngôn ngữ và Văn hóa,
Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ - Đại học Huế đã được bảo hộ
bản quyền. Nghiêm cấm sao chép, lưu trữ, truyền tải dưới
bất kỳ hình thức nào, bằng bất kỳ phương tiện nào, điện tử,
cơ khí, sao chụp, ghi âm hoặc bằng cách khác nếu chưa
được Tạp chí Khoa học Ngôn ngữ và Văn hóa cho phép
bằng văn bản.
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434
LỜI MỞ ĐẦU
Bộ Thông tin & Truyền thông cấp giấy phép hoạt động báo chí in số
580/GP-BTTTT vào ngày 21 tháng 12 năm 2016 cho Tạp chí Khoa
học của Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ có tên chính thức là Tạp chí Khoa
học Ngôn ngữ và Văn hóa, tên tiếng Anh là Journal of Inquiry into
Languages and Cultures. Tạp chí Khoa học Ngôn ngữ và Văn hóa là
sự phát triển và kế thừa kinh nghiệm xuất bản ấn phẩm khoa học
Thông báo khoa học của Trường được phát hành định kỳ 3 số mỗi
năm từ năm 2004 đến 2016. Tạp chí được phát hành bằng tiếng Việt
và tiếng Anh, định kỳ 4 tháng 1 số. Cục Thông tin Khoa học và Công
nghệ Quốc gia - Bộ Khoa học và Công nghệ cấp mã số quốc tế ISSN
2525-2674 cho Tạp chí vào ngày 26 tháng 5 năm 2017. Tạp chí đăng
tải các kết quả nghiên cứu khoa học có chất lượng, có tính mới trong
lĩnh vực ngôn ngữ và văn hóa, cập nhật thông tin khoa học với mục
đích đáp ứng nhu cầu chia sẻ kinh nghiệm nghiên cứu về khoa học
trong lĩnh vực ngôn ngữ và văn hóa của các nhà giáo dục, nhà nghiên
cứu trong nước và quốc tế.
Chúng tôi trân trọng kính gửi đến Quý vị độc giả tập 3, số 3, 2019
của Tạp chí gồm 12 bài viết thông báo kết quả nghiên cứu của các nhà
khoa học, nhà nghiên cứu từ các trường đại học, học viện trong và
ngoài nước như Trung tâm Anh ngữ AMES; Học viện Kỹ thuật
Quân sự; Trường Đại học Cần Thơ; Trường Đại học Quảng Bình;
Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội; Trường Đại
học Văn Lang; Trường Đại học Đà Lạt và Trường Đại học Ngoại
Trong số này, các bài viết trình bày kết quả nghiên cứu về nhiều lĩnh
vực khác nhau: phương pháp giảng dạy tiếng Anh (6 bài), phương
pháp giảng dạy tiếng Nga (2 bài), phương pháp giảng dạy tiếng
Trung Quốc (1 bài), ứng dụng CNTT vào giảng dạy ngoại ngữ (1
bài) và ngôn ngữ học ứng dụng (2 bài).
Đặc biệt, độc giả quan tâm đến nghiên cứu dạy học phát âm tiếng
Anh có thể tìm đọc các bài viết của tác giả Nguyễn Thị Triều Thảo và
của tác giả Trần Thảo Uyên. Ngoài ra, về phân tích và so sánh thể loại
văn bản, tác giả Nguyễn Thị Bích Phương trình bày kết quả nghiên
cứu về những đặc điểm cú pháp của các khẩu hiệu giáo dục đại học
(educational mottos) tại Việt Nam và các nước nói tiếng Anh.
Hội đồng biên tập xin gửi lời cảm ơn sâu sắc đến các tác giả đã gửi
đăng bài viết cho Tạp chí trong thời gian qua, cảm ơn các nhà khoa
học đã tham gia phản biện, góp phần hoàn thiện chất lượng các bài
viết của Tạp chí. Hội đồng biên tập rất mong nhận được bài viết cũng
như những ý kiến đóng góp của Quý vị độc giả để Tạp chí Khoa học
Ngôn ngữ và Văn hóa ngày càng phát triển và trở thành một tạp chí
có uy tín khoa học.
Trân trọng.
TỔNG BIÊN TẬP
Bảo Khâm
Journal of Inquiry into Languages and Cultures
Tập 3, Số 3, 2019
Vol. 3, No 3, 2019
MỤC LỤC – CONTENTS
1. Trần Thị Trâm Anh Implementing community service learning 299
Trương Viên for pre-service teachers: The case at
University
Triển khai học tập phục vụ cộng đồng cho giáo
viên trước khi dạy học: Trường hợp tại Trường
2. Trương Thị Dung Phát huy năng lực tự học, tự sáng tạo cho 309
học viên học Tiếng Nga chuyên ngành tại
Học viện Kỹ thuật Quân sự thông qua
phương pháp dự án
Developing self-learning and self-creation
abilities in students, which study Russian for
specific purposes at military technical academy
through project-based method
3. Huỳnh Thị Long Hà Nghiên cứu chiến lược đọc hiểu của sinh 317
Nguyễn Thị Phương Lan viên tiếng Anh không chuyên tại Trường
Nguyễn Phạm Thanh Vân Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Huế
Lê Thị Hồng Phương An investigation into the use of reading
strategies by non-majored English students at
University
4. Đồng Thanh Hải Suitable use of Vietnamese vocatives and 330
request structures: Effective communication
strategies among student youth leaders
Sử dụng phù hợp các từ vựng tiếng Việt và cấu
trúc yêu cầu: Chiến lược giao tiếp hiệu quả giữa
những sinh viên cán bộ đoàn trẻ
5. Mai Thị Như Hằng Redefining a flipped learning classroom: 339
Using outside-classroom listening portfolio
to boost inside-classroom speaking tasks
Lớp học đảo ngược: Sử dụng tập bài nghe ngoài
lớp học để tăng cường hiệu quả hoạt động nói
trên lớp
6. Lê Thị Hồng Phương Việc luyện nói tiếng Anh của sinh viên Đại 349
Nguyễn Phạm Thanh Vân học Huế để đạt đầu ra bậc 3/6
The English speaking practice of Hue University
students for the output standard of 3/6 level
7. Nguyễn Thị Bích Phương Educational mottos of tertiary institutions 359
in Vietnam and English-speaking countries:
A study of syntactic features
Khẩu hiệu giáo dục đại học tại Việt Nam và các
nước nói tiếng Anh: Nghiên cứu dưới góc nhìn
từ đặc trưng cú pháp
8. Nguyễn Thanh Sơn Đánh giá của sinh viên về hiệu quả của việc 377
sử dụng yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ trong giảng
dạy Tiếng Nga tại Khoa Tiếng Nga, Trường
Students' evaluation of the efficiency of using
non-verbal communication in teaching Russian
at the Russian Department of University of
Foreign Languages, Hue University
9. Nguyễn Thị Triều Thảo Ways of learning English pronunciation 386
among first-year English majors at Van Lang
University
Cách học phát âm tiếng Anh của sinh viên năm
nhất tại Trường Đại học Văn Lang
10. Trần Thị Thanh Thảo Phản hồi của sinh viên về việc ứng dụng 394
Lê Thị Hồng Phương phần mềm Schoology để đánh giá quá trình
kỹ năng nghe
An investigation into the students’ reflection
about the use of schoology in formative
assessment: A case study in a Vietnamese
University
11. Nguyễn Văn Tư Vận dụng phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ 407
theo nhiệm vụ” vào dạy học kỹ năng nói
trong Tiếng Trung Quốc
Applying “task-based language teaching" into
teaching and learning Chinese speaking skills
12. Trần Thảo Uyên Major problems in pronouncing English: A 418
case study at The University of Dalat
Những vấn đề nghiêm trọng trong phát âm
tiếng Anh: Nghiên cứu thực tế tại Trường Đại
học Đà Lạt
IMPLEMENTING COMMUNITY SERVICE LEARNING

FOR PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS: THE CASE AT UNIVERSITY
OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES, HUE UNIVERSITY
Tran Thuy Tram Anh*1; Truong Vien2
AMES English Center1; University of Foreign Languages, Hue University2

Abstract: The term Community Service Learning (CSL) is known as an effective learning
program that helps the student produce reflective assignments. Due to its practicality, CSL
is thus considered as one of the most useful supports for pre-service teachers and has
gradually developed over the recent decades. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the
attitudes of pre-service teachers towards CSL as well as enhance their awareness towards
community teaching, then find out the ways to extend this type of education program.
Taking these aims into accounts, the questionnaire was used to help the author easily
research the attitudes, obstacles, and needs of the participants. Moreover, the semi-
structured interview technique was used to have a detailed insight into CSL problems.
Consequently, the main findings initially revealed that pre-service teachers had a relatively
high awareness of the necessity and benefits of CSL. Secondly, the results implied that
problems encountered during the program and the lack of supports was noticeably pointed
out. Additionally, the pre-service teachers also agreed that one of the major contributions to
CSL success was teachers’ consistency. Interestingly, participants showed different
opinions when they were questioned whether CSL was compulsory in the learning
curriculum. By exposing some limitations, the research implied some significant
considerations for the community, universities and pre-service teachers. Finally, some
suggestions for further studies were offered to hopefully help the CSL programs become
more popular and effective.
Key words: Community service learning, SL, pre-service teachers
1. Introduction
1.1. Background
The term Community Service Learning (CSL) is increasingly popular all over the world in
the field of education and language teaching, especially at tertiary level (Benson & Harkavy,
2000; Bringle & Hatcher 1996; Enos & Morton, 2003; Williams, 2009; Yaman & Özdemir,
2012; Filiz & Durnali, 2019). Kesten (2012) showed in his study that CSL plays an
indispensable role in connecting the society and universities and putting universities in the
“hearts of individuals” (Benson & Harkavy, 2000; Bringle & Hatcher 1996; Enos & Morton,
2003). Despite the important role of CSL, there is little research considering the problem that
professional community constitutes a resource for teacher learning and innovations in teaching
practice (Wilson & Berne, 1999). Furthermore, there are a limited number of studies related to
CSL in the Vietnam context, particularly the studies on pre-service teachers’ perceptions and
their opinions of CSL courses. However, the study, which was implemented at Phuoc Duyen
pagoda in Hue city by Cao Thi Xuan Lien (2015) has greatly contributed to the success of the
* Email: tranthuytramanh95@gmail.com
299
present study with valuable findings and implications. She concluded that CSL is highly
appreciated as a teaching tool providing the connections between life and academics. Training
pre-service teachers through CSL programs, which aims to provide pedagogical students
teaching skills and experience before they become in-service staff, thus should be taken into
more consideration.
1.2. Aims of the study
This research aims to examine EFL pre-service teachers’ beliefs, attitudes towards the
community service learning and enhance their awareness towards community teaching as required
tasks before they become in-service teachers with a particular context in Hue city. Additionally, the
study is supposed to find out the ways to support the development of this type of education program.
The study will be conducted to answer the following questions:
1. What are the attitudes of pre-service teachers at HU-UFL towards the concept of CSL in
higher education?
2. What are the perceptions of pre-service teachers of implementing CSL activities?
3. What difficulties did pre-service teachers encounter when they implemented CSL?
This study investigated of the attitudes of pre-service teachers towards CSL, who used to
teach or who are teaching at the English community in Hue. Through the questionnaires and the
interview, the study explored some deeper aspects of community teaching as a teaching practice
process, some difficulties the teachers had to encounter when they implemented CSL activities
and also suggested some solutions to conduct CSL projects more effectively. This research also
gave some practical implications to help CSL programs become more effective and popular.
This research was conducted in some charitable classes at pagodas in Hue city. Although
there were not enough cases to describe CSL activities comprehensively, studying these classes
would hopefully provide valuable data on this kind of CSL program. Accordingly, the reality of
CSL practice could be reflected accurately. In particular, the study aimed at some certain
aspects: the perceptions of pre-service teachers to CSL’s significance and benefits; the important
factors to conduct and maintain CSL in the long term; some difficulties pre-service teachers may
meet during CSL programs.
2.1. Theoretical background
Campbell (1996) defined the pre-service teacher as an individual engaged in his or her
teacher preparation program with no more than two semesters or terms remaining to complete
the course of studies. Discussion of how to define the term service-learning (SL) is often the
source of disagreement among proponents. Bringle and Hatcher (1996) defined SL as “a credit-
bearing, educational experience in which students participate in an organized service activity
that meets identified community needs and reflect on the service activity in such a way as to
gain further understanding of course content, a broader appreciation of the discipline, and an
enhanced sense of civic responsibility” (p. 112). Yet, they do not provide a comprehensive
definition of SL.
300
Service learning could be considered as a preparation stage for students’ internship, which
students have opportunities to bring their knowledge to real situations and increase their
educational experiences - a powerful instrument improving students’ practical abilities
(Manathunga, 2007). Furco (1996) clarified this type of training that SL programs need to be
more institutionalized with higher responsibilities from participants compared to volunteer
activities. Also, he suggested that kind of learning should be conducted in the long run since it
takes constant efforts by students to perceive and satisfy society requirements.
CSL has been investigated and experimented on multi-aspects in various parts in the world
so far. As discussed above, there were a number of studies on identifying and differentiating the
term CSL with other volunteer projects. Initially, Sigmon (1979) considered CSL as a
probationary method in relation with “reciprocal learning” which means both sides (the CSL
servers and the recipients) would benefit from this kind of program. In fact, there were only a few
studies which examine exactly how SL impacts on students, particularly pre-service teachers.
Kesten (2012) found in his study that CSL contributes to educational and professional success and
mapping profession performance (Gökçe, 2011; Luchs, 1980; Warburton & Oppenheimer, 2000).
SL is a shared collaborative process that can involve not only students and learning institutions but
also every unit of the society, including the communities (Sandaran, 2008).
It is reported that SL exists in every state in the U.S. and spread out internationally:
64% of all public schools and 83% of public high schools organize some form of community
service for their students (National Center for Educational Statistics, 1999). However, CSL
has witnessed a downward trend in recent years. Scale and Roehlkepartain (2005) explained that
SL is more likely to have more positive effects on students’ involvement in the low-income
areas. It is highly valued in these regions owing to the belief that CSL can also bring
opportunities for young people to work with adults and develop leadership skills as well as have
benefits. According to the article Community Service and SL in America’s Schools (2008), the
schools which apply SL in their curriculum are more likely to have more encouragements and
practices than in 1999; it is, however, still hardly in compliance with institutions due to the
limitations of supporting staff, improvement strategies and compulsory requests as well as the
lack of assistance to participants.
Noticeably, there have been still a few studies regarding CSL as a method to support
pedagogical students in learning. The most recent study implemented by Lien (2015) has shown
the significance of CSL to education in general and in English teaching and learning context. By
using questionnaires and End-of-semester reflections for 40 students as well as interviewing 8
teachers who teach some English classes at Phuoc Duyen pagoda in Hue city, she concluded
that CSL also brings lots of advantages for faculties of universities or education agencies.
However, some other issues such as the perceptions of pre-service teachers towards CSL and
how to implement this kind of program sustainably create the research gap for this study to
continue discovering.
2.2. The study context
Normally, fourth-year students of the Pedagogy sector at HU-UFL implement the teaching
internship in a very short time, from 1 to 2 months. Furthermore, students are trained with some
practical teaching methodology courses and as a result, most of the students are worried when they
301
carry out their internship. Therefore, community teaching would be a good opportunity for these
students to have more practical teaching experiences before they graduate from the university. The
study was conducted at some English charity classes of some pagodas in Hue city.
3. Methodology
3.1. Research methods
According to Condelli and Wrigley (2004), quantitative approach, in addition to
qualitative one, can help researchers deepen their understandings of findings and infer from
those results. Therefore, this study used both quantitative and qualitative methods to obtain a
more reliable understanding of its results. Accordingly, the questionnaire was conducted to
provide data relating to the agreement degree of participants towards some previous opinions
while the semi-structured interview helped the researcher figure out other characteristics of
CSL, the attitude as well as experience of pre-service teachers during the time implementing
CSL.
3.2. Participants
Due to some difficulties with contacting, the number of participants in this study is 20 English
pedagogical students in HU-UFL who have experience in teaching at the community in Hue city.
They are pre-service teachers (pedagogical students) with a wide range of experience (teaching at a
community for over 1 month). As pre-service teachers have gained a great deal of experience in
teaching process, the study would have an in-depth analysis of the results. All participants were
asked to do the questionnaire. Among them, 5 teachers who had taught community classes for
over 3 months were chosen to participate in the interview. They have more comprehensive
opinions and CSL teaching experience.
3.3. Instruments
To accomplish the primary purpose of this study, the questionnaire is chosen as the main
method for statistical data collection. It includes 2 main parts: The first part is intended to get
the background information of the participants; the second part is presented in a 5-point-Likert
scale ranging from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree”. Most of the items in this section
were adopted and adapted from previous studies to make comparisons and find implications.
Since the questionnaire is designed for students, the questionnaire will be expounded clearly in
English to ensure the understandings of the participants. After that, the quantitative data
collected from the questionnaire was coded to be analyzed by the Statistical Package for the
Social Science (SPSS) software version 20. The descriptive statistics were run then to gain the
mean scores and standard deviations of each cluster. These data were helpful in making
comparisons between cluster-cluster and items in one cluster. Additionally, the one-sample T-
test was also conducted to determine the differences between participants’ perceptions towards
CSL and the hypothesis. In addition to data illustrated by tables, some bar charts were created
accordingly to facilitate visible demonstrations. Data were analyzed by referring to results from
previous research.
The semi-structured interview is used for this research in order to collect quite sufficient
responses in a short time. Also, the semi-structured interview provides the opportunity for
identifying new ways of seeing and understanding the topic at hand. According to Newcomer,
Hatry, and Wholey (2015), in mixed methods research, this technique can be considered as an
302
extension and “add depth” to other methods. The participants will be more comfortable because
they can talk about the topic according to their flow of speech. By asking attendants’ experience
and listening to their stories, the author may have a more general and profound overview of
CSL problems. Therefore, the data would be explored more effectively. Apart from the
questionnaire, the interview is conducted using Vietnamese to help participants express their
ideas precisely and thoroughly. The recorded qualitative data from the interview were first noted
down carefully in Vietnamese to make the respondents express their opinions more thoroughly;
the answers were then translated into English for later analysis. After that, the responses were
grouped following the research questions for easy referring and analyzing.
4. Findings
This section presents and interprets the collected data. First, the effects of community
teaching towards pre-service teachers have presented thanks to the statistical results of the
questionnaire. Then, the results from the interviews are also analyzed in order to get insights
into the results.
4.1. Questionnaire
First of all, the questionnaire is confirmed to be reliable with the reliability coefficient of
the questionnaire α= .913 (reliability coefficient of .70 or higher is considered "acceptable",
according to Garth, 2008).
Table 1. Mean scores of clusters
Std.
N Minimum Maximum Mean
Deviation
Generally, pre-service teachers showed their high expectations of the necessity as well as
advantages brought from CSL. All of the clusters saw the high rank of “degree”. After having
analyzed, Clusters 1, 2, 3 all showed the mean scores above 4 (4.38; 4.16; 4.23 respectively),
which implies that most of the pre-service teachers have positive attitudes towards CSL and
awareness of its benefits. The mean score of cluster 4 was by far different from three others
(M=3.21). This figure expresses that most of the participants did not hold a high level of
agreement with CSL difficulties.
303
4.1.1. Attitudes of pre-service teachers towards the necessity of CSL

Table 2. Mean score of Cluster 1: Necessity of CSL in relation to institution and community of CSL
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std.
Deviation
Universities build better communication with 20 3 5 4.35 .587
both the students and the environment
Students are familiar with other institutions and 20 2 5 4.30 .733
society
Prospective teachers can continue involvement 20 3 5 4.70 .571
in society and become caring citizens
CSL involves special knowledge 20 1 5 4.35 .933
CSL can deepen the tie between university and 20 2 5 4.20 .951
community
CSL meets the needs of community and generate 20 2 5 4.40 .821
multi-experiences for Ss
The results from the table point out that pre-service teachers acknowledge and show a
high level of agreement with the necessities of CLT towards the institution and community. In
detail, the mean score of Prospective teachers can continue involvement in society and become
caring citizen was the highest among these items (M=4.70, SD=.571). This finding is in line
with the results of Shelley (2000) that the percentage of students in the U.S involving in-service
programs increased because their parents and teachers believed CSL helped to create “better
citizen.’ Also, the high level of participants’ agreement with four remaining items was in line
with Williams (2009) and her colleagues that service provided meets the needs of the people
they serve and brought a plentiful experience for all participants.
4.1.2. Benefits of CSL
In Cluster 2, the item Improve self-confidence and leadership skills showed the highest
mean score (M=4.50) which could be interpreted that pre-service teachers highly valued these
benefits. However, the data in Table 4.3 showed the relative difference in distance between the
min and max score. Some items such as Promote empathy and responsibility for students;
Reduce stereotypes; facilitate cultural and racial understanding; Enhance teaching quality, find
opportunities for further research point out the high degree of SD, at above .85.
4.1.3. Making CSL sustainable
In Cluster 3, participants had similar ideas about the key factors to maintain CSL in the
long term (t=1.865; df=19) although there was some disagreement with the first and second
items of this cluster more courses should be incorporate with SL, CSL must be a strategy/ policy
of the institutions. By constrast, Guo (2013) showed that educators consider SL as an effective
teaching tool. Especially, there were many participants showing agreement with the last item
CSL should be known by all staff and students, which is explained in the Interview’s findings.
4.1.4. Problems and difficulties of CSL
The mean score of Cluster 4 was significantly different from three others (M=3.21),
which expressed that most of the participants did not hold a high level of agreement with CSL
304
difficulties, which means that participants have different opinions about the problems they can
encounter during the teaching program. The participants chose a wide range of answers, from
“completely degree” to “completely agree” level, which can be interpreted from SD numbers (most
SD scores were over 1.0). Otherwise, most of the participants agreed that implementing CSL was
difficult due to the lack of supports (M=3.70). Similarly, Guo (2013) stated in his study that once the
program is widely supported, the benefits will overweigh the negatives.
4.2. Interview
The result was taken from 5 responses of 5 pre-service teachers who have been involved
in the CSL program over 3 months. All the answers were recorded and written down for
reliability. There were some noticeable points shown during the interview. Firstly, almost all
participants have not understood CSL thoroughly; they could not even distinguish between CSL
and volunteer activities. The result revealed that students did not have a comprehensive look at
CSL though they put great efforts to maintain it. Secondly, all of the participants shared the
same opinion that CSL helped them to improve social skills and gain valuable knowledge of the
society. Importantly, students mostly agreed with three key factors to CSL’s success and
durability: the requirement of CSL coordinators who connect all parties together and manage
CSL activities; teachers’ dedication and teaching ability; the right evaluation of community’s
need. Finally, most of participants agreed that they sometimes find hard to cope with other pre-
service teachers who have different expectations of CSL.
5.1. Discussion
The findings from the questionnaire concluded that CSL has a great effect on pre-service
teachers’ practice and it should be implemented as a supplemental teaching method besides
traditional learning programs. In particular, there was a high level of participants’ agreement
with the items in Cluster 1, which was in line with the study by Williams (2009) and her
colleagues: service provided meets the needs of the people they serve and brought a plentiful
experience for all participants. Another agreement is that CSL should be taken into account by
principals and conducted with the supports from CSL coordinators. Without their help, all
respondents claimed, they would have faced numerous problems such as lack of consistent
organization and local interaction. This finding matched with the results in the study of Guo
(2013), stating that CSL needs the collaboration from all parties. The pre-service teachers also
passion and enthusiasm. In addition, there is no significant disparity among the clusters, except
for cluster 4 which implies that problems encountered during the program are not the most
affecting factors and variables to participants.
However, there were different points of view regarding implementing CSL mandatorily
in universities in the interview. Most of the interviewees had objections to this proposal because
it could lead to the unwillingness and ineffective outcomes. The responses from participants
showed that students would feel annoyed and only attend the CSL with personal purposes.
Interestingly, all participants concur with the idea that CSL should be regarded as an
extracurricular activity in university curriculums. When CSL is used as a pedagogical tool, the
students may pay more attention and spend a significant amount of their time and attempts to
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serve programs with higher responsibilities. Although students encountered some obstacles
during the program, these limitations can be considered as a part of the learning process, which
encourages them to show their high level of performance.
5.2. Implications
The positive feedbacks from CSL participants have proven the essential importance and
effectiveness of the CSL program. The following implications aim to provide the most sufficient
insight into CSL’s reality and some solutions to implement CSL more extensively and
effectively.
5.2.1. Implications for organizations conducting CSL
It can be seen from the findings that students in general, pre-service teachers, in particular,
should be encouraged to participate in this program as a kind of learning due to the lack of
professional practice time. Students may feel reluctant to participate and make CSL lose its
original purpose; this kind of learning thus should be added into the current curriculum like an
extracurricular activity which can get more students involved in and provide high-quality service.
Additionally, as the lack of supports was seen as the biggest difficulty, all related
organizations, from authorities to universities, should give more supports for these projects and
make efforts to popularize them to people. There should be coordinators who are eligible for
managing CSL activities and connecting students to the community as well as universities. Once
CSL programs are applied officially, they will have valuable contributions to society, universities,
and students.
5.2.2. Implications for pre-service teachers
Firstly, students should have a proper conceptualization of the term CSL before
participating. One anticipated problem before conducting this research is that students do not have
a certain understanding of this kind of education. CSL is usually known as voluntary work and the
community is supposed to be the only object benefiting from CSL. Therefore, students should be
made aware of the CSL purposes before taking part in it. Once they understand that CSL not only
brings benefits to the community but also helps them to improve personal skills like a learning
program, they can be more willing to contribute to CSL.
Secondly, pre-service teachers should always train themselves to gain the best knowledge
and pedagogical competence. Within this context, the program aims to help poor students
overcome some of their prejudice about English and get closer to this subject, so teachers must
try their best to bring valuable lessons to their students and maintain learners’ interests. In
addition, this program has met a variety of difficulties due to the mixed level, learning styles
and different ages of students. Teachers hence must have the ability to solve these problems
with necessary teaching skills and the application of diverse activities. Another important aspect
is the teachers’ passion. Teaching charity classes is a durable process that requires lots of
responsibility from participants. Therefore, teachers must identify their goals clearly before
conducting and keep going in the long term.
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6. Conclusion
Conducted at some charitable classes in Hue city, the research aimed to find out the
perception of students who are going to become in-service teachers towards CSL and the
essential factors to maintain this kind of learning. From the findings of the questionnaire and the
interview, the research went to some following conclusions. Firstly, the high level of agreement
showed that CSL plays a significant role in connecting students with universities and the
community. Secondly, participants showed high awareness of the huge benefits that community,
universities and students received after conducting CSL. Apart from that, pre-service teachers
indicated that the problems they encountered during the program were not the most affecting
factors which depended on each participant’s condition. Most students agreed that CSL should
be taken into accounts by principals and conducted with the supports from CSL coordinators.
Without the help from them, all students claimed, they would have faced numerous problems
such as lack of consistent organization and local interaction. The pre-service teachers also
passion and enthusiasm.
However, the proposal relating to implementing CSL as a requirement at schools should
be discussed and conducted carefully. Once students understand that CSL not only brings
benefits to the community but also improve their personal skills, they can be more willing to
contribute to CSL.
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Cao Thi Xuan Lien (2015). Community SL from perspectives of EFL teachers and students: A case at
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TRIỂN KHAI HỌC TẬP PHỤC VỤ CỘNG ĐỒNG CHO GIÁO VIÊN
TRƯỚC KHI DẠY HỌC: TRƯỜNG HỢP
Tóm tắt: Thuật ngữ Học Tập Phục Vụ Cộng Đồng (HTPVCĐ) được biết đến như một
chương trình học hiệu quả giúp sinh viên thực hiện được những bài tập có tính phản biện
hơn. Nhờ tính thực tiễn của nó, HTPVCĐ được xem như một trong những sự hỗ trợ hiệu
quả nhất cho những giáo viên trước khi dạy học (GVTRDH) và đã dần phát triển trong thời
gian qua. Do đó, nghiên cứu này có mục tiêu điều tra thái độ của những GVTRDH đối với
HTPVCĐ cũng như nhằm nâng cao nhận thức của họ đối với việc dạy học cộng đồng, bên
cạnh đó tìm ra các giải pháp mở rộng chương trình này. Từ những mục tiêu trên, bảng hỏi
đã được sử dụng nhằm giúp tác giả có thể dễ dàng tìm hiểu được thái độ, những khó khăn
và nhu cầu của sinh viên. Bên cạnh đó, phỏng vấn bán cấu trúc được tiến hành để có cái
nhìn sâu hơn về những vấn đề tồn tại của HTPVCĐ. Sau khi tiến hành nghiên cứu, những
kết quả chính bước đầu thể hiện rằng các GVTKDH nhận thức khá tốt về tính cần thiết và
những lợi ích mà HTPVCĐ mang lại. Hai là, kết quả cho thấy những vấn đề gặp phải trong
suốt chương trình và sự thiếu hỗ trợ cần được chú ý xem xét. Ngoài ra, GVTKDH cũng tán
thành rằng một trong những yếu tố quan trọng dẫn tới sự thành công của HTPVCĐ là tính
kiên trì của giáo viên. Đáng thú vị là, những người tham gia đã đưa ra những quan điểm
khác nhau khi họ được hỏi về việc có nên đưa HTPVCĐ vào chương trình học bắt buộc hay
không. Từ những giới hạn được nêu ra, nghiên cứu gợi ý những cân nhắc kỹ về cộng đồng,
các trường đại học và GVTKDH. Cuối cùng, một vài đề xuất cho những nghiên cứu sau
cũng được cung cấp để hi vọng có thể giúp HTPVCĐ trở nên rộng rãi và hiệu quả hơn.
Từ khóa: Học tập phục vụ cộng đồng, học tập - phục vụ, giáo viên trước khi dạy
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PHÁT HUY NĂNG LỰC TỰ HỌC, TỰ SÁNG TẠO

CHO HỌC VIÊN HỌC TIẾNG NGA CHUYÊN NGÀNH
TẠI HỌC VIỆN KỸ THUẬT QUÂN SỰ
THÔNG QUA PHƯƠNG PHÁP DỰ ÁN
Trương Thị Dung*
Học viện Kỹ thuật Quân sự
Tóm tắt: Nhận thức rõ vai trò, tầm quan trọng của tiếng Nga đối với nhiệm vụ xây dựng
Quân đội, bảo vệ Tổ quốc, những năm gần đây việc dạy và học ngôn ngữ này tại Học viện
Kỹ thuật Quân sự luôn là một trong những vấn đề được quan tâm hàng đầu. Mục tiêu cuối
cùng là trang bị cho học viên kĩ năng đọc hiểu tài liệu tiếng Nga chuyên ngành. Để nâng
cao chất lượng dạy và học, đội ngũ giảng viên cũng không ngừng học tập, nâng cao trình
độ, đổi mới phương pháp giảng dạy. Một trong những phương pháp đang được đánh giá là
phù hợp và có khả năng phát huy những thế mạnh của học viên học viện Kỹ thuật Quân sự
là phương pháp dự án. Bài viết dưới đây đề cập đến phương pháp dự án như một công cụ
phát huy năng lực tự học, tự sáng tạo của học viên Học viện Kỹ thuật Quân sự khi học tiếng
Nga chuyên ngành, mô tả các giai đoạn chính, các hoạt động và kết quả ứng dụng thực tế
của phương pháp dự án.
Từ khóa: Tiếng Nga, tiếng Nga chuyên ngành, dạy và học ngoại ngữ, phương pháp giảng
dạy, phương pháp dự án
1. Mở đầu
Tại Học viện Kỹ thuật Quân sự (HVKTQS) tiếng Nga được giảng dạy như một môn học
bắt buộc đối với hầu hết các chuyên ngành đào tạo. Sau khi hoàn thành chương trình tiếng Nga
trình độ B1, học viên chuyển sang học tiếng Nga chuyên ngành. Căn cứ thời lượng thực tế (45
tiết) dành cho môn học và mục tiêu cuối cùng của việc học ngoại ngữ (tiếng Nga) tại HVKTQS,
việc trang bị kĩ năng, kĩ xảo đọc hiểu các văn bản tiếng Nga chuyên ngành cho học viên được
coi là nhiệm vụ được ưu tiên hàng đầu. Trên cơ sở phân tích các điều kiện dạy-học tiếng Nga tại
HVKTQS, chúng tôi cho rằng, phương pháp phù hợp mà có thể phát huy những điểm mạnh và
khắc phục những khó khăn trong giảng dạy môn tiếng Nga chuyên ngành tại HVKTQS là
phương pháp dự án.
Theo các nhà nghiên cứu Koll (1997), Apel và Knoll (2001), Bastian và Gujons (1991),
khái niệm dự án bắt nguồn từ lĩnh vực kinh tế và được đưa vào sử dụng trong lĩnh vực giáo dục
- đào tạo như một phương pháp hay hình thức dạy học (Lê Khoa, 2015). Về phương pháp dạy
học theo dự án đã có nhiều quan điểm định nghĩa khác nhau. Nhà lí luận người Mỹ - Kilpatrick
nhấn mạnh vào hai đặc điểm của phương pháp dự án là định hướng vào sự hứng thú và tính tích
cực cao của người học. Frey - nhà sư phạm người Đức lại nhấn mạnh tới đặc điểm tạo ra sản
phẩm của phương pháp này (Lê Khoa, 2015). Tác giả Nguyễn Văn Cường viết: “Dạy học
* Email: tiengngadung@gmail.com
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Project hay dạy học theo dự án là một hình thức dạy học, trong đó người học dưới sự điều khiển
và giúp đỡ của giáo viên tự lực giải quyết một nhiệm vụ học tập mang tính phức hợp không chỉ
về mặt lí thuyết mà cả về mặt thực hành thông qua đó tạo ra các sản phẩm có thể giới thiệu,
công bố được” (Nguyễn Văn Cường, 1997). Cùng quan điểm với Nguyễn Văn Cường sau này
có Nguyễn Thị Diệu Thảo (2009) và Đỗ Hương Trà (2011). Tuy nhiên, Đỗ Hương Trà nhấn
mạnh thêm đến vị trí trung tâm của người học trong quá trình dạy-học: “Dạy học theo phương
pháp dự án đặt học sinh vào vai trò tích cực như: người giải quyết vấn đề, người ra quyết định”
và người học thường thực hiện các dự án học tập thông qua hình thức làm việc nhóm (Lê Khoa,
2015). Trên cơ sở các quan điểm đó, chúng tôi cho rằng, bản chất của phương pháp dạy học
theo dự án chính là: người học là trung tâm của quá trình dạy-học; giáo viên là người hướng
dẫn, giúp đỡ, khuyến khích người học thực hiện các dự án học tập; làm việc nhóm là hình thức
học tập chủ yếu; mục tiêu của các dự án học tập là tạo ra các sản phẩm.
Cho đến nay việc ứng dụng phương pháp dạy học theo dự án vào dạy-học ngoại ngữ đã
được nhiều nhà khoa học quan tâm, nghiên cứu và đã đạt được những kết quả tích cực nhất định.
Điều đó được trình bày trong các nghiên cứu của Stoller (2006) tại Đại học Cambridge University
Press, Beckett (2002) G. H. tại Canada, Ibrahim Farouck (2016) tại Đại học Thương mại Otaru,
Nhật Bản, Almeida Mendex (2011) tại Hàn Quốc,... tại Việt Nam có Nguyen Thi Van Lam (2011)
tại Đại học Vinh, Nguyễn Thị Thanh Thanh (2010) tại trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Đà
Nẵng,... Tuy nhiên, ứng dụng phương pháp dự án vào dạy và học ngoại ngữ chuyên ngành cho
sinh viên các trường đại học kỹ thuật trong quân đội hiện còn là vấn đề mới mẻ.
Trong nghiên cứu này chúng tôi lựa chọn phương pháp nghiên cứu hành động, bao gồm
bốn bước: bước 1- xác định vấn đề cần giải quyết; bước 2- đề xuất giải pháp can thiệp; bước 3-
đưa giải pháp can thiệp vào thực nghiệm; bước 4- đánh giá kết quả thực nghiệm.
3.1. Xác định vấn đề
Vấn đề giảng dạy tiếng Nga chuyên ngành tại HVKTQS vẫn còn mang tính truyền thống
khi việc giảng dạy tập trung vào cung cấp kiến thức hơn là phát triển năng lực tự học. Mặt khác,
cải cách phương pháp học nhằm phát triển năng lực đọc hiểu tiếng Nga chuyên ngành của học
viên đôi khi bị lãng quên. Đặc biệt, quá trình dạy-học còn phụ thuộc nhiều vào vai trò của giáo
viên. Đó là lý do mà chúng tôi nhận thấy năng lực đọc hiểu tiếng Nga chuyên ngành của học
viên chưa đạt được kết quả mong muốn. Để kiểm chứng vấn đề này, chúng tôi đã tiến hành một
cuộc thăm dò với giáo viên và học viên học tiếng Nga tại khoa Ngoại ngữ - HVKTQS. Kết quả
thăm dò đã chỉ ra, 90% số học viên được hỏi cho rằng việc đọc hiểu các văn bản tiếng Nga
chuyên ngành là cần thiết, 85% cảm thấy kết quả học đọc hiểu tiếng Nga chuyên ngành phụ
thuộc nhiều vào giáo viên và có 93% đưa ra câu trả lời là mong muốn được cải thiện kỹ năng
đọc hiểu. Kết quả thăm dò với giáo viên giảng dạy cũng cho thấy 100% giáo viên đồng ý với ý
kiến rằng phương pháp giảng dạy, công nghệ giảng dạy ảnh hưởng đến việc dạy-học ngoại ngữ
hiện nay. Tuy nhiên, không phải tất cả các giáo viên đều sử dụng các phương pháp tích cực
trong giảng dạy đọc hiểu các văn bản tiếng Nga chuyên ngành mặc dù họ có hiểu biết về các
phương pháp dạy học đó.
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3.2. Đề xuất giải pháp can thiệp

Phân tích đặc điểm dạy-học tiếng Nga chuyên ngành tại HVKTQS chúng tôi nhận thấy có
nhiều điều kiện thuận lợi để áp dụng phương pháp dạy học theo dự án. Thứ nhất, học viên sống,
học tập, rèn luyện và sinh hoạt theo các chế độ đã quy định nên họ có thời gian biểu trong ngày
gần giống nhau. Đây là điều kiện thuận lợi để các học viên sắp xếp thời gian làm việc nhóm; thứ
hai, học viên sống tập trung trong cùng một doanh trại, thông thường các học viên học cùng một
lớp được bố trí ở các phòng gần nhau trong doanh trại và khoảng bốn học viên ở một phòng.
Điều này giúp học viên thuận lợi trong việc gặp gỡ, trao đổi học thuật, tiếp nhận thông tin từ
giáo viên một cách nhanh chóng, chính xác; thứ ba, trước khi vào học tại HVKTQS, các học
viên đã trải qua sáu tháng rèn luyện tân binh nên hầu hết học viên đã rèn luyện được tính kỷ
luật, nghiêm túc, tự giác trong sinh hoạt, học tập, rèn luyện; thứ tư, bên cạnh giáo viên duy trì
giờ giấc, nền nếp học tập của học viên còn có cán bộ quản lí làm nhiệm vụ kiểm tra, giám sát.
Vì vậy giáo viên hoàn toàn không phải lo lắng việc học viên có lên lớp đầy đủ, đúng giờ hay
không, có hoàn thành bài tập về nhà trước khi đến lớp hay không, v.v.; thứ năm, học viên
HVKTQS được miễn phí hoàn toàn học phí, được đảm bảo đầy đủ về quân tư trang cho sinh
hoạt và học tập. Ngoài ra, hàng tháng mỗi học viên còn được nhận một khoản phụ cấp nhất
định. Điều này, ít nhiều giúp học viên HVKTQS yên tâm học tập, và có thể mua sắm các đồ
dùng học tập cần thiết; thứ sáu, tại HVKTQS hiện nay có hai phòng học được trang bị máy tính
(54 chiếc) cài các phần mềm học tiếng Nga tiên tiến, có kết nối internet dành riêng cho học viên
học tiếng Nga do giáo viên khoa Ngoại ngữ quản lí. Điều này góp phần hỗ trợ học viên về
không gian cũng như công cụ học tập; thứ bảy, đội ngũ giáo viên trẻ, năng động, dễ dàng tiếp
cận với các phương pháp dạy học mới. Phần lớn trong số họ tốt nghiệp hoặc có trải qua các
khóa thực tập nâng cao nghiệp vụ sư phạm tại các trường Đại học của Liên bang Nga. Câu hỏi
nghiên cứu được đặt ra là: Liệu có sự tiến bộ đối với học viên học ngoại ngữ tiếng Nga tại
HVKTQS trong việc đọc hiểu các văn bản tiếng Nga chuyên ngành nếu giáo viên giảng dạy
theo phương pháp dự án hay không?
3.3. Đưa giải pháp can thiệp vào thực nghiệm
Để kiểm chứng hiệu quả của phương pháp dạy học theo dự án đối với dạy đọc hiểu tiếng
Nga chuyên ngành, năm học 2018-2019 chúng tôi có đề nghị áp dụng phương pháp này vào dạy
cho lớp Xe quân sự. Tiến trình dạy học được xây dựng dựa trên lí luận về phương pháp dạy học
theo dự án đã được các nhà khoa học nghiên cứu và trình bày trong các tài liệu khoa học. Theo
đó, có khá nhiều quan điểm khác nhau về sự phân chia các giai đoạn trong tiến trình thực hiện:
như K. Frey xây dựng tiến trình gồm có các bước: sáng kiến dự án, thảo luận về sáng kiến, lập
kế hoạch, thực hiện dự án, kết thúc dự án và đi đôi với nó còn có phần kiểm tra, trao đổi và điều
chỉnh trong quá trình thực hiện dự án; Tác giả Đỗ Hương Trà phân chia tiến trình dạy học dự án
thành các pha: chuẩn bị, thực hiện và khai thác một cách sư phạm các hoạt động học sinh thực
hiện trong quá trình tương tác giữa họ và đặc biệt là tương tác với mạng tin học. Trong luận án
tiến sĩ của mình, tác giả Lê Khoa xây dựng quy trình dạy học theo dự án gồm ba bước: chuẩn bị
dự án, thực hiện dự án và đánh giá dự án (Lê Khoa, 2015). Khi ứng dụng phương pháp dạy học
dự án vào dạy đọc hiểu văn bản tiếng Nga chuyên ngành cho học viên tại HVKTQS chúng tôi
tiếp thu các ý kiến của các nhà khoa học, tuy nhiên có sửa đổi cho phù hợp với đặc thù môn học
và điều kiện học tập. Tiến trình thực hiện cụ thể như sau:
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Bước 1: Chuẩn bị dự án
- Giáo viên gợi ý học viên lựa chọn đề tài cho dự án học tập. Đề tài đó học viên có thể tự do lựa
chọn nhưng phải đảm bảo phù hợp với nội dung, chương trình môn học. Ví dụ, khi dạy đọc hiểu
các văn bản tiếng Nga chuyên ngành Xe quân sự, chúng tôi có gợi ý học viên chọn một trong
các chủ đề để làm đề tài dự án. Đó có thể là: Dự án tìm hiểu về xe bán phà GSP (Гусеничный
самоходный паром ГСП), dự án tìm hiểu về Xe khắc phục vật cản IMR-2M (Инженерная
машина разграждения ИМР-2М), dự án tìm hiểu về Máy ủi B12 (Бульдозер Б-12), dự án tìm
hiểu Xe vượt sông PTS-2 (Плавающий гусеничный транспортер ПТС-2)...
- Học viên lựa chọn thành viên để lập nhóm, thống nhất lựa chọn đề tài, thảo luận và đưa ra mục
tiêu dự án, các hướng giải quyết, những công việc cụ thể cần thực hiện, thời gian thực hiện,
người thực hiện, phương pháp thực hiện, v.v.
- Giáo viên hướng dẫn học viên lập kế hoạch thực hiện dự án, định hướng mỗi nhóm có thể lựa
chọn một loại xe quân sự và khai thác các khía cạnh về: lịch sử xuất hiện, vai trò, cấu tạo, đặc
tính kỹ thuật, nguyên tắc hoạt động, sử dụng trong điều kiện chiến đấu, bảo dưỡng, bảo trì...
Giáo viên gợi ý phương thức trình bày sản phẩm có thể là: thuyết trình, quay video clip, phỏng
vấn, tổ chức gameshow, hoặc làm sản phẩm mô hình... tài liệu tham khảo là giáo trình, tài liệu
do giáo viên cung cấp và tự khai thác các nguồn khác nhau.
Bước 2: Thực hiện dự án
- Các nhóm bắt tay vào nghiên cứu, tìm kiếm, thu thập thêm tài liệu, tập trung vào thực hiện
nhiệm vụ được giao, thường xuyên thảo luận báo cáo tiến độ công việc, đánh giá, chỉnh sửa để
đạt được mục tiêu của dự án, tạo ra sản phẩm dự án có chất lượng.
- Giáo viên theo dõi tiến độ làm việc, giải quyết những thắc mắc của các nhóm, khuyến khích
các nhóm thực hiện dự án nghiêm túc, chất lượng, đúng tiến độ. Ở giai đoạn này giáo viên cần
tôn trọng kế hoạch đã xây dựng của các nhóm, cần tạo điều kiện cho học viên làm chủ hoạt
động học tập của mình.
Bước 3: Hoàn thành dự án
- Các nhóm hoàn thiện sản phẩm và báo cáo sản phẩm trước giáo viên và tập thể lớp. Sau phần
trình bày của mỗi nhóm, các nhóm khác và giáo viên nhận xét, bổ sung, đánh giá, cho điểm.
- Học viên cũng tự đánh giá mình và đánh giá các thành viên khác trong nhóm của mình theo
các tiêu chí: thái độ làm việc, mức độ đóng góp, chất lượng công việc.
- Giáo viên nhận xét, đánh giá, rút kinh nghiệm toàn bộ quá trình thực hiện dự án và sản phẩm
của các dự án. Tuyên dương các nhóm có thái độ làm việc nghiêm túc, các dự án có sản phẩm
chất lượng. Rút kinh nghiệm các học viên còn chưa tập trung vào thực hiện nhiệm vụ của dự án.
Môn học tiếng Nga chuyên ngành tại HVKTQS gồm 45 tiết được giảng dạy trong 15
tuần, mỗi tuần một buổi, mỗi buổi ba tiết. 13 tiết đầu (tương đương 5 buổi học) chúng tôi giới
thiệu cho học viên về từ vựng và ngữ pháp đặc trưng của văn bản tiếng Nga chuyên ngành kĩ
thuật quân sự. Học viên sẽ được làm quen, củng cố, ghi nhớ, luyện tập các thuật ngữ quân sự và
các thuật ngữ chuyên ngành hẹp, phân tích, dịch ra tiếng mẹ đẻ các câu chứa các cấu trúc ngữ
pháp đặc trưng thông qua các dạng bài tập khác nhau. Nghĩa là học viên được trang bị các kĩ
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năng ngôn ngữ (từ vựng, ngữ pháp) chuẩn bị cho giai đoạn đọc hiểu tiếp theo. Sau khi kết thúc
13 tiết đầu tiên, giáo viên giới thiệu cho học viên về phương pháp dự án (2 tiết). Trong hai tiết
học này, giáo viên và học viên cần thực hiện xong giai đoạn chuẩn bị dự án. Học viên thực hiện
dự án trong thời gian 8 tuần. Tuần thứ 9 và tuần thứ 10 là thời gian hoàn thành dự án.
3.4. Kết quả thực nghiệm
Sau thời gian 8 tuần thực hiện, 100% các nhóm hoàn thành mục tiêu dự án, có sản phẩm
trình bày trước giáo viên và tập thể lớp. Để đánh giá kết quả thực hiện dự án của học viên,
chúng tôi xây dựng các tiêu chí đánh giá về hai mặt: đánh giá năng lực đọc hiểu các văn bản
tiếng Nga chuyên ngành và đánh giá thái độ học tập, mức độ đóng góp thực hiện các dự án. Với
môn học tiếng Nga chuyên ngành, việc đánh giá năng lực đọc hiểu chính là đánh giá khả năng
tự vận dụng kiến thức ngôn ngữ (từ vựng, ngữ pháp) đã được trang bị vào giải quyết những khó
khăn gặp phải trong khi đọc, khả năng hiểu chính xác nội dung các văn bản chuyên ngành, khả
năng phân tích, truyền tải thông tin sang tiếng mẹ đẻ... Nội dung đánh giá này do các giáo viên
phụ trách lớp trực tiếp thực hiện. Việc đánh giá khả năng sáng tạo, thái độ làm việc, mức độ
đóng góp vào dự án được học viên tự thực hiện và các bạn cùng nhóm đánh giá lẫn nhau. Để có
thêm cơ sở kết luận hiệu quả của việc dạy đọc hiểu văn bản tiếng Nga chuyên ngành cho học
viên tại HVKTQS theo phương pháp dự án sau khi hoàn thành môn học, chúng tôi tiến hành lấy
ý kiến người học và giáo viên giảng dạy.
Kết quả cuộc khảo sát thu được như sau:
- 10/10 học viên được hỏi tỏ ra hứng thú hoặc rất hứng thú với việc thực hiện dự án đọc hiểu các
tài liệu tiếng Nga chuyên ngành;
- Việc thực hiện các dự án học tập giúp cải thiện:
+ Kĩ năng phát hiện và tự giải quyết vấn đề (7/10),
+ Kĩ năng làm việc nhóm (10/10),
+ Kĩ năng thu thập, xử lí tài liệu (7/10),
+ Khả năng tư duy phản biện (7/10),
+ Khả năng đưa ra nhiều phương án để giải quyết một vấn đề (8/10).
Tuy nhiên, các học viên cũng đề cập đến những khó khăn khi thực hiện dự án học tập là:
việc thực hiện các dự án học tập đòi hỏi phải:
+ Đầu tư nhiều thời gian (7/10),
+ Có kiến thức liên môn tốt như hiểu biết nhất định về chuyên ngành bằng tiếng mẹ đẻ (10/10),
+ Sử dụng thành thạo máy vi tính (6/10),
+ Sử dụng thành thạo các công cụ tìm kiếm, xử lí tài liệu (8/10),
+ Có kĩ năng làm việc nhóm (10/10),
+ Tự đưa ra quyết định và tự chịu trách nhiệm (10/10).
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Khi được hỏi, giáo viên giảng dạy cho rằng, các dự án học viên thực hiện đã đạt được
mục tiêu dạy học. Cụ thể là:
Về kiến thức: Sau khi thực hiện xong các dự án, học viên học được các kiến thức về các
loại xe-máy quân sự như: lịch sử xuất hiện, vai trò, cấu tạo, đặc tính kỹ thuật, nguyên tắc hoạt
động, sử dụng trong điều kiện chiến đấu, bảo dưỡng, bảo trì...
Về kĩ năng: Học viên biết vận dụng các kiến thức ngôn ngữ, các kiến thức liên môn đã
học vào đọc, phân tích, tóm tắt, chuyển tải nội dung văn bản tiếng Nga chuyên ngành sang tiếng
mẹ đẻ, xây dựng các bài báo cáo, trình bày, nêu được các vấn đề cần nghiên cứu, giải quyết
được các vấn đề đó... Mặc dù sản phẩm đôi chỗ chuyển dịch sang tiếng mẹ đẻ còn gượng gạo,
chưa thoát ý, song cũng thể hiện sự cố gắng, nỗ lực của các nhóm để đạt được mục tiêu dự án.
Về thái độ: Học sinh có hứng thú, có trách nhiệm với việc thực hiện dự án học tập, tích
cực tìm kiếm, xử lí tài liệu, hợp tác, lắng nghe và tiếp thu ý kiến góp ý của của giáo viên, cũng
như đồng đội.
Tuy nhiên, giáo viên cũng đưa ra các hạn chế khi giảng dạy theo phương pháp dự án đối
với kĩ năng đọc hiểu văn bản tiếng Nga chuyên ngành là: thay vì cung cấp kiến thức một lần cho
tất cả lớp thì giáo viên cần nhiều thời gian hơn để hướng dẫn từng nhóm học viên thu thập, xử lí
tài liệu, hoàn thành dự án, báo cáo, trình bày dự án, đánh giá từng dự án... Liên tục động viên
học viên hoàn thành dự án đúng tiến độ, đảm bảo chất lượng.
4. Kết quả nghiên cứu, thảo luận và khuyến nghị
Như vậy, kết quả thực nghiệm đã phần nào phản ánh được hiệu quả của việc ứng dụng
phương pháp dự án vào dạy-học đọc các văn bản tiếng Nga chuyên ngành tại HVKTQS. Kết
quả thực nghiệm cho thấy phương pháp này phù hợp với các điều kiện dạy và học tại môi
trường quân đội cụ thể là HVKTQS, phù hợp với đặc điểm tâm lí của học viên. Đây là cơ sở
thực tiễn để chúng tôi xây dựng khung phương pháp làm tài liệu giảng dạy cho giáo viên, cũng
như công cụ học tập cho học viên học tiếng Nga chuyên ngành tại HVKTQS.
Một số ý kiến đề xuất nhằm nâng cao chất lượng dạy và học tiếng Nga chuyên ngành tại
HVKTQS là:
Về phía giáo viên: Thống nhất việc đổi mới phương pháp giảng dạy theo hướng phát huy
tính chủ động, tích cực, tự học, tự nghiên cứu. Mặt khác giáo viên cũng cần quan tâm hơn đến
việc hướng dẫn phương pháp học ngoại ngữ cho học viên để giảm bớt các khó khăn về tâm lý
cũng như ngôn ngữ khi tiếp cận với ngôn ngữ mới, phương pháp dạy học mới ở bậc đại học.
Về phía học viên: Cần hình thành phương pháp tự học ngoại ngữ bằng cách rèn luyện các
kỹ năng làm việc nhóm, kĩ năng phát hiện và tự giải quyết vấn đề, kĩ năng thu thập, xử lí tài
liệu, kĩ năng phản biện, bảo vệ ý kiến,...
5. Kết luận
Nhìn chung kết quả nghiên cứu đã đáp ứng những mong đợi và trả lời được câu hỏi
nghiên cứu, góp phần vào nghiên cứu đa ngành, đạt được các mục tiêu nghiên cứu đã đề ra.
Đóng góp của nghiên cứu theo chúng tôi quan trọng nhất là: trên cơ sở ứng dụng phương pháp
dạy học theo dự án, học viên đã có những tiến bộ nhất định trong việc đọc hiểu các tài liệu tiếng
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Nga chuyên ngành, phục vụ các mục tiêu học ngoại ngữ lâu dài. Tuy nhiên, nghiên cứu này vẫn
chưa được hoàn chỉnh do chưa thể đưa vào thử nghiệm đại chúng. Đó là lý do chúng tôi mong
muốn có thể tiếp tục hướng nghiên cứu này trong tương lai.
Almeida-Mendes, M.P. (2017). Project-based learning in foreign language classes for Korean students.
Russian Linguistic Bulletin, 3(11),17-19.
Apel, H.J., & Knoll, M. (2001). Aus Projiekten lernen. Grundlegung und anregungen. Munchen :
Oldenburg.
Bastian, J., & Gujons, H. (1991). Das Projektbuch. Theorie - praxisbeispiele - erfahrungen. Hamburg.
Beckett, G.H. (2002). Teacher and student evaluations of project-based instruction. TESL Canada
Journal, 19(2), 52-66.
Đỗ Hương Trà (2011). Các kiểu tổ chức dạy học hiện đại trong dạy học vật lí ở trường phổ thông. NXB
Đại học Sư phạm.
Farouck, I. (2016). A project-based language learning model for improving the willingness to
communicate of EFL students. Proceedings of IMCIC-ICSIT 2016, 145-150. Retrieved from:
http://www.iiis.org/CDs2016/CD2016Spring/papers /EB193TO.pdf.
Ibrahim, F. (2016). A project-based language learning model for improving the willingness to
communicate of EFL students. Systemics, Cybernetics and Informatics, 14(2), 11-18.
Kilpatrick, W.H. (1918). The project method: The use of the purposeful act in the education process.
Teachers College Record, 19, 319-335.
Knoll, M. (1997). The project method: Its vocational education origin and international development.
Journal of Industrial Teacher Education, 34(3), 59-80.
Lê Khoa (2015). Vận dụng phương pháp dạy học theo dự án trong dạy học kiến thức về sản xuất và sử
dụng điện năng cho học sinh trung học phổ thông. Đề tài cấp trường. Trường Đại học Sư phạm - Đại học
Thái Nguyên.
Nguyễn Thị Diệu Thảo (2009). Dạy học theo dự án và vận dụng trong đào tạo giáo viên Trung học cơ sở
môn công nghệ. Luận án Tiến sĩ. Trường Đại học Sư Phạm Hà Nội.
Nguyen Thi Van Lam (2011). Project-based learning in teaching English as a foreign language. Journal
VNU Journal of Science: Foreign Studies, 27, 140-146.
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Trung học phổ thông. Dự án phát triển giáo dục Trung học phổ thông. Berlin - Hà Nội, Nxb GD Hà Nội.
Nguyễn Văn Cường (1997). Dạy học Project hay dạy học theo dự án. Thông báo khoa học, 3, 3-7.
Trường Đại học Sư phạm Hà Nội.
Stoller, F. (2006). Establishing a theoretical foundation for project-based learning in second and foreign
language contexts. In G.H. Beckett & P.C. Miller (Eds.), Project-based second and foreign language
education: Past, present, and future (pp. 19-40). Greenwich, Connecticut: Information Age Publishing.
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DEVELOPING SELF-STUDY ABILITIES OF STUDENTS WHO

STUDY RUSSIAN FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES AT MILITARY
TECHNOLOGY ACADEMY THROUGH PROJECT-BASED METHOD
Abstract: Thanks to the full awareness of the important role of Russian in the task of
building the Army and the Fatherland protection, the teaching and learning of this language
at Military Technical Academy has been one of the top issues in recent years. The final
purpose is to equip students with specialized Russian reading comprehension skills. In order
to improve the quality of teaching and learning, Russian lecturers also constantly learn,
improve their qualifications, and innovate teaching methods, etc. One of the methods
allegedly exerting positive effects when teaching Russian for specific purposes is the
project-based method. The following article refers to the project-based method as a tool to
promote self-learning and self-creation ability of students at Military Technical Academy
when studying Russian for specific purposes, describing the main stages and activities and
showing practical application results of this method.
Key words: Russian, Russian for specific purposes, teaching and learning foreign
languages, teaching methods, project-based method
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NGHIÊN CỨU CHIẾN LƯỢC ĐỌC HIỂU

CỦA SINH VIÊN TIẾNG ANH KHÔNG CHUYÊN
Huỳnh Thị Long Hà*; Nguyễn Thị Phương Lan;
Nguyễn Phạm Thanh Vân; Lê Thị Hồng Phương
Tóm tắt: Đọc hiểu là một trong những kỹ năng ngôn ngữ quan trọng nhất cần được phát
triển ở người học ngôn ngữ, vì “người học có thể sử dụng tài liệu đọc như một nguồn đầu
vào dễ hiểu” (Chastain, 1988, tr. 216). Tuy nhiên, để việc đọc hiểu có hiệu quả, người học
cần có những chiến lược đọc khác nhau cho những bài đọc khác nhau. Nghiên cứu này điều
tra các chiến lược đọc được sử dụng bởi sinh viên tiếng Anh không chuyên bậc 2/6 và bậc
3/6 tại trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Huế thông qua bảng khảo sát về các chiến lược
đọc (SORS) của Mokhtari và Reichard (2002). Nhìn chung, cả hai nhóm đều sử dụng các
chiến lược đọc hiểu ở mức độ trung bình. Nghiên cứu này cũng đưa ra một số gợi ý cho các
giáo viên và sinh viên trong quá trình dạy và học kỹ năng đọc tiếng Anh.
Từ khóa: Hiệu suất đọc, chiến lược đọc, trình độ tiếng Anh, sinh viên tiếng Anh không
chuyên
1. Mở đầu
Tiếng Anh không chỉ là một phương tiện giao tiếp mà còn là chìa khóa để tiếp cận những
thành tựu mới nhất của khoa học và công nghệ. Vì vậy, số lượng người Việt Nam muốn có trình
độ tiếng Anh tốt để thỏa mãn các nhu cầu trong công việc cũng như cuộc sống ngày càng tăng.
Tuy nhiên, ở Việt Nam, tiếng Anh được dạy và học trong môi trường không phải tiếng mẹ đẻ
nên kỹ năng đọc không những là một phương tiện quan trọng để có được kiến thức mà còn là
một phương tiện được sử dụng cho nhiều mục đích khác nhau như: học hỏi, tìm hiểu hay giải
trí. Bằng cách cải thiện khả năng đọc hiểu, người học cũng sẽ cải thiện khả năng viết và nói của
mình. Theo Carrell (1989), đối với nhiều sinh viên, đọc sách là kỹ năng quan trọng nhất trong
bốn kỹ năng học ngôn ngữ và được xem như là yếu tố cần thiết trong quá trình học tập suốt đời.
Sinh viên ngày nay không những cần lĩnh hội kiến thức và các lý thuyết từ các tài liệu đọc tiếng
Anh, mà còn phải đọc nhiều sách hoặc tạp chí bằng tiếng Anh để tiếp thu những kiến thức và
thông tin mới. Cải thiện năng lực đọc tiếng Anh sẽ rất cần thiết cho sinh viên phát triển các kỹ
năng ngôn ngữ khác cũng như việc lĩnh hội các kiến thức chuyên môn cần thiết.
Có rất nhiều nhân tố ảnh hưởng đến năng lực đọc hiểu tiếng Anh của sinh viên như loại văn
bản, môi trường trường đại học và môi trường xã hội, trí thông minh của sinh viên, động cơ học
tập, hay các phương pháp dạy học (Hsu, 2008), và một trong những nhân tố quan trọng là việc sử
dụng các chiến lược đọc hiểu của sinh viên. DeMoulin và Loye (1999) cho rằng sự phòng ngừa tốt
nhất cho các khó khăn về đọc hiểu là sự can thiệp sớm về các chiến lược, bởi vì độc giả của ngoại
ngữ hai có thể “bù đắp cho sự thiếu hụt năng lực tiếng Anh bằng cách sử dụng các chiến lược
tương tác, các kiến thức có sẵn, và nhận thức về sự lựa chọn các chiến lược của họ.”
*Email: htlongha@hueuni.edu.vn
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Với tầm quan trọng đó, rất nhiều nghiên cứu đã được thực hiện để khám phá bản chất của
việc đọc cũng như các yếu tố góp phần vào việc đọc hiểu thành công như nghiên cứu của Zhang
(2001), Mónos (2004), và Typamas (2012) về mối liên hệ giữa nhận thức về chiến lược đọc và
khả năng đọc. Các nghiên cứu chỉ ra rằng nhận thức của người đọc về việc sử dụng các chiến
lược đọc là một trong những nhân tố được nghiên cứu nhiều trong việc đọc của ngôn ngữ mẹ đẻ
cũng như ngôn ngữ thứ hai. Đọc là một quá trình xây dựng ý nghĩa tương tác tâm lý học, trong
đó người đọc sử dụng vô số chiến lược để đạt được sự hiểu biết. Việc áp dụng các chiến lược
đọc hiểu đã được chứng minh là mang lại kết quả tích cực trong việc nâng cao kĩ năng đọc hiểu
tiếng Anh.
Nghiên cứu này nhằm mục đích trả lời hai câu hỏi nghiên cứu sau đây:
1. Những chiến lược đọc hiểu nào được sinh viên tiếng Anh không chuyên tại trường Đại học
Ngoại Ngữ, Đại học Huế sử dụng trong quá trình đọc của mình và tần suất sử dụng các chiến
lược đó như thế nào?
2. Có sự khác biệt nào trong việc sử dụng các chiến lược đọc hiểu của sinh viên tiếng Anh
không chuyên ở bậc 2/6 và 3/6?
Mục đích của nghiên cứu là tìm hiểu các chiến lược đọc hiểu được sử dụng bởi sinh viên
các lớp tiếng Anh không chuyên bậc 2/6 và 3/6 tại trường Đại học Ngoại Ngữ, Đại học Huế,
đồng thời tìm hiểu sự khác nhau trong việc sử dụng các chiến lược này ở hai nhóm người học.
Ngoài ra, nghiên cứu còn đưa ra một số khuyến nghị về cách hướng dẫn các chiến lược đọc.
2.1. Khái niệm “đọc”
Thuật ngữ “đọc” được hiểu theo nhiều cách khác nhau bởi các học giả khác nhau. Anderson
(1999) đã đưa ra định nghĩa về khái niệm “đọc” rằng “đọc là một quá trình chủ động, thành thạo
liên quan đến người đọc và tài liệu đọc trong việc xây dựng ý nghĩa”. Đọc hiểu là một quá trình
nhận thông tin từ bối cảnh và kết hợp các yếu tố khác nhau thành một tổng thể mới. Đó là một quá
trình sử dụng kiến thức mà độc giả hiện có (schemata) để giải thích văn bản, để xây dựng ý nghĩa,
là một quá trình nhận thức của người đọc để tìm ra ý nghĩa từ một văn bản.
Aebersold và Field (1997) cho rằng đọc bao gồm ba yếu tố: người đọc, văn bản và sự
tương tác giữa người đọc và văn bản. Ông nêu rõ “đọc là những gì sẽ xảy ra khi người đọc nhìn
vào một văn bản và gán ý nghĩa cho những biểu tượng trong văn bản đó. Các văn bản và người
đọc là hai thực thể vật chất cần thiết cho quá trình đọc diễn ra. Tuy nhiên, chính sự tương tác
giữa văn bản và người đọc mới cấu thành nên ý nghĩa thực sự”.
Tóm lại, đọc là quá trình xây dựng ý nghĩa thông qua sự tương tác giữa người đọc với các
kiến thức hiện có, thông tin được đề xuất bởi ngôn ngữ viết và bối cảnh của người đọc. Theo
Dubin (1982) đọc sách dường như là kỹ năng ngôn ngữ dễ đạt được nhất dành cho sinh viên ở
những nước không nói tiếng Anh.
2.2. Các chiến lược đọc
Brantmeior (2002, tr. 1) định nghĩa các chiến lược đọc là “các quá trình tri nhận mà người
đọc sử dụng để hiểu điều họ đọc”. Các quá trình này có thể liên quan đến việc đọc lướt lấy ý
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chính, đọc lướt tìm ý chi tiết, phán đoán, nhận dạng các nhóm từ cùng gốc, dự đoán, vận dụng
kiến thức hiểu biết chung, suy luận, tham chiếu và phân biệt các ý chính với các ý bổ trợ. Theo
định nghĩa của O’Malley và Chamot (1990), các chiến lược đọc có thể được hiểu là “những suy
nghĩ hoặc hành vi đặc biệt mà các cá nhân sử dụng để giúp họ hiểu, học và lưu giữ thông tin
mới từ văn bản đọc”.
Chiến lược đọc được phân loại thành nhiều nhóm khác nhau. Ví dụ, Carrell (1989) phân
36 chiến lược thành hai loại: chiến lược đọc cục bộ và chiến lược đọc tổng thể. Trong khi các
chiến lược đọc cục bộ, còn được gọi là chiến lược từ dưới lên hoặc giải mã, đối phó với việc
giải mã ý nghĩa, chiến lược đọc tổng thể có liên quan đến các kiểu đọc từ trên xuống, bao gồm
cả việc đọc, sử dụng kiến thức nền và nhận thức về văn bản.
Rubin (1981) đã xác định hai nhóm chiến lược là gián tiếp và trực tiếp. Nhóm chiến lược
trực tiếp gồm sáu chiến lược là phân loại / xác minh, giám sát, ghi nhớ, phán đoán/suy luận quy
nạp, lập luận diễn dịch và thực hành. Còn hai chiến lược tạo cơ hội thực hành và thủ thuật trình
bày thuộc nhóm chiến lược gián tiếp. Tuy nhiên, hạn chế của cách phân loại này không bao gồm
các chiến lược xã hội và tình cảm. Bảng phân loại được xem là hữu ích nhất và được chấp nhận
rộng rãi là bảng phân loại các chiến lược đọc của O’Malley và Chamot (1990) trong bảng phân
loại của hai tác giả này, các chiến lược đọc có thể được phân loại thành 3 nhóm chính, bao gồm:
các chiến lược siêu nhận thức, các chiến lược nhận thức và các chiến lược tình cảm/xã hội.
Trong một nghiên cứu rất quan trọng của Anderson (1999), tác giả đã phát triển các chiến
lược đọc dành cho đọc hiểu để giúp người đọc đọc thành công hơn, ông chia chúng thành hai
nhóm, bao gồm chiến lược đọc nhận thức (tư duy) và chiến lược đọc siêu nhận thức. Các chiến
lược nhận thức đã được coi là các quá trình tinh thần liên quan trực tiếp đến việc xử lý thông tin
để học hỏi; bao gồm các chiến lược hiểu, chiến lược ghi nhớ, chiến lược truy xuất. Các chiến
lược có chức năng giám sát hoặc điều chỉnh các chiến lược nhận thức được gọi là chiến lược
siêu nhận thức. Nói cách khác, các chiến lược siêu nhận thức được sử dụng để lập kế hoạch,
theo dõi và điều chỉnh việc đọc khi nó xảy ra.
Dựa vào các phân loại của Carrell (1989) và Anderson (1999), Mokhtari và Reichard
(2002, tr. 4) phân loại các chiến lược đọc thành ba nhóm: chiến lược tổng thể, chiến lược giải
quyết vấn đề và chiến lược hỗ trợ. Các chiến lược tổng thể, còn được gọi là chiến lược siêu nhận
thức, được định nghĩa là các kỹ thuật được lên kế hoạch cẩn thận, theo kế hoạch cẩn thận, theo
đó người học theo dõi hoặc quản lý việc đọc của họ. Các chiến lược này nhằm mục đích thiết
lập giai đoạn để đọc, ví dụ, có một mục đích trong tâm trí để đọc, xem xét các đặc điểm văn bản
trước khi đọc. Các chiến lược giải quyết vấn đề, còn được gọi là chiến lược nhận thức, được bản
địa hóa và sử dụng khi gặp sự cố hay khi văn bản trở nên khó đọc, ví dụ, đọc lại và hiển thị
thông tin trong văn bản. Chiến lược hỗ trợ là các công cụ hỗ trợ để hỗ trợ sự hiểu biết như sử
dụng các tài liệu tham khảo bên ngoài và ghi chú.
Nói tóm lại, các chiến lược đọc có thể được xem là hành động có chủ ý mà người đọc chủ
động triển khai trong khi đọc để theo dõi quá trình đọc của chính họ và tránh những thất bại
trong việc hiểu, và do đó, để hoàn thành nhiệm vụ đọc. Các chiến lược đọc đã được phân loại
theo nhiều cách khác nhau, tuy nhiên, trong nghiên cứu hiện tại, sơ đồ phân loại của Mokhtari
và Sheorey (2002) sẽ được sử dụng.
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2.3. Những nghiên cứu liên quan đến việc sử dụng các chiến lược đọc hiểu của sinh viên
trong quá trình học ngoại ngữ
Từ những năm 1970, đã có sự quan tâm ngày càng tăng trong nghiên cứu về kỹ năng đọc
nói chung và độc giả sử dụng chiến lược nói riêng (Carrell, 1989). Nhiều nghiên cứu đã tìm thấy
bằng chứng hỗ trợ về mối tương quan tích cực giữa việc sử dụng chiến lược của người học ngôn
ngữ và khả năng đọc của họ.
Zhang (2001) nhận thấy rằng nhận thức về chiến lược và khả năng đọc có mối tương
quan đáng kể. Trong nghiên cứu của mình, những người học tiếng Anh được cho là có hiệu quả
đọc tốt hơn khi họ sử dụng các chiến lược khác nhau trong quá trình đọc của mình. Đặc biệt,
những độc giả đã xem xét và sử dụng hiệu quả các manh mối theo ngữ cảnh đã đạt được mức độ
hiểu cao hơn. Cụ thể, những người ghi điểm cao hơn trong nghiên cứu của Zhang (2001) đã chỉ
ra nhận thức của họ về sự phù hợp của việc áp dụng các chiến lược đọc nhất định để giải quyết
các khó khăn về đọc. Ví dụ: dịch sang tiếng mẹ đẻ và sử dụng từ điển để hiểu chi tiết về ý nghĩa
có xu hướng tránh bởi những sinh viên với khả năng đọc cao hơn bởi vì họ biết rằng những kỹ
thuật này sẽ có khả năng làm chậm tốc độ hiểu của họ. Các chiến lược như đọc lại, đoán ý nghĩa
từ ngữ cảnh và hợp tác với văn bản được sử dụng thường xuyên hơn bởi độc giả có khả năng
đọc tốt hơn. Do đó, Zhang đề nghị rằng đào tạo người đọc ngoại ngữ hai cách gọi các chiến lược
phù hợp và sử dụng chúng hiệu quả để hoàn thành các nhiệm vụ đọc phải là một trong những
vai trò quan trọng của giáo viên trong lớp.
Zhang và Wu (2009) đã thực hiện các nghiên cứu để đưa ra cái nhìn tổng thể về nhận
thức của sinh viên đại học và học sinh phổ thông tại Trung Quốc về các chiến lược đọc được sử
dụng, nhằm đưa ra các gợi ý để phát triển các chương trình cải thiện kỹ năng đọc. Kết quả tiết lộ
sinh viên nhận thức khá cao về tất cả các chiến lược trong khảo sát, với ưu tiên cho các chiến
lược giải quyết vấn đề, tiếp theo là các chiến lược tổng thể và hỗ trợ. Các kết quả tương tự cũng
được công nhận cho những người học tiếng Anh trưởng thành ở Thái Lan trong nghiên cứu của
Typamas (2012).
Ngoài ra, nhiều nghiên cứu cũng cung cấp những quan sát có giá trị về sở thích của người
học tiếng Anh như là ngoại ngữ hai về việc sử dụng các chiến lược đọc cá. Những người học
tiếng Ấn Độ thường sử dụng các chiến lược liên quan đến trực quan hóa thông tin từ văn bản,
đọc lại và điều chỉnh tốc độ đọc của họ. Mặt khác, họ hiếm khi nghĩ bằng cả tiếng Anh và
thường dịch từ tiếng Anh sang tiếng mẹ đẻ (Madhumathi & Ghosh, 2012). Một cách khác biệt,
các sinh viên học tiếng Anh chuyên ngành (ESP) của Iran lại thể hiện sự ưu tiên cao hơn cho
các chiến lược hỗ trợ như sử dụng tài liệu tham khảo, suy nghĩ bằng cả tiếng Anh, tiếng mẹ đẻ
và dịch thuật. Họ ít ưa thích các chiến lược như điều chỉnh tốc độ đọc, đọc to, đánh giá những gì
được đọc, sử dụng hình ảnh và phân biệt giữa những gì nên đọc kỹ và những gì nên bỏ qua
(Jafari & Ketabi, 2012). Sự đa dạng của các ưu tiên cho các loại chiến lược và chiến lược cá
nhân cho thấy rằng các hành vi chiến lược của những người học tiếng Anh có thể khác nhau
dưới ảnh hưởng của ngôn ngữ đầu tiên và nền tảng giáo dục và văn hóa của họ.
Trong bối cảnh Việt Nam, tác giả Nguyễn Thị Bích Thuỷ (2007) đã tiến hành một
nghiên cứu nhằm tìm hiểu các chiến lược nhận thức áp dụng trong đọc hiểu tiếng Anh của
sinh viên không chuyên ngữ. Nghiên cứu được thực hiện trên 180 sinh viên năm 1 không
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chuyên ngữ ở các trường đại học khác nhau tại Việt Nam. Kết quả của nghiên cứu chỉ ra rằng
có sự khác biệt lớn về số lượng và tần suất sử dụng các chiến lược đọc hiểu giữa sinh viên có
khả năng đọc hiểu tốt và sinh viên có khả năng đọc hiểu kém. Những sinh viên đọc hiểu tốt có
xu hướng sử dụng nhiều, đa dạng hơn các chiến lược đọc hiểu so với những sinh viên đọc
hiểu kém. Đồng thời, họ cũng sử dụng những chiến lược này một cách phù hợp và có hiệu quả
hơn. Kết quả tương tự cũng đã được tìm ra trong nghiên cứu khác được tác giả thực hiện năm
2018. Trong nghiên cứu này, tác giả đã phát hiện rằng cả hai nhóm sinh viên ESL và EFL
Việt Nam đều sử dụng các chiến lược đọc hiểu giống nhau, nhưng lại có sự khác biệt trong
thứ tự và mức độ thường xuyên của việc sử dụng các chiến lược đó; nhóm sinh viên ESL nhận
thức tốt hơn về tầm quan trọng của những chiến lược này và thích sử dụng chúng trong quá
trình đọc hiểu của mình.
Đỗ Minh Hùng và Võ Phan Thu Ngân (2015) cũng phát hiện ra kết quả tương tự khi điều
tra những chiến lược đọc hiểu được sử dụng bởi các sinh viên tiếng Anh năm 1 và năm 3 tại
trường Đại học Đồng Tháp. Kết quả cho thấy hai nhóm ít nhiều sử dụng tất cả các chiến lược.
Nhóm sinh viên năm 1 thường sử dụng các chiến lược đọc lướt lấy ý chính, đọc lướt lấy chi tiết,
dịch, làm nổi bật, đặc biệt là hợp tác và tìm kiếm hỗ trợ. Trong khi đó, các sinh viên năm 3 không
còn thường xuyên sử dụng chiến lược dịch thuật, xoay xở và làm nổi bật; thay vào đó họ tăng tần
suất sử dụng các chiến lược phân tích, xây dựng, xác định mục đích và các chiến lược khác. Điều
này nói lên rằng khi năng lực ngôn ngữ của sinh viên cao lên, họ có xu hướng sử dụng các chiến
lược phức tạp hơn trong quá trình đọc. Nghiên cứu khuyến nghị rằng việc đào tạo chiến lược đọc
nên được xem xét nhiều hơn bởi cả giáo viên và học sinh EFL để có thể kích hoạt và củng cố các
công cụ chiến lược đọc này cho việc học trong hiện tại và tương lai của sinh viên.
Gần đây nhất, vào năm 2018, Trần Thị Thu Hiền và Trần Thanh Phương đã tiến hành
nghiên cứu việc sử dụng các chiến lược đọc hiểu nhằm nâng cao kĩ năng đọc hiểu trong môn
tiếng Anh cho sinh viên tại Học viện Nông nghiệp Việt Nam. Thông qua việc dạy các chiến
lược đọc hiểu cho 170 sinh viên năm thứ nhất hệ tiên tiến - chất lượng cao khoá 61 của Học
viện Nông nghiệp Việt Nam, các tác giả đã kết luận rằng việc áp dụng các chiến lược đọc góp
phần phát triển khả năng đọc hiểu của sinh viên, giúp người đọc vượt qua những khó khăn khi
tìm hiểu văn bản, do đó nâng cao khả năng hiểu văn bản ngoại ngữ của họ. Thông qua đó, giảng
viên còn giúp họ trở thành những người học tự chủ, có khả năng giải thích, tích hợp, phê phán,
suy luận, phân tích, kết nối và đánh giá ý tưởng trong các văn bản, nhờ đó, kĩ năng đọc hiểu của
họ sẽ ngày càng phát triển.
Những nghiên cứu trên đây đã chỉ ra rằng, việc sử dụng các chiến lược đọc có mối tương
quan tích cực với khả năng đọc hiểu tốt ở những sinh viên học tiếng Anh. Những người đọc giỏi
và trưởng thành hơn có xu hướng sử dụng nhiều chiến lược hơn và có ý thức lựa chọn những
chiến lược này theo loại nhiệm vụ đọc và độ khó của văn bản. Hơn nữa, họ giỏi hơn trong việc
đánh giá sự thành công của việc sử dụng chiến lược của riêng họ. Mặt khác, những người đọc
kém sử dụng một loạt các chiến lược nhỏ hơn, chủ yếu dựa vào các chiến lược cục bộ và theo
cách kém hiệu quả hơn.
Mặc dù vậy, vẫn còn rất ít nghiên cứu tập trung vào tìm hiểu nhận thức và mức độ sử
dụng các chiến lược đọc hiểu của sinh viên tiếng Anh không chuyên trong các lớp học tiếng
Anh tại Việt Nam, cũng như điều tra sự khác biệt trong việc sử dụng các chiến lược này đối với
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các sinh viên có năng lực tiếng Anh khác nhau. Vì vậy, nghiên cứu này được tiến hành nhằm
mục đích tìm hiểu những vấn đề nêu trên nhằm có những gợi ý giúp cải thiện việc học kỹ năng
đọc tiếng Anh nói riêng và việc học tiếng Anh nói chung.
Để có được dữ liệu toàn diện và xác thực, hai nhóm lớp học đã được chọn ngẫu nhiên từ
Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Huế. Tổng cộng có 80 sinh viên đã học tiếng Anh trong
gần mười năm. Độ tuổi của những sinh viên này dao động từ 18 đến 22 tuổi. Những người tham
gia được chia thành hai nhóm theo học phần họ đang theo học, một nhóm gồm 41 sinh viên
đang theo học học phần A2 (tương đương với cấp độ 2/6 trong khung NLNN 6 bậc dành cho
Việt Nam) và nhóm 39 sinh viên đang theo học học phần B1 (tương đương với cấp độ 3/6 trong
khung NLNN 6 bậc dành cho Việt Nam). Tất cả các sinh viên này đều đã học tiếng Anh từ 7
đến 9 năm theo chương trình tiếng Anh phổ thông.
Để phục vụ cho mục đích của nghiên cứu này, bảng câu hỏi đã được sử dụng để thu thập
dữ liệu. Bảng câu hỏi được tạo thành từ hai phần: phần đầu yêu cầu sinh viên cung cấp thông tin
về tuổi, giới tính, chuyên ngành học thuật, v.v... để tìm hiểu về nền tảng của họ; phần thứ hai là
bảng khảo sát các chiến lược đọc (Survey of Reading Strategies (SORS)) được phát triển bởi
Mokhtari và Reichard (2002) để đo lường nhận thức và tần suất sử dụng các chiến lược đọc
trong khi đọc tài liệu học tập. SORS đã được sử dụng rộng rãi ở các nước phương Tây và nó
bao gồm nhóm chiến lược:
Bảng 1. Các mục thuộc từng loại chiến lược đọc trong SORS
Chiến lược đọc Tổng số câu hỏi Số câu hỏi
Chiến lược tổng thể 13 S1, S3, S4, S6, S8, S12, S15, S17, S20, S21,
S23, S24, S27
Chiến lược giải quyết vấn đề 8 S7, S9, S11, S14, S16, S19, S25, S26
Chiến lược hỗ trợ 9 S2, S5, S10, S13, S18, S22, S28, S29, S30
Chiến lược đọc tổng thể (GLOB) bao gồm 13 mục "là những kỹ thuật có chủ đích, được
lên kế hoạch cẩn thận, theo đó người học theo dõi hoặc quản lý việc đọc của họ", có mục đích
trong tâm trí, xem trước bài kiểm tra về độ dài và tổ chức của nó. Ví dụ 1 minh họa một mục từ
bảng khảo sát về danh mục chiến lược đọc tổng thể.
Ví dụ 1: Tôi có một mục đích trong đầu khi tôi đọc
Chiến lược giải quyết vấn đề (PROB) bao gồm 8 mục và "kỹ thuật tập trung, tập trung"
(Mokhtari & Sheorey, 2002, tr. 4) mà người đọc sử dụng để giải quyết các vấn đề hiểu trong khi
làm việc trực tiếp với văn bản, ví dụ, điều chỉnh tốc độ đọc khi tài liệu trở nên khó khăn hoặc dễ
dàng, đoán nghĩa của các từ chưa biết và đọc lại văn bản. Ví dụ 2 cho thấy một mục khảo sát
một mục từ bảng khảo sát về danh mục chiến lược giải quyết vấn đề.
Ví dụ 2: Tôi cố gắng lấy lại phong độ khi tôi mất tập trung.
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Chiến lược hỗ trợ (SUP) bao gồm 9 mục và được định nghĩa là "các cơ chế hỗ trợ cơ bản
nhằm hỗ trợ người đọc hiểu văn bản như sử dụng từ điển, ghi chú, gạch chân hoặc làm nổi bật
thông tin văn bản" (tr. 4). Một mục chiến lược hỗ trợ được hiển thị trong ví dụ 3.
Ví dụ 3: Tôi ghi chú trong khi đọc để giúp tôi hiểu những gì tôi đọc.
Mức tần suất sử dụng chiến lược của độc giả được đo theo thang đo Likert năm điểm có
sẵn sau mỗi tuyên bố, từ 1 (“tôi không bao giờ hoặc gần như không bao giờ thực hiện điều này”)
đến 5 (“Luôn luôn hoặc hầu như luôn luôn thực hiện điều này”) (Mokhtari & Sheorey, 2002).
Vào cuối cuộc khảo sát, Mokhtari và Sheorey (2002) cung cấp một hướng dẫn chấm điểm và
phiên dịch. Tần suất sử dụng chiến lược được nhóm lại như sau: 3,5 hoặc cao hơn = Cao; 2,5 -
3,4 = Trung bình; 2,4 hoặc thấp hơn = Thấp. Việc giải thích các điểm số tần số trung bình của
Mokhtari và Sheorey đã được áp dụng để phân tích kết quả của nghiên cứu hiện tại.
Về độ tin cậy, Mokhtari và Sheorey (2002) đảm bảo rằng SORS đã được thử nghiệm thực
địa trên số học viên học tiếng Anh tại hai trường đại học ở Mỹ và độ tin cậy bên trong của nó
được tìm thấy là 0,89, "cho thấy mức độ nhất quán hợp lý trong đo lường nhận thức và việc sử
dụng các chiến lược đọc của những học sinh không phải là người bản ngữ tiếng Anh" (tr. 4).
Ngoài ra, tính nhất quán bên trong của các mục khảo sát còn được xác định rõ hơn bằng phân tích
độ tin cậy thông qua bài kiểm tra alpha của Cronbach trong một số nghiên cứu.
3.3. Tiến trình thực hiện
Với sự giúp đỡ của giáo viên đứng lớp, các sinh viên đã được thông báo về mục đích của
cuộc khảo sát và thực tế là không có câu trả lời đúng hay sai. Phiếu điều tra được phát cho toàn
bộ sinh viên hai nhóm lớp vào tuần cuối cùng của học kì 2, năm học 2017-2018.
SORS được thiết kế để đo lường nhận thức siêu nhận thức về chiến lược đọc sử dụng bởi
người nói tiếng Anh không bản ngữ. Vì lý do này, Mokhtari và Sheorey (2002) đã đảm bảo cho
tất cả các mục khảo sát đủ rõ ràng để người học tiếng Anh hiểu. Ngoài ra, để đảm bảo rằng tất
cả những người tham gia đều hiểu bảng câu hỏi trước khi trả lời, giáo viên đã kiểm tra và đưa ra
lời giải thích ngắn gọn cho các mục mà người tham gia không hiểu. Sau đó, những người tham
gia được hướng dẫn trả lời khảo sát bằng cách đọc kỹ từng tuyên bố và sau đó khoanh tròn số áp
dụng cho họ trong vòng tối đa 20 phút.
Sau đó, mỗi bảng câu hỏi được kiểm tra và mã hóa để phân tích thống kê nhằm trả lời các
câu hỏi nghiên cứu được nêu ở trên. Gói thống kê cho khoa học xã hội (SPSS, phiên bản 22.0)
được sử dụng để phân tích thống kê dữ liệu và mức ý nghĩa của p.<0,05 đã được đặt. Dữ liệu
được phân tích bao gồm hai điểm sau:
- Sử dụng số liệu thống kê mô tả để tìm ra điểm trung bình và độ lệch chuẩn của các chiến lược
đọc tổng thể và từng loại chiến lược.
- Sử dụng các t-tests độc lập để kiểm tra xem có sự khác biệt nào trong việc sử dụng chiến lược
đọc giữa sinh viên cấp độ A2 và cấp độ B1 không.
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4. Kết quả nghiên cứu và thảo luận

4.1. Các chiến lược đọc hiểu được sử dụng bởi sinh viên tiếng Anh không chuyên
Đầu tiên, tổng số điểm trung bình của ba nhóm chiến lược (tổng thể, giải quyết vấn đề và
hỗ trợ) được trình bày. Chúng được theo sau bởi điểm trung bình cho chiến lược cá nhân trong
mỗi nhóm. Bảng 1 tóm tắt các thống kê mô tả cho ba nhóm chiến lược đọc.
Bảng 2. Thống kê mô tả cho ba nhóm chiến lược đọc
Các loại chiến lược N Min Max Mean SD
Chiến lược tổng thể 80 1,46 4,08 2,9962 ,50803
Chiến lược giải quyết vấn đề 80 1,38 4,50 3,1531 ,65421
Chiến lược hỗ trợ 80 1,78 4,22 3,1750 ,44996
Dựa vào Bảng 1, cả ba loại chiến lược đọc đều được các sinh viên sử dụng với tần suất
vừa phải và không có sự khác biệt lớn về điểm số trung bình giữa ba loại chiến lược. Điểm
trung bình 3,15 và 3,17 tương ứng cho các chiến lược giải quyết vấn đề và hỗ trợ. Kết quả cũng
cho thấy rằng trong cả ba nhóm chiến lược, các chiến lược hỗ trợ được sử dụng thường xuyên
nhất. Các chiến lược tổng thể nhận được điểm trung bình thấp nhất là 2,99; tuy nhiên, chỉ thấp
hơn một chút so với điểm trung bình của hai nhóm chiến lược còn lại. Trong số ba loại chiến
lược đọc được nghiên cứu trong nghiên cứu này, chiến lược hỗ trợ được người tham gia sử dụng
thường xuyên nhất, với tần suất trung bình là tỷ lệ cao tương đối (M=3,25). Các chiến lược giải
quyết vấn đề theo sau về tần suất sử dụng, có tần suất (M=3,15). Các chiến lược tổng thể đã
được sử dụng ở mức tần số thấp nhất với tổng điểm trung bình là 2,99. Kết quả này hoàn toàn
khác với kết quả tìm được trong nghiên cứu của các tác giả Zhang và Wu (2009) và Typamas
(2012) với sự ưu tiên cho các chiến lược giải quyết vấn đề.
Dựa trên các số liệu thống kê tần suất, có vẻ như các sinh viên này có nhận thức siêu
nhận thức về quá trình đọc ở một mức độ nào đó và sử dụng các chiến lược đọc khá thường
xuyên. Việc người đọc sử dụng các chiến lược đọc thường xuyên có thể là kết quả của giáo dục
tiếng Anh dài hạn của họ. Vào thời điểm nghiên cứu, tất cả những người tham gia đã học tiếng
Anh từ bảy đến chín năm. Do đó, có thể cho rằng họ đã có kinh nghiệm đáng kể về việc đọc
bằng tiếng Anh, điều này có thể dẫn đến nhận thức rõ ràng và tiềm ẩn về việc sử dụng các chiến
lược đọc. Ngoài ra, bởi vì những người tham gia là sinh viên đại học, tất cả họ đều có được kỹ
năng đọc viết bằng ngôn ngữ mẹ đẻ của họ ở mức độ cao.
Như được tìm thấy trong các nghiên cứu trước đây (Mokhtari & Sheorey, 2002), những
người đọc có kỹ năng về ngôn ngữ thứ nhất và ngôn ngữ thứ hai có xu hướng hiểu biết về siêu
nhận thức tương đối đơn giản. Do đó, những sinh viên tham gia trong nghiên cứu này có thể đã
chuyển một số chiến lược của họ trong việc đọc các văn bản bằng ngôn ngữ một sang đọc các
văn bản bằng tiếng. Theo quan điểm của các nghiên cứu liên quan, kết quả tương tự cũng đã
được tiết lộ cho các sinh viên ESP của Iran trong nghiên cứu của Jafari và Ketabi (2012) về
những người Hungary học tiếng Anh như ngoại ngữ hai. Cụ thể, điểm tương đồng giữa người
Việt Nam học tiếng Anh và người Hungary học tiếng Anh là cả hai nhóm người học tiếng Anh
dường như có sở thích về chiến lược hỗ trợ. Và cả hai nhóm người học này đều xem chiến lược
tổng thể là loại chiến lược ít được ưa thích nhất. Tương tự, Mokhtari và Sheorey (2002) phát
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hiện ra rằng những người học tiếng Anh như ngoại ngữ hai ở Mỹ, bất kể khả năng đọc của họ,
đã sử dụng các chiến lược hỗ trợ thường xuyên hơn so với hai loại chiến lược khác. Sự ưu tiên
nhất quán cho các chiến lược hỗ trợ trong số một số nghiên cứu với những người học tiếng Anh
của các ngôn ngữ một khác nhau cho thấy rằng các chiến lược hỗ trợ có thể đóng một vai trò
quan trọng đối với một số người học tiếng Anh như ngoại ngữ hai.
Ngược lại, các nhóm người học tiếng Anh khác dường như ủng hộ các chiến lược giải quyết
vấn đề hoặc nhận thức. Typamas (2012) phát hiện ra rằng những người học tiếng Anh trưởng thành
ở Thái Lan thích chiến lược giải quyết vấn đề nhất, chiến lược tổng thể là chiến lược thứ hai và chiến
lược hỗ trợ ít nhất. Tương tự như vậy, những sinh viên ESL Ấn Độ (Madhumathi & Ghosh, 2012)
đã báo cáo việc sử dụng chiến lược nhận thức thường xuyên nhất.
Nghiên cứu này cũng điều tra sở thích của sinh viên ESL Việt Nam đối với các chiến
lược đọc cá nhân. Không chiến lược nào trong số 30 chiến lược đọc cá nhân được báo cáo sẽ
được sử dụng với tần số thấp bởi những sinh viên ESL Việt Nam và 21 chiến lược có mức độ sử
dụng cao (trên 50% thời gian và thường xuyên). Bảng 2 tóm tắt các chiến lược đọc được ưa
thích nhất và ít được ưa thích nhất của những sinh viên ESL Việt Nam.
Bảng 2. Các chiến lược đọc được sử dụng nhiều nhất và ít thường xuyên nhất
Mean Tần suất
Chiến lược được sử dụng thường xuyên nhất
Khi đọc, tôi dịch từ tiếng Anh sang ngôn ngữ mẹ đẻ của tôi 3,81 Cao
Tôi gạch chân hoặc khoanh tròn thông tin trong văn bản để giúp tôi nhớ nó 3,68 Cao
Khi đọc, tôi nghĩ về thông tin bằng cả tiếng Anh và tiếng mẹ đẻ 3,51 Cao
Tôi cố gắng xây dựng hình ảnh hoặc hình dung thông tin để giúp tôi nhớ những 3,45 Cao
gì tôi đọc
Tôi cố gắng đoán nội dung của văn bản là gì khi tôi đọc 3,45 Cao
Chiến lược ít sử dụng nhất
Tôi đọc lui đọc tới trong văn bản để tìm mối quan hệ giữa các ý tưởng trong đó 2,70 Trung bình
Tôi tự hỏi mình những câu hỏi tôi muốn trả lời trong văn bản 2,62 Trung bình
Tôi xem lại văn bản trước bằng cách lưu ý các đặc điểm của nó như độ dài và 2,57 Trung bình
tổ chức
Tôi phân tích và đánh giá thông tin được trình bày trong văn bản 2,56 Trung bình
Như được trình bày trong Bảng 2, tần suất sử dụng cao nhất được báo cáo liên quan đến
chiến lược hỗ trợ, cụ thể là dịch từ tiếng Anh sang ngôn ngữ mẹ đẻ (M=3,81), tiếp theo là gạch
chân hoặc khoanh tròn thông tin trong văn bản để giúp tôi nhớ nó (M=3,68), và nghĩ về thông
tin bằng cả tiếng Anh và tiếng mẹ đẻ (M=3,51), hai chiến lược còn lại thuộc về chiến lược tổng
thể và chiến lược giải quyết vấn đề với tần suất sử dụng bằng nhau (M=3,45). Mặt khác, chiến
lược hỗ trợ đọc lui đọc tới trong văn bản để tìm mối quan hệ giữa các ý tưởng (M=2,70), hai
chiến lược tổng thể xem lại văn bản trước bằng cách lưu ý các đặc điểm của nó như độ dài và tổ
chức (M=2,57), phân tích và đánh giá thông tin được trình bày trong văn bản (M=2,56), và
chiến lược giải quyết vấn đề tự hỏi mình những câu hỏi muốn trả lời trong văn bản (M=2,62) là
bốn chiến lược ít được ưu tiên nhất bởi những sinh viên ESL Việt Nam. So với các nhóm người
học tiếng Anh khác, sinh viên ESL Việt Nam nói chung giống và khác biệt trong việc sử dụng
các chiến lược đọc cá nhân của họ.
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Ví dụ, sinh viên ESL Ấn Độ cũng đã sử dụng 14 chiến lược với tần suất cao và hình ảnh
được ưa thích cao (Madhumathi & Ghosh, 2012). Tuy nhiên, không giống như những sinh viên
ESL Việt Nam, họ thường xuyên sử dụng chiến lược đọc lại và điều chỉnh tốc độ đọc và tránh suy
nghĩ bằng cả tiếng Anh lẫn tiếng mẹ đẻ và dịch thuật.
4.2. Sự khác nhau trong việc sử dụng các chiến lược đọc giữa hai nhóm sinh viên
Để đánh giá sự khác nhau trong việc sử dụng các chiến lược đọc hiểu của sinh viên hai
nhóm cấp độ, các mẫu t-test độc lập đã được sử dụng. Bên cạnh đó, để kiểm soát lỗi Loại I và
tránh xác suất của bất kỳ t-test nào có ý nghĩa giả, mức alpha ban đầu là 0,05 đã được điều chỉnh
thành 0,0016 (0,05/30). Sau đó, các mức ý nghĩa được tính toán cho mỗi t-test được so sánh với
alpha=0.0016. Hơn thế nữa, theo quan điểm của Cumming (2012) về phương pháp tiếp cận mới
đối với việc giải thích ý nghĩa thống kê dựa vào giá trị của effect size hơn là dựa vào giá trị p, các
giá trị d của Cohen cũng được tính toán để xác định mức độ khác biệt giữa hai nhóm.
Bảng 3. Kết quả mẫu t-test độc lập cho các nhóm chiến lược đọc
Nhóm chiến lược Cấp độ N Mean S. D t (80) p Effect size
A2 41 3,12 ,484 2,371 ,020 0,530
Chiến lược tổng thể
B1 39 2,86 ,503
A2 41 3,25 ,577 1,365 ,176 0,306
Chiến lược giải quyết vấn đề
B1 39 3,05 ,719
A2 41 3,33 ,451 1,643 ,104 0,44
Chiến lược hỗ trợ
B1 39 3,16 ,507
Kết quả trong Bảng 3 cho thấy chỉ có sự khác biệt có ý nghĩa thống kê trong việc sử dụng
các chiến lược đọc tổng thể giữa nhóm sinh viên A2 và B1. Đối với hai nhóm chiến lược còn
lại, không thấy sự khác biệt trong việc lựa chọn sử dụng các chiến lược này giữa hai nhóm
người học.
Có một số cách giải thích cho việc không có sự khác biệt trong việc sử dụng các chiến
lược đọc giữa hai nhóm sinh viên ở hai cấp độ khác nhau này. Lí do có thể là tất cả những người
tham gia đều là sinh viên cấp đại học, sau 12 năm học phổ thông và hơn 2 năm học đại học, họ
đã đạt được một mức độ nhận thức và sử dụng chiến lược nhất định trong việc đọc ngôn ngữ
một. Do đó, có thể suy đoán rằng họ sẽ chuyển một số chiến lược đọc từ ngôn ngữ đầu tiên sang
đọc bằng tiếng Anh như ngôn ngữ thứ hai.
Ngoài ra, những người tham gia đại diện cho một nhóm khá đồng nhất theo quan điểm về
trình độ tiếng Anh, nền tảng văn hóa xã hội và giáo dục. Tất cả trong số họ đã được học tiếng
Anh trong hơn 9 năm từ cấp trung học cơ sở đến đại học, và họ được dạy trong cùng một
chương trình giảng dạy. Tất cả các yếu tố này có thể giải thích lý do tại sao họ sử dụng các
chiến lược đọc tương tự bất kể khả năng đọc của họ.
Tuy nhiên, những người đọc thành công và không thành công có thể sử dụng các chiến
lược giống nhau, nhưng hiệu quả của việc sử dụng chiến lược của họ là khác nhau. Nghiên cứu
hiện tại đã so sánh các độc giả có cấp độ cao và thấp chủ yếu dựa trên tần suất sử dụng chiến
lược.
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Do đó, một khả năng khác là mặc dù cả người thành công cao và thấp đều báo cáo tần
suất sử dụng tương tự cho ba loại chiến lược, hiệu quả sử dụng chiến lược của họ có thể khác
nhau và ảnh hưởng đến hiệu suất của họ.
Bên cạnh đó, cũng nên đề cập ở đây rằng hiệu suất đọc là kết quả của sự tương tác của
nhiều yếu tố. Mức độ thành thạo ngôn ngữ có thể là một trong số đó, và sự khác biệt cá nhân
trong động lực và lo lắng cũng có thể ảnh hưởng đến hiệu suất của độc giả.
Tuy nhiên, một lý do khác cho việc thiếu sự khác biệt đáng kể trong việc sử dụng chiến
lược giữa các sinh viên cấp độ A2 và sinh viên cấp độ B1 có thể là do hầu hết các nghiên cứu
trước đây đã so sánh về điểm trung bình chung của từng loại chiến lược. Nói cách khác, trong
mỗi loại chiến lược có thể có các chiến lược được sử dụng thường xuyên hơn bởi các sinh viên
cấp độ A2 hơn các sinh viên cấp độ B1 và ngược lại, nhưng những khác biệt này có thể bị bỏ
qua trong điểm trung bình tổng thể; là tổng hợp của điểm trung bình cho từng chiến lược. Cân
nhắc điều này, nghiên cứu hiện tại đã nỗ lực xem xét xem liệu có sự khác biệt đáng kể nào giữa
sinh viên cấp độ A2 và sinh viên cấp độ B1 trong việc sử dụng các chiến lược đọc cá nhân. Với
mục đích đó, nhiều t-test độc lập đã được sử dụng và bên cạnh giá trị p, giá trị kích thước hiệu
ứng (effect size) được coi là một tiêu chí để chỉ ra sự khác biệt đáng kể trong việc sử dụng chiến
lược giữa hai nhóm sinh viên.
Cumming (2012) tuyên bố rằng xu hướng mới trong nghiên cứu định lượng đang xem xét
kích thước hiệu ứng là một tiêu chí quan trọng hơn. Tuy nhiên, số liệu cho thấy rằng chỉ có sự
khác biệt mang tính thống kê trong việc sử dụng chiến lược tổng thể giữa hai nhóm nghiên cứu.
Chỉ một chiến lược đã được sử dụng thường xuyên hơn bởi nhóm sinh viên cấp độ A2 là “Tôi
kiểm tra sự hiểu biết của tôi khi tôi gặp thông tin mới.” Và kết quả tương tự đối với mức độ sử
dụng các chiến lược đọc tổng thể nói chung (effect size=0,536).
Vài nghiên cứu khác cũng so sánh việc sử dụng các chiến lược đọc riêng lẻ giữa người học
tiếng Anh đọc có trình độ ngôn ngữ cao và thấp. Theo Mokhtari và Sheorey (2002), những người
học tiếng Anh có khả năng đọc cao khác biệt đáng kể so với những người học tiếng Anh có khả
năng đọc thấp trong việc sử dụng một số chiến lược đọc, ví dụ, xem trước văn bản trước khi đọc,
ghi chú trong khi đọc và hiển thị thông tin. Trong nghiên cứu của Madhumathi và Ghosh (2012),
trong số những người Ấn Độ học ESL, những người đọc có hiệu suất thấp thường sử dụng các
chiến lược như chú ý kỹ hơn, đọc lại nhiều hơn và hiếm khi sử dụng các tài liệu tham khảo, trong
khi các sinh viên có hiệu suất cao thường tránh dùng chiến lược dịch thuật.
Những kết quả này cho thấy các độc giả ở cấp độ thấp hơn và cấp độ cao hơn khác nhau
trong việc sử dụng các chiến lược đọc nhất định mặc dù chúng có thể không khác nhau trong
việc sử dụng chung các chiến lược đọc tổng thể, hỗ trợ và giải quyết vấn đề. Rõ ràng, thực tế
này cho thấy cần phải có thêm những so sánh thực tiễn giữa các độc giả ở cấp độ thấp hơn và
cấp độ cao hơn về việc sử dụng các chiến lược đọc riêng lẻ. Nếu đủ số lượng nghiên cứu kiểm
tra vấn đề này, thì có thể xác định những chiến lược có liên quan đến độc giả tốt và độc giả cấp
thấp hơn và trên sự khác biệt trong các ngôn ngữ một, nền tảng giáo dục và văn hóa.
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5. Kết luận
Nghiên cứu này đã mô tả kết quả về nhận thức cũng như mức độ sử dụng các chiến lược
đọc hiểu của sinh viên tiếng Anh không chuyên. Hầu hết các sinh viên đều sử dụng các chiến
lược đọc vào quá trình đọc tiếng Anh của mình ở mức độ trung bình. Dựa vào kết quả thu được
của nghiên cứu này, có thể nói rằng với nỗ lực nghiên cứu về siêu nhận thức trong việc đọc
tiếng Anh, nghiên cứu hiện tại đã cung cấp cái nhìn sâu sắc về việc sử dụng các chiến lược đọc
của người Việt Nam học tiếng Anh nói riêng, và nhiều bằng chứng và hiểu biết hơn về việc sử
dụng các chiến lược đọc của người học tiếng Anh nói chung. Nhìn chung, hầu hết các sinh viên
đại học đều nhận thức được tầm quan trọng của các chiến lược đọc đối với quá trình đọc hiểu và
ít nhiều sử dụng chúng trong quá trình đọc của mình. Về mặt sư phạm, những phát hiện của
nghiên cứu có ý nghĩa như sau đối với việc dạy đọc tiếng Anh và cho việc thiết kế các tài liệu
đọc tiếng Anh.
Nghiên cứu hiện tại đã quan sát một mô hình ưa thích sử dụng chiến lược đọc của những
người Việt Nam học tiếng Anh, sự giống và khác với các nhóm người học tiếng Anh khác. Nó
hỗ trợ những kết quả của nhiều nghiên cứu thực nghiệm rằng ngôn ngữ và nền tảng đầu tiên của
người học tiếng Anh có thể có một số tác động đến hành vi chiến lược của họ. Ngoài việc sử
dụng một số chiến lược đọc tương tự nhau, những người học tiếng Anh ở các nền tảng khác
nhau có sở thích cụ thể cho các loại chiến lược nhất định và chiến lược đọc riêng lẻ.
Do đó, việc hướng dẫn tất cả những người học tiếng Anh bằng cách sử dụng các cách tiếp
cận và phương pháp giảng dạy tương tự trong các lớp học tiếng Anh không phải lúc nào cũng hiệu
quả và công bằng. Vì thế, việc thiết kế tài liệu đọc tiếng Anh và dạy đọc tiếng Anh nên xem xét cả
tính phổ quát và tính độc đáo của sở thích của người học ESL đối với việc sử dụng chiến lược.
Mặc dù trên thực tế, nghiên cứu hiện tại không tìm thấy mối tương quan đáng kể giữa ba
nhóm chiến lược đọc (tổng thể, giải quyết vấn đề, hỗ trợ), các nhà thiết kế tài liệu tiếng Anh và
giáo viên đọc tiếng Anh nên thúc đẩy việc sử dụng các chiến lược liên quan đến việc đọc hiệu
quả. Hơn nữa, các chiến lược như vậy nên được đưa vào các mục tiêu của chương trình giảng
dạy về đọc sách và người học tiếng Anh nên được dạy rõ ràng và tăng cường cách sử dụng
những chiến lược đó một cách hiệu quả.
Aebersold, J., & Field, M. (1997). From reader to reading teacher: Issues and strategies for second
language classrooms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Anderson, N. (1999). Exploring second language reading: Issues and strategies. The Electronic Journal
for English as a Second Language,4(1), pp. xi+129. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
Brantmeior, C. (2002). Second language reading strategy research at the secondary and university
levels: Variations, disparities and generalizability. The Reading Matrix, 3, 1-14.
Carrell, P.L. (1989). Metacognitive awareness and second language reading. Modern Language
Journal, 73, 120-133.
Chastain, K. (1988). Developing second language skills, theory and practice. United States of
America: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.
Cumming, G. (2012). Understanding the new statistics: Effect sizes, confidence intervals, and meta-
analysis. New York: Routledge.
DeMoulin, & Loye (1999). Helping children to learn to read. Education, 120(1), 40-43.
328
Do, M.H., & Vo, P.T.N. (2015). Investigating reading strategies used by EFL students at Dong Thap
University. Asian Journal of Educational Research, 3(4), 10-20.
Dubin, F. (1982). What every EFL teacher should know about reading. English Teaching Forum, 20,
14-16.
Hsu, L.W. (2008). Taiwanese hospitality college students’ English reading strategies in English for
specific purpose courses. Journal of Hospitality and Home Economics, 5(1), 53-67.
Jafari, D., & Ketabi, S. (2012). Metacognitive strategies and reading comprehension enhancement in
Iranian intermediate EFL setting. International Journal of Linguistics, 4(3), 1-14.
Madhumathi, P., & Ghosh, A. (2012). A wareness of reading strategy use of Indian ESL students and
the relationship with reading comprehension achievement. English Language Teaching, 5(2), 131-140.
Mokhtari, K., & Reichard, A.C. (2004). Investigating the strategic reading processes of first and
second language readers in two different cultural contexts. System, 32, 379-394.
Mokhtari, K., & Sheorey, R. (2002). Measuring ESL students’ awareness of reading strategies. Journal
of developmental education, 25(3), 2-10.
Mónos, K. (2004). Learner strategies of Hungarian secondary grammar school students. Akademiai
Kiado, Budapes.
Nguyen, T.B.T. (2007). Chiến lược nhận thức áp dụng trong đọc hiểu tiếng Anh của sinh viên không
chuyên ngữ. Ngôn ngữ, 4, 63-77.
O’Malley, J.M., & Chamot, A.U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition.
Rubin, J. (1981). Study of cognitive processes in second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 11,
117-131.
Trần, T.T.H, & Trần, T.P. (2018). Sử dụng các chiến lược đọc hiểu nhằm nâng cao kĩ năng đọc hiểu
trong môn tiếng Anh cho sinh viên tại Học viện Nông nghiệp Việt nam. Tạp chí Giáo dục, 428, 61-64.
Typamas, C. (2012). Thai adult EFL learners’ metacognitive awareness of reading strategies. The
International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences, 6(9), 83-95.
Zhang, L. (2001). Awareness in reading: EFL students’ metacognitive knowledge of reading strategies
in an acquisition-poor environment. Language Awareness, 10(4), 266-288.
Zhang, L.J., & Wu, A. (2009). Chinese senior school EFL students’ metacognitive awareness and
reading-strategy use. Reading in a Foreign Language, 21(1), 37-59.
AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE USE OF READING STRATEGIES
BY NON-MAJORED ENGLISH STUDENTS
AT UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES, HUE UNIVERSITY
Abstract: Reading is probably one of the most important language skills that need to be
developed in language learners. Since learners “can use reading materials as a primary
source of comprehensible input as they learn the language” Chastain (1988, p. 216). The
present study thus was carried out to examine reading strategies used in reading English
texts by non-majored English students at Hue University of Foreign Languages. A
questionnaire of 30 statements related to 3 categories of reading strategies; namely global
strategies, problem solving strategies and supporting strategies; was delivered to two
groups of students. Results showed that the two groups more or less used all the strategies.
In general terms, though there are some differences in level of English proficiency in the
two groups, they reflectively reported the use of those strategies at a medium level.
Accordingly, reading strategy training should be taken into greater considerations by both
EFL teachers and students in order to purposely enhance students’ lifelong learning.
Key words: Reading performance, reading strategies, English proficiency, non-majored
English students
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SUITABLE USE OF VIETNAMESE VOCATIVES AND REQUEST

STRUCTURES: EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES
AMONG STUDENT YOUTH LEADERS
Dong Thanh Hai*
Can Tho University

Abstract: The researcher, at his position as a lecturer and a secretary of the youth union,
tries to investigate how the way people use words and structures influences the
effectiveness of communication. In this case, he would like to know how using correct
vocatives and imperative structures results in making requests to members of the youth
union at his college, most of whom are students. The study was conducted in the contexts
of regular meetings or meetings for some specific purposes mentored by the researcher, the
youth union secretary of the college. Methods used were observing, interviewing and
analyzing the data collected from the responses of participants. The results showed the
suitable use of vocatives and imperatives positively affected the communication purposes in
terms of the efficiency of the activities needed to be done, the participants’ willingness and
their motivation in conducting the activities.
Key words: Vocatives, requests, imperative structures
1. Introduction
In Vietnamese culture, the use of vocative cases and imperative structures is inseparable
parts in communication. However, the question is how to use them effectively? It is quite hard
even to Vietnamese native speakers because Vietnamese vocatives are very complicated.
According to Nguyen Thi Diem Phuong (2011), there are more vocatives in Vietnamese than in
any other languages in the world. Moreover, the use of vocatives and imperative greatly
depends on the relationship between the speaker and the hearer; the purpose, the situation of the
conversation; or the background of the speakers. In her study, Nguyen Thi Diem Phuong (2011)
also stated that Vietnamese people have a copious spoken language, especially the vocatives
that they often use. It always makes learners of Vietnamese confused for the vocatives do not
only have the language functions but also the cultural ones.
Instead of the pronouns such as “I, we, they, he, she, you” which are used in English,
Vietnamese tend to use various pronouns like “tôi, tớ, tao, chúng tôi, chúng tớ, bọn họ, bọn
chúng, anh ta, nó, hắn, mày, bọn mày, etc”.
The vocatives in Vietnamese language are also based on the age, the class, the job
positions, etc. When people want to address the elderly or the ones who have higher status in the
society, nouns are used instead. For example, chú, bác, cô, dì, ông, bà, etc. are used for
addressees who are older or in a higher position. Thanks to Vietnamese cultures, positions must
be clearly recognized, and it has been proved by history.
* Email: dthai@ctu.edu.vn
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Requests, in addition to the vocatives, in my opinion, may contribute to the success of

communication in which the speaker wants the addressees to do something for him or for the
organization. When the speaker makes a request, he expects the addressee’s expenditure of time,
energy or material resource. In other words, requests impose the speaker’s interest on the
addressee. And requests may occur in two types, direct and indirect ones. There are, in fact, a lot
of layers of meanings which send different messages under what is uttered, so it is hard to
realize which intention is wanted by the speakers. Similarly, requests are complicated speech
acts involving many different elements. Blum-Kulka (1991) showed that requests are the ones
including requesting goals, linguistic encoding, situational parameters and the social meanings
of the requests according to cultural and situational factors.
Vocatives and requests are diverse and complicated, especially in the Vietnamese
language. They are both challenging for the people, even Vietnamese native speakers, to use
them correctly and effectively due to many factors in which the environment and situation play
an important role. This means that using appropriate vocatives to appropriate addressees and
giving the right request to the hearer in the right situation contribute enormously to the goal of
communication.
Vocatives and imperative structures are always the necessary factors contributing to the
success of the communication. They have their own roles in certain contexts to certain speakers and
hearers, and they also receive so much attention from researchers and are identified in many ways.
Vocatives are addressee-oriented linguistic units that are used in different speech acts
such as greetings, calls, commands, or requests (Parrott, 2010; Poynton, 1990). Their main
discourse functions are to identify participants’ roles and characterize the speaker in relation to
the addressees, as they are especially relevant as markers of power and solidarity (Ahmed, 2007;
Brown & Levinson, 1987).
Vocatives are also defined as “noun phrases that refer to the addressee, but are not
syntactically or semantically incorporated as the arguments of a predicate” by Levinson (1983).
And they generally have three functions: “(1) helping to get attention, (2) helping to identify
people as a speaker or an addressee, and (3) help to maintain and enhance social relationships”,
Biber et al. (1999). According to Zwicky (1974), vocatives also express attitude, politeness,
formality, status, intimacy, or a role relationship, and most of them mark the speaker, which
show the relationship between the speaker and the addressee. Others have observed how
vocatives are used as markers of power and solidarity. There were other researchers who
observed that vocatives are also used as the marker of power and solidarity like Hook (1984); or
as pseudo-intimacy like McCarthy & O’Keeffe (2001), as equality (Troemel-Ploetz, 1994), as
initiators of the conversation and cues for changing topic contextually (Ostermann, 2000); and
as an action that redresses for some face-threatening acts (Brown & Levinson, 1978;
Ostermann, 2000). Vocatives, therefore, help us to identify the roles of participants, to modulate
the politeness, and to set positions within the discourse.
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Vietnamese vocatives are the words used to call and address each other in communication.
According to Diep Quang Ban and Hoang Van Thung (2002), Vietnamese vocatives are words
which are used to replace and represent the participants in a communication process.
Vocatives, especially Vietnamese ones, are quite various. It can be said that Vietnamese
vocatives are actually more numerous than those of many other languages in the world. In fact,
in real communication, people tend to use different vocatives in different situations depending
on their purposes and the addressees of the communication. Most Vietnamese people live in the
countryside and they live mostly on agricultural cultivation. This living environment has
brought them closer together; therefore, the ways they call themselves and call the others have
been also seriously affected in that way. They tend to call each other as if they are members of a
family. They may use so many words to address the same person according to their social
positions, gender, ages, etc. They may call “cô (aunt), chú (uncle), anh (brother), chị (sister),
etc”, which are dependent on their ages and their genders, right at the first time they meet. It
occurs similarly at the university setting where there are various kinds of relationships.
Nguyen Thien Giap (2000) gave a definition of imperative in his book “Dụng học Việt
ngữ” as an act which speaker uses to make addressees do something. Imperatives have some
functions as (1) telling the addressees what to do, (2) giving them instructions and advice, (3)
giving suggestions and making recommendations, and (4) making offers, and they can be
expressed in a sentence. According to the previous research by Alisjahbana (1978), Ramlan
(2001), Rahardi (2005), and Alwi et al. (2003), the imperatives can be realized if they are
expressed based on formal construction structures. Yet in daily discourse, imperatives are
expressed both by formal imperative structures and by other structures in context.
Requests in Vietnamese have been rarely discussed in pragmatics literature. Among a few
research studies in Vietnam, Vu Thi Thanh Huong (1997, 1999) has shown an insight into
requests in Vietnamese. Her studies were requests made by a group of Vietnamese native speakers
in social communication contexts. And the results showed that Vietnamese speakers prefer
requests made with high level of directness with supportive elements to show the politeness rather
than the ones made in an indirect way to express politeness. Indirectness is considered as a
politeness device; however, it is not appreciated as highly as the mitigated direct requests.
Although there has been a growing interest in doing research in requests and politeness in
the last few decades, most of earlier studies have focused on a limited range of languages, most
of which are European ones, and only a small number of studies investigated Asian languages,
especially in Vietnamese. It is, therefore, necessary to do more research in order to know how
requests are expressed across languages, and to what extent strategies for making requests
occurs in communication in different languages. Our study sets out to investigate the strategies
for making requests and using Vietnamese vocatives in a specific context of the university
where the communication was among a group of Vietnamese native speakers who have special
social relationships.
In the discussion below we will see how Vietnamese vocatives and imperative structures are
preferred to use for an effective communication in certain circumstances with specific attendants.
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3. Objectives
This study aims to discover whether the language we use very regularly is effective or not,
and to findout the most effective way in using vocatives and requests in teachers’ daily
communication with students, especially with the ones who are also in other positions as members
of a political system like Youth leaders of the school youth union. The findings are expected to be
applied to the author’s current job as a faculty youth union secretary in order to improve his
communication strategies for the sake of professional effectiveness.
4. Methods
With the research objectives above, the study was done under the writer’s real experience
and by observing during a long period, with the participation of all members of faculty youth
union executive board.
It is a preliminary research on the communication among members of the youth union at
the regular meetings of the organization and focuses on the ways Vietnamese vocatives and
structures of requests are used.
The data were collected in two ways: questionnaire and open interview questions, which
were mainly about addressees’ preference and satisfaction in the ways Vietnamese vocatives are
used in their communication in the formal meeting context, and their appreciation in the
requests being used as well. The interview and the questionnaire were delivered to the
participants, who are all student youth leaders; and accessed during the research, to collect their
responses.
The data were analyzed statistically, quantitatively and qualitatively and then the
discussion was made based on the theory reviewed.
In the environment of the university, there are relationships among colleagues, among
students, and between teachers and students. The vocatives used, therefore, are much fewer than
in the society. Thầy/cô - các trò, thầy/cô - các em, tôi - các bạn/các em, tôi - các anh, chị, etc.
are used as the most common vocatives to address the hearers.
Our observation was on specific cases with other kinds of relationship: the relationships
among students and between teachers and students. However, it was in a different position -
between the youth leaders (maybe, teachers or students), another way to name interpersonally is
đồng chí (‘comrade’). The context of our study was the regular meetings aimed to discuss the
coming activities to be held and to inform the important policies or plans of the organization, in
which the researcher is the secretary - the top leader of youth union of the faculty. In these
meetings, many tasks were assigned to all members of the executive committee, and so, many
requests, or even commands were made to get the job, the activities done effectively.
After some meetings passed, I got all 15 together and a warm and friendly interview was
made as if it was a reunion to share what they have thought and how they have felt about the
communication strategies used. All of their sharing and opinions were carefully recorded, taken
notes and analyzed to go to the findings.
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Figure 1. Vocatives used broadly accepted
The findings showed that 13 out of 15 (87%) agreed that the teacher should call them
đồng chí (‘comrade’) at such meetings of the organization. However, also 10 out of 15 (67%)
agreed that “thầy - các em” is also acceptable in case the youth union secretary talks to other
members because our organization is also in the university where teacher-student is the core
relationship. Also, they believed that when they, student youth leaders, discuss together, đồng
chí (‘comrade’) should be used. A few members (3 out of 15-20%) preferred to use “tôi -
bạn/các bạn” in the communication with other student leaders, but “thầy - em, các em” when
talking with the secretary.
It is certain that the majority of the youth leaders are good and active students, and they
understand that they are taking part in the political organization. They, therefore, consider that
the title they use to call each other at formal meetings must be official and formal, therefore
“đồng chí” is more preferable. Nguyen Thi Diem Phuong (2011) agreed that the vocatives we
use in communication also show whether we respect or are respected by the others or not.
“…I totally agree that we ought to use ‘đồng chí’ as a vocative to name at official meetings.
Thanks to that, we will be aware that it is a formal case. And more, when being called “đồng chí”
we think that we are respected and highly appreciated. This will strengthen our motivation at
work….” (Minh Khoi (C41)).
Also, some respondents believed that when we call them a serious title like “đồng chí”, it
shows that we recognize their position in the group and in student community. In fact, youth
union is a political organization, so “comrade” is normally and popularly used.
“…when we are called “đồng chí”, we know that our roles are recognized, and that is what we
need beside the experience. To tell the truth that we are really happy when other people know what
we have done and recognize them. We do not do things just for ourselves but the whole student
community…” (Thanh Danh & Thanh Thao (C42)).
While most of the respondents agreed that the way we call them in the organization show
that we respect them and position them rightly, and they also believed that it is a way to show
our recognition toward their contribution; others- also including some in the previous group-
think the neutral way. According to these interviewees, they need to be respected, recognized.
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However, they also thought that the relationship between teacher and students should be paid
more attention, so they supposed “thầy - em, các em” should be a considerable way, too.
“… I really want to be called ‘comrade’ to show that I am appreciated as a companion. However, I
also think that in addition to the relationship in the organization, we also have the relationships
between teacher and students, and friendship among us, the students. Therefore, ‘đồng chí, thầy,
bạn, các bạn’ are all accepted to me….” (Thuy Linh (C40)).
Vocatives are a crucial part of language in communication. They play an important role in
showing the politeness, the respects, and recognitions to the hearers. Using the correct vocatives
in making requests, which aims to require the addresses to do something for the speaker or for
the public purposes, is also an important factor contributing to the goal of communication.
In Vietnamese, people make requests in two ways, direct and indirect; and in three types,
interrogative, imperative and declarative, among which interrogative is used most often.
Figure 2. Addressees’ preferences in direct requests used
Most student youth leaders (10/15 - 67%) are actually into the direct requests with the clear
explanation instead of the indirectness. They think that when the direct request is made, they can
get the points and certainly do/follow it in the right way. They also argue that saying something
indirectly sometimes makes them confused although “indirectness is is often associated with
politeness” (Brown & Levinson, 1987). Responses also showed that they agreed with the
indirectness in their communication because they needed to be politely treated, but they did not
think it is a good way to make request at the meetings with the aims to give commands and assign
tasks. On the other hand, a few respondents did still think that the indirect use of requests or
suggestions seemed to be softer to their ears and they did not feel some ways to be hurt. Neither
did they think that indirectness is the effective way in giving something like a command or a
request. This group of respondents also said that indirectness should be used in communication
between lower-to-higher speakers for it could better show their respects to the older.
Among the direct requests, the majority of respondents believed that interrogative should
be used in making an effective request. “Danh, em hoàn thành kế hoạch hoạt động này vào thứ
Sáu được không?/ Danh, could you finish the plan for this activity by Friday, please?” seems to
be more effective than “Danh, em nên hoàn thành kế hoạch hoạt động vào thứ Sáu./Danh, you
should finish the plan for the activity by Friday.” While the previous sentence seemed to be
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softer and mitigated, and it also gave the hearer a choice; the later one gave no choice to the
addressee. Therefore, the clear preference is for the first one.
Figure 3. Addressees' ideas on using imperatives as clear-cut suggestions
Even an imperative like “Làm xong bản kế hoạch này ngay trong tuần này nhé!/ Finish this
plan within this week, please!” can be also widely accepted in this case. Most of respondents
(73%) agreed that imperative can bring certain benefits, too. It may be clear-cut instructions,
especially to the new students, in guiding them what to do and how to do what are expected to be
finished while there are still some considerations on whether this kind of suggestion may bring the
effectiveness for the communication or not. In fact, the participants of the recent study showed
that they strongly preferred the directness, especially, imperatives when making requests (Byon
2006; Hassall, 1999; Lee-Wong, 1994; Matsumoto, 1988; Ogiermann, 2009; Upadhyay, 2003; Vu
Thi Thanh Huong, 1997, 1999; Wierzbicka 1985). This study showed a similar result from Vu Thi
Thanh Huong (1997, 1999), in which he suggested that imperatives are not necessarily in relation
to impoliteness in Vietnamese language. When asked, in fact, 76.7% of the Vietnamese
participants in Vu Thi Thanh Huong’s (1997, 1999) studies did not believe that barely mitigated
imperatives are inappropriate, while 64% considered mitigated ‘imperatives’ to be polite.
“…Although I sometimes feel serious about the imperatives, they are more like commands not
requests, I still prefer them to the indirect statements. That is because I can find it is easy to
understand and follow the request. I do not think they are in relation with impoliteness….” (Thao
(C42) & Thu (C44))
Beside the requests used, the intonation, the body language and speaker’s face also
contribute to the effectiveness of the conversation, and the hearers’ preference. The speaker’s
accent also represents the respect to the hearers, and it may hurt them if the one who gives request
talk as if he shouts at them with the serious face. In general, no one denies the contribution of the
request structures, but the way the speaker makes requests is not less important.
“…I do not have any ideas about what you requested us, they are okay to me; however, I was
sometimes scared because of your frightening accent. When I was frightened, I could not
remember even a word you said…” (Toan, a freshman).
Overall, based on the above findings and discussion, it is apparent that in order to make
an effective request to hearers, student youth leaders in this case; suitable vocatives and request
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structures play an important role. The aims of the conversation may fail if a lack of attention is
paid to these elements.
6. Conclusion and application
The study showed that the suitable use of vocatives in the right situation can bring the
satisfying results for the conversation because they may help the respondents/addressees feel that
they are respected. The hearers also feel that their positions and roles are correctly recognized.
In addition to vocatives, the ways we make requests also have positive or negative effects
to the success of the communication. Thanks to the study, we found that using direct requests
and imperatives may bring positive results for the hearers who have lower position than the
speaker. This finding is equivalent to Vu Thi Thanh Huong (1997, 1999) that direct requests
were used more often in the equal power or in higher-to-lower relationships, whereas in lower-
to-higher power scenarios, indirect requests were required.
The study was conducted in a rather small scale, so it could not be representative of
Vietnamese people or the Vietnamese language. However, in some ways, it may run well in the
similar situations in which the teacher may apply to communicate with his students who are
doing some jobs in a political organization like the youth union at schools and universities.
Thanks to the findings, at the formal situations in which people have equal power
relationship (we did not count for the age of the speaker and the hearers), the vocatives like
‘đồng chí, các bạn, các anh chị’ are preferable. Therefore, the speaker should make sure that
everyone is equally respected to achieve the goals of communication.
The findings also suggested that in the equal power relationships or in higher-to-lower
power conversations, the speakers may use direct requests more often to successfully reach the
goals of communication. Whereas, if the speakers are at the lower power position in the
communication, indirect requests should be considered more frequently to avoid negative
effects that may lead to failed communication. Besides, we should alo pay attention to our face
expressions, intonations and gestures while giving requests so that we can avoid hurting the
addressee’s feelings.
The writer, with the hope to reduce the limitation of small population, expects to do some
further research which can attract more participants involved in some various environments like
in the companies or in the state organizations, so that it can represent as communication
strategies and help equip students the skills required in working environment.
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Linguistic Society.
CÁCH GIAO TIẾP HIỆU QUẢ VỚI LỜI XƯNG HÔ,

ĐỀ NGHỊ, YÊU CẦU HỢP LÝ
Tóm tắt: Tác giả thực hiện nghiên cứu nhằm tìm hiểu tính hiệu quả của việc sử dụng cách
xưng hô và lời đề nghị phù hợp trong giao tiếp giữa cán bộ đoàn là sinh viên. Đề tài được
thực hiện trong bối cảnh của các cuộc họp hàng tuần, hàng tháng và các cuộc họp triển khai
các hoạt động, phong trào thanh niên tại Khoa Ngoại ngữ, Trường Đại học Cần Thơ. Các
cuộc khảo sát lấy ý kiến về sự hài lòng và sự ưa thích của cán bộ đoàn sinh viên về cách
xưng hô phù hợp tại các cuộc họp, và thái độ của họ đối với các yêu cầu, đề nghị của bí thư
Đoàn của Khoa trong việc phân công thực hiện các hoạt động phong trào tại đơn vị. Kết
quả khảo sát cho thấy việc sử dụng phù hợp cách xưng hô và câu mệnh lệnh/đề nghị sẽ
mang lại hiệu quả giao tiếp tích cực trong các tình huống trên.
Từ khoá: Xưng hô, lời đề nghị, cán bộ đoàn
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REDEFINING A FLIPPED LEARNING CLASSROOM:

USING OUTSIDE-CLASSROOM LISTENING PORTFOLIO
TO BOOST INSIDE-CLASSROOM SPEAKING TASKS
Mai Thi Nhu Hang*
Quang Binh University

Abstract: With the limited time in the classroom, many English language teachers have
held a big concern as to how to create more spaces, more time, and more opportunities for
learners to use the target language in a meaningful way. By using a qualitative method with
different approaches of interviews, document analysis, and classroom observations, this
study aims at exploring the effect of adopting a flipped learning model with the integration
of listening and speaking on the development of these skills. The study participants were 17
third-year English-major students enrolling in a listening-speaking 6 course at Quang Binh
University. The findings showed that learners’ listening skills were significantly improved
and they appeared to be more confident and more productive when participating in inside-
classroom speaking tasks with a well-prepared listening porfolio at home. The article drew
an implication that to boost learners’ independent learning and maximize the effect of the
classroom time, it is vital to apply homework-in-class and classwork-at-home model while
integrating skills in language education.
Key words: Flipped learning, listening portfolios, listening-speaking integration
1. Introduction
The mobilized world of the 21st century appears to require its citizens to be equipped with
necessary skills and knowledge to respond to its astounding developments, and language
learners are also involved in this stream. In the arena of English language teaching and learning,
Zwiers (2014) claims that our learners have to learn to use that language in a more complicated
way such as analyzing complex texts, arguing, evaluating evidence, and engaging in academic
discussions. In fact, in order to prepare for more advanced language to meet different purposes,
rather than just daily expressions, such as the academic language standards for higher education
or international tests like IELTS or TOEFL, technical languages for future jobs, and deeper
language for taking part in more complicated interactions, learners need to be well-prepared.
However, with simply asking them to do speaking tasks in the traditional classroom is not
adequate. In fact, although language teachers perhaps allow their students a certain amount of
time to prepare and generate academic discussions in the classroom, it has been seen that many
learners cannot fulfill the tasks due to lack of knowledge, lexical resources on a particular topic
as well as their nagging anxiety when using a second language. It causes a common problem in
many English-speaking classrooms that students remain silent and unresponsive, participating
only to a minimal degree. It poses a need for allowing learners enough time, space and
opportunities to access academic language before class by assigning out-of-class work.
* Email: hangmainhu88qb@gmail.com
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Although in many cases the curriculum has separated language skills into different
courses, in the very essence they are integrated and cannot be apart, such as listening and
speaking skills. While listening is a receptive skill, speaking is a productive one. When referring
to learning a foreign language, Tavil (2000) regards these skills to be very important for
communicative competence and states that “it is essential for students to understand the
language they are exposed to and to respond appropriately so that they can become competent
users of that particular language” (p. 765). There are a variety of studies claiming the positive
effect of integrating listening and speaking on learners’ oral communicative competence;
however, there is still a research room for innovative teaching and learning approaches to
resolve this issue, particularly adopting the flipped learning model in order to maximize the
classroom time.
2.1. Definition of flipped learning
The term “flipped learning” dated back to 2000 with Baker’s college context in
Southwest Ohio, United States. With a goal to change the role of the teacher from a mere
lecturer or a knowledge transferor to a guide-by-the-side and to reduce class time wasted on
students copying the slides, Baker’s idea was to let students access learning materials online
before class and utilize the classroom time to assist them in dealing with daunting exercises.
This model is called homework-in-class and classwork-at-home model as traditionally students
acquire knowledge in a classroom context and then do more practice out of the classroom. In the
flipped classroom, students acquire knowledge before the class and use class time to practice
and apply concepts and ideas through interaction with peers and teachers. After the class,
students reflect upon the feedback they have received and use this to further their learning. This
learning approach has brought great benefits to students in many disciplines (Honeycutt &
Garrett, 2014). In the field of teaching English as a foreign language (EFL), adopting flipped
learning approach has attracted considerable attention; however, there is still a limited number
of empirical studies in this field regarding how to perform it in skill-integration classroom and
how effective it is.
2.2. Benefits of the flipped learning model
With the aim of exploring the effects of the flipped learning approach in a grammar
classroom through students’ perceptions on its effectiveness and feasibility, Pudin (2017)
adopted a quantitative method. A number of 120 students with higher Malaysian University
Entrance Test (MUET) were asked to complete a questionnaire which is then analyzed through
SPSS version 24. The findings indicated that most of the students were keen on learning
grammar through the flipped classroom as opposed to the traditional grammar one. The study
provided ESL practitioners a better insight into students’ preference in learning grammar and
ways to create better teaching through blended learning.
In the Vietnamese context, Cao Thi Xuan Lien’s (2017) study examined the effect of the
flipped learning approach on students’ learning satisfaction. The study conducted a survey on 67
second-year English-major students at University of Foreign Languages, Hue University. The
findings showed that the majority of participants held a positive attitude towards the concerted
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classroom model. Some advantages were commented by the participants such as considerably
improving writing skill, more time spent on practice, more interesting than the traditional
method, attracting more students in classroom activities. However, some difficulties were also
pointed out such as overloaded assignments outside class and lack of support from teachers. In
line with this, Tran Thi Thanh Quyen (2017) also investigated students’ awareness of the
flipped learning model administered on 30 ESP students at Can Tho University. In the study, the
social network, Facebook, was employed to deliver online lectures and discussions. The results
suggested that Facebook is a convenient and effective learning tool in flipped learning method
helping learners improve vocabulary, pronunciation, and communication skills.
Overall, the flipped learning model has been increasingly adopted in ESL language
classrooms but it appears to be mainly used for a single skill like writing skill or grammar
learning. There are no studies found regarding teaching listening and speaking in integration
using flipped learning approach. The following part will continue to discuss the benefit of
integrating these two skills in developing learners’ language performances.
2.3. The integration of listening and speaking skills
In terms of integrating listening and speaking, Tavil’s (2010) study aims at examining the
effect of applying listening-speaking skill integration in the classroom by implementing tasks
and using pre-post tests administered to 180 students from the preparatory classes of Hacettepe
University, Turkey. The findings show that students practicing the skills in integration are more
successful than those practicing them separately. The study contributes to accustoming learners
to combing listening and speaking, in natural interaction, through information-gap tasks.
However, its limitation is just using in-classroom-tasks without emphasizing out-of-classroom
tasks with skill-integration approach.
Many studies have proposed the benefits of using speaking skill to achieve language
learning goals in listening classrooms. It is said that integrating speaking can assist in
“facilitating metacognition development, enhancing comprehension and retention of listening
content, and creating opportunities for focus on form” (Newton & Nguyen Duc Chi, 2018, p. 4).
In line with this, De la Fuente (2002) also claims that a combination of listening and speaking is
more effective for learning the meaning of new vocabulary items introduced in aural input than
the alternative approach of repeated listening.
Despite its valuable findings, these studies still have some caveats such as putting more
emphasis on the benefits of speaking on listening, or productive skill on receptive one, rather
than vice versa. Therefore, the data on how listening can boost speaking appears sparse;
especially, effective teaching approaches to fulfill this goal are still rare. Moreover, none of
them pay attention to using out-of-class work to boost inside-classroom activities. This study
fills the gap by adapting a flipped learning method to teach listening and speaking skills with an
aim of activating their acquired knowledge from outside into the classroom to maximize the
advantage of the classroom time. The research aims to answer the following questions:
- How can outside-class portfolios improve learners’ listening skill?
- How can out-of-class listening boost learners’ in-class speaking task performances?
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3. Methodology
3.1. Instruments
3.1.1. Interview
Interviewing is considered as one of the core data collection methods in qualitative
research. Interviews are valuable because if they are properly conducted, they can provide deep
insights into people’s experiences, beliefs, perceptions and motivations (Creswell & Plano
Clark, 2011). This method is usually employed as a valuable source of data to triangulate
findings of studies. Therefore, in this study, 17 interviews were conducted to gain a
comprehensive understanding of learners’ opinions on the effects of out-of-class listening
portfolio on improving learners’ listening skills and on in-class speaking activities. Learners
were interviewed immediately after their speaking tasks, particularly in post-task stage. After
each learner finished their small-group talk, they were asked some questions in English relating
to the issue mentioned above. Each interview lasted for about 2 minutes.
3.1.2. Participant observation
Observation methods provide a variety of benefits for researchers, such as checking
nonverbal expression of feelings, determining who interacts with whom, grasping how
interlocutors communicate with each other, and checking for how much time is spent on various
activities (Schmuck, 1997). In this study, the researcher observed learners’ speaking task
performances and took notes of comments on their strengths and weaknesses. The observation
approach was conducted before interviews in order to collect more information on learners’
performances before asking key questions to find more data for research questions.
3.1.3. Field note analysis
Field notes which are generated during the researcher’s observations help to remember
and record the behaviors, activities, events, and other features of the observations. Field notes
are intended to be read by the researcher as evidence to produce meaning and an understanding
of the culture, social situation, or phenomenon being studied. The notes may constitute the
whole data collected for a research study (e.g., an observational project) or contribute to it, such
as when field notes supplement conventional interview data (Schwandt, 2015).
3.1.4. Document analysis
Document analysis is a systematic procedure for reviewing or evaluating documents
which are printed or electronic materials. Data of document analysis requires to be examined
and interpreted in order to elicit meaning, gain understanding, and develop empirical knowledge
(Corbin & Strauss, 2008). In this study, learners’ listening portfolios were analyzed to gain
more information on how they helped to improve learners’ listening and speaking skills. In
particular, portfolios were analyzed based on different parts such as self-evaluation, useful
vocabulary, and main ideas.
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3.2. Participants and the classroom context

The teaching context was a speaking-listening 6 course for third-year English-major
students at university level in Quang Binh University. This course focused on developing the
necessary skills and strategies to further students’ abilities in listening and speaking (although
other language skills were integrated). The classroom participants included in the observation
notes were 17 Vietnamese students who majored in English language. Participants’ ages ranged
between 20 and 21. The number of females accounted for 88.2% while that of males was 11.8%.
During the course, learners were required to complete practicing at minimum three pieces
of listening per week and make a portfolio in a guided format and structure. These files were
submitted to the instructor (the author) after class for evaluation and analysis and were returned
to learners one week later. The author wrote analysis in a small notebook when checking
students’ out-of-class work.
Teachers instructed learners how to select appropriate talks and reliable listening
resources so that learners can both practice listening skills and enrich their general knowledge
about the world. Although specific topics were optional and chosen according to learners’
interests, there were general topics stated in the syllabus to be followed.
When coming to the classroom, students carried out speaking tasks given by the teacher.
While students were working, the instructor also acted as the observer in certain classroom
activities. When observing the class, the author wrote shorthand field notes detailing the
observations of the students.
The following are teachers’ instructions to learners’ listening portfolio.
Outside-classroom listening portfolio
Listening selection guidelines
Firstly, learners were advised to choose talks below 10 minutes in length, usually 5 to 7
minutes was more advised. Talks over 10 minutes were generally long enough to easily make
the listener tired and demotivated. The reason was that learners not only just finished their
listening but also needed to look up new words and learn useful phrases. With an appropriate
duration, it appeared that learners were provided more adequate time and space to absorb and
acquire the input language in a more productive way.
In addition, choosing a good topic also accounted for a successful listening process. It
was believed that what interested you would motivate and inspire you to be persistent with it in
a long run. Listening to a second language to understand new information was a daunting task
and needed a great effort, so an interesting talk would considerably push learners in their
learning process.
Listening resources
Learners were required to choose such types of listening as news, reports and speeches as
they provided a richer resource of information and knowledge with more academic languages
necessary for learners to reproduce them in the same or relevant topics later.
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Some recommended sources were Ted.com (main source), VOA special English (these
sources were suggested but there was no limit to others, so students could use any reliable
source after discussing with the instructor).
The following is the suggested portfolio format:
Portfolio format
Learners were required to make a table of self-reflection with a specific guideline for
each listening time.
Date:
Listening 1: (Listening title)
Part 1: Self-reflection
Table 1. Self-reflection
Time What to do Percentage of
understanding
•
1st time Listen without subtitle/ subscript and figure out the general %
idea of the talk. -----
2nd – 4•th Listen without subtitle/ subscript and take notes of the %
time main points. -----
The number of times may vary depending on learners’
ability but should be 3 times at maximum.
•
5th time Listen with subtitle/ subscript to check your understanding %
and your notes. -----
• Look up new words in a dictionary and learn useful
vocabulary and phrases.
Final• Listen without subtitle/ subscript after learning new words %
time and useful phrases. -----
Part 2: Useful vocabulary and phrases

In this part, learners wrote down all new words and useful phrases from the listening
piece. New words were recorded with their main elements including spelling, international
transcript, meaning, and part of speech (these elements were recommended but not limited).
Part 3: Main ideas
In this part, learners noted down the main points of the talk so that they could share with
others what they had listened. It was advised that learners should use the mind map to organize
the main points, stimulating their brainstorming and recalling language to express an issue in
their own way. Learners needed to practice presenting these main contents at home to prepare
for classroom speaking tasks.
Inside-classroom speaking tasks
The following are learners’ instructions to inside-classroom speaking tasks:
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Pre-task: Individual work

Choose a listening topic among the ones you listened to at home and spend some time
practicing speaking about it individually (5 minutes).
Notice: Teachers encourage learners to use as many new words and useful phrases from
the listening as possible. This will help them remember vocabulary and information necessary
for their language use and production.
Main-task
Task 1: Pair-work
Imagine that you are going to meet three friends at three different times. You are very
eager to share with them what you have known from your listening. Now, start up a
conversation with a partner and talk about it.
While talking with each other, please feel free to ask questions or have a small discussion
about that issue (15 minutes for 3 conversations).
Task 2: Large-group talk
Imagine that you are going to share a particular topic with a large group. Each person will
have one chance to stand in front of the class to present a talk in 3 minutes.
Notice: Immediately after each talk, the other members of the class and teacher will raise
questions and comment on their performances.
Post-task
Think about the following questions and share your ideas with your teacher and classmates:
1. How useful is portfolio-making to your listening improvement?
2. How can out-of-class listening practice boost your speaking activities on a particular
topic in the classroom?
3. Did you have any difficulties when making listening portfolio?
4.1. How portfolio making improves learners’ listening skill
4.1.1. Findings from document analysis
The data from document analysis revealed a significant effect of portfolio-making activity
on learners’ listening skill development, particularly enhancing listening comprehension, and
improving vocabulary and general knowledge, which will be presented below.
Enhancing listening comprehension: The analysis from 17 collected portfolios by
students showed that for the first time they did not understand much about the content of the
talk (with below 50 percent of understanding for all learners) but many of them could figure out
the general idea of the talk. Their understanding improved considerably after three times of
listening and 90 percent of the students could note down the main points and the average level
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of understanding increased to around 75 percent for most of them. After looking up new words
and learning useful phrases, learners listened again without the subtitle, and it appeared that the
understanding went up to 95 to 100 percent for all learners.
Enhancing vocabulary and general knowledge: It was also seen that many academic
words and useful phrases were recorded by learners for later language use. For example, in a
listening titled “climate change”, a student took notes of useful vocabulary, such as:
atmosphere, carbon dioxide, fossil fuel, emission, global warming, and greenhouse gas. This
activity helped learners improve their vocabulary on a particular topic. In addition, the main-
idea part demonstrated that learners had a chance to gather a lot of useful information and
knowledge on a certain issue which was substantially essential to their comprehension and
language production.
4.1.2. Findings from interviews
The data from interviews showed that all of the learners were in favor of doing portfolio-
making task to improve their listening skill because of the following benefits.
Providing more time for practice: All of the participants held a positive attitude toward
making listening portfolios outside the classroom. One of the main reasons was that it provided
them more time to learn useful vocabulary and phrases, which remarkably enhances their
listening comprehension.
Providing an effective way of listening: Most of them (87%) agreed that listening skill
could be done by themselves at home without much difficulty as they just needed to used online
materials that the teacher provided. With the guided steps, all of the participants approved that
they learned the way how to practice English listening in a more effective way.
Providing a chance for self-evaluation: Interestingly, many of them expressed a satisfaction
with what they did in the portfolio. In particular, when they had a chance to evaluate their
competence after each time of listening, they would recognize their listening ability by themselves.
That, in fact, generated an intrinsic motivation in learners who desired to improve themselves.
4.2. How making listening portfolio outside classroom boosts inside-classroom speaking
tasks
4.2.1. Findings from classroom observations
The results from classroom observations indicated many benefits of at-home-listening
portfolio activity on learners’ speaking task engagement and performances in the class,
including making learners more focused, lowering second language (L2) anxiety, enhancing
comprehension, and providing more accurate grammar and enhancing vocabulary range in
Making learners more focused: Data from classroom observations showed that learners
were more focused on the topic when they worked individually or with their partners. All of
them showed that they were very eager to share their knowledge about the topic. It was also
observed that learners were always ready and showed an enthusiastic attitude toward speaking
346
activities in the classroom when they were well-prepared for the needed knowledge as well as
useful topic-relevant language in advance.
Lowering L2 anxiety: Importantly, many of them appeared to overcome L2 anxiety and
were very confident when speaking in front of a large group. Many of those who had been too
shy to speak before appeared to be more comfortable and enthusiastic about speaking.
Enhancing comprehension: It was also easier for them to understand what their partners
or other classmates shared as they had a certain level of understanding about the general idea of
the topic while searching and doing out-of-class listening work.
Providing more accurate grammar and enhancing vocabulary range: The participants
also showed that they used a variety of academic vocabulary, complicated phrases, and
advanced grammar structures in small discussions or when making a presentation.
4.2.2. Findings from the interviews
The data from the interviews also revealed some benefits of listening portfolios to
learners’ speaking performances regarding learner-centeredness and productivity.
Learner-centered: All of the interviewees agreed that the classroom time was indeed
learner-centered when all of the time students had to work and perform tasks given by the teacher.
More productive: Many learners commented that they gained more knowledge about a
prompted topic as well as acquiring more academic vocabulary in that topic, so they were more
eager to participate in discussion activities and more ready to share their ideas with their
classmates about what they knew.
5. Conclusion
Listening is seen to be an effective strategy to scaffold academic language and knowledge
for speaking. However, the important point is that students are asked to make listening
portfolios at home rather than in class. By using outside-classroom listening portfolio before
inside-classroom speaking tasks, teachers allow students to accumulate more knowledge or
information on a particular topic, better organize their thoughts, and ultimately lower their L2
speaking anxiety. The study findings indicated that academic speaking following prepared
listening outside the classroom were more time-saving and engaging, with students using more
accurate grammar and more precise vocabulary when they spoke. The study suggests that to
apply flipped learning model more effectively in language classrooms, it is necessary to adapt it
to a particular teaching and learning context. In skill-integration teaching, flipped learning can
be understood that using the outside-classroom time to enhance knowledge through a receptive
skill and prepare for another productive skill in the classroom time. In this study, listening
portfolios significantly enhance inside-classroom speaking task engagement as well as
performances.
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References
Cao Thi Xuan Lien (2017). The application of flipped classroom model to teach writing skills to EFL
students at University of Foreign Languages, Hue University. Journal of Inquiry into Languages and
Cultures, 1(3), 36-48.
Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2008). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for
developing grounded theory (3rd edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Creswell, J.W., & Plano Clark, V.L. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed methods research.
Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications.
De La Fuente, M.J. (2002). Negotiation and oral acquisition of L2 vocabulary. Studies in Second
Language Acquisition, 24, 81-112.
Honeycutt, B., & Garrett, J. (2014). Expanding the definition of a flipped learning environment. In M.
Bart (Ed.), Blended and flipped: Exploring new models for effective teaching and learning (pp. 12-13).
USA: Faculty Focus.
Newton, J., & Nguyen Duc Chi (2018). Integrating listening and speaking. The TESOL Encyclopedia of
English Language Teaching. Doi: 10.1002/9781118784235.eelt0602.
Pudin, C. (2017). Exploring a flipped learning approach in teaching grammar for ESL students.
Indonesian Journal of English Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, 2(1), 51-65.
Doi:10.21093/ijeltal.v2i1.47.
Schmuck, R. (1997). Practical action research for change. Arlington Heights, IL: IRI/Skylight Training
and Publishing.
Schwandt, T.A. (2015). The SAGE dictionary of qualitative inquiry (4th edition). Thousand Oaks, CA:
SAGE.
Tavil, M.Z. (2010). Integrating listening and speaking skills to facilitate English language learners’
communicative competence. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 9, 765-770.
Tran Thi Thanh Quyen (2017). Students’ perceptions of flipped model on Facebook for educational
purposes. Journal of Research & Method in Education, 7(3), 7-14.
Zwiers, J. (2014). Building academic language: Meeting common core standards across disciplines,
grades 5-12 (2nd edition). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
LỚP HỌC ĐẢO NGƯỢC: SỬ DỤNG TẬP BÀI NGHE

NGOÀI LỚP HỌC ĐỂ TĂNG CƯỜNG HIỆU QUẢ
HOẠT ĐỘNG NÓI TRÊN LỚP
Tóm tắt: Với thời lượng giảng dạy hạn hẹp trong lớp học, nhiều giáo viên ngoại ngữ tiếng
Anh đã gặp nhiều trở ngại trong việc làm thế nào để tạo ra được nhiều không gian, thời gian
và cơ hội hơn cho người học sử dụng ngôn ngữ đích một cách ý nghĩa. Thông qua phương
pháp định tính với các cách tiếp cận như phỏng vấn, phân tích tài liệu học tập và quan sát
lớp học, bài nghiên cứu tìm hiểu hiệu quả của việc ứng dụng mô hình lớp học đảo ngược
với sự tích hợp giữa hai kĩ năng nghe và nói. Khách thể tham gia của đề tài là 17 sinh viên
chuyên ngành tiếng Anh đang tham gia vào khoá học nghe-nói 6 tại Khoa Ngoại Ngữ
trường Đại học Quảng Bình. Kết quả nghiên cứu đã cho thấy rằng kĩ năng nghe của người
học đã phát triển đáng kể, sinh viên tự tin hơn và tham gia vào các hoạt động nói hiệu quả
hơn khi được chuẩn bị về chủ đề đó thông qua kĩ năng nghe ở nhà. Bài báo đề xuất rằng để
tăng cường tính tự học của người học và tối đa hoá hiệu quả trong thời gian lớp học, việc áp
dụng mô hình đảo ngược như bài tập ở nhà làm việc tại lớp và công việc tại lớp chuẩn bị ở
nhà với sự kết hợp của các kĩ năng khác nhau đóng vai trò quan trọng trong việc giảng dạy
ngoại ngữ.
Từ khoá: Học đảo ngược, tập bài nghe, tích hợp kĩ năng nghe và nói
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VIỆC LUYỆN NÓI TIẾNG ANH CỦA SINH VIÊN

ĐẠI HỌC HUẾ ĐỂ ĐẠT ĐẦU RA BẬC 3/6
Lê Thị Hồng Phương*; Nguyễn Phạm Thanh Vân
Tóm tắt: Luyện nói là một trong những kỹ năng quan trọng của việc học tiếng Anh. Hiện
nay, việc đánh giá trình độ tiếng Anh đối với sinh viên ĐH Huế (Đại học Huế) cũng được
thực hiện với cả bốn kỹ năng riêng biệt. Với dữ liệu qua 100 bản điều tra cho thấy các em
đã và đang gặp phải những khó khăn khách quan và và chủ quan trong việc phát triển kỹ
năng nói của mình. Bài viết này xin được đưa ra một số khó khăn và chiến lược nhằm nâng
cao chất lượng lớp học luyện nói tiếng Anh và cải thiện kết quả đầu ra đạt chuẩn bậc 3/6
một cách hiệu quả cho sinh viên không chuyên ngữ ở ĐH Huế.
Từ khóa: Chiến lược, kỹ năng thực hành tiếng, sinh viên không chuyên ngữ, năng lực ngôn
ngữ
1. Mở đầu
Học tiếng Anh đã và đang trở thành một yêu cầu cấp thiết đối với sinh viên ĐH Huế khi
mà kì thi B1 bậc 3/6 là điều kiện bắt buộc để sinh viên tốt nghiệp đại học ở ĐH Huế và đã trở
thành một yêu cầu có tính thực tiễn và bắt buộc đối với mọi sinh viên của ĐH Huế.
Trong số các kĩ năng tiếng Anh, kĩ năng nói được cho là một kĩ năng quan trọng và cần
được chú trong nhất bởi nó là yếu tố then chốt cấu thành khả năng giao tiếp bằng ngôn ngữ mục
tiêu của người học mà đây lại là một kĩ năng khó nhất trong số 4 kĩ năng nghe-nói-đọc-viết.
72% sinh viên đã được khảo sát thừa nhận rằng cảm thấy rất khó khăn khi muốn diễn đạt ý
tưởng của mình bằng tiếng Anh thậm chí là có cảm giác sợ khi phải giao tiếp bằng ngôn ngữ
này dù đã rất cố gắng và đã có ý thức luyện tập trước đó. Thực vậy, theo thống kê gần đây ở
một số trường ĐH trên cả nước trong đó có ĐH Huế thì kết quả kĩ năng nói của sinh viên không
chuyên ngữ là thấp nhất so với các kĩ năng ngôn ngữ khác. Thực vậy, một tỉ lệ tương đối cao
sinh viên có kết quả thi môn nói dưới 7 nên không được công nhận đã qua kì thi kiểm tra năng
lực tiếng Anh bậc 3/6. Ngoài ra, tỉ lệ sinh viên tốt nghiệp ĐH giao tiếp được bằng tiếng Anh là
rất thấp, thậm chí các em không dám và không nói được tiếng Anh trong những tình huống giao
tiếp thông thường.
Trước thực trạng đó, đề tài này được thực hiện nhằm mục đích đưa ra và phân tích một
số khó khăn của sinh viên không chuyên ngữ ở ĐH Huế trong việc học và thi môn nói cũng như
sử dụng tiếng Anh trong giao tiếp thông thường. Bài báo cáo cũng đề cập đến những vấn đề của
người dạy kĩ năng này và trên cơ sở đó phân tích những bất lợi trong công tác giảng dạy nhằm
đề xuất một số chiến lược giúp cho giáo viên làm tốt hơn việc dạy kĩ năng nói và giúp sinh viên
khắc phục được phần nào những hạn chế và khó khăn gặp phải khi học, thi nói và giao tiếp bằng
tiếng Anh.
* Email: hongphuong@hueuni.edu.vn
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Nghiên cứu này tập trung tìm câu trả lời cho những câu hỏi sau:
- Những khó khăn nào sinh viên đang gặp phải trong quá trình học và thi môn nói bậc 3/6?
- Những chiến lược nào khả thi để cải thiện khả năng nói của sinh viên không chuyên ngữ ở ĐH
Huế nhằm giúp các em thành công trong kì thi đầu ra bậc 3/6?
Nội dung chính của báo cáo là đề cập đến những vấn đề gặp phải của sinh viên không
chuyên ngữ của ĐH Huế trong việc học kĩ năng nói nhằm đảm bảo kì thi đầu ra bậc 3/6. Điều
tra phân tích kết quả nghiên cứu để đưa ra một số chiến lược đề xuất cho thực trạng này
2.1. Kỹ năng nói tiếng Anh
Một quá trình nói được nhận định là tốt khi nó được hình thành trên cơ sở kết hợp một
cách hợp lí và logic giữa yếu tố thông tin và sự diễn đạt thông tin theo đó nhằm đạt được mức
độ lưu loátvà tính chính xác (Mazouzi, 2013). Chính vì vậy mà các bài giảng kĩ năng nói phải
được thiết kế dựa trên tiêu chí là vừa phát triển khả năng ngôn ngữ để hình thành sự thể hiện
ngôn ngữ hợp lí vừa khích lệ người học lĩnh hội kiến thức nền tảng để sở hữu thông tin một
cách chính xác và logic. Như vậy, một học viên nói lưu loát và chính xác ngôn ngữ mục tiêu của
mình thì học viên đó phải đạt được kiến thức nền tảng về ngữ pháp, ngữ âm, từ vựng và cả sự tư
duy logic về ngữ nghĩa. Mọi giáo viên dạy nói đều nhằm vào mục tiêu giúp người học nói vừa
trôi chảy vừa chính xác. Theo Thornbury (2005), nói lưu loát là khả năng có thể diễn đạt một
vấn đề nào đó một cách liên tục mà dễ hiểu để khiến người đồng giao tiếp với mình không cảm
thấy chán khi thực hành giao tiếp với mình. Với Nunan (2003) thì nói lưu loát là nói nhanh và tự
tin và gần như không dừng lại một cách thiếu tự nhiên. Vậy nên, dạy kĩ năng nói phải đồng
hành với dạy ngữ pháp, từ vựng theo ngữ cảnh và phát âm. Chaney (1998) cho rằng nói là quá
trình hình thành và chia sẻ ý nghĩa thông qua việc sử dụng các biểu tượng ngôn ngữ và phi ngôn
ngữ theo nhiều ngữ cảnh khác nhau. Theo quan điểm của Snow (2006), nói một ngoại ngữ liên
quan đến nhiều hoạt động khác nhau và người học phải học cách thực hiện những hoạt động đó
một cách nhanh nhẹn và luyện tập mở rộng là điều cần phải có. Trong thời đại toàn cầu hóa,
việc dạy và học nói tiếng Anh không còn là học thuộc lòng một đoạn hội thoại nào đó được cho
là đặc trưng hay cứ lặp đi lặp lại một dạng bài tập áp dụng theo một mẫu cho sẵn mà mục tiêu
của nó là phải nâng cao kĩ năng giao tiếp thực sự bởi có như vậy người học mới có thể tự diễn
đạt ý tưởng của riêng mình và học cách tư duy tuân theo các qui tắc về văn hóa và xã hội một
cách hợp lí trong từng bối cảnh giao tiếp.
2.2. Các yếu tố ảnh hưởng đến kĩ năng nói
2.2.1. Kiến thức ngữ pháp
Theo Thornbury (2005), chính kiến thức ngữ pháp sẽ giúp cho người nói nói chính xác,
diễn đạt đúng và được hiểu đúng nghĩa nội dung cần truyền đạt. Ngữ pháp tốt làm nên những
phát ngôn có kết cấu logic, súc tích, dễ hiểu và đặc biệt việc chọn từ hay cụm từ hợp lí cho mỗi
ngữ cảnh giao tiếp.
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2.2.2. Khả năng diễn ngôn

Năng lực diễn ngôn là khả năng diễn đạt giúp kết nối các ý tưởng một cách mạch lạc, hợp
lí và logic. Năng lực này được hình thành trên cơ sở kết hợp của các yếu tố sau: goals,
strategies, grammar, intonation, pronunciation, word choice, gestures and facial expression,
listener’s background, theo Snow (2006, tr. 110-111)
2.2.3. Kiến thức chung về xã hội, khoa học và con người
Quá trình giao tiếp được thực hiện với 2 yếu tố thông tin và cách thể thông tin. Việc học
nền tảng ngôn ngữ cung cấp cho người học kiến thức ngữ pháp, từ vựng và ngữ âm để hình
thành những phát ngôn đúng, được hiểu đúng và dễ hiểu. Đây là yếu tố diễn đạt và thể hiện.
Trong khi đó, ý tưởng diễn đạt, nội dung muốn trình bày là vốn kiến thức chung hay cụ thể về
cuộc sống về thế giới, con người, khoa học, tự nhiên... Người học, người giao tiếp phải tự trang
bị bằng các nguồn tư liệu trong cuộc sống qua quan sát, sách, báo, phim ảnh, từ người khác và
internet... Kiến thức này càng phong phú thì người học càng có nhiều ý thưởng để trình bày hay
bảo vệ một lập trường nào đó trong quá trình giao tiếp.
2.2.4. Môi trường học tập
Theo Snow (2006), trong suốt quá trình luyện nói trong lớp học, người càng được tạo
điều kiện nói nhiều bao nhiêu thì càng nói tốt bấy nhiêu, và giáo viên nên thiết kế hoạt động
theo từng cặp hay từng nhóm nhỏ thì hiệu quả thực hành tốt hơn là cho các em thảo luận theo
nhóm đông hay hoạt động người dạy là trung tâm. Theo đó người học làm việc theo đơn vị nhỏ
thì dễ thể hiện, được điều chỉnh và tự điều chỉnh dễ dàng hơn và đặc biệt là cơ hội và thời gian
nói sẽ nhiều hơn. Khi làm việc trong nhóm đông thì các em sẽ bị hạn chế khả năng thể hiện
ngôn ngữ và ý tưởng vì vậy mà hạn chế sự tiến bộ trong kĩ năng này. Snow (2006) cũng nhấn
mạnh rằng, trong một lớp học nói tiềm năng là lớp học có người giáo viên tiềm năng về phương
pháp và tâm lí giảng dạy. Theo ông, sửa lỗi cho người học có thể là có ích hầu như không có
bằng chứng nào chứng minh rằng sự sửa sai đó lại nâng cao tính chính xác khi nói cho người
học. Việc sửa lỗi quá thường xuyên sẽ khiến cho người học tự ti và làm mất hứng thú luyện nói.
2.3. Những khó khăn thường gặp trong quá trình nói
Richards (2006) cho rằng tình trạng sinh viên học nói kém là do thiếu sự coi trọng kĩ
năng này trong khung chương trình học chính thức. Do đó, người học không được đầu tư một
cách bài bản và chuyên sâu cho việc đào tạo kĩ năng này cả về nội dung lẫn thời gian, và kĩ năng
nói được xem như là yếu tố phụ, không quan trọng trong một chương trình học chính thức, điều
này rất ảnh hưởng đến quan điểm, ý thức và sự tri nhận trong môn nói. Khả năng ngôn ngữ hạn
chế của người dạy cũng được xem như một trở ngại lớn cho người học nói. Trong một số trường
hợp, giáo viên không thường xuyên sử dụng các kĩ năng ngôn ngữ nên tính thông thạo và chuẩn
xác nhất định cũng bị mai một, do một số lớp học dùng nhiều hay chủ yếu là tiếng mẹ đẻ trong
giờ giảng nên giáo viên càng hạn chế dùng ngôn ngữ mục tiêu vì thế ảnh hưởng thói quen ngôn
ngữ này cho người học. Đây là một trong những vấn đề phổ biến đáng lo ngại đặc biệt đối với
lớp học của sinh viên không chuyên ngữ. Như thế, như một chuỗi tương quan, giáo viên hạn chế
về năng lực ngôn ngữ thì sẽ dẫn đến năng lực ngôn ngữ của sinh viên cũng bị hạn chế.
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Điều kiện lớp học không thích hợp cho các hoạt động luyện nói và giao tiếp như lớp quá
đông (too large class) và nhiều trình độ người học. Thực vậy, khi lớp học đông thì rất khó quản
lí lớp học và khó tổ chức các hoạt động giao tiếp. Lớp đông cũng gây cản trở giáo viên trong
việc giúp đỡ và hướng dẫn cá nhân mỗi người học. Đối với những lớp nhiều trình độ thì việc
thiết kế các hoạt động học tập rất khó khăn, sự chênh lệch trình độ rất dễ gây ra sự nhàm chán
cho sinh viên khá tốt và sự quá sức đối với học sinh kém. Ngoài ra, để tạo điều kiện tốt và tạo
hứng thú cho người học nói, thì các hoạt động ngoài lớp học cũng rất ảnh hưởng, tuy nhiên khó
khăn là người học hiếm có cơ hội để luyện tập theo mô hình này do nhiều yếu tố.
2.4. Về kì thi kĩ năng nói bậc 3/6 cho sinh viên không chuyên ngữ ĐH Huế
Sinh viên thực hiện bài thi trên máy tính và bài thi nói được ghi âm lại. Đề thi kĩ năng nói
bậc 3/6 dành cho sinh viên không chuyên ngữ của ĐH Huế gồm 3 phần:
- Phần 1: Một giáo viên người nước ngoài sẽ đặt các câu hỏi cá nhân liên quan đến bản thân, đời
sống học đường, gia đinh, bạn bè, sỡ thích... sinh viên phải lắng nghe và hiểu câu hỏi của
thầy/cô giáo để trả lời.
- Phần 2: Một chủ đề cùng với 3 câu hỏi gợi ý xuất hiện trên màn hình máy tính cùng với giọng
đọc của giáo viên hỏi thi. Sinh viên đọc và nghiên cứu câu hỏi để trình bày.
Ví dụ: Talk about your admirable teacher. In your answer. You should say:
- Who he is and what subject he taught you
- What achievevments or prizes he won
- Why you admire him/her
- Phần 3: Giáo viên sẽ hỏi sinh viên 2 câu hỏi liên quan đến chủ đề được đề cập ở phần 2.
3.1. Cách tiếp cận nghiên cứu
. Theo Dornyie (2007) phương pháp nghiên cứu này giúp người nghiên cứu có thể khảo sát vấn
đề mà họ quan tâm một cách toàn diện thông qua việc khảo sát được một số lượng lớn đối tượng
nghiên cứu tại cùng một thời điểm thông qua các câu hỏi khảo sát mang tính định tính đồng thời
họ có thể hiểu sâu hơn về vấn đề đó thông qua các phản hồi mang tính định lượng từ các đối
tượng tham gia đối với các câu hỏi mở. Ngoài ra theo Cohen và cộng sự (2007) việc kết hợp hai
nguồn dữ liệu định tính và định lượng sẽ giúp phát huy thế mạnh của mỗi bên đồng thời hạn chế
những điểm yếu mà mỗi loại dữ liệu có thể có.
Đề tài này được thực hiện với sự tham gia của gần 100 sinh viên năm 2 của các Trường
ĐH Kinh tế, ĐH Luật và ĐH Khoa học, ĐH Huế đang theo học chương trình tiếng Anh cấp độ
B1 trong học kỳ 2 năm học 2017-2018. Những sinh viên này ở độ tuổi 19-21 và đã học tiếng
Anh 7 năm. Những sinh viên này đã hoàn thành các học phần tiếng Anh A1 và A2 tại trường
ĐH Ngoại ngữ, ĐH Huế.
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Công cụ nghiên cứu được sử dụng đó là một bảng khảo sát bao gồm cả câu hỏi đóng và
câu hỏi mở để có thể thu thập cả dữ liệu định tính và định lượng để trả lời các câu hỏi nghiên
cứu. Cuối học kỳ, bảng khảo sát được phát cho gần 100 sinh. Bảng khảo sát gồm hai phần. Phần
1 gồm 25 câu hỏi trắc nghiệm nhiều lựa chọn để xác định mức độ đồng ý hay không đồng ý của
sinh viên đối với các câu phát biểu liên quan đến học phần. Kết quả phản hồi của 100 sinh viên
đối với các câu hỏi khảo sát được tổng hợp và phân tích để nắm bắt rỏ những hạn chế và khó
khăn về ngôn ngữ và việc học luyện nói tiếng Anh của sinh viên và đánh giá tính khả thi của các
chiến lược dạy và học kĩ năng nói của sinh viên nhằm đạt chuẩn đầu ra bậc 3/6. Từ đó, đưa ra
câu trả lời cho 2 câu hỏi nghiên cứu.
(mixed research method), công cụ nghiên cứu được sử dụng đó là một bảng khảo sát bao gồm
cả câu hỏi đóng và câu hỏi mở để có thể thu thập cả dữ liệu định tính và định lượng để trả lời
các câu hỏi nghiên cứu.
4.1. Hạn chế về kiến thức ngôn ngữ là một khó khăn lớn đối việc thực hành và thi kĩ năng nói
Từ số liệu thống kê ở Bảng 1 dưới đây cho thấy hơn 80% sinh viên nhận thấy kiến thức
về ngữ pháp, từ vựng là rất quan trọng đối với kĩ năng nói. Không có đủ nền tảng ngữ pháp và
vốn từ là một khó khăn rất lớn đối với việc thực hành kĩ năng nói trong lớp học cũng như trong
kì thi. Chỉ 9% sinh viên được hỏi là không gặp khó khăn ở năng lực này trong quá trình nói. Kĩ
năng nghe luôn đồng hành với kĩ năng nói trong một quá trình giao tiếp nhưng có đến 74% sinh
viên xác nhận kĩ năng nghe còn yếu là một khó khăn đáng kể và vì thế không thể nói tốt được.
15% sinh viên không đồng ý với phát biểu về khó khăn trong kĩ năng nghe dẫn đến cản trở kĩ
năng nói. Rất có thể đây là nhóm sinh viên tương đối tự tin về khả năng nghe của mình. Cùng
với khả năng nghe hiểu, khả năng phát âm cũng là một khó khăn đáng kể đối với các sinh viên
không chuyên ngữ trong kì thi kĩ năng nói tiếng Anh. 84% sinh viên được hỏi cho rằng họ gặp
khó khăn trong khi trả lời phần 1 kĩ năng nói kì thi bậc 3/6 là do không thể nghe được và không
thể phát âm đúng. 8% số sinh viên được hỏi không đồng ý với nhận xét trên và cũng 8% không
thể đưa ra câu trả lời.
Bảng 1. Hạn chế về kiến thức ngôn ngữ là khó khăn lớn
Rất Không Phân Đồng Rất
không đồng ý vân ý đồng
đồng ý ý
Hạn chế về kiến thức ngữ pháp và từ vựng, đặc 2% 7% 10% 52% 29%
biệt là các cụm từ theo chủ đề là một cản trở
lớn đối với việc thực hành kĩ năng nói
Khả năng nghe hiểu còn yếu làm sinh viên mất 6% 9% 11% 55% 19%
tự tin hoàn toàn khi tham gia các hoạt động
luyện nói
Với những câu hỏi về bản thân (phần 1 5% 3% 8% 40% 44%
speaking test B1), sinh viên gặp phải khó khăn
về nghe hiểu và phát âm
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4.2. Thiếu kiến thức về thông tin nên thiếu ý tưởng khi nói
Trên cơ sở là quá trình giao tiếp được cấu thành từ yếu tố thông tin và sự diễn đạt thông
tin. Trong đó phần thông tin hay ý tưởng để diễn đạt thể hiện kiến thức nền tảng về sự hiểu biết
về thế giới xung quanh, về khoa hoc, xã hội và con người... là bộ xương, là kết cấu của quá trình
giao tiếp. Tuy nhiên, theo kết quả điều tra từ Bảng 2 dưới đây, hơn 75% sinh viên cho rằng đây
là khó khăn lớn nhất của các em khi nói, cụ thể là khi trả lời phần 2 đề thi nói bậc 3/6 cho sinh
viên không chuyên ngữ ĐH Huế là tình trạng thiếu ý tưởng diễn đạt. Mặc dù hiểu được câu hỏi
đặt ra do toàn bộ câu hỏi phần 2 đều xuất hiện rõ trên màn hình máy tính, nhưng các em không
thể có được câu trả lời tốt cho phần này do tình trạng thiếu thông tin về đề tài được nói đến và ý
tưởng diễn đạt cho chủ đề đó. Tỉ lệ khoảng 5% là phủ nhận vai trò của thông tin đối với quá
trình giao tiếp và 9% không có câu trả lời.
Bảng 2. Hạn chế về thông tin khi diễn đạt trong qua trình nói
không đồng ý đồng
đồng ý ý
Nói và luyện nói tiếng Anh không 56% 23% 10% 6% 5%
nhất thiết cần phải có kiến thức phổ
thông về xã hội, tự nhiên, con người
và thông tin thời sự
Hạn chế về ý tưởng và cách diễn đạt 5% 4% 9% 55% 27%
là vấn đề lớn trong qua trình thực
hành thi phần 2 speaking test B1
4.3. Những vấn đè về môi trường học tập
Hiện tượng lớp đông và nhiều trình độ trong 1 lớp học tiếng Anh không chuyên ngữ
không phải là vấn đề mới và luôn vẫn là một khó khăn đáng kể cho cả người dạy và người học.
Do tình trạng này mà sinh viên mất đi nhiều cơ hội thực hành kĩ năng nói trong lớp cũng như
vấn đề đề quản lí lớp học. Ngoài ra, khi tham gia một lớp học nhiều trình độ, toàn bộ sinh viên
trong lớp khó cảm thấy thú vị với bài học khi các em khá và yếu không thể tìm thấy điểm chung
về mức độ khó dễ của vấn đề thảo luận. Thực vậy, Bảng 3 dưới đây, đến 84% sinh viên được
hỏi đều không có hứng thú với lớp học luyện nói đông và 80% cảm thấy nhàm chán với lớp học
nhiều trình độ. Chỉ có 9% sinh viên được hỏi cảm thấy hài lòng về giáo trình đang học. Khoảng
80% sinh viên muốn có thêm nhiều cơ hội luyện nói trong lớp học.
Bảng 3. Những khó khăn trong hoạt động của lớp luyện nói
đồng ý
Lớp học đông càng tạo sự tự tin 28% 56% 8% 5% 3%
của sinh viên tham gia hoạt động
luyện nói trong lớp
Học trong lớp có nhiều trình độ 5% 4% 11% 55% 25%
làm cho lớp luyện nói dễ trở nên
nhàm chán
Giáo trình đang học có những 29% 52% 8% 3% 6%
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thiết kế và minh họa rất thú vị và

bổ ích cho việc luyện nói
Các buổi học tiếng Anh đều có 45% 34% 10% 7% 5%
luyện nói và sinh viên đều có cơ
hội thực hành
Trong các kĩ năng tiếng Anh, nói 4% 6% 7% 51% 32%
là kĩ năng ít được thực hành nhất
bởi mất nhiều thời gian và khó
luyện cho tất cả mọi thành viên
trong lớp
4.4. Chiến lược nâng cao chất lượng lớp học kĩ năng nói
Bảng 4 cho thấy, 45 tiết trên lớp cho chương trình tiếng Anh B1 là không thể đủ để các
em luyện tập kĩ năng nói, theo tỉ lệ rất cao 85% sinh viên cho rằng thời gian đó là quá ít. Thực
hành kĩ năng ở lớp là rất quan trọng, đặc biệt là kĩ năng nói vì người học không những cần các
bạn cùng lớp để giao tiếp cũng như cần sự hướng dẫn của giáo viên, và đặc biệt là sự quan sát
và rút ra những bài học từ những hoạt động giao tiếp của các bạn cùng lớp. Vậy nên, số tiết cho
học phần TACB 3 cần được điều chỉnh tăng từ 45 đến 60 tiết. Để giúp sinh viên tự tin hơn trong
lối diễn đạt ý tưởng của mình, giáo viên nên cung cấp và phân tích cho các em một số từ và cụm
từ hay theo chủ đề mỗi ngữ cảnh. Theo kết quả khảo sát, 67% sinh viên được hỏi cho rằng giáo
viên không thường xuyên trang bị cho các em cụm từ hay và thú vị theo chủ đề. Về những hoạt
động giờ học, hoạt động theo từng cặp được xem là hữu ích và hiệu quả đối với những sinh viên
chưa tự tin, họ cần một người khác để thực hành để chia sẻ và để giáo viên dễ hướng dẫn. Hơn
nữa, làm việc theo cặp thì người học có nhiều cơ hội thực hành hơn, có đến 77% sinh viên được
hỏi chọn pairwork cho hoạt động thực hành nói trên lớp. Ngoài ra, tiếp cận với các tình huống
giao tiếp thực tế qua phim cũng là hoạt động được đa số sinh viên (88%) đánh giá cao. Như vậy,
lồng ghép các trích đoạn phim có phần giao tiếp hợp với chủ đề và trình độ của sinh viên là một
chiến lược giúp tạo cảm hứng nói trong lớp học.
Tuy rằng các sinh viên rất muốn được lắng nghe giáo viên nhận xét, nhưng việc sửa lỗi
đó xảy ra quá thường xuyên và không hợp lí sẽ rất dễ làm các em thất vọng về bản thân dẫn đến
sự tự ti trong giao tiếp. 61% sinh viên trả lời không muốn giáo viên của mình chỉnh sửa thường
xuyên và đặc biệt là lúc đang thể hiện phần bài tập luyện nói của mình.
Bảng 4. Chiến lược lớp học kĩ năng nói
Rất Không Phân Đồng ý Rất
không đồng ý vân đồng
đồng ý ý
Với thời gian 45 tiết trên lớp cho chương 34% 51% 8% 4% 3%
trình B1 là quả đủ để giáo viên và sinh
viên có những hoạt động hiệu quả cho kĩ
năng nói
Giáo viên thường trang bị cho sinh viên 27% 40% 10% 18% 5%
những mẫu câu hay và cụm từ khả dụng
trong những tình huống luyện nói
Pairwork là hoạt động luyện nói giúp sinh 6% 8% 9% 56% 21%
viên dễ luyện tập và dễ được quan sát và
được hướng dẫn
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Thực hành kĩ giao tiếp với sự quan sát và 4% 12% 6% 67% 21%
lĩnh hội ngôn ngữ từ 1 đoạn phim tiếng
Anh là một sự kết hợp có tính thực tế và
hiệu quả
Giáo viên sửa lỗi thường xuyên làm sinh 14% 18% 7% 51% 10%
viên mất niềm tin vào khả năng nói của
chính mình dù đó là những lỗi chính đáng
4.5. Chiến lược để thành công trong kĩ năng nói của kì thi đầu ra b1 (bậc 3/6)
Hầu hết các sinh viên đều muốn làm quen với nội dung và hình thức của kì thi nói B1
ngay trong lớp học. Theo Bảng 5, có 95% sinh viên muốn được đề cập và phân tích các câu hỏi
liên quan với kì thi B1 trong giờ học ở lớp. Cũng với một tỉ lệ rất cao là 88% sinh viên được
khảo sát cho rằng các em nên được thực hành với sự giám sát và chỉnh sửa của thầy/cô giáo một
số bài thi nói B1 mẫu để các em quen với định dạng đề và cách thực hành bài thi đúng nhất. Vậy
nên, giáo viên phụ trách học phần TACB 3 nên giúp các sinh viên làm quen với hình thức và nội
dụng bài thi nói một cách hợp lí. Các em cần nắm bắt được chuẩn một bài thi tốt là thế nào để
luyện tập và phấn đấu, bảo đảm đầu ra cho môn nói.
Khi được yêu cầu phát biểu về chiến lược thực hành chủ đề với những gợi ý hay trong
sách giáo khoa trong format đề thi nói B1 là một sự luyện tập kĩ năng và sự chuẩn bị cho kì thi
nói cấp độ B1 hiệu quả thì có đến 83% đồng ý. Đây là một chiến lược nhằm giúp vừa đảm bảo
chương trình học vừa giúp sinh viên nắm rõ tiến trình và cú pháp làm bài nói tốt nhất trong khả
năng có thể.
Bảng 5. Chiến lược cho kì thi nói bậc 3/6
đồng ý
Sinh viên muốn được đề cập, phân tích và 0% 2% 5% 87%% 6%
luyện tập các câu hỏi có liên quan trong kì
thi nói bậc 3/6 trước khi tham gia thi
Thực hành chủ đề với những gợi ý hay 3% 8% 6% 68% 15%
trong sách giáo khoa trong format đề thi
nói B1 là một sự luyện tập kĩ năng và sự
chuẩn bị cho kì thi nói rất hiệu quả
Giáo viên nên cho sinh viên thực hành trên 1% 2% 9% 66% 22%
lớp một số bài thi nói B1 mẫu một số lần
để sinh viên quen với định dạng bài thi nói
cấp độ B1
Sinh viên cần được giáo viên hướng dẫn là 4% 5% 6% 65% 20%
nói rỏ, ngắn gọn và nhất định không được
bỏ sót bất cứ câu hỏi hay chi tiết gợi ý nào
trong bài thi nói bậc 3/6
- Làm rõ động cơ học tập: Động cơ học tập là yếu tố rất có ý nghĩa trong việc nâng cao năng
suất học tập của sinh viên. Cole và Chan (1994) đã đề cập đến động cơ bên ngoài chính là xu
hướng và quan niệm xã hội về vai trò ngôn ngữ đó, là tính chất tác động của cộng đồng đối với
đối với sử dụng ngôn ngữ đó. Động cơ bên trong là nổ lực cá nhân với định hướng mục tiêu rỏ
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ràng. Các sinh viên cần phải hiểu đúng và đủ tầm quan trọng của việc học kĩ năng nói tiếng Anh
trong thời điểm này (cho kì thi đầu ra B1) và cho sự phát triển cá nhân sau này trong thời kì của
quốc tế hóa mọi lĩnh vực và tiếng Anh là một ngôn ngữ quốc tế. Các em cần được gieo một
động cơ học tập tích cực mới có điều kiện và cơ hội tốt để quyết tâm khắc phục những khó khăn
gặp phải. Người giáo viên sẽ đồng hành cùng sinh viên trong việc xác định động cơ học tập
đúng và hành động đúng để tạo sức mạnh nội lực vượt qua một số hạn chế trước mắt.
- Ngữ cảnh thực tế kết hợp từ vựng hợp lí: Theo Wray (2008), lồng ghép nhiều tình huống cuộc
sống đa dạng sát với thực tế đời sống và thế giới quan của người học có chức năng tạo động lực
và đề cao khả năng tri nhận của người học luyện nói. Theo đó, các cụm từ, mẫu câu đặc trưng,
các cụm từ thú vị và dễ hiếu được giới thiệu đến người học và được người học áp dụng tức thì
và dễ dàng khi giáo viên là người chủ động trong việc thiết kế ngữ cảnh giao tiếp và ứng dụng
ngôn ngữ khả dụng cho sinh viên vào thời điểm luyện nói.
- Tạo tâm lí tích cực bằng hành vi tích cực: Một trong những khó khăn lớn nhất mà người học
đang gặp phải theo Tanveer (2007), là cảm giác lo sợ, hồi hộp và căng thẳng. Cảm giác này rất
phổ biến đối với người học có những hạn chế nhất định về nền tảng ngôn ngữ như từ vựng, ngữ
pháp hay phát âm. Vậy nên, người giáo viên cần phải đủ kiên nhẫn để hạn chế chỉ trích hay sửa
lỗi cho các em lúc các em đang thực hành nhằm tạo niềm tin tạm thời để các em tiếp tục phấn
đấu. Về sau sẽ hướng dẫn hay các em sẽ dần tự điều chỉnh.
- Hoạt động xem phim tiếp cận tình huống giao tiếp: Hình ảnh sinh động và thực tế đi kèm với
ngữ cảnh giao tiếp phù hợp trong những bộ phim tài liệu hay trích đoạn phim bằng tiếng Anh
được đánh giá cao trong ảnh hưởng ngôn ngữ mục tiêu đối với người học. Các em cảm thấy vui
hơn, thú vị hơn khi mà vấn đề mình đang áp dụng lại được thực tế hóa trong một bối cảnh cụ
thể. Vậy nên, một TV và trang thiết bị âm thanh hình ảnh nhằm thực tế hóa ngữ cảnh ngôn ngữ
là một ý tưởng có tính chiến lược.
+ Hoạt động xem phim tiếp cận tình huống giao tiếp: Chủ đề ở sách giáo khoa hiện nay là giáo
trình Life Pre-intermediate rất thú vị và phong phú, được thiết kế bởi những câu hỏi gợi ý có
tính thực tế cao và dễ hiểu. Tuy nhiên, những chủ đề được nhận xét là thú vị đó nên chăng được
lồng ghép vào định dạng của đề thi B1 bậc 3/6 đang được thực hiện ở Trường Đại học Ngoại
Ngữ, Đại học Huế thì tính thực tiễn sẽ cao hơn, sinh viên sẽ thấy có động lực và hứng thú học kĩ
năng nói hơn.
- Khuyến khích cách hồi đáp đơn giản: Với mục đích học và luyện kĩ năng nói nhằm bảo đảm kì
thi đầu ra bậc 3/6 thì việc sử dụng cách trả lời đơn giản, rõ ràng và dễ hiểu là điều đáng khích lệ.
Khi luyện tập cùng các bạn trong lớp học, các em đang giao tiếp với đa số đối tượng học còn hạn
chế về language proficiency (thông thạo ngôn ngữ), thì những mẫu câu giao tiếp thông dụng, đơn
giản và dễ hiểu sẽ được đón nhận một cách hào hứng. Về sau người học sẽ dần phát triển những
mẫu câu giao tiếp đó lên một cách tự nhiên và chủ động. Hơn nữa, trong kì thi kĩ năng nói cấp độ
B1, yêu cầu câu trả lời cũng ở mức độ câu đơn giản, đúng về cấu trúc và hợp lí về ngữ nghĩa. Như
vậy, các em sẽ quen và tự tin vào cách hồi đáp của mình trong kì thi nói thực.
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6. Kết luận
Kết quả nghiên cứu cho thấy, sinh viên không chuyên ngữ ĐH Huế đã và đang gặp phải
nhiều khó khăn trong việc học và thi kĩ năng nói theo chuẩn bậc 3/6. Những khó này xuất phát
từ những hạn chế về kiến thức ngôn ngữ như ngữ pháp, từ vựng và ngữ âm cũng như điều kiện
và môi trường học tập chưa hỗ trợ tích cực cho các em nâng cao năng lực về kĩ năng này và đặc
biệt là áp lực từ mục tiêu phải đạt chuẩn đầu ra trong kì thi B1 dành cho sinh viên không chuyên
ngữ ĐH Huế. Do đặc thù của kĩ năng nói nên các hoạt động lớp học cần được thiết kế mở và
sinh động để sinh viên tìm được hứng thú khi tham gia hoạt động giao tiếp trên lớp. Các em cần
được hướng dẫn và chỉnh sửa một cách nhẹ nhàng hợp lí thì vấn đề tâm lí học tập mới ổn định.
Ngoài ra, với mục tiêu đặt ra là kì kĩ năng nói thi B1, việc thực hành của các em cần được điều
chỉnh một cách hợp lí như vẫn theo các nội dung của giáo trình bắt buộc nhưng với hình thức
sát với format định dạng đề thì để giúp sinh viên làm quen và làm tốt nhất phần nói trong kì thi
đầu ra. Hoạt động thực hành giao tiếp ở lớp cần lồng ghép những ngữ cảnh thực tế và những
chủ đề quen thuộc dễ tiếp thụ để các em có tâm lí thoải mái để thực hành kĩ năng. Theo đó, rất
hy vọng sinh viên sẽ tìm được hứng thú và động lực học kĩ năng nói, một kĩ năng luôn gây áp
lực lớn cho các em trong thực tế và trong các kì thi thực hành tiếng Anh.
Cole, P.G., & Chan, L. (1994). Teaching principles and practice. Prentice Hall of Australia Pty Ltd.
Chaney, A.L., & Burn, T.L. (1998). Teaching oral communication in grades K-8. Boston: Allyn &
Bacon.
Mozouzi, S. (2013). Analysis of some factors affecting learners’ oral performance. Truy cập từ:
http:archives.univ-biskra.dz/handle/123456789/4772 vào ngày 06.09.2018.
Nunan, D. (2003). Practice English teaching. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Richards, J.C. (2006). Teaching speaking theory and methodologies. Truy cập từ: www.professorjack
richards.com vào ngày 05.09.2018.
Snow, D. (2006). More than a native speaker. Teachers of English to speakers of other languages. Inc.
(TESOL).
Thornbury, S. (2005). How to teach speaking. In Harmer, J. (Ed). London: Longman.
Tanveer (2007). Investigation of the factors that cause language anxiety for ESL/EFL learners in learning
speaking skills and the influence it casts on communication in the target language. Retrieved on
September 16th from: http://researchgate.net.
Wray, A. (2008). Formulaic language: Pushing the boundaries. Oxford University Press.
HUE UNIVERSITY STUDENTS’ LEARNING OF SPEAKING SKILL

FOR THE OUTPUT STANDARD OF 3/6 LEVEL
Abstract: Speaking is one of the most important skills in using English as a foreign
language. It does motivate learners to do other language skills positively and effectively
and heighten their language proficiency. In particular, English ability of students in Hue
University is now evaluated in separate language skill, which provides reliable results of
the students’ real communicative competence. The findings from 100 students reveal that
they have met lots of both subjective and objective difficulties in developing their speaking
skill. This study will hopefully give some strategies to improve the quality of speaking
classes and better the output result of speaking test of Hue University students.
Keywords: Strategies, language skills, communicative competence
358
EDUCATIONAL MOTTOS OF TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS

IN VIETNAM AND ENGLISH-SPEAKING COUNTRIES:
A STUDY OF SYNTACTIC FEATURES
Nguyen Thi Bich Phuong*
University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi

Abstract: It should be noted that at present educational sector has clearly shown its worth
in accordance with the development of human society. The fact remains that numerous
Vietnamese universities and colleges have penetrated into overseas educational sector,
receiving thousands of foreign students annually and adopting various advertising
campaigns using a wide range of English mottos. It is inevitable that those universities and
colleges may make some mistakes when creating fitting mottos for their vision and mission.
On the basis of the analyzed results, the study is expected to give an in-depth insight in one
of the most integral aspects of linguistic characteristics of educational mottos, syntax,
which centers on investigating the way structural components are arranged. Furthermore,
similarities and differences in the way of writing educational mottos between Vietnam and
English-speaking countries (ESCs) are also briefly summarized before proposing some
useful hints for Vietnamese authorities in creating educational mottos.
Key words: Syntactic features, educational mottos, tertiary institutions, Vietnam, English-
speaking countries
1. Introduction
According to statistics from the Ministry of Education and Training (Nick Clark, 2014),
in 1987 Vietnam had just 87 higher education institutions, but this number had risen up to 235
universities (2017) and 219 colleges (2016). In the past few years, there has been growing
awareness of the need to boost international student enrolments in some key universities and
Ministry of Education and Training in Vietnam (MOET). In his statement to the National
Assembly, the former Vice-Minister of Education and Training, Bui Van Ga, has stated that
“international student enrolment is one of the criteria to rank Vietnamese universities. Attracting
foreign students is also a way for Vietnam to promote Vietnam’s education to the world” (as
cited in Tran et al., 2014). In 2016, Vietnam hosted about 20,000 international students and
most of them come from the Asia Pacific region, including China, Japan, Korea, Australia,
Laos, Cambodia and Thailand (Tran et al., 2014) and has set an ambitious target of 15,000
international student enrolments in Vietnamese universities by 2020 (MOET, 2008).
When it comes to higher educational system in ESCs, without a doubt, The United
Kingdom and The United States are seen as the most favorable destinations for any international
student to dream of. The number of international students traveling to the United Kingdom for
higher education was 431,905 by 2015 (British Council, 2013). The report from the British
Council’s Education Intelligence Service also predicts that in the upcoming time, the United
* Email: phuongntb.unesco@gmail.com
359
Kingdom will still retain its position as the world’s second most popular study destination after
the US, attracting an extra 126,000 international students between 2011 and 2024.
It appears to be a must for each university and college to compete and persuade students to
reconsider their offers and their attractors. One of these pivotal attractors which should be
considered is the motto of the university, the inspiring educational message of each institution. In
reality, not all universities and colleges possess a motto, but numerous schools have done it.
Educational motto can be seen as a key factor to make the very first strong impression on students
or potential learners, which to a great extent, determines their final success of nurturing the talent
for society. As is known to all, “the school motto is the soul of forming the school spirit and also
keeps a core position in the campus culture” (Zhao, 2003). In plain word, similar to the function of
slogans, vaunted and unique mottos enable brand identity and brand image of the schools to be
persistently left in students’ minds, also leave them with unforgettable impression.
However, not every single motto can fulfill its duty successfully, which leads to a
challenge in artistic tactics of utilizing just a handful of words to express an immense
meaningfulness along with a profound insight in an abundance of linguistic aspects.
Furthermore, while more and more cultural exchanges are conducted between Vietnam and
foreign countries, a myriad of university mottos fail to convey the spirit and their own
distinctive characteristics. Thus, a deep understanding of them can help to overcome language
barriers, promoting the educational cooperation.
From the points mentioned above, the thorny problem that is often raised for any motto-
writer is how to create a perfect motto. In order to compose a meaningful motto wrapping up the
essence of the long-standing educational tradition, it is a must-have requirement to fully exploit
all linguistic aspects from phonology, lexicology to semantics and pragmatics. Realizing the
critical value of educational mottos to each university and college, this study is conducted to
focally investigate the stylistic feature syntax of English mottos of some tertiary schools in
Vietnam and ESCs, as well as their similarities and the differences to hopefully draw out some
useful strategies for designing effective educational mottos.
With the view to achieving the aims and objectives of the study, these three following
questions would be answered:
1. What are the syntactic features of the English educational mottos of universities and
colleges in Vietnam and English-speaking countries?
2. What are the similarities and differences in terms of syntactic features of the English
educational mottos of universities and colleges in Vietnam and English-speaking countries?
2.1. Motto as a core value of tertiary education
According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2018), motto is defined as “a short
sentence or phrase that expresses the aims and beliefs of a person, a group, an institution, etc. and
is used as a rule of behavior”. Being synthetic, a motto concentrates on key concepts and creates a
spectrum of meanings. Some universities use mottos to increase the suggestion power for their
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potential students about their mission, in order to get more chances for building up their
competitive advantage in a strategic analysis (Carpenter & Sanders, 2007; Dess et al., 2006).
“In a global market for higher education, universities must compete for students re-thinking their
offer, and their attractors. One of these attractors is the motto of the university, which suggests an
inspiring message… A motto can be a useful attractor for the potential students, and thus many
universities associate such mottos to their vision and mission statements.”
(Management & Marketing, 2009)

2.2. Syntax
2.2.1. Notion of syntax
Through the lens of Fromkin et al. (2000), syntax is described as a part of our linguistic
knowledge that decides what constitutes a well-formed string of words and how to put words
together to form phrases and sentences. Properly speaking, those principles staying in our
subconscious mind may be acceptably employed in the language of one society but wrong in other
ones. Similarly, Jim Miller (2002) points out that basically, “syntax is to do with how words are
put together to build phrases, with how phrases are put together to build clauses or bigger phrases,
and with how clauses are put together to build sentences” (p. 7). In a word, without syntax, human
beings would be unable to construct complex messages conveying information about complex
situations, proposals or ideas (Miller, 2002). Syntactic patterns display the close-knit relationships
between words and larger units including phrases, clauses, and sentences. Nevertheless, owing to
the scope of this study, the authors can only focus on two major aspects: phrases and sentences.
Phrases
Richards (1992) claims that a phrase is “a group of words which form a grammatical
unit” and “does not contain a finite verb and does not have a subject-predicate structure.” (p.
153). Nonetheless, Miller (2002) shows his disagreement against the aforementioned perception
by affirming that “phrase is a slot in which one or more words can occur, or indeed in which
other phrases can occur” (p. 18). There are five main types of phrases in English encompassing
noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective phrase, adverb phrase and prepositional phrase.
A noun phrase must consist of two major components, namely a noun head and other
modifiers. The latter includes two other elements: a premodifier and a postmodifier (if any).
(1) Head: Get wisdom, get understanding (Eastern Kentucky University)
Premodifier(s) + Head: Create the difference (Staffordshire University)
Head + Postmodifier(s): Excellence in Diversity (Oxford Brookes University)
Premodifier(s) + Head + Postmodifier(s): The road to success (University of Economics
and Business, VNU)
A verb phrase has a verb head and five formula possibilities (Delahunty & Garvey, 1994,
p. 191).
(2) a. Head: Be Still and Know (University of Sussex)
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b. Auxiliary(ies) + Head: Freely you have received, Freely give (Pepperdine University)
c. Head + Object(s)/ Complement: Winging your wishes (Sai Gon Technology
University)
d. Head + Modifier(s): Educating for the Real World (University of Bridgeport)
e. Combination of the above: The truth shall make you free (California Institute of
Technology)
An adjective phrase includes five formula possibilities (Delahunty & Garvey, 1994, p. 179).
(3) a. Head: A Creative Constellation (University of the Arts London)
b. Intensifier(s) + Head: The most valuable possession is knowledge (Cardiff
Metropolitan University)
c. Head + Complement: Not unmindful of the future (Washington and Lee University)
d. Intensifier(s) + Head + Complement: You are extremely beautiful in this dress.
An adverb phrase combines a head and possibly an intensifier (Delahunty& Garvey, 1994, p.
180).
(4) a. Head: Educator for tomorrow (The University of Education)
b. Intensifier + Head: They may have life and have it more abundantly (York St John
University)
A prepositional phrase is a combination of preposition and noun phrase:
(5) Synergy for excellence (Hue University)
Sentences
A basic sentence is a complete thought or idea which composed of subject and predicate
(Grammar Handbook, 2011). There exists a myriad of ways to categorize sentence depending
on different criteria, and in this study, sentence is classified on the basis of discourse purposes.
Statement is sentence in which the subject is present and generally precedes verbs to “give
information” (Quirk et al., 1985, p. 803):
(6) We follow the light. (University of Exeter)
Question is employed in order to ask for information. This type of sentence is normally
marked in one of two ways including yes-no interrogatives and wh-interrogatives. In the
structure of interrogatives, the former possesses the operator positioned in front of the subject
while the later has the interrogative wh-element placed initially (Quirk et al., 1985, p. 803). In
view of structure, an interrogative sentence is typically marked by inversion of the subject and
predicate which means the verb comes before the subject. It should be noted that this type of
sentence ends with a question mark:
(7) Did you follow the class rules?
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Imperative is utilized to not only give an order, advice or instruction but also indicate a
request or a command to listeners. (John Eastwood, 2005, p. 9). Imperatives are sentences,
which normally have no overt grammatical subject, and whose verb has the base form (Quirk et
al., 1985, p. 803). An intriguing example to illustrate this type of sentence is the educational
motto of International School, VNU:
(8) Study and Create with the World
Exclamation is sentence expressing a feeling, which has an initial phrase introduced by what
and how, usually with subject-verb order (Quirk et al., 1985, p. 803). An example given:
(9) Behold, how good and joyful a thing it is, for brethren to dwell together in unity!
(University of the South)
3. Methods
Two hundred educational mottos chosen were collected from the official websites of 200
tertiary institutions in which 100 mottos are of Vietnamese universities and colleges, and the
remainder are of ESCs. As for the mottos of universities and colleges in ESCs, 50 educational
mottos were taken from British institutions and the rest were from American ones. The mottos
of tertiary institutions in ESCs were taken from the official websites of the world-famous
universities and colleges which are recorded in the world-famous ranking systems, The Times
Higher Education - World Reputation Rankings 2017 and the University League Table 2017.
In the first place, a table with nine criteria namely noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective
phrase, adverbial phrase, prepositional phrase and other sentence types such as statement,
question, imperative, exclamation will be generated to place mottos into the most fitting one. In
applying qualitative methods, each motto will be carefully analyzed by clarifying its sentence
elements. After the careful investigation of syntactic features, the next step involves working
out the proportion of mottos possessing each feature with the view to figuring out the prevailing
trends in using syntactic features in educational mottos of the investigated universities and
colleges. A general comparison between Vietnam and ESCs in using higher educational mottos
will be clearly stated in the light of the data analyzed.
4. Findings
4.1. The syntactic features of the English mottos of tertiary institutions in Vietnam
4.1.1. Phrases
Verb phrases
Table 1. Verb phrase patterns used in mottos of Vietnamese tertiary institutions

Head 6 15.38
Combination of the above 0 0
Total 39 100.0
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From the Table 1, we can infer that verb phrase tends to be employed much less, making
up roughly 20 percent in a total of 100 collected mottos and varies in all four types. Despite the
modest number of educational mottos using verb phrase with just 18.48 %, it is still worth
taking this syntactic feature into account in some aspects. Head + Object(s)/ Complement
appears to be the major type of verb phrase possessing hefty usage rate of over 70 percent,
compared with merely 2.6% of Auxiliary(ies) + Head. It should be noted that these verb phrases
exist predominantly in one crucial type, nonfinite verb phrase encompassing the infinitive and -
ing participle.
(10) a. Invest in education – Change your life (Dong A University)
Head Modifier
b. Creating opportunities together (University of Languages and International Studies)
Head Object
Noun phrases
Table 2. Noun phrase patterns used in mottos of Vietnamese tertiary institutions

Head 32 33.33
Premodifier + Head 40 41.67
Head + Postmodifier 13 13.54
Premodifier + Head + Postmodifier 11 11.46
Total 96 100
Due to outstanding characteristics of educational mottos, namely short, easy to remember

or unique, they mainly appear in the form of phrases with incomplete sentence. Based on the
analysis of the mottos in Vietnamese tertiary institutes, the use of noun phrases is deemed the
most remarkably employed (over 46%). The Premodifier + Head is used as the most common
type in educational mottos of Vietnamese schools occupying more than 40%.
(11) a. Updated knowledge – Advanced methods (Hanoi College of Education)
Premodifier Head Premodifier Head
b. Open Education (Hanoi Open University)
Premodifier Head
c. Dynamism, aspiration, vision (Diplomatic Academic of Vietnam)
Head Head Head
The other kinds of noun phrases share the similar percentage of no more than 14%. This
reflects a fact that Vietnamese authorities only show their little interest in adopting this use of
noun phrase when writing mottos.
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a. Synergy for excellence (Hue University)

Head Postmodifier
b. The road to success (VNU University of Economics and Business)
Noun phrase serves a variety of roles in sentence. It can be used as a complement in a
prepositional phrase:
An object:
(13) a. Knowledge for justice (Ho Chi Minh University of Law)
A complement of a sentence:
b. Knowledge is power (Hanoi Community College)
Or merely noun phrases:
c. Creativity – Quality – Development - Effectiveness (Hanoi University of Industry)
Adjective Phrases
Table 3. Adjective phrase patterns used in mottos of Vietnamese tertiary institutions

Head 28 90.32
Head + Complement 2 6.46
Total 31 100.0
The adjective phrase is similar to verb phrase in the rate of occurrence with nearly 15%.
Adjective phrases are principally found in the simple form of Head rather than Intensifier(s) +
Head or Head + Complement (about 90%).
(14) a. Be international (Dong Do University)
Head
b. Active, Creative, Effective (University of Information & Communication Technology)
Head Head Head
c. Training highly qualified human resources (Thai Nguyen College of Economics & Finance)
Intensifier(s) Head
d. Creative and self-motivated spirit adaptable to the renovations (College of Food Industry)
Head Complement
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Adverb Phrases
Table 4. Adverb phrase patterns used in mottos of Vietnamese tertiary institutions

Head 11 100.0
Intensifier(s) + Head 0.0 0.0
Total 11 100.0
Adverb phrase is hardly employed in creating an educational motto when the rate just
falls in 11 times out of 100 sample mottos. Among all five categories of investigated phrases,
this type is used least, comprising just about 5% and all of the adverb phrases used are in the
Head form.
(15) Always innovative, forward-looking (Nha Trang University)
Head
Prepositional Phrases
Table 5. Prepositional phrase patterns used in mottos of Vietnamese tertiary institutions

Total 34 100.0
The prepositional phrases are applied with constitution of just over 16%. The major
category of prepositional phrase employed is Preposition + Noun, Pronoun, Gerund, or Clause
accounting for roughly 63 percent.
(16) a. Dream of Innovation (FPT University)
Preposition Noun
b. Across the national border to develop (Thai Nguyen University of Technology)
c. UET – Advanced Technology with Innovation (University of Engineering and Technology)
Preposition Noun
4.1.2. Sentences
Statement
With the aim of being memorable and recited, shortness and plainness appear to be a
must of educational motto. To achieve this goal, authorities at tertiary institutions can write their
mottos in many ways in which sentence is one of the effective choices. Nevertheless, the
findings show that merely 23 out of 100 sample mottos employ this linguistic device in which
statement exists in the tiny proportion of just over 30%:
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(17) a. We bridge the world (School of Foreign Language – Thai Nguyen University)
b. Learning, the key to personal fulfillment and social well-being, is the only way to
develop (Vo Truong Toan University)
Imperative sentence
Imperative sentence tends to give advice, instructions or express a request to audience.
This can be deemed a special type of sentence, which enables educational authorities to
persuade the audience, both current students and potential learners, in an appealing way. This is
the category of sentence used most commonly among educational mottos of Vietnamese higher
education institutions with a hefty proportion of approximately 70%.
(18) a. Study and Create with the world (International School – VNU, Hanoi)
b. Come to HITECH to learn and plan for your future (Hanoi College of Technology)
Nevertheless, when it comes to two remaining sentential types, namely Question and
Exclamation, their use does not occur in any educational mottos of Vietnamese schools.
4.2. The syntactic features of English educational mottos at universities and colleges in
ESCs
4.2.1. Phrases
Verb phrases
Table 6. Verb phrase patterns used in mottos of English – speaking institutions

Head 27 31.39
Combination of the above 9 10.47
Total 86 100.0
Among the collected mottos, the majority belongs to the use of non-finite verbs (49 out of
100 universities and colleges) in all three forms mentioned above. However, infinitive form makes
up the most (39 out of 49 mottos), followed by “-ing” (9 mottos) and “-ed” form (only 1 motto).
(19) a. Give invention light (University of Bradford)
V-infinitive
b. Making life better (Pennsylvania State University)
V-ing
c. Not more learned, but steeped in a higher learning (Haverford College)
V-ed V-ed
Furthermore, 37 out of 100 institutions use finite verbs for their mottos in only present form.
367
d. The wind of freedom blows (Stanford University)

Present tense
It should be noted that verb phrases possess five types of structures as listed in Chapter 2.
Nevertheless, there are only two frequently used types are Head + Object(s)/Complement and
Head with the percentage of around 37% and 31% respectively.
(20) a. Laws without morals are useless (University of Pennsylvania)
Head Complement
b. Spark your imagination (Southampton Solent University)
Head Object
c. Learn and serve (Sheffield Hallam University)
Head Head
d. Enter to learn; go forth to serve (Brigham Young University)
Head Modifier
e. Through hard work, great heights are achieved (University of Birmingham)
Auxiliary Head
Noun phrases
Table 7. Noun phrase patterns used in mottos of English-speaking institutions

Head 26 42.62
Premodifier(s) + Head 28 45.9
Head + Postmodifier(s) 3 4.92
Premodifier(s) + Head + Postmodifier(s) 4 6.56
Total 61 100.0
As can be seen from table 7, the structures “Premodifier(s) + Head” and “Head” dominate
two other types with the percentage accounting for about 46% and 43% respectively in total of
61 noun phrases from 100 sampled school mottos. “Premodifier(s) + Head + Postmodifier(s)”
structure ranks the third with about 7%, followed by “Head + Postmodifier(s)”.
(21) a. Truth (Harvard University)
Head
b. The truth shall make you free (California Institute of Technology)
Premodifier Head
Head Postmodifier
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d. To understand the causes of things (The London of School of Economics and Political
Science)
Adjective phrases
Table 8. Adjective phrase patterns used in mottos of English-speaking institutions

Head 18 94.74
Head + Complement 0 0
Total 19 100.0
Adjective phrases are primarily found in the form of Head with the frequency of up to 95%.
(22) Useful and agreeable (Harper Adams University)
Head Head
Adverb phrases
Table 9. Adverb phrase patterns used in educational mottos of English-speaking institutions

Head 9 90
Intensifier(s) + Head 1 10
Total 10 100.0
According to the above table, adverb phrase is hardly used in creating an educational
school motto when the use rate just falls in 10 times out of 100 sample mottos. What is more,
“Head” appears to be a preponderance with the figure accounting for 90% while “Intensifier(s)
+ Head” only making up 10%.
(23) a. To Teach, To Heal, Together (Western University of Health Sciences)
Head
b. They may have life and have it more abundantly (York St John University)
Intensifier Head
Prepositional phrases
Table 10. Prepositional phrase patterns used in mottos of English-speaking institutions

Total 24 100.0
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The prepositional phrases are applied at the rate of 24 times out of 100 educational school
mottos and the principal category of prepositional phrase employed is “Preposition +
Modifier(s) + Noun, Pronoun, Gerund, or Clause”, at roughly 62%.
(24) a. Knowledge is the adornment and safeguard of the Empire (Imperial College London)
b. The wind of freedom blows (Stanford University)
Preposition Noun
4.2.2. Sentences
Statements
Statements are used to express the validity or truth of a basic assertion. Regarding
educational mottos, a statement not only transmits the educational vision and mission of tertiary
institutions but it also states the desire or the promise of the universities and colleges towards
students. The findings show that nearly 54% of the sample mottos employ the statement
structure, the most commonly used structure. Moreover, from 100 selected mottos, there is a
predominance of SV, SVO sentence patterns together with a small number of SVC and SVOC
patterns.
(25) a. The wind of freedom blows (Stanford University)
S V
b. We follow the light (University of Exeter)
S V O
S V C
d. The truth shall make you free (California Institute of Technology)
S V O C
Questions
The purpose of using questions in school mottos is often to lay specific emphasis on
students or in other words, to keep the institutes’ image in students’ mind. The number of
questions used in educational mottos seems to be dominated by other types with the proportion
accounting for nearly 2%.
(26) For so much, what shall we give back? (Queen's University Belfast)
Imperative sentences
With the view to conveying a command, an advice or a request, motto writers tend to
make use of imperative sentences. The figure for this kind of sentence makes up for about 45%.
(27) Know thyself (Hamilton College)
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On the other hand, concerning the remaining sentential type which is exclamation, its use
does not occur in any educational school mottos of English-speaking universities and colleges.
5.1. Phrases
Figure 1. The frequency of phrases in educational mottos of in both Vietnam and ESCs
The Figure 1 provides an overview of occurrence frequency of phrases in educational

institution mottos in general. The total proportion of employed phrase category varies from type
to type with the most ubiquitous type belonging to noun phrases (about 40%). The percentage of
verb phrases also accounts a remarkable 30%, much more significant than that of adverb
phrases (about 5%). The percentages of adjective phrases and prepositional phrases are roughly
the same (12% and 14% respectively). Broadly speaking, noun phrase and verb phrase are
evidently favored over other categories of phrases. Nevertheless, there exist some similarities
and differences in the way of employing phrases in educational school mottos of tertiary
institutes in Vietnam and English-speaking countries, which will be clearly stated below.
Figure 2. The frequency of phrases in educational mottos of in Vietnam and ESCs
The majority of phrases employed in mottos of Vietnamese universities and colleges are
noun phrases which constitute nearly 46% compared with over 30% in mottos of ESCs. Unlike
verb phrases, noun phrases are much more preferred by Vietnamese authorities. One of probable
reasons for this noticeable difference can spring from the fact that most of mottos are usually
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used on the official websites of the universities and colleges and banners hung up in campuses.
Due to limit of space, it virtually appears to have no room for longer and more complicated
noun phrases or elaborated sentences. According to Bruthiaux (1996, p. 80-81), the fact that
heavy modification of noun phrase springs from spatial and financial constraints which help to
minimize the number of function words lead to the frequent use of heavy modification. In this
study, it is particularly the form: Premodifier + Head. For the sake of attracting students’
attention, mottos are found with the main use of adjectives and nouns to modify head nouns.
As shown in the chart above, universities and colleges of ESCs deem verb phrase a
predominant type in writing educational institution mottos, accounting for 43%. Meanwhile,
this usage is less observed in mottos of Vietnamese institutions with merely over 18%. In
advertising, verbal groups are mostly of maximum simplicity, consisting of only one word
(Leech, 1996). In addition, the marked frequency of using progressive forms in mottos of ESCs
can probably result from the intention of advertisers to mimic spoken language (Biber et al.,
2002, p. 158). This assists the authorities to add a conversational quality to advertisement which
can make the audience easily feel warm and familiar. Another noticeable observation is the
propensity of authorities to omit the subject and auxiliary in the progressive phrase to become
non-finite, for instance “Shaping futures” (Nottingham Trent University). The reason is that
students are supposed to form a virtual link between the implied subject of universities and
colleges and mottos, which enables schools to remove it without misinterpretation. Also be
concluded from the analysis of noun phrases, verb phrases are quite commonly used due to the
limit on spatial and financial constraints.
Other categories of phrases seem to be unremarkable and much less commonly used.
Regarding adjective phrase, while its usage makes up only 9.5% in the mottos of ESCs,
Vietnamese universities and colleges employ this linguistic feature more popularly, but with
merely 15%. One reason for this fact may arise from the preference of using noun phrase with
adjective modification. Hence, in sample mottos, adjectives just play a supplement role in noun
phrase.
Concerning prepositional phrases, they account for over 16% and 12% in mottos of
Vietnam and ESCs respectively. Prepositional phrases on educational institution mottos are
aimed to inform the readers of the vision or the missions, so readers can be attracted if they are
told what they will get from tertiary education. For example, the motto “The Road to Success”
(University of Economics and Business) tells the readers that the school will assist students to
obtain a successful career in the future. However, not many authorities think that prepositional
phrases are strong enough to fascinate the target audience.
The least used phrases are adverb ones with roughly 5% in both Vietnam and ESCs. In
general, adverbs are functioned as the modifiers in a sentence or to give further particulars about
certain conditions. For instance, the word “freely” in “Freely you have received, Freely give”
(Pepperdine University) will explain how you receive and give. However, it was found that
adverb phrases do not always become the modifiers to the other lexical categories. In mottos,
adverb phrases can stand alone as the main phrase to give further explanation about the
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In light of the abovementioned analysis, one can conclude that universities and colleges
in Vietnam are strongly in favor of using noun phrases in creating motto, while those in ESCs
pay much more attention to verb phrases. Nonetheless, they all somewhat share the same
preference for adopting adjective phrases, adverb phrases and prepositional phrases when
writing mottos. The use of nouns helps to save space and time in advertisements or other related
activities. This is absolutely beneficial when the audience can be well informed and easily
receive the imparted messages. Meanwhile, verb phrase assists school authorities to add a
conversational quality to the educational motto which can create a friendly, warm atmosphere
and a close relationship between the institutions and the audience. Plus, verb phrases are also
used quite commonly due to spatial and financial constraints.
5.2. Sentences
Figure 3. The frequency of sentences in mottos of in both Vietnam and ESCs
Figure 4. The frequency of sentences in mottos of in Vietnam and ESCs
As can be seen from Figure 3, the most frequently used type of sentence is imperative
sentence with the proportion of over 50%. It is not surprising that the authorities would employ
imperative sentences to create a motto since this is the most direct way to achieve the ideal
effects. In particular, in Vietnamese institutions, imperative sentence appears to be
predominance with around 70%. Leech (1966) argues that the reason for the ubiquitous utility
of imperative sentence is deemed the audience’s familiarity with the road signs, official forms
and instructions. However, the tendency of applying this category in Vietnam is contrary to that
in ESCs. It is evident that the figure for imperative sentence in ESCs nearly doubles that of
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Vietnamese institutions (28 versus 16 mottos). The reason for this may be the diverse use of
other categories in Vietnam.
In terms of statement, which ranks second in the frequency of using in both Vietnamese
and English-speaking universities and colleges with about 48%, the trend is different. To be
more specific, the percentage in using statements of tertiary institutions in ESCS makes up
roughly 54%, which is almost twice as much as that in Vietnam. Regarding statement, simple
sentences are the most frequently used type because with well-composed simple sentences, the
information imparted to readers will be succinct and coherent. Additionally, simple sentences
are easy to remember, while one main aim of a motto is to be memorable and recited. Hence,
statements, especially simple sentences are more reader-friendly and commonly applied in
advertisements in general and in educational school mottos in particular.
Another category is question, making up only over 1% in both Vietnam and ESCs. Leech
(1966) stated one of the functions of interrogative sentence in advertisements is to draw the
audience’s attention by raising questions, especially rhetorical questions. This approach may
have merits as well as drawbacks; therefore, it might be considered one minor reason why
questions are less used in educational school mottos.
Last but not least, it can be seen that exclamation is not used in any educational school
mottos of universities and colleges in both Vietnam and ESCs. There is no doubt that
exclamation is a sentence expressing a strong feeling; as a result, it is not suitable for serving
educational institution mottos which transmit the educational vision and mission of the
In a nutshell, on the one hand, both Vietnamese and English-speaking universities and
colleges tend to make little use of question and exclamation. On the other hand, imperative
sentence appears to be a major element employed in the mottos of tertiary institutions in
Vietnam, whereas statement contributes the highest percentage in the frequency of using in
ESCs. The notion to explain this result is that imperative sentence is applied to express the
determination and commitment to achieve the set goals of the whole university. This type of
short and concise sentence creates persuasion, serving for the purpose of boosting the learning
spirit of students to try harder for their learning cause. In terms of the sentential type of
statement, the main aim is to illustrate the visions and missions of schools, giving much more
motivations for their students to pursue their study path. Furthermore, those facts can be also
seen as reasons for them to enrol into universities and colleges.
This study aims at providing some critical insights in syntactic features of mottos, from
which students can expand their understanding in the field of advertising mottos. Particularly for
ones who work with advertising agency, this theory gives ways to understand structure of a
motto and offers some techniques for them to write a successful motto in English to attract
students’ attention. As for teachers, they can take advantage of this study to understand not only
the background information of advertising and mottos, but they also can gain a profound insight
in syntactic aspects including phrases and sentences. Hence, they can apply knowledge as well
as sample mottos as examples from this study to explain to students during the process of
teaching. When it comes to Vietnamese tertiary institutes, this work creates an opportunity for
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these universities and colleges to have a deeper understanding in the structure of each kind of
mottos. In particular, structure and the use of phrases and sentences are two major elements that
can be attained through this study. In that way, tertiary institutions will easily make decisions on
which kind of phrases or sentences is suitable and brings success to their reputation.
6. Conclusion
It is worth noting that Vietnamese universities and colleges have tendency to use noun
phrases in mottos whereas those in ESCs show their preference for adopting verb phrases. The
use of nouns helps to save space and time in advertisements. This is absolutely beneficial when
the audiences can be well informed and easily receive the delivered messages. Meanwhile, verb
phrases assist school authorities to add a conversational quality to the educational mottos, which
can create a friendly warm atmosphere and a close relationship between the tertiary institutions
and the audience. What is more, verb phrases are also applied quite commonly due to the limit
on spatial and financial constraints. Nonetheless, all universities and colleges in Vietnam and
ESCs, to a certain extent, share the same preference for adopting adjective phrases, adverb
phrases and prepositional phrases when creating mottos.
Regarding sentences, statements tend to hold up the majority in the frequency of
occurrence in ESCs thanks to its being more reader-friendly and going straight to the audience’
mind, while those in Vietnam give their preference to imperative sentences due to the
audience’s familiarity with the road signs, official forms and instructions. However, both
Vietnamese and English-speaking universities and colleges tend to make little use of questions
and exclamations.
Due to time constraint, this research has only investigated 200 educational institution
mottos, which makes the results become less generalized. Hence, a larger population of samples
is recommended to generate more precise results. Also, the scope of study on syntactic features
can be implemented in other fields, not merely limited in tertiary education mottos.
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KHẨU HIỆU GIÁO DỤC ĐẠI HỌC TẠI VIỆT NAM

VÀ CÁC NƯỚC NÓI TIẾNG ANH:
NGHIÊN CỨU DƯỚI GÓC NHÌN TỪ ĐẶC TRƯNG CÚ PHÁP
Tóm tắt: Hiện nay nền giáo dục đang ngày càng thể hiện rõ vị thế của mình trong quá trình
phát triển của xã hội. Thực tế cho rằng rất nhiều trường đại học, cao đẳng của Việt Nam
đang nỗ lực vươn mình ra tầm quốc tế, thu hút hàng nghìn sinh viên nước ngoài tới theo
học mỗi năm, đồng thời áp dụng nhiều chiến dịch quảng bá hình ảnh, trong đó có sử dụng
các khẩu hiệu giáo dục. Tuy nhiên, các trường đều thật khó tránh khỏi những sai sót trong
quá trình định hình khẩu hiệu giáo dục phù hợp với tầm nhìn và sứ mệnh của mình. Dựa
trên kết quả phân tích, bài nghiên cứu đưa ra một cái nhìn có chiều sâu về một trong những
khía cạnh ngôn ngữ quan trọng nhất trong khẩu hiệu giáo dục, đó chính là cú pháp, tập
trung nghiên cứu sự sắp xếp của các thành tố ngôn ngữ. Hơn nữa, đặc điểm giống và khác
nhau về cách viết khẩu hiệu giáo dục của các trường đại học, cao đẳng ở Việt Nam và các
nước nói tiếng Anh cũng được chỉ ra cùng với những gợi ý cho các trường khi viết khẩu
hiệu giáo dục.
Từ khóa: Đặc điểm cú pháp, khẩu hiệu giáo dục, đại học và cao đẳng, Việt Nam, các nước
nói tiếng Anh
376
ĐÁNH GIÁ CỦA SINH VIÊN VỀ HIỆU QUẢ CỦA VIỆC

SỬ DỤNG YẾU TỐ PHI NGÔN NGỮ TRONG GIẢNG DẠY
TIẾNG NGA TẠI KHOA TIẾNG NGA,
Nguyễn Thanh Sơn*
Tóm tắt: Nghiên cứu nhằm mục đích khảo sát hiệu quả của việc lồng ghép các hành vi
ngôn ngữ không lời của người Nga trong các lớp học tiếng Nga và mức độ hài lòng của
sinh viên Khoa Tiếng Nga, Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Huế đối với các tiết học
này. Kết quả nghiên cứu cho thấy việc nắm kiến thức cơ bản về phi ngôn ngữ không những
tác động tích cực đến việc học tiếng Nga và kỹ năng giao tiếp của sinh viên mà còn tạo cho
họ động lực đam mê tìm tòi, học hỏi nhiều hơn về văn hóa và ngôn ngữ Nga. Ngoài ra, bài
viết còn nêu ra một số khó khăn mà sinh viên thường gặp phải khi tìm hiểu về loại hình
ngôn ngữ này và đề xuất một số phương pháp nhằm nâng cao hiểu biết của sinh viên về
ngôn ngữ không lời và chất lượng của các tiết học ngoại ngữ.
Từ khóa: Phi ngôn ngữ tiếng Nga, đánh giá của sinh viên, lớp học tiếng Nga, dạy-học
ngoại ngữ
1. Đặt vấn đề
Trong giao tiếp, lời nói là công cụ (phương tiện) quan trọng và hữu hiệu nhất của con
người. Tuy nhiên trong ngôn ngữ, phi ngôn ngữ giữ một vị trí quan trọng không thể thiếu trong
các cuộc trò chuyện. Với xu hướng toàn cầu hóa ngày nay, việc giao lưu văn hóa giữa các quốc
gia diễn ra dễ dàng hơn bao giờ hết. Để xây dựng các mối quan hệ xã hội cũng như thành công
trong giao tiếp, ngoài nền tảng kiến thức ngôn ngữ và văn hóa tốt, chúng ta cũng cần trang bị
cho mình những hiểu biết cơ bản về giao tiếp phi ngôn ngữ. Nhận thấy việc cung cấp cho sinh
viên Khoa Tiếng Nga những kiến thức cơ bản về ngôn ngữ không lời trong giao tiếp là điều cần
thiết, chúng tôi lồng ghép yếu tố này trong các lớp học thực hành tiếng và tìm hiểu hiệu quả của
các tiết học này.
Nghiên cứu này được thực hiện nhằm mục đích tìm hiểu phản hồi của sinh viên về hiệu
quả của việc áp dụng các hành vi phi ngôn ngữ đến nhận thức và hứng thú của sinh viên Khoa
Tiếng Nga, Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Huế trong việc học cũng như tìm hiểu về văn
hóa, ngôn ngữ Nga; gợi ý một số phương pháp sử dụng yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ trong các lớp học
tiếng Nga để nâng cao hiệu quả trong giao tiếp và chất lượng dạy-học tiếng Nga.
* Email: nthanhson@hueuni.edu.vn
377
2.1. Yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ trong giao tiếp
Phi ngôn ngữ hay còn gọi cách khác là ngôn ngữ không lời là một loại hình ngôn ngữ
đóng vai trò quan trọng trong quá trình giao tiếp của con người. Có rất nhiều nhận định cũng
như khái niệm về giao tiếp phi ngôn ngữ từ dưới các góc độ và bình diện khác nhau. Căn cứ vào
bình diện ngữ dụng học, tác giả Nguyễn Thiện Giáp (2005) cho rằng: “Giao tiếp phi lời là giao
tiếp bằng toàn bộ cơ thể và các giác quan”. Theo nhà nghiên cứu, trong giao tiếp bên cạnh các
phương tiện bằng lời còn có các phương tiện phi lời và những yếu tố đó bao gồm: bối cảnh, diện
mạo, cách ăn mặc, tư thế, điệu bộ, cử chỉ, khoảng cách. Ông nhấn mạnh rằng khi phân tích hội
thoại cần nghiên cứu các yếu tố phi lời và người ta chỉ có thể hiểu được cách sử dụng một ngôn
ngữ khi các yếu tố phi lời được nghiên cứu đầy đủ.
Dưới góc độ ngôn ngữ văn hóa, tác giả Nguyễn Quang (2008) nhận định: “giao tiếp phi
ngôn từ là toàn bộ các bộ phận kiến tạo nên giao tiếp không thuộc mã ngôn từ, có nghĩa là
không được mã hóa bằng từ ngữ, nhưng có thể thuộc về hai yếu tố ngôn thanh và phi ngôn
thanh. Nó bao gồm các yếu tố cận ngôn như tốc độ, cường độ, ngữ lưu… và các yếu tố ngoại
ngôn thuộc ngôn ngữ cơ thể như dáng điệu, cử chỉ, biểu hiện nét mặt… thuộc ngôn ngữ vật thể
như áo quần, trang sức, nước hoa, quà tặng… và thuộc ngôn ngữ môi trường như ngôn ngữ đối
thoại, địa điểm giao tiếp. Trong đó, ngôn ngữ cơ thể chiếm số lượng lớn trong giao tiếp không
lời.
Như vậy, có thể nhận định rằng giao tiếp phi ngôn ngữ của con người là sự giao tiếp bằng
cách nhận và gửi đi các tín hiệu phi ngôn ngữ (diện mạo, cách ăn mặc, tư thế, điệu bộ, cử chỉ,
khoảng cách, v.v…) để đạt được mục đích cụ thể trong quá trình giao tiếp.
Đã từ rất lâu, con người không chỉ giao tiếp với nhau bằng tiếng nói hay chữ viết mà còn
thông qua nét mặt, cử chỉ, ánh mắt, đồ vật, v.v… Ở công xã nguyên thủy, con người giao tiếp
chủ yếu bằng ngôn ngữ không lời và loại hình ngôn ngữ này phản ánh chính xác nhất cảm xúc
của người tham gia giao tiếp (thông qua cử chỉ, điệu bộ, ánh mắt, nụ cười, v.v…). Nhân tố làm
nên ấn tượng đầu tiên trong một buổi gặp mặt, giúp duy trì không khí của toàn bộ cuộc đối
thoại, tác động mạnh đến cảm xúc của người nghe và quyết định hiệu quả giao tiếp, chính là yếu
tố phi ngôn ngữ. Đã có nhiều nghiên cứu chỉ ra vai trò quan trọng của thứ ngôn ngữ này trong
giao tiếp.
Tác giả Phi Tuyết Hinh (1996) khẳng định trước khi ngôn ngữ âm thanh bắt đầu hình
thành (khoảng 5000 hoặc 4000 trước công nguyên) thì cử chỉ điệu bộ chính là ngôn ngữ cổ xưa
nhất của loài người.
Giáo sư Mehrabian (1981) nhận định: Trao đổi thông tin diễn ra qua các phương tiện bằng lời
là 7%, qua các phương tiện âm thanh (gồm giọng điệu, giọng nói, ngữ điệu và âm thanh) là 38%,
còn qua các phương tiện không bằng lời (yếu tố phi ngôn từ như cử chỉ điệu bộ, hình ảnh, v.v…) là
55%. Rõ ràng, yếu tố này ảnh hưởng không nhỏ đến hiệu quả giao tiếp của con người.
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2.2. Ảnh hưởng của phi ngôn ngữ đến việc dạy-học ngoại ngữ
Các tác giả Cohen, Manion vàMorrison (2007) đề cập đến các hành vi phi ngôn ngữ của
giáo viên có ảnh hưởng tích cực đến việc giảng dạy và tương tác giữa giáo viên và học viên bao
gồm: sử dụng không gian và khoảng cách tương tác, giao tiếp bằng mắt, nụ cười, gật đầu, cử chỉ
điệu bộ và thư giãn cơ thể.
Tác giả Trần Gia Nguyên Thi (2015) đã tiến hành nghiên cứu ngôn ngữ cử chỉ của người
dạy trong lớp học ngoại ngữ tại Khoa Tiếng Pháp, Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Đà
Nẵng. Bằng phương pháp thực nghiệm, quan sát thực tế, tác giả đã quan sát và ghi lại các cử
chỉ, điệu bộ mà giáo viên thường sử dụng trong các tiết học tiếng Pháp và khảo sát sinh viên để
tìm hiểu cách nhìn nhận của các em về vai trò của ngôn ngữ cử chỉ mà giảng viên sử dụng trong
quá trình giảng dạy. Kết quả khảo sát chỉ ra rằng khi sử dụng điệu bộ trong quá trình giảng dạy,
thầy cô có vẻ tự nhiên hơn và lôi cuốn được lớp học hào hứng học tập, phát biểu ý kiến. Những
điệu bộ, cử chỉ của thầy cô giúp người học hiểu hơn những gì mà họ truyền đạt.
Có thể nhận thấy rằng, vai trò của ngôn ngữ cử chỉ trong các lớp học ngoại ngữ là rất
quan trọng. Tuy nhiên, phần lớn giảng viên và sinh viên vẫn chưa quan tâm và chú trọng đến
yếu tố này trong giao tiếp cũng như trong các tiết học ngoại ngữ. Việc sử dụng các hành vi phi
ngôn ngữ vào thực tế giảng dạy và nghiên cứu thái độ của sinh viên về hiệu quả của các tiết học
này là điều cần thiết.
Để đạt được mục đích nghiên cứu như đã nêu ở phần Đặt vấn đề. Chúng tôi tập trung tìm
câu trả lời cho các câu hỏi sau:
- Tác động của việc áp dụng các hành vi phi ngôn ngữ trong dạy-học tiếng Nga và đánh giá của
sinh viên là như thế nào?
- Làm thế nào để áp dụng yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ một cách có hiệu quả trong giao tiếp?
- Tác động của các tiết học này đến việc tạo động lực tìm hiểu nhiều hơn về ngôn ngữ và văn
hóa Nga của sinh viên là như thế nào?
Khách thể nghiên cứu trong bài viết này là 30 sinh viên từ năm 2 đến năm 4 đang theo
học tại Khoa Tiếng Nga, Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Huế.
Chúng tôi đã tiến hành lồng ghép các yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ trong dạy-học tiếng Nga trong
vòng 4 tuần bằng việc dành ra 10 phút đầu tiết học môn Nghe 2 đối với sinh viên năm 2, môn
Nghe-Nói 4 đối với sinh viên năm 3. Với sinh viên năm 4, chúng tôi chọn môn học phụ đạo kỹ
năng mềm để thực hiện khảo sát này. Các trò chơi đã được tổ chức như chiếu các hình ảnh minh
họa về các cử chỉ, điệu bộ đặc trưng của người Nga, các đoạn phim Nga ngắn sau đó cùng nhau
bình luận và giải thích ý nghĩa của các hành vi đó. Đồng thời, giảng viên chủ động sử dụng
nhiều ngôn ngữ cơ thể: cử chỉ, điệu bộ… nhiều hơn trong lúc giảng bài và tương tác với sinh
viên. Nguồn tài liệu được chọn lọc từ cuốn “Словарь языка русских жестов” (Từ điển ngôn
ngữ cử chỉ của người Nga) của các tác giả Григорий Крейдлин, Светлана Григорьева,
Николай Григорьев (2001).
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Sau đó, để tìm hiểu hiệu quả của phương pháp này chúng tôi đã sử dụng một bảng khảo
sát gồm hai phần. Phần thứ nhất bao gồm 13 câu hỏi trắc nghiệm nhiều lựa chọn nhằm mục đích
xác định sự đồng ý của sinh viên về các ý kiến liên quan đến hiệu quả của việc sử dụng các yếu
tố phi ngôn ngữ trong các lớp học tiếng Nga. Phần thứ hai gồm các câu hỏi mở nhằm thu thập ý
kiến về những khó khăn và đề xuất của sinh viên để nâng cao hiểu biết về yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ
trong giao tiếp với người Nga và trong dạy-học tiếng Nga.
4.1. Thông tin chung của các đối tượng tham gia khảo sát
Nghiên cứu này được thực hiện với sự tham gia của 30 sinh viên năm 2 đến năm 4 đang
theo học tại Khoa Tiếng Nga, trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Huế. Những sinh viên này ở
trong độ tuổi 20-22 và đã học tiếng Nga gần 2 năm. Tỉ lệ nam – nữ trong số 30 sinh viên tham
gia khảo sát lần lượt là 10% - 90%.
100% các bạn sinh viên đã từng gặp gỡ và giao tiếp với người Nga. Trình độ tiếng Nga
của những sinh viên tham gia khảo sát trong nghiên cứu đạt cấp độ A2 đến B1 theo khung tham
chiếu Châu Âu.
4.2. Tác động của việc áp dụng các hành vi phi ngôn ngữ trong các tiết học đến việc học
tiếng Nga của sinh viên
Như đã đề cập ở phần Phương pháp nghiên cứu, chúng tôi đã sử dụng phiếu khảo sát
nhằm tìm hiểu sự phản hồi của sinh viên về việc lồng ghép các yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ trong các
tiết học tiếng Nga. Trong số 13 ý kiến ở phần 1 của phiếu khảo sát, có 4 ý kiến được thiết kế
nhằm mục đích xác định sự tác động của việc áp dụng các hành vi phi ngôn ngữ đến việc học
tiếng Nga của sinh viên. Kết quả được trình bày ở Bảng 1.
Bảng 1. Tác động của việc áp dụng các hành vi phi ngôn ngữ trong các tiết học đến việc học tiếng Nga
của sinh viên
Ý kiến Số Số Số
Tỷ lệ Tỷ lệ Tỷ lệ
lượng lượng lượng
Tôi cảm thấy việc lồng ghép các kiến thức về phi
28 93% 2 7% 0 0%
ngôn ngữ giúp tôi học tiếng Nga tốt hơn.
Việc giảng viên chủ động sử dụng ngôn ngữ cơ
thể trong lúc giảng dạy làm cho tiết học sinh 30 100% 0 0% 0 0%
động hơn.
Tôi cảm thấy hứng thú hơn trong các tiết học có
kiến thức về ngôn ngữ cơ thể trong giao tiếp của 28 93% 1 3% 1 3%
người Nga so với các tiết học khác.
Tôi thích học những tiết học có lồng ghép kiến
thức về các hành vi giao tiếp không lời của 28 93% 2 7% 0 0%
người Nga.
Mong muốn giảng viên sử dụng nhiều ngôn ngữ
cơ thể và cung cấp nhiều kiến thức hơn về các 30 100% 0 0% 0 0%
hành vi giao tiếp không lời của người Nga.
Có 28 (chiếm 93%) trên tổng số 30 sinh viên tham gia khảo sát đồng ý rằng việc có lồng
ghép và giới thiệu cho họ kiến thức về giao tiếp phi ngôn ngữ giúp họ học tiếng Nga tốt hơn, có
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nghĩa rằng việc được trang bị thêm những kiến thức về giao tiếp không lời giúp họ hiểu và học
tiếng Nga hiệu quả hơn. Trong khi đó, chỉ có 7% số sinh viên vẫn còn đang phân vân về hiệu
quả của phương pháp này. Phần lớn người tham gia khảo sát 94% đồng ý với ý kiến họ cảm
thấy hứng thú hơn trong các tiết học có kiến thức về ngôn ngữ cơ thể trong giao tiếp của người
Nga so với các tiết học khác. Số còn lại hoặc là phân vân, hoặc là không đồng tình với ý kiến
này. Để trả lời cho câu hỏi sinh viên có thích học những tiết học có lồng ghép kiến thức về các
hành vi giao tiếp không lời của người Nga hay không, đã có 28 người (93%) tham gia khảo sát
đồng ý và có 2 sinh viên phân vân về ý kiến này (tỷ lệ chiếm 7%). Điều này cho thấy, hiệu quả
của những tiết học này là rất cao.
Việc giảng viên sử dụng ngôn ngữ cơ thể trong lúc giảng bài làm cho các tiết học sinh
động hơn nhận được sự đồng tình của toàn bộ người tham gia khảo sát. 100% sinh viên mong
muốn giảng viên sử dụng nhiều ngôn ngữ cơ thể cũng như cung cấp nhiều kiến thức hơn về các
hành vi giao tiếp không lời của người Nga trong các tiết học tiếng Nga. Như vậy, vai trò của
ngôn ngữ cơ thể góp phần rất lớn đến thành công trong việc thu hút sự chú ý và tạo hứng thú
cho sinh viên trong các tiết học.
4.3. Tác động của việc sử dụng yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ trong các tiết học đến việc tạo động lực
tìm hiểu về ngôn ngữ và văn hóa Nga của sinh viên
Khi được hỏi về ý định sử dụng ngôn ngữ cơ thể trong giao tiếp với người Nga sau khi đã
hiểu biết về ý nghĩa và tầm quan trọng của yếu tố này trong giao tiếp, có 26 sinh viên (chiếm
87%) cho biết họ sẽ sử dụng ngôn ngữ cơ thể trong giao tiếp với người Nga, chỉ có 13% sinh
viên phân vân về ý kiến này. Phần lớn sinh viên (73%) cho rằng họ sẽ chủ động tìm hiểu về các
hành vi giao tiếp không lời của người Nga qua phim ảnh, sách hoặc qua Internet ngoài các bài
giảng của giáo viên trên lớp bởi việc hiểu biết và sử dụng ngôn ngữ cơ thể trong giao tiếp tạo
cho họ hứng thú tìm hiểu nhiều hơn về văn hóa cũng như ngôn ngữ mà họ đang theo học.
Bảng 2. Tác động của việc sử dụng yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ trong các tiết học đến việc tạo động lực tìm hiểu
về ngôn ngữ và văn hóa Nga của sinh viên
Ý kiến Đồng ý Phân vân Không đồng ý
Tôi sẽ sử dụng nhiều ngôn ngữ
cơ thể trong giao tiếp với
26 87% 4 13% 0 0%
người Nga trong tương lai.
Việc hiểu biết và sử dụng

ngôn ngữ cơ thể trong giao
tiếp tạo hứng thú tìm hiểu sâu
27 90% 3 10% 0 0%
hơn về văn hóa và ngôn ngữ
Nga.
Tôi sẽ chủ động tìm hiểu nhiều

hơn về các hành vi giao tiếp 1
22 73% 5 17% 3
không lời của người Nga qua 0%
phim ảnh, sách, Internet…
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4.4. Hiệu quả của việc áp dụng yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ trong giao tiếpcủa sinh viên
Bảng 3. Hiệu quả của việc áp dụng yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ trong việc giao tiếp với người Nga của sinh viên
Ý kiến
Việc hiểu biết nhiều về ngôn ngữ cơ thể của
người Nga giúp tôi tự tin hơn trong giao tiếp 27 90% 3 10% 0 0%
với người Nga cũng như trước đám đông.
Nhờ những hiểu biết về yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ
đặc trưng của người Nga, tôi hiểu hơn về tâm
21 70% 9 30% 0 0%
tư, suy nghĩ của họ khi không sử dụng lời nói
trong giao tiếp.
Việc người đối thoại sử dụng ngôn ngữ cơ
thể làm cho cuộc nói chuyện lôi cuốn, không 28 93% 2 7% 0 0%
bị nhàm chán.
Việc hiểu biết về ngôn ngữ cơ thể trong lúc
nói chuyện giúp tôi nắm bắt được tâm lý của
người đối thoại (buồn, vui, thích thú, khó
24 80% 4 13% 2 7%
chịu…) qua đó tôi có thể điều chỉnh được
hành vi, lời nói… và chủ động hơn trong giao
tiếp.
Việc hiểu biết về ngôn ngữ cơ thể giúp ích tôi
trong việc tránh gây những hiểu lầm đáng có
27 90% 3 10% 0 0%
và gây ấn tượng với người đối thoại trong lúc
nói chuyện.
Sau các tiết học có áp dụng các yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ trong giao tiếp của người Nga, 90%
sinh viên đồng ý rằng việc hiểu biết nhiều về ý nghĩa của các hành vi ngôn ngữ cơ thể của người
Nga giúp họ tự tin hơn trong giao tiếp. Trong số các sinh viên tham gia khảo sát, có 70% đồng ý
với ý kiến rằng nhờ những hiểu biết về yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ đặc trưng của người Nga, họ hiểu
hơn về tâm tư, suy nghĩ của người đối thoại thậm chí khi họ không sử dụng lời nói trong giao
tiếp. Bên cạnh đó 30% người tham gia khảo sát còn phân vân về ý kiến này. Như đã đề cập ở
mục cơ sở lý luận, yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ đóng vai trò quan trọng nhất trong quá trình giao tiếp và
là yếu tố ảnh hưởng lớn đến hiệu quả của cuộc nói chuyện, bởi thông qua các hành vi, cử chỉ…
chúng ta có thể nắm bắt được tâm lý của người nói chuyện khi họ không sử dụng ngôn từ. Vì
vậy, có 80% sinh viên đồng ý với ý kiến thông qua ngôn ngữ cơ thể họ có thể nắm bắt được tâm
lý của đối phương (buồn, vui, thích thú, khó chịu...) qua đó họ có thể điều chỉnh được hành vi,
lời nói, và chủ động hơn trong giao tiếp. Không đồng tình hoặc phân vân với ý kiến này chiếm
số lượng không lớn, khoảng 20%. Đồng ý với ý kiến việc sử dụng ngôn ngữ cơ thể trong giao
tiếp sẽ làm cho cuộc nói chuyện trở nên sinh động hơn, lôi cuốn hơn có 93% người tham gia
khảo sát. Điều này cho thấy giao tiếp không lời ảnh hưởng rất lớn đến không khí của cuộc trò
chuyện. Từ việc nắm bắt được tâm lý và cảm xúc của người nói chuyện, ngôn ngữ cơ thể giúp
chúng ta tránh được những hiểu lầm đáng có và biết cách để gây sự chú ý, tạo ấn tượng tốt với
người đối diện trong cuộc trò chuyện, có 90% sinh viên đồng ý với quan điểm này. Như vậy, có
thể nhận thấy rằng, việc hiểu biết về phi ngôn ngữ giúp ích cho chúng ta rất nhiều trong giao
tiếp. Ngoài yếu tố ngôn từ, ngôn ngữ không lời đóng vai trò hết sức quan trọng trong việc giúp
con người hiểu nhau hơn.
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4.5. Khó khăn và đề xuất của sinh viên trong việc nâng cao hiểu biết về yếu tố phi ngôn
ngữ trong văn hóa giao tiếp
Để tìm hiểu những khó khăn trong việc tìm hiểu về ngôn ngữ không lời của người Nga
trong giao tiếp cũng như những đề xuất của sinh viên trong việc nâng cao kiến thức về giao tiếp
phi ngôn từ, trong Phiếu khảo sát chúng tôi đã thiết kế các câu hỏi mở và yêu cầu sinh viên trả
lời. Các phản hồi của sinh viên được tổng hợp và tóm tắt dưới đây.
Khó khăn mà sinh viên thường gặp phải khi tìm hiểu về ngôn ngữ cơ thể của người Nga
trong giao tiếp:
- Cơ hội tiếp xúc với người Nga và người nói tiếng Nga là rất ít: tại Huế thực tế sinh viên
có rất ít cơ hội được tiếp xúc và trò chuyện với người bản ngữ. Tháng 11 năm 2018, Khoa Tiếng
Nga đã mời giáo viên tình nguyện về giảng dạy cho sinh viên tại Khoa trong một tháng. Tuy
nhiên, thời gian một tháng là quá ít để tạo môi trường cho sinh viên giao lưu và trò chuyện với
giáo viên người Nga. Vì vậy, việc chú ý đến các hành vi giao tiếp phi ngôn ngữ của người Nga
trong lúc nói chuyện của sinh viên là không nhiều.
- Khó khăn trong việc tìm kiếm các nguồn tư liệu: thực tế hiện nay sinh viên không chủ
động trong việc tìm đọc các nguồn tư liệu, tài liệu tham khảo ngoài sách giáo khoa và các giáo
trình giảng dạy mà họ được học trên lớp. Như đã đề cập ở các mục trên, tại Khoa Tiếng Nga vẫn
chưa có một giáo trình hay môn học cụ thể nào cung cấp kiến thức về giao tiếp phi ngôn ngữ
trong văn hóa giao tiếp của người Nga, vì vậy đa phần sinh viên chưa ý thức về tầm quan trọng
của yếu tố này trong các cuộc trò chuyện.
- Khó khăn trong việc hiểu ý nghĩa của các cử chỉ, điệu bộ của người Nga: hệ thống ngôn
ngữ cử chỉ của con người là vô cùng phong phú. Ngoài ra, cùng một điệu bộ, cử chỉ nhưng trong
mỗi nền văn hóa khác nhau chúng lại có ý nghĩa khác nhau. Một số sinh viên cho biết, họ
thường không hiểu ý nghĩa của một số cử chỉ, điệu bộ của các nhân vật khi xem các bộ phim
Nga hay các đoạn hội thoại của người Nga, cũng như khi giao tiếp thực tế với người Nga.
Đề xuất của sinh viên để nâng cao kiến thức về yếu tố phi ngôn từ trong giao tiếp: Sau khi
được tiếp xúc và hiểu rõ tầm quan trọng của yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ trong giao tiếp, một số sinh
viên đã mạnh dạn đưa ra ý kiến của mình nhằm nâng cao hiểu biết về ngôn ngữ không lời như:
mong muốn giảng viên cung cấp nhiều kiến thức hơn về các hành vi giao tiếp không lời của
người Nga cũng như ý nghĩa của các hành vi đó trong các tiết học; mong muốn có nhiều cơ hội
được giao lưu và tiếp xúc với người Nga nhiều hơn để được giao tiếp với họ; tổ chức các trò
chơi, chiếu các hình ảnh, xem các phân đoạn phim Nga và cùng nhau bình luận về một vài cử
chỉ trong phim; tham gia các lớp học kỹ năng mềm có các kiến thức về giao tiếp không lời.
5. Kết luận và đề xuất
Căn cứ vào kết quả nghiên cứu, có thể đưa ra kết luận như sau:
Việc áp dụng ngôn ngữ cơ thể trong các tiết học có ảnh hưởng tích cực đến việc học tiếng
Nga của sinh viên. Họ cảm thấy thích thú với các tiết học này và mong muốn được tìm hiểu
nhiều hơn ý nghĩa của các hành vi, cử chỉ trong giao tiếp của người Nga cũng như cảm thấy bị
thu hút khi giảng viên chủ động sử dụng nhiều ngôn ngữ cơ thể trong giảng dạy.
383
Kiến thức về những hành vi giao tiếp không lời giúp sinh viên tự tin và chủ động hơn
trong việc học tiếng Nga và giao tiếp với người Nga. Bởi yếu tố này ảnh hưởng không những
đến thành công của một cuộc trò chuyện mà còn hiệu quả của các tiết học tiếng Nga.
Những hiểu biết nhất định về tầm quan trọng của yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ đã tạo động lực cho
sinh viên Khoa Tiếng Nga đam mê tìm tòi, học hỏi nhiều hơn về văn hóa và ngôn ngữ Nga.
Tuy nhiên, vẫn còn tồn tại một số khó khăn nhất định trong việc trang bị cho sinh viên
Khoa Tiếng Nga kiến thức về loại hình giao tiếp này trong các tiết học tiếng Nga như khó khăn
trong việc tìm các nguồn tài liệu, trình độ tiếng Nga còn hạn chế, ít có cơ hội được giao tiếp với
người bản xứ.
Trên cơ sở đó, chúng tôi xin đề xuất một số phương pháp sau nhằm nâng cao hiểu biết
của sinh viên về ngôn ngữ không lời và chất lượng của các tiết học tiếng Nga nói riêng và ngoại
ngữ nói chung như sau:
Về phương pháp dạy học: có rất nhiều phương pháp lồng ghép yếu tố phi ngôn ngữ mà
giảng viên có thể áp dụng trong những bài giảng của mình. Việc lựa chọn phương pháp dạy học
phụ thuộc vào từng môn học, trình độ của sinh viên và đối tượng người học. Chúng tôi xin được
gợi ý một số phương pháp như sau:
- Tổ chức các trò chơi có lồng ghép hình ảnh về các hành vi giao tiếp không lời của người
Nga và giải thích cho sinh viên hiểu ý nghĩa của từng hành vi, cử chỉ trong mỗi ngữ cảnh cụ thể.
Ví dụ các trò chơi nhìn tranh đoán ý nghĩa; so sánh ý nghĩa các cử chỉ, hành động trong các nền
văn hóa khác nhau.
- Giảng viên cần chú ý đến các hành vi, cử chỉ của mình và sử dụng chúng một cách linh
hoạt, chủ động hơn khi giảng bài: ví dụ các cử chỉ của tay, biểu cảm trên khuôn mặt, điệu bộ,
ánh mắt, dáng đứng, trang phục như thế nào để phù hợp với từng hoàn cảnh cụ thể.
- Phát huy những cử chỉ thân thiện như gật đầu, mỉm cười, ánh mắt nhìn động viên, khích
lệ, bởi những hành vi đó chắc chắn sẽ khiến cho người học có thêm động lực, chăm chỉ và yêu
thích môn học hơn.
- Sử dụng các phương tiện trực quan trong dạy học: sưu tầm các hình ảnh, các đoạn phim
ngắn có các hành vi phi ngôn ngữ và cùng thảo luận về ý nghĩa của từng hành vi trong từng
hoàn cảnh cụ thể.
Về việc tổ chức các hoạt động ngoại khóa: nên tạo nhiều cơ hội cho sinh viên được giao
tiếp với người bản xứ, tổ chức nhiều hoạt động giao lưu giữa người Nga và sinh viên cũng như
mời các giáo viên, chuyên gia người Nga về giảng dạy tại Khoa thường xuyên hơn nữa.
Cần nhấn mạnh rằng, ngôn ngữ không lời nếu được khai thác và sử dụng hợp lý vào việc
dạy-học ngoại ngữ sẽ giúp sinh viên học tiếng nước ngoài tốt hơn, nhanh hơn đặc biệt là kỹ
năng nói. Ngoài ra, những nền tảng kiến thức tốt về phi ngôn ngữ sẽ giúp người học tự tin, chủ
động hơn trong giao tiếp với người bản xứ, tránh gây hiểu lầm và những cú shock văn hóa
không đáng có.
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Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education. London: Routledge.
Mehrabian, A. (1981). Silent messages: Implicit communication of emotions and attitudes. Wadsworth.
Nguyễn Quang (2008). Cử chỉ trong giao tiếp. Khoa học Xã hội và Nhân văn, 42, 12-24.
Nguyễn Thiện Giáp (2005). Dẫn luận ngôn ngữ học. Nxb Giáo dục.
Phi Tuyết Hinh (1996). Thử tìm hiểu về ngôn ngữ cử chỉ, điệu bộ. Ngôn ngữ, 4, 35-41.
Trần Gia Nguyên Thi (2015). Ngôn ngữ cử chỉ của người dạy trong lớp học ngoại ngữ. Trường hợp các
giáo viên Khoa Tiếng Pháp, Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Đà Nẵng. Tạp chí Ngôn ngữ và Đời
sống, 11(241), 71-74.
Григорий Крейдлин, Светлана Григорьева, & Николай Григорьев (2001). Словарь языка русских
жестов. Москва.
STUDENTS' EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTIVENESS

OF USING NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
IN TEACHING RUSSIAN AT THE RUSSIAN DEPARTMENT
OF UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES, HUE UNIVERSITY
Abstract: The study aims at investigating the effectiveness of integrating Russian non-
verbal communication into Russian classes and the level of satisfaction of students of the
Russian Department of University of Foreign Languages, Hue University towards these
lessons. The results showed that acquiring basic knowledge of non-verbal communication
not only positively affects students’ learning and their communication skills, but also
generates motivation among students to explore the Russian language and culture. In
addition, the author also mentioned some difficulties that students frequently encounter
when learning this language and proposed some methods to improve students’
understanding of non-verbal language and the quality of foreign language lessons.
Key words: Non-verbal communication in Russian, students’ evaluation, Russian class,
teaching and learning foreign languages
385
WAYS OF LEARNING ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION

AMONG FIRST-YEAR ENGLISH MAJORS
AT VAN LANG UNIVERSITY
Nguyen Thi Trieu Thao*
Van Lang University

Abstract: Pronunciation plays an important part in language learning and teaching. English
is considered as a foreign language spoken by the most people in Vietnam. Students of
native Vietnamese are thought to be influenced by their Vietnamese pronunciation, and this
makes them pronounce English words inexactly. Though many studies about English
pronunciation have been conducted recently to help improve the students’ English
pronunciation, the implementation is still overlapping and unsuccessful. This article is an
attempt using questionnaire to discover how first-year English majors learn English
pronunciation at Van Lang University. Based on the research data, the findings of the study
are believed to apply to the learning and teaching practice at Van Lang University and
similar contexts.
Key words: Pronunciation, English learning and teaching, English majors, practice
1. Introduction
English is a very necessary language used the most popularly. As a result, pronouncing
words correctly when communicating in English language is a great demand for learners of
English who wish to understand each other effectively. In the recent final exam of the first-year
English majors on phonetics 1 at Van Lang University, many students got bad marks on this
subject. Among them, some did not know how to read the international transcription given in
the exam paper. In this article, questionnaire is employed to investigate how English
pronunciation is learnt with the view to helping students communicate more effectively in the
future. This study is an attempt to seek for appropriate answers to the questions as follows:
1. What are the best ways to help the first-year English majors learn English pronunciation
effectively?
2. How have they ever improved their English pronunciation?
2.1. Definitions of pronunciation
As defined in Cobuild Advanced English dictionary, pronunciation is the way in which a
word is pronounced. According to Seidhofer (1994) as cited in Nunan (1999), the influence of
the first language seems to be more apparent in the case of pronunciation than for grammar and
vocabulary. Similarly, Carter and Nunan (2001) stated that pronunciation plays an essential role
in the lives of an individual and society. In my point of view, the speakers are identified through
* Email: nguyentrieuthao3004@gmail.com
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the way they speak and denote their relationship of certain communities. Lynch and Anderson
(2012) makes a change on giving advice for English learners with two important things: (1)
English learners do not need native-like pronunciation of English sounds in order to be
comfortably understood, that is, comfortably intelligible referring to the comfort of the listeners,
rather than the speaker, and (2) pronouncing a word is actually more important for their listeners
than the sounds they make.
2.2. Factors affecting English pronunciation
According to Gilakjani (2012), there are three factors affecting the students’
pronunciation learning: (1) students’ attitude – the personal characteristics of the learners, (2)
learning strategies – the planning for learning process, and (3) instructions – the emphasis on
English pronunciation teaching.
2.2.1. The students’ attitudes
Though many students are good at English pronunciation, there are differences about the
ability of pronunciation among them. It is a reality that some previous studies had been carried
out to learn about the personal characteristics among the students who learn English as a foreign
language. The attitude is “a relatively enduring organization of beliefs, feelings, and behavioral
tendencies towards socially significant objects, groups, events or symbols” (Hogg and Vaughan,
2005), and Chaiken (1993) has stated that the attitude is a psychological tendency expressed by
evaluating a particular entity with some degree of likes or dislikes. There is always a very close
relation between learning attitudes and motivation because motivation is considered as a
construct made up of certain attitudes.
As cited in Brown (1980) has affirmed that strategies consist of planning for learning
thinking about the learning process as it is happening, overseeing someone’s production or
understanding, and assessing learning after an activity is finished. In the study of factors
affecting EFL learners’ English pronunciation learning, Mariani (2002) has expressed on a point
where learning strategies are essential components of a curriculum, as bridges
between competence and process.
The difference between a good student and a bad student is thought as just a matter of
aptitude. While it may be true in some cases, basically, the difference can actually be attributed
to learning strategies. With effective learning strategies, the language learners are able to learn
faster and easier. According to Ormrod (2010), there are seven basic strategies of teaching
English pronunciation, including (1) identifying important information – the learners can’t
remember everything presented in the class or in a textbook, they have to choose when learning
any documents, (2) retrieving relevant prior knowledge – the learners only participate in
meaningful learning when they have background knowledge that can relate new information by
encouraging them to retrieve relevant knowledge to the topic they are learning, (3) taking notes
– it plays an important role in classroom achievement, (4) organizing information – the learners
study more effectively when they take part in any activities helping them organize what they
have ever been learning, (5) intentionally elaborating on information – the learners use a
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strategy to help learn and make sense of new information and have elaboration in improvement,
(6) creating summaries – creating a good summary is a fairly complex process, and (7)
monitoring comprehension – a process in which the learners decide if they can understand what
they are reading. In general, learning strategies include the awareness learning process as taking
notes, using the dictionaries and other procedures. It includes the interaction among the learners
in the same group; or pairs in the classroom with communicative activities. The students should
engage in any language communication activities where they have to have learning motivation
as well as good learning attitudes.
2.2.3. Instructions
English language teaching (ELT) should focus on four skills as listening, speaking,
reading and writing. According to Nunan (1999), pronunciation has to be taught in the
beginning of English learning as the target language’s alphabet and sound system. Lack of
emphasis on the development of pronunciation is due to a general lack of fervor on the part of
the second language acquisition researchers. Elliot (2012) has ever stated that there may be
absence or emphasis on pronunciation improvement with second language teaching. This may
be due to a general weakness of interest both by teachers and students. This may be due to a
general weakness of interest both by teachers and students.
2.3. Principles for pronunciation teaching
According to Fraser (2001), the teacher should base on these principles as familiar point
of view about practicing English pronunciation well, such as (1) having a suitable curriculum-
helping the learners acquire some basic concepts on which they are able to build more
complicated understanding, (2) being learner-centered – the process in a form that the students
are able to use and act upon, (3) helping learners become self-reliant – involving in both
thinking and doing, (4) giving opportunities to practice – emphasizing cognitive understanding,
(5) knowing what’s best – the need of information. Regarding the teaching of pronunciation,
Nunan (2003) has developed and specified five principles: (1) foster intelligibility during
spontaneous speech – when a teacher teaches pronunciation, he has to reinforce the
intelligibility during the free speech, (2) keep affective considerations firmly in mind – teachers
encourage learners to improve their pronunciation habits, (3) avoid the teaching of individual
sounds in isolation – teachers use integrated skills to teach pronunciation and give learners any
opportunities to have meaningful communication among learners considered as more exciting,
memorable and enjoyable activities, (4) provide feedback on learner progress – teachers should
convince and guide them in practicing English pronunciation, (5) realize that ultimately it is the
learner who is in control of changes in pronunciation – teachers give them models and
information. Basically, it is very essential for students to practice their pronunciation even
3. Methodology
In order to collect the data, the researcher distributed questionnaire about students’
English pronunciation teaching and learning to forty first-year English majors. The
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questionnaire includes (1) the importance of pronunciation learning, (2) the ways of learning
pronunciation effectively, (3) how to teach English pronunciation in the classroom, (4) English
pronunciation learning, and (5) attitudes towards English pronunciation learning. Based on it,
the researcher can find out the answer for the questions mentioned in introduction part.
3.2. Participants
The participants in the study were forty first-year English majors consisting of ten males
and thirty females. Based on the results of phonetics 1 among four English first-year classes that
the researcher has taught, forty English first-year majors of class K24-N2 who got high marks
ranged from 6.5 to 9.0 were chosen as good sample to investigate the ways of their English
pronunciation learning for this study as shown in the following table. Table 1 showed that
fifteen students got from 6.5 to 7.0 marks with the ratio 37.5% and twenty-five students getting
from 8.0 to 9.0 gained 62.5%.
Table 1. The final results of class K24-N2 on phonetics 1
Number of the students The final results of class K24-N2 on phonetics 1
6.5-7.0 8.0-9.0
40
15 (37.5%) 25 (62.5%)

In order to gain the results, the research data were collected from questionnaire having
directly delivered to forty first-year English majors about the opinions on the ways that the
students have ever learnt English pronunciation. The mean was used as the main measure
including all the values in the data set for its calculation. Based on the students’ answers, the
researcher used Excel to calculate mean in statistics analyzed and explained in Part 4.
The study investigated the pronunciation skills of a class with forty first-year English
majors at Van Lang University. The collected data from questionnaire were analyzed and
interpreted.
4.1. The importance of English pronunciation
Table 2 indicates that the majority of the students expressed an agreement with the items of
this statement. They strongly agreed with correct pronunciation help them communicate more
successfully and confidently, avoid misunderstanding what they say and is an important part of
English language learning proved with the mean (M=1.4; M=1.9; M=1.8). They are all aware of
pronunciation as an essential skill which needs practicing regularly with the mean (M=2.1).
In sum, the students’ evaluation for the statement mentioned above was positive. The
majority of the students realized that English pronunciation is very important in English
language learning. They were aware of the fact that pronouncing English accurately makes them
more confident in communicating it. It actually helps others understand more about what they
want to say.
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Table 2. The importance of pronunciation

SA A N D SD
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
The importance of pronunciation
1. It is an important part of learning English 10 30 0 0 0 1.8
2. It is an essential skill that you need to practice
7 27 3 3 0 2.1
regularly
3. Accurate pronunciation help you communicate more
25 15 0 0 0 1.4
successfully and confidently
4. It helps others avoid misunderstanding what you say 4 36 0 0 0 1.9
4.2. Factors affecting English pronunciation learning

As presented in Part 2 the factors are affecting pronunciation learning as attitude, learning
strategies and instruction.
4.2.1. Attitude
Table 3 highlights the mean of the students’ opinions on attitudes towards English
pronunciation learning with (M=1.2; M=1.8; M=1.7) about the issue is that pronunciation skill
is very important, teachers provide the students with an excellent model of English
pronunciation, and from that the students can accurately recognize the difference between native
like and nonnative pronunciation.
In summary, all items in “attitudes towards English pronunciation learning” showed that
the students put all their thought in the production that their teacher provided them, and through
that, they can distinguish the difference between native like and nonnative pronunciation for the
development of communication.
Table 3. The students’ attitudes towards English pronunciation learning
The choices of the students Mean
SA A N D SD
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
The students’ attitudes towards English pronunciation learning
1. Pronunciation is very important to me 33 7 0 0 0 1.2
2. I believe that teachers provide me with an 13 24 3 0 0 1.8
excellent model of English pronunciation
3. I can accurately recognize the difference 8 12 5 3 2 1.7
between native like and nonnative pronunciation

Theoretically, strategies consist of planning for learning thinking about the learning
process as it is happening, overseeing someone’s production or understanding, and assessing
learning after an activity is finished.
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4.2.2.1. Planning for pronunciation learning

It is only through language that the learners could communicate with each other; share
their ideas, tell others they have experienced to express their wishes and desires, solve complex
problems by drawing on information they read or hear. To achieve these objectives, however,
they have to learn the language as communication.
It can be seen from Table 4 that the students strongly agreed and agreed with the items
through mean (M=1.8; M=1.9; M=1.7) on doing a lot of drills, trying to imitate native speakers’
sound, and learning how to pronounce the language correctly the first time. However, they
showed their uncertainty when they have to strictly listen to the teacher and pay attention or
listen and repeat with the mean (M=2.1; M=2.4). In English pronunciation learning, most of the
students expressed their agreement on trying to imitate native speakers and based on the
transcription to pronounce words.
Table 4. Planning for pronunciation learning
SA A N D SD
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Having good English pronunciation
3. Do a lot of drills 12 26 2 0 0 1.8
4. Imitate native speakers of English 10 25 5 0 0 1.9
5. Learn how to pronounce it correctly the first time 15 22 3 0 0 1.7
4.2.2.2. English pronunciation learning

Table 5 shows the mean of the students’ opinions on the process of pronunciation
learning. The mean of the students who contented with all items in this statement was recorded
for learning with Vietnamese teachers (M=2.0), practicing with native speakers (M=1.3), and
learning through videos (M=1.8). It is remarkable that the students liked to learn with their
friends shown by the mean (M=1.1), they said that learning with native speakers helped them
develop communication quickly and improve pronunciation significantly. Since English is
spoken as a foreign language in Vietnam, students do not have a good chance to practice
speaking English.
Table 5. Ways of English pronunciation learning

SA A N D SD
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Ways of English pronunciation learning
1. Your Vietnamese teachers 4 29 7 0 0 2.0
2. Native speakers 29 11 0 0 0 1.3
3. Video (singers, actors, presenters, etc) 11 28 1 0 0 1.8
4. Friends 39 1 0 0 0 1.1
5. Parents or other members in your family 2 3 11 24 0 3.4
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In sum, the students’ evaluation for the process of pronunciation learning was positive.
The majority of the students realized that language learning should be cooperated with native
speakers, friends, and their teachers and through videos where they could imitate the sound or
the accent of the singers, actors or presenters.
4.2.3. Instructions
Table 6. How to teach English pronunciation in the classroom
SA A N D SD
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
How to teach English pronunciation in the classroom
1. Learn how pronounce vowels and consonants 11 29 0 0 0 1.7
2. Learn how to pronounce transcription 2 33 5 0 0 2.1
5. Practice in individual and in pairs 12 25 3 0 0 1.8
6. Introduce the idea that should be reading aloud 8 31 1 0 0 1.8
7. Be encouraged to speak English as much as they
22 18 0 0 0 1.5
possibly can
Table 6 shows the mean of the students’ opinions on how teachers taught English
pronunciation in the classroom on page 5. The mean of the students who contented with the items
in this statement was recorded (M=1.7; M=2.0; M=1.8; M=1.8; M=1.5) of learning how
pronounce vowels and consonants, listening and paying attention, practicing in individual and in
pairs, introducing the idea that should be reading aloud, and being encouraged to speak English as
much as they can. It is clear that pronunciation learning was needed to help language learners
communicate and use that language knowledge. At the beginning of language learning, the
learners need to learn how to pronounce vowels and consonants, and in the process of learning,
they need to do a lot of practices by being encouraged to speak the language as much as possible.
The mean of the items learning how to pronounce transcription and trying to listen and repeat are
the same (M=2.1), but they are all aware of basing on the transcription as a good guide to
pronounce the words and think the good way of learning process is listening and repeating.
It can be concluded that in this statement the students had good chance to practice the real
language and focus on English pronunciation learning.
5. Conclusion and recommendations
The research investigated the ways of learning English pronunciation among first-year
English majors at Van Lang University. Although the topic is not new, it has been prompted that
helping the first-year English majors at university the ways of learning English pronunciation is a
very important part because it makes them more confident in communication with others. From
the results of this study, it is advised that English learners should consider the ways of learning
English pronunciation as basic principles to help them pronounce English words correctly when
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communicating with others. Therefore, a great demand for English learners is that they can
understand what others say, and others can also identify what they want to say.
References
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/1951/65691/Altamimi_Ali_Masters_Spring2015.pdf?sequence=1.
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17th, 2019 from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/330005?seq=1.
Fraser, H. (2001). Teaching pronunciation: A handbook for teachers and trainers. University of New
England.
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strategies for instruction. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 2(3), 119-128.
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2012/17.pdf.
Hogg, M., & Vaughan, G. (2005). Social psychology (4th edition). London: Prentice-Hall.
Lynch, T., & Anderson, K. (2012). Effective English language. English language teaching center,
University of Edingburgh. Retrieved on December 17 th, 2017 from: https://www.ed.ac.uk/files/imports/
fileManager/UNIT_8_Pronunciation.pdf.
Mariani, L. (2002). Learning strategies. Teaching strategies and new curricular demands: Critical
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25th, 2018.
Nunan, D. (1999). Second language teaching & learning. Hongkong: Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
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Ormrod, J.E. (2010). Effective learning strategies. Pearson Allyn Bacon Prentice Hall
CÁCH HỌC PHÁT ÂM TIẾNG ANH CỦA SINH VIÊN NĂM NHẤT
TẠI TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC VĂN LANG
Tóm tắt: Phát âm đóng vai trò quan trọng trong việc học và dạy ngôn ngữ. Tiếng Anh được
coi là một ngoại ngữ được nhiều người ở Việt Nam nói. Học sinh người Việt Nam từng bị
ảnh hưởng cách phát âm tiếng Việt, và điều này làm cho họ phát âm các từ tiếng Anh một
cách không chính xác. Mặc dù nhiều nghiên cứu về phát âm tiếng Anh đã được tiến hành
gần đây để cải thiện phát âm tiếng Anh của sinh viên, việc thực hiện vẫn còn chồng chéo và
không thành công. Bài viết này sử dụng bảng câu hỏi để khám phá cách những sinh viên
chuyên ngành tiếng anh năm thứ nhất học phát âm tiếng Anh tại Đại học Văn Lang. Dựa
trên dữ liệu nghiên cứu, kết quả của nghiên cứu sẽ được áp dụng cho việc học tập và thực
hành giảng dạy tại Đại học Văn Lang và các bối cảnh tương tự.
Từ khóa: Phát âm, dạy và học tiếng Anh, sinh viên chuyên tiếng Anh năm thứ nhất, thực
hành
393
PHẢN HỒI CỦA SINH VIÊN VỀ VIỆC ỨNG DỤNG

PHẦN MỀM SCHOOLOGY ĐỂ ĐÁNH GIÁ
QUÁ TRÌNH KỸ NĂNG NGHE
Trần Thị Thanh Thảo*; Lê Thị Hồng Phương
Tóm tắt: Nhiều nghiên cứu hiện nay về những biến đổi từ mô hình lớp học truyền thống
sang lớp học kết hợp đã được thực hiện và thu nhận được nhiều kết quả ý nghĩa trên nhiều
phương diện khác nhau. Vì vậy, nhận thức được những lợi ích của các công cụ công nghệ,
và vai trò của đánh giá quá trình đối với giáo dục, bài báo này trình bày kết quả khảo sát
phản hồi của sinh viên khoa Tiếng Anh tại Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Huế đối với việc
ứng dụng Schoology nhằm đánh giá quá trình kỹ năng Nghe. Dữ liệu được thu thập thông
qua bảng câu hỏi và phỏng vấn sau đó được phân tích và trình bày dưới dạng bảng và trích
dẫn. Kết quả cho thấy rằng hầu hết sinh viên khẳng định vai trò của hệ thống quản lý học
trực tuyến trong việc nâng cao kỹ năng học tập theo nhóm và độc lập nhằm củng cố kiến
thức. Tuy nhiên, kết quả nghiên cứu cũng cho thấy sự ngăn trở đối với sinh viên là do
những khó khăn về kỹ năng máy tính và giao tiếp trong nhóm.
Từ khóa: Đánh giá quá trình, hệ thống quản lý học trực tuyến, phương pháp học tập kết hợp
1. Mở đầu
Trong những năm gần đây, nhiều trường đại học đã áp dụng phương pháp học tập kết hợp
giữa lớp học truyền thống và lớp học trực tuyến (Garrison & Vaughan, 2008). Nghiên cứu về
phương pháp học tập, Bransford và cộng sự (2000) đã kết luận rằng môi trường học tập tốt là môi
trường thiên về phương pháp lấy người học, kiến thức và kiểm tra, đánh giá làm trung tâm. Tuy
nhiên, làm thế nào để áp dụng phương pháp học tập kết hợp vào quá trình dạy và học hiệu quả là
một câu hỏi mà nhiều nhà nghiên cứu vẫn đang tiếp tục nghiên cứu. Ngày nay, nhiều nghiên cứu
về những biến đổi từ mô hình lớp học truyền thống sang lớp học kết hợp đã được thực hiện và thu
nhận được nhiều kết quả ý nghĩa trên nhiều phương diện khác nhau.
Nghiên cứu của Baleni (2015) được thực hiện tại trường Đại học ở Eastern Cape nhằm
nghiên cứu đánh giá quá trình trực tuyến được thực hiện như thế nào trong quá trình dạy và học
cũng như những lợi ích gì được mang lại cho người dạy và học. Nghiên cứu thu thập số liệu thông
qua bảng câu hỏi đối với giáo viên và sinh viên về đánh giá quá trình dưới sự hỗ trợ công cụ trực
tuyến (Blackboard) được thực hiện như thế nào. Nhiều phương pháp kiểm tra, đánh giá kết hợp
với các công cụ trực tuyến như thảo luận nhóm, bài kiểm tra khách quan được sử dụng. Theo kết
quả nghiên cứu, lợi ích mà người học nhận được bao gồm nâng cao tinh thần gắn kết của sinh viên
trong hoạt động trực tuyến, đưa và nhận phản hồi nhanh chóng, tính linh hoạt về thời gian và
không gian nhằm nâng cao chất lượng những hoạt động kiểm tra, đánh giá, đồng thời người dạy
có thể giảm đi thời gian chấm điểm và tiết kiệm được các chi phí quản lý khác.
* Email: tttthao_dhnn@hueuni.edu.vn
394
Ở môi trường học Việt Nam, Nguyễn Việt Anh (2017) đã tiến hành nghiên cứu tại một
trường Đại học Việt Nam nhằm xây dựng một mô hình kết hợp lớp học truyền thống và trực
tuyến chú trọng vào kiểm tra đánh giá định kỳ ở mức độ môn học nhằm phân tích và đánh giá
tác động của những ứng dụng công nghệ như một đột phá trong việc đánh giá định kỳ. Kết quả
nghiên cứu cho thấy rằng hoạt động đánh giá định kỳ hiệu quả hơn khi được hỗ trợ bởi công
nghệ ví dụ như hệ thống quản lý giáo dục trực tuyến. Nghiên cứu này đã mở ra khả năng sử
dụng mô hình học kết hợp lấy đánh giá định kỳ làm trung tâm ở cấp độ môn học bằng cách sử
dụng kết hợp hệ thống quản lý giáo dục trực tuyến với phương pháp giảng dạy truyền thống.
Năm 2017, nghiên cứu được thực hiện bởi McCarthy (2017) nhằm tìm hiểu về mức độ
hài lòng của mô hình đánh giá quá trình ở bậc đại học. Kinh nghiệm chia sẻ từ người học cho
thấy rằng hầu hết người học phản hồi tích cực với việc đưa ra nhận xét, phản biện cho bạn mình,
đồng thời nhận lại những nhận xét, góp ý từ nhiều nguồn khác nhau. Một điều dễ hiểu là những
nhận xét từ người dạy vẫn là hình thức đánh giá quá trình phổ biến nhất được sử dụng trong cả
hai khóa học bởi vì người học vẫn xem người dạy là những chuyên gia trong lĩnh vực đó, cũng
như là người đánh giá chính đối với bài tập của họ, vì vậy ý kiến của người dạy vẫn được chú
trọng hơn. Đối với nhận xét từ những bạn đồng môn, hầu hết sinh viên yêu thích đưa và nhận
góp ý thông qua ứng dụng The Café. Nhận xét từ người học ở môi trường trực tuyến thông
thường chi tiết, mang tính phản biện hơn những nhận xét tại lớp, và cũng thống nhất với những
tiêu chí đánh giá hơn. Nhiều sinh viên cảm thấy không thoải mái khi tham gia góp ý cho bạn
mình trực tiếp trên lớp về bài làm của họ, vì vậy những đóng góp trực tiếp trên lớp chỉ nên chú
trọng vào những ý kiến tổng quát hơn là phân tích sâu về chất lượng bài làm của bạn đồng môn.
Tuy nhiên, sinh viên cảm thấy thoải mái hơn khi tham gia đóng góp ý kiến về công việc của bạn
mình ở môi trường học trực tuyến. Điều này phù hợp với ý kiến của Rambe (2012) rằng tương
tác giữa hai người học cùng ở môi trường trực tuyến có thể vượt qua được những rào cản như là
khó khăn về ngôn ngữ, hay những rào cản về mặt xã hội.
Bên cạnh đó, việc kiểm tra đánh giá luôn được xem là một trong những hoạt động quan
trọng trong quá trình dạy và học. Khi nhắc đến việc kiểm tra, đánh giá, hầu hết người học và
dạy thường nghĩ đến những căng thẳng của kỳ thi cuối kỳ, hoặc những áp lực của những điểm
số. Tuy nhiên, nhiều nghiên cứu đã chỉ ra rằng việc đánh giá quá trình thực sự cần thiết trong
việc giảng dạy ngôn ngữ (Gattullo, 2000; Hwang & Chang, 2011; Lawton et al, 2012). Người ta
đã nhận thức được những tác động tích cực từ việc đánh giá quá trình tiến hành song song với
quá trình học của sinh viên, tuy nhiên những nghiên cứu trong những năm gần đây cho thấy
kiểm tra, đánh giá vẫn còn phụ thuộc nhiều vào đánh giá tổng kết. Nguyên nhân đa phần là do
việc quản lý hoạt động đánh giá quá trình khá phức tạp, và khó thực hiện hiệu quả. Tuy nhiên,
cùng với sự phát triển không ngừng của công nghệ thông tin như hiện nay thì việc dạy và học
ngôn ngữ cần được phát triển theo hướng chú trọng vào đánh giá quá trình dưới sự hỗ trợ của hệ
thống quản lý trực tuyến nhằm giảm bớt áp lực thi cử cho người học, cũng như nâng cao chất
lượng giảng dạy. Vì vậy, nghiên cứu này sẽ giới thiệu mô hình kết hợp lớp học truyền thống và
lớp học trực tuyến nhằm đánh giá quá trình dựa trên hỗ trợ của ứng dụng Schoology. Mô hình
sẽ đưa ra những hoạt động đa dạng trong khóa học nhằm đánh giá, nhận xét quá trình với hy
vọng có thể nhận được những phản hồi tích cực từ người học và đồng thời đánh giá vai trò của
công nghệ thông tin nói chung trong việc đánh giá quá trình nhằm đạt được những mặt tích cực
395
trong học tập. Đồng thời, nghiên cứu hy vọng góp phần khuyến khích, phát triển việc ứng dụng
đánh giá quá trình dưới sự hỗ trợ hệ thống quản lý trực tuyến cụ thể là phần mềm Schoology
không chỉ đối với Khoa Tiếng Anh, Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Huế, mà còn đối với
những khoa thành viên trong trường.
2.1. Kiểm tra, đánh giá quá trình
Đánh giá quá trình được thiết kế nhằm kiểm soát những phát triển của người học và nhằm
cung cấp những nhận xét và hỗ trợ cho quá trình học (Black & William, 1998). Đánh giá quá
trình có thể giúp người học xác định điểm mạnh và điểm yếu của mình, và chú trọng vào những
lĩnh vực cần cải thiện nhiều hơn. Vì vậy, đánh giá quá trình có thể giúp người dạy xác nhận
những lĩnh vực mà người học đang cần giúp đỡ, và chỉ ra những vấn đề kịp thời. Đánh giá quá
trình bao gồm nhiều quá trình đánh giá được người dạy sử dụng trong suốt quá trình dạy và học
nhằm nâng cao kết quả của người học. Nó chủ yếu bao gồm nhận xét định tính chú trọng vào
những sản phẩm của người học, và cung cấp những cơ hội nhằm phát triển hơn nữa những sản
phẩm đó (Huyta, 2010). Đánh giá quá trình không được tính điểm, ngược lại, đánh giá tổng kết
nhằm quản lý kết quả cuối cùng, tổng kết những sản phẩm của người học tại một thời điểm nhất
định và là một hoạt động được tính điểm (Shepard, 2005).
Đánh giá quá trình thông thường được xem là một hoạt động ý nghĩa trong quá trình học
trong nhiều trường đại học, và những nhận xét này là một phần quan trọng trong quá trình kiểm
tra, đánh giá trong khía cạnh nâng cao chất lượng người học (Lunt & Curran, 2010; Nicol,
Thomson, Breslin, 2014). Hơn nữa, những nhận xét chất lượng và hợp lý trong đánh giá quá
trình là một nhân tố quan trọng để cải thiện quá trình học đồng thời phát triển mối quan hệ giữa
người dạy - người học, giữa người học với nhau (Crook, Mauchline, Maw et al., 2012; Irons,
2008). Gould và Day (2013) nhận định rằng những nhận xét, đánh giá hợp lý từ người dạy sẽ
cung cấp những nền tảng để phát triển tính tự lập của người học. Merry và Orsmond (2008) chỉ
ra rằng những nhận xét, đánh giá nên gắn bó mật thiết với những hoạt động mà người học đã
thực hiện được dựa trên phương diện khách quan, các tiêu chí đánh giá và những tiêu chuẩn có
sẵn (Nicol & MacFarlane-Dick, 2006), và cũng nên đúng thời điểm, chi tiết, cụ thể. Mặc dù
những nghiên cứu gần đây đã phác thảo tầm quan trọng của nhận xét chất lượng và đúng thời
điểm, nhưng cách thức đưa ra nhận xét, đánh giá hiệu quả cũng như việc gắn liền người học vào
quá trình kiểm tra, đánh giá vẫn được coi là một trong những khó khăn chung ở nhiều nơi trên
thế giới (Crook et al, 2012; Merry & Orsmond, 2008). Đối với nhiều người học hiện nay, những
nhận xét, đánh giá dường như được cung cấp quá muộn, quá mơ hồ, và không thống nhất. Đối
với người dạy, việc đưa ra nhận xét, đánh giá quá trình là một quá trình lặp lại và thông thường
rất mất thời gian, đặc biệt trong những lớp có số lượng lớn học viên. Vì vậy đưa ra đánh giá quá
trình hợp lý, hiệu quả là một hoạt động không dễ để đạt được. Trong nghiên cứu của mình vào
năm 2004 về những điều kiện để kiểm tra, đánh giá hỗ trợ quá trình học, Gibbs và Simpson đã
đưa ra sáu yếu tố có thể giúp nhận xét, đánh giá có thể ảnh hưởng tích cực đến sản phẩm của
người học:
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- Đánh giá phải đầy đủ, thường xuyên, và chi tiết;

- Đánh giá phải chú trọng vào việc thể hiện của người học, vào quá trình học của họ, và vào
những hoạt động dưới sự kiểm soát của người học hơn là chính bản thân người học;
- Đánh giá cần được thực hiện đúng lúc;
- Đánh giá phải phù hợp với mục tiêu, với những tiêu chí của việc kiểm tra, đánh giá;
- Đánh giá phải phù hợp với nhận thức của người học đối với quá trình học, đối với kiến thức và
đối với ngữ cảnh;
- Đánh giá phải được quan tâm và thực hiện sau đó.
2.2. Mô hình kết hợp lớp học truyền thống và lớp học trực tuyến (Blended learning)
Sự phát triển không ngừng của Internet đang đưa chúng ta đến với những sự đổi mới và kết
hợp những môi trường học mới trong giáo dục đại học đương thời. Việc kết hợp môi trường học
tập trực tuyến vào khung chương trình đang dần trở nên phổ biến. Từ những hệ thống quản lý giáo
dục chính quy và có tính xây dựng sẵn như Moodle hoặc Blackboard, cho đến những mạng xã hội
như Facebook, Twitter và Flickr, nhiều trường đại học trên thế giới đang kết hợp việc học trực
tuyến vào khóa học của họ, sử dụng phương pháp kết hợp lớp học truyền thống và lớp học trực
tuyến được gọi tắt là phương pháp học tập kết hợp. Phương pháp học tập này là một hệ thống ở đó
người học tương tác với tài liệu khóa học, với người dạy và với bạn cùng học thông qua môi
trường học tập truyền thống và trực tuyến (Graham, 2006). Phương pháp học tập kết hợp được
xem như là một bước chuyển biến mang tính đột phá (Garrison & Vaughan, 2008) như một kết
quả của những hệ thống tiếp cận trực tuyến đang ngày càng gia tăng ở các trường đại học, và bởi
vì nó có thể đưa ra tương tác với người học trong những lớp học với số lượng sinh viên lớn tốt hơn
thông qua môi trường học tập linh hoạt hơn (Gedik, Kiraz & Ozden, 2013). Phương pháp này
đang dần trở thành một phần không thể thiếu trong giáo dục trên nhiều lĩnh vực khác nhau (Pektas
& Gurel, 2014); tuy nhiên để tạo ra được môi trường kết hợp hiệu quả không phải đơn giản chỉ là
sự kết hợp giữa môi trường học tập trực tuyến và học tập truyền thống trong một khóa học. Vì vậy
xem xét mục đích học tập của khóa học là gì, và chọn lọc cẩn thận môi trường học tập trực tuyến
hợp lý nhất là điều cần thiết.
Trong nghiên cứu này, chúng tôi đề xuất một mô hình khóa học chú trọng vào đánh giá
quá trình bằng cách sử dụng lớp học truyền thống kết hợp với hệ thống quản lý giáo dục trực
tuyến (Learning Management System), cụ thể là Schoology. Schoology là hệ thống quản lý giáo
dục trực tuyến phù hợp với giáo dục phổ thông nhằm cải thiện, kiểm tra, đánh giá kiến thức của
người học, thúc đẩy môi trường học hợp tác, và hình thành phương pháp học mang tính cá nhân.
Mặc dù ngày nay nhiều giao diện giáo dục trực tuyến được sử dụng đối với giáo dục đại học,
Schoology được lựa chọn vì giao diện đơn giản, thân thiện với người học và người dạy, hệ
thống chấm điểm tự động, bàn luận trực tuyến theo nhóm được xem là đặc biệt thích hợp đối
với người học chưa có nhiều kinh nghiệm học trực tuyến như sinh viên năm 1, đối với lớp học
kỹ năng ngôn ngữ, và đối với mục đích kiểm tra, đánh giá quá trình.
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Để đạt được mục đích nghiên cứu như đã được nêu trên, chúng tôi đề xuất những câu hỏi
nghiên cứu như sau:
1. Mức độ hài lòng của sinh viên đối với việc sử dụng phần mềm Schoology trong việc đánh giá
quá trình đối với giảng dạy kỹ năng Nghe cho sinh viên năm 1 được thể hiện như thế nào?
2. Những khó khăn sinh viên gặp phải khi sử dụng phần mềm Schoology trong việc đánh giá
quá trình đối với kỹ năng Nghe cho sinh viên năm 1 là gì?
Khách thể nghiên cứu là 60 sinh viên chuyên ngữ năm 1 tham gia học kỹ năng Nghe ở
Khoa Tiếng Anh, trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Huế đã sử dụng ứng dụng hệ thống quản
lý giáo dục Schoology trong việc hỗ trợ kiểm tra, đánh giá định kỳ trong học kỳ II năm học
2017-2018.
Trong nghiên cứu này, chúng tôi đề xuất một mô hình khóa học chú trọng vào đánh giá quá
trình bằng cách sử dụng lớp học truyền thống kết hợp với hệ thống quản lý giáo dục trực tuyến, cụ
thể là Schoology. Những yếu tố được sử dụng để xây dựng mô hình khóa học bao gồm chương
trình học, hoạt động học, lộ trình học và kiểm tra, đánh giá. Chương trình học bao gồm 15 tuần
học, và bao gồm nhiều hình thức đánh giá quá trình khác nhau như bài tập nghe hàng tuần, bài
kiểm tra hàng tháng, và hoạt động nhóm.
Nghiên cứu được thực hiện dựa trên sự kết hợp giữa nghiên cứu định lượng và định tính.
Đối với phương pháp nghiên cứu định lượng bảng hỏi khảo sát được phát cho sinh viên nhằm
khảo sát về mức độ hài lòng về việc ứng dụng chương trình học chú trọng vào việc đánh giá quá
trình dưới sự hỗ trợ của hệ thống quản lý trực tuyến (Schoology). Đối với phương pháp nghiên
cứu định tính, phỏng vấn cá nhân được thực hiện đối với 5 sinh viên nhằm hiểu sâu hơn về
những phản hồi của sinh viên cũng như những khó khăn và vấn đề gặp phải trong khi ứng dụng
phần mềm Schoology vào việc đánh giá quá trình từ góc nhìn của người học ngôn ngữ.
Các kết quả có được của nghiên cứu này được chia ra làm ba phần chính: (1) phản hồi
của sinh viên đối với hoạt động nhóm, (2) phản hồi của sinh viên đối với bài tập hàng tuần và
bài kiểm tra hàng tháng, (3) những khó khăn đối với việc ứng dụng Schoology trên phương diện
người học.
4.1 Hoạt động nhóm trên Schoology (Group discussion)
4.1.1. Nguồn tài liệu và tính tương tác trong hoạt động nhóm
Căn cứ vào Biểu đồ 1, 70% (42 trên 60) sinh viên đồng ý với ý kiến “Tôi cảm thấy được
trải nghiệm với nhiều thể loại tài liệu khác nhau trong kỹ năng Nghe”. Tuy nhiên, đối với ý kiến
“Khi làm việc theo nhóm, tôi cảm thấy dễ dàng giao tiếp với các bạn trong nhóm”, 65% sinh
viên bày tỏ phản hồi trái chiều và trung tính đối với ý kiến trên. Những kết quả ở Biểu đồ 1 thể
hiện rằng đa số người tham gia nghiên cứu có phản hồi tích cực đối với nguồn tài liệu được chia
sẻ trong nhóm nhằm hỗ trợ sự phát triển ngôn ngữ của người học, tuy nhiên chưa thực sự đánh
giá cao đối với tính tương tác khi học tập và tham gia đánh giá quá trình ở Schoology.
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[] [] [] [] []
T ÍNH T ƯƠNG T ÁC
(8%) (30%) (27%) (17%) (18%)
[] [] [] [] []
NGUỒN T ÀI LIỆU
(5%) (8%) (17%) (53%) (17%)
Biểu đồ 1. Phản hồi của sinh viên về nguồn tài liệu và tính tương tác trong hoạt động nhóm
Thông qua kết quả khảo sát định lượng từ phỏng vấn cá nhân, 3 trong số 5 sinh viên chia
sẻ rằng hoạt động nhóm mang tính tương tác cao nhằm góp phần vào việc xây dựng môi trường
học tập thân thiện trong lớp học, đồng thời phát triển kỹ năng giao tiếp, học hỏi lẫn nhau. Tuy
nhiên, rào cản về kỹ năng giao tiếp và lo ngại về khác biệt trình độ khiến người học chưa thực
sự tự tin trong giao tiếp đối với hoạt động nhóm. Ngoài ra, một sinh viên tham gia phỏng vấn
đánh giá cao tính đa dạng của nguồn tài liệu được chia sẻ trong hoạt động nhóm, ví dụ như đa
dạng về thể loại, nội dung, và nhiều ngữ điệu khác nhau của tiếng Anh trên thế giới.
4.1.2. Góp ý từ những người cùng học, và tiếp nhận góp ý từ bạn cùng học (feedback receipt
& production)
Đối với tiêu chí đưa ra và tiếp nhận phản hồi từ bạn cùng lớp, dựa vào những phản hồi
của sinh viên gần như tương đồng đối với ý kiến tích cực, trung tính, và tiêu cực, điều này cho
thấy rằng không có phản hồi rõ ràng đối với khía cạnh này. Kết quả thể hiện ở Biểu đồ 2 cho
thấy rằng người học chưa thật sự cảm nhận tích cực đối với hoạt động đưa ra và tiếp nhận phản
hồi giữa người học cùng.

[] [] [] [] []
T ÍN H H Ọ C H Ỏ I C A O
(17%) (18%) (28%) (27%) (10%)
[] [] [] [] []
T ÍN H LIÊ N T Ụ C
(15%) (25%) (22%) (23%) (15%)
[] [] [] [] []
T ÍN H H IỆ U Q U Ả
(14%) (20%) (25%) (23%) (18%)
Biểu đồ 2. Phản hồi của sinh viên về việc đưa ra, và tiếp nhận góp ý từ những người cùng học
399
4.1.3. Phát triển ngôn ngữ

Dựa vào số liệu từ Biểu đồ 3 có thể nhận thấy rằng người học đánh giá cao lợi ích của
hoạt động nhóm đối với sự phát triển ngôn ngữ của mình, đặc biệt không những đối với kỹ năng
chính là kỹ năng Nghe mà còn đối với kỹ năng phụ là kỹ năng Viết. Mặc dù 65% người tham
gia vào nghiên cứu có phản hồi tích cực hơn đối với kỹ năng Nghe, số lượng sinh viên cảm
nhận được lợi ích của hoạt động nhóm đối với việc phát triển kỹ năng Viết cũng khá lớn (50%).
Người tham gia phỏng vấn chia sẻ rằng họ cần phải giao tiếp với bạn cùng nhóm bằng tiếng
Anh thông qua những phản hồi, góp ý trong nhóm nên điều đó giúp họ cải thiện được kỹ năng
Viết của mình.

KỸ NĂNG NGH E
[] [] [] [] []
(5%)(7%) (23%) (54%) (11%)
KỸ NĂNG VI ẾT
[] [] [] [] []
(9%)(10%) (31%) (43%) (7%)
Biểu đồ 3. Phản hồi của sinh viên về phát triển khả năng ngôn ngữ
4.2. Bài tập hằng tuần/ Bài kiểm tra hằng tháng
4.2.1. Nguồn tài liệu
Bảng 1 cho thấy rằng 73% sinh viên đánh giá cao vai trò của bài tập hàng tuần đối với
việc cung cấp nguồn tài liệu học tập cần thiết giúp cho sinh viên rèn luyện và nâng cao kỹ năng
Nghe liên tục và thường xuyên trong suốt học kỳ. Bên cạnh đó, 75% người tham gia nghiên cứu
khẳng định rằng chức năng được nghe lại nhiều lần trong bài tập hàng tuần giúp người học có
thể rèn luyện kỹ năng Nghe theo đúng trình độ của mình. Ngoài ra, 62% sinh viên đồng ý với
quan điểm cho rằng nguồn tài liệu trong bài tập hàng tuần góp phần xây dựng môi trường rèn
luyện kỹ năng Nghe ít áp lực hơn so với hoạt động Nghe trên lớp và 54% sinh viên chia sẻ rằng
bài tập hàng tuần và kiểm tra hàng tháng giúp người học thích nghi với định dạng của bài kiểm
tra và bài thi học kỳ.
400
Bảng 1. Phản hồi của sinh viên về nguồn tài liệu trong bài tập hàng tuần
Nhận định của sinh Hoàn toàn Không Bình Đồng ý Hoàn toàn
viên đối với bài tập không đồng ý thường đồng ý
hàng tuần và bài kiểm đồng ý
tra hàng tháng (1) (2) (3) (5)
(4)
Thích nghi với định dạng
của bài kiểm tra/ bài thi 8 (13%) 8 (13%) 12 (20%) 22 (37%) 10 (17%)
học kỳ
Nguồn tài liệu đa dạng
để luyện tập kỹ năng 4 (7%) 5 (8%) 7 (12%) 29 (48%) 15 (25%)
Nghe thường xuyên
Chức năng nghe lại nhiều
lần để rèn luyện kỹ năng 1 (2%) 8 (13%) 6 (10%) 27 (45%) 18 (30%)
Nghe theo đúng trình độ
Không gian học tập thân
7 (12%) 8 (13%) 8 (13%) 27 (45%) 10 (17%)
thiện, ít áp lực
Ngoài ra, nhằm hiểu rõ hơn phản hồi của sinh viên về hoạt động bài tập hàng tuần và bài
kiểm tra hàng tháng, hầu hết sinh viên tham gia phỏng vấn bày tỏ ý kiến cho rằng bài tập và bài
kiểm tra trực tuyến mang lại nhiều lợi ích khác, ví dụ như hệ thống chấm điểm đáng tin cậy và
nhanh chóng, đa dạng về thể loại câu hỏi, linh hoạt về thời gian và không gian học tập.
4.2.2. Các chức năng cài đặt trên hệ thống Schoology
Hoàn toàn không đồng ý Không đồng ý Bình thường Đồng ý H
[] [] []
HỖ TRỢ KỸ THUẬT
(12%) (32%) (21%)
[] [] [] []
GIAO DIỆN THÂN THIỆN
(5%) (15%) (20%) (40%)
Biểu đồ 4. Phản hồi của sinh viên về các chức năng cài đặt trên hệ thống Schoology
Với kết quả khảo sát theo Biểu đồ 4, 4,68% sinh viên
[]đánh []
giá cao tính
[] năng dễ truy cập []
của phần mềm Schoology. D Ễ thời,
Đồng T R đối
U YvớiCtiêuẬchí
P giao diện, 60% người tham gia đồng ý với
(10%)(8%) (13%) (58%)
401
ý kiến cho rằng giao diện của phần mềm được thiết kế dễ theo dõi và thực hiện. Bên cạnh đó,
phần lớn sinh viên không đánh giá cao chức năng hỗ trợ khi người học gặp phải những khó
khăn về vấn đề kỹ thuật khi sử dụng phần mềm giáo dục trực tuyến như Schoology (65%).
4.2.3. Tính hiệu quả của hệ thống quản lý giáo dục trực tuyến Schoology
K H Ả N Ă N G P H Á T T R I Ể N K Ỹ N Ă N G [] [] [] [] []
KHÁC (7%)(5%) (15%) (52%) (21%)
[] [] [] [] []
T Í N H H I ỆU Q U Ả
(3%)(7%)(25%) (48%) (17%)
[] [] [] [] []
M O N G M U ỐN T I Ế P T Ụ C T R ẢI N G H I Ệ M
(5%)(11%)(15%) (54%) (15%)
Biều đồ 5. Phản hồi của sinh viên về tính hiệu quả của hệ thống giáo dục trực tuyến Schoology
Thông qua kết quả khảo sát ở Biểu đồ 5, sinh viên nhìn chung có phản hồi tích cực đối
với tính hiệu quả của phần mềm Schoology đối với việc đánh giá quá trình kỹ năng Nghe (65%)
và thể hiện mong muốn được tiếp tục sử dụng mô hình học này trong tương lai (69%). Đồng
thời, người tham gia nghiên cứu khẳng định rằng người học không những có nhiều cơ hội để rèn
luyện kỹ năng Nghe mà còn phát triển được nhiều kỹ năng khác sau khóa học. Thông qua
những chia sẻ của sinh viên khi tham gia phỏng vấn, người học có cơ hội phát triển kỹ năng làm
việc độc lập, làm việc nhóm, kỹ năng tư duy phản biện khi đưa ra phản hồi, góp ý, kỹ năng giao
tiếp, tương tác trong hoạt động nhóm.
4.3. Khó khăn khi sử dụng Schoology từ góc độ người học
Dựa vào kết quả khảo sát định lượng từ phỏng vấn cá nhân, những khó khăn của người
học khi sử dụng phần mềm Schoology được tóm tắt theo những phần chính sau đây: (1) vấn đề
kỹ thuật, (2) kỹ năng giao tiếp với người cùng học, (3) kỹ năng tự quản lý thời gian biểu.
4.3.1. Vấn đề kỹ thuật
Phần lớn sinh viên đưa ra những phản hồi tích cực đối với việc ứng dụng phần mềm
Schoology, tuy nhiên hầu hết sinh viên tham gia phỏng vấn cá nhân thừa nhận rằng đôi lúc
người học cũng gặp nhiều khó khăn trong việc truy cập Internet, cũng như một số lỗi kỹ thuật
trong việc làm bài và nộp bài trực tuyến. Hầu hết sinh viên chia sẻ rằng họ thực sự lúng túng và
thiếu kỹ năng trong việc xử lý những vấn đề kỹ thuật trong việc sử dụng phần mềm Schoology
đối với đánh giá quá trình bên ngoài lớp học. Lý giải cho khó khăn này, sinh viên cho rằng
người học chưa thực sự có nhiều cơ hội để làm quen với những công cụ hỗ trợ học tập trực
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tuyến, cũng như kỹ năng về công nghệ thông tin nhằm tự tin để giải quyết những vấn đề kỹ
thuật xảy ra trong quá trình học vì thực tế sinh viên vẫn phụ thuộc rất nhiều vào việc kiểm tra
tổng kết ở lớp học truyền thống.
4.3.2. Kỹ năng giao tiếp
Mặc dù đa số người tham gia phỏng vấn đánh giá cao lợi ích của hoạt động đưa ra và tiếp
nhận góp ý từ những người cùng học đối với việc phát triển kỹ năng tư duy phản biện và định
hình, kích thích hứng thú trong việc học ngôn ngữ, một số sinh viên khi tham gia phỏng vấn cho
rằng họ chưa thực sự tự tin vào kỹ năng giao tiếp trong hoạt động nhóm. Cụ thể, sinh viên chia
sẻ họ cảm thấy thiếu kỹ năng để tiếp nhận những góp ý tiêu cực, cũng như trong việc làm thế
nào để đưa ra những góp ý mang tính khích lệ để thúc đẩy sự tiến bộ mà không làm tổn thương
hay làm giảm động lực học tập của bạn. Lý giải cho việc này sinh viên cho rằng họ cảm thấy rất
khó khăn khi đưa ra những nhận xét trái chiều vì lo ngại sẽ làm ảnh hưởng đến mối quan hệ đối
với những bạn cùng lứa và lo ngại những góp ý của mình không thực sự chính xác, hiệu quả. Vì
vậy, sinh viên thường có xu hướng chọn lựa những góp ý mang tính khen ngợi, tán thành hơn là
những bình luận mang tính trái chiều và phản biện.
4.3.3. Kỹ năng tự quản lý thời gian
Đa số người tham gia nghiên cứu nhận thức được rằng nếu đánh giá quá trình được thực
hiện trực tuyến, người học sẽ cảm thấy ít áp lực hơn và thoải mái hơn vì tính năng linh động của
phần mềm trực tuyến. Tuy nhiên, sinh viên cũng đưa ra ý kiến cho rằng đôi lúc họ gặp khó khăn
trong việc tự sắp xếp thời gian biểu cho việc học của mình. Hai trong số năm người tham gia
phỏng vấn đã từng không thể hoàn thành bài kiểm tra hàng tháng vì quên ngày đến hạn của bài
tập. Bên cạnh đó, một sinh viên chia sẻ vì không thể tự quản lý thời gian biểu cho việc học của
mình hợp lý nên chỉ hoàn thành bài tập hằng tuần và hằng tháng gần kề với ngày đến hạn của
bài tập nên kết quả nhận được thường không cao, và quá trình rèn luyện kỹ năng Nghe trực
tuyến không thực sự đạt hiệu quả. Lý giải cho khó khăn này sinh viên cho rằng người học vẫn
còn phụ thuộc vào hình thức kiểm tra tổng kết diễn ra trên lớp học truyền thống và phụ thuộc
vào hỗ trợ từ giáo viên, vì vậy người học chưa thực sự được phát triển kỹ năng tự quản lý thời
gian học của bản thân, cũng như thể hiện vai trò chủ động và tính trách nhiệm, tự lập trong quá
trình học.
Như kết quả nghiên cứu chỉ ra, phần lớn sinh viên có thái độ tích cực đối với việc ứng
dụng phần mềm Schoology trong đánh giá quá trình kỹ năng Nghe. Tuy nhiên, người học vẫn
còn gặp phải những khó khăn và thách thức nhất định khi tham gia đánh giá trực tuyến thông
qua hệ thống giáo dục trực tuyến.
Phản hồi của sinh viên được tóm tắt theo những ý chính như sau:
- Hoạt động nhóm: Người tham gia nghiên cứu đánh giá cao nguồn tài liệu và tính tương
tác cao trong khi tham gia hoạt động nhóm. Người học không chỉ phản hồi tích cực đối với sự
đa dạng của nguồn tài liệu về nhiều phương diện như thể loại, nội dung, ngữ điệu, mà hoạt động
nhóm còn giúp người học tương tác hiệu quả với bạn cùng lứa một cách hiệu quả. Điều đó góp
phần thúc đẩy quá trình học hỏi lẫn nhau, cũng như xây dựng môi trường học thân thiện. Ngoài
403
ra, hoạt động nhóm được đánh giá cao dựa trên phương diện hình thức đưa ra, tiếp nhận góp ý
trong nhóm một cách hiệu quả, và phương diện phát triển kỹ năng ngôn ngữ của người học. Tuy
nhiên, việc sử dụng hệ thống quản lý giáo dục trực tuyến đối với đánh giá quá trình còn khá mới
lạ, nên bước đầu người học còn gặp nhiều khó khăn trong kỹ năng giao tiếp trong hoạt động
nhóm, đặc biết đối với việc đưa ra, tiếp nhận những ý kiến trái chiều, phản biện.
- Bài tập hằng tuần, bài kiểm tra hàng tháng: Kết quả định lượng và định tính cho thấy
rằng bài tập và kiểm tra trên ứng dụng học trực tuyến cung cấp cho người học nhiều cơ hội, tiện
ích để rèn luyện kỹ năng Nghe hiệu quả bên ngoài lớp học. Cụ thể, người học được có nhiều cơ
hội làm quen không những với định dạng đề thi cuối kỳ mà còn nhiều định dạng khác nhau,
cũng như được luyện tập kỹ năng một cách ít áp lực, thường xuyên với nhiều tiện ích như nghe
theo khả năng cá nhân, kết quả nhanh chóng và chính xác. Tuy nhiên, khó khăn lớn nhất người
học gặp phải đối với hoạt động này chính những sự cố kỹ thuật trong quá trình làm bài mà
không có sự hướng dẫn của giáo viên, và việc thiếu kỹ năng tự quản lý quá trình học của mỗi
sinh viên.
- Tính hiệu quả của ứng dụng Schoology: Ứng dụng giáo dục trực tuyến Schoology
nhìn chung được người học đánh giá có giao diện thân thiện người học, dễ truy cập và dễ theo
dõi. Hầu hết người học khẳng định rằng ứng dụng Schoology vào đánh giá quá trình không
những giúp họ rèn luyện kỹ năng Nghe mà còn nâng cao triển kỹ năng làm việc độc lập, làm
việc nhóm, kỹ năng tư duy phản biện khi đưa ra phản hồi, góp ý, kỹ năng giao tiếp, tương tác
trong hoạt động nhóm. Tuy nhiên, người tham gia nghiên cứu chưa thực sự đánh giá cao chức
năng trợ giúp khi gặp sự cố về kỹ thuật trong quá trình sử dụng ứng dụng để học tập.
Trên cơ sở kết quả nghiên cứu, chúng tôi có một số đề xuất như sau:
- Phát triển kỹ năng cần thiết: Người học cần được hướng dẫn chi tiết, và bồi dưỡng
thường xuyên về những kỹ năng mềm như kỹ năng về công nghệ thông tin, kỹ năng tư duy phản
biện, kỹ năng làm việc nhóm hiệu quả, kỹ năng quản lý thời gian trước khi tham gia học tập trực
tuyến. Những kỹ năng này cần được phát triển liên tục trong lớp học truyền thống thông qua
nhiều hoạt động khác nhau.
- Phổ biến các khóa học trực tuyến: Cùng với sự phát triển không ngừng của công nghệ
thông tin ngày nay, người học cần được làm quen, tiếp tục được học tập, kiểm tra đối với nhiều
môn học khác nhau trên các ứng dụng giáo dục trực tuyến, từ đó các kỹ năng sẽ được trau dồi
và phát triền.
- Hỗ trợ từ giáo viên: Mặc dù việc học tập trực tuyến cần vai trò tích cực của người học,
giáo viên hay người hướng dẫn cần có những hỗ trợ phù hợp đối với người học, đặc biệt trong
thời gian đầu làm quen, hoặc đối với những sinh viên chưa có nhiều kinh nghiệm trong việc sử
dụng công nghệ thông tin hằng ngày.
6. Kết luận
Việc ứng dụng phần mềm Schoology đối với đánh giá quá trình kỹ năng Nghe cho sinh
viên chuyên ngữ năm 1 đã nhận được những phản hồi tích cực trên nhiều phương diện khác
nhau. Kết quả định tính và định lượng cho thấy rằng hệ thống giáo dục trực tuyến có thể cung
cấp những hỗ trợ cần thiết nhằm tạo ra môi trường học mang tính tương tác cao, môi trường
404
củng cố kiến thức hiệu quả. Đồng thời, mô hình này còn góp phần thúc đẩy kỹ năng học tập hợp
tác, và phát triển vai trò chủ động của người học trong quá trình học tập khiến người học có
trách nhiệm hơn đối với việc học của mình. Tuy nhiên, dựa vào chia sẻ từ phỏng vấn cá nhân,
người học gặp nhiều khó khăn đối với những vấn đề liên quan đến kỹ thuật, cũng như khó khăn
khi thiếu các kỹ năng mềm như kỹ năng làm việc nhóm, kỹ năng quản lý thời gian học tập.
Nghiên cứu này mong muốn đóng góp vào việc phát triền vai trò của hệ thống giáo dục trực
tuyến trong đánh giá quá trình, đồng thời đưa ra những đề xuất trên phương diện giáo dục nhằm
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improving the learning attitudes and achievements of students. Computers & Education, 56(4), 1023-
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effective teaching in higher education. Abingdon: Routledge.
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of Engineering Education, 101(2), 244-287.
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compared to written feedback. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 35(7), 759-769.
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class formative assessment feedback models. Active Learning in Higher Education, 18(2), 127-141.
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audio files. Bioscience Education, 11, 1–11.
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framework at the course level: A case study in a Vietnamese National University. International Journal
of Information and Learning Technology, 34(1), 20-30.
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and seven principles of good feedback practice. Studies in Higher Education, 31(2), 199-218.
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review perspective. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 39(1), 102-122.
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experiences within the disciplinary differences framework. Australasian Journal of Educational
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conference, the future of assessment: Shaping teaching and learning. New York.
AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE STUDENTS’ REFLECTION

ABOUT THE USE OF SCHOOLOGY IN FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT:
A CASE STUDY IN A VIETNAMESE UNIVERSITY
Abstract: This study aims to investigate the reflections of students at English Department –
University of Foreign Languages, Hue University (HUFL) towards the use of Schoology in
formative assessment for listening skill. The study involved 60 first-year students in
English Department and used a mixed methods approach collecting data from a paper-
based survey, semi-structured interviews. The findings show that the students positively
perceived the use of formative assessment through the online learning platform of
Schoology. In addition, the findings suggest that the online learning platform can provide
appropriate scaffolding for the students in this study to engage in the process of interactive
learning and knowledge construction, which greatly promotes collaborative and learner-
centered language learning communities. In terms of the difficulties, the students’ lack of
technical skills and social-communication strategies are perceived to be the common
challenges.
Keywords: Blended learning, formative assessment, learning management system
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VẬN DỤNG PHƯƠNG PHÁP “DẠY HỌC NGÔN NGỮ

THEO NHIỆM VỤ” VÀO DẠY HỌC KỸ NĂNG NÓI
TRONG TIẾNG TRUNG QUỐC
Nguyễn Văn Tư*
Tóm tắt: Cùng với sự phát triển tổng hợp trên mọi lĩnh vực, đòi hỏi giáo dục cũng không
ngừng đổi mới phương pháp dạy học để phù hợp với thực tiễn. Trong bài viết này chúng tôi
tổng quan một số công trình nghiên cứu của các nhà nghiên cứu về phương pháp “dạy học
ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ”, đồng thời vận dụng phương pháp này vào dạy học, thông qua
phiếu khảo sát điều tra chỉ ra những hiệu quả cũng như hạn chế khi vận dụng phương pháp
này vào dạy học trong học phần Nói 2 tại Khoa Tiếng Trung, Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ,
Đại học Huế.
Keywords: Phương pháp dạy học, dạy học theo nhiệm vụ, dạy học tiếng Trung Quốc
1. Mở đầu
Từ thế kỷ 20 đã có những nhà nghiên cứu phương Tây như Krashen (1982) đã đưa ra mô
thức dạy học ngoại ngữ từ “hình thức” chuyển hướng sang “ý nghĩa”, từ “có ý thức” chuyển hướng
sang “vô ý thức”, từ “bộ phận” chuyển hướng sang “tổng thể”, để người học ngoại ngữ ý thức được
rằng ngôn ngữ không phải là một bộ môn khoa học cứng rắn, mà phải là “học tại chỗ dùng tại chỗ”,
từ đó người học mới có thể thực hiện được những giao tiếp thực tế, hoặc đạt được những mục tiêu
khác. Trong đó lý luận về “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ (Task-based Language Teaching)” bàn
về phương pháp giảng dạy lấy người học là trung tâm, người học là chủ yếu, người dạy là thứ yếu,
người học là chủ thể hoàn thành nhiệm vụ.
Trong những thập kỷ vừa qua, các học giả nước ngoài vẫn có rất nhiều nghiên cứu về phương
pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ”. Trong đó kể đến Robinson (2001) đã thảo luận về tác động
của tính phức tạp trong nhận thức của các nhiệm vụ đối với đầu ra ngôn ngữ và sự hiểu biết của
người học cũng như khó khăn của nhiệm vụ và nhiều vấn đề khác nữa. Bachman (2002) đã thảo luận
các vấn đề khi đánh giá hiệu quả phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ”. Lee (2004 ) đã
nghiên cứu về vấn đề sử dụng ngôn ngữ của sinh viên Trung Quốc, mối quan hệ giữa chiến lược
giao tiếp và nhiệm vụ giao tiếp và từ góc độ diễn ngôn của người học thảo luận về mối quan hệ giữa
bộ phận ngôn ngữ thứ hai và nhiệm vụ học tập. Phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ”
thực sự “bùng nổ” trong giới nghiên cứu về phương pháp giảng dạy tại đất nước tỷ dân Trung Quốc,
hàng loạt các nhà nghiên cứu, học giả, giáo viên đã tiến hành nghiên cứu cũng như vận dụng vào
trong dạy học trong mấy thập kỷ vừa qua.
Ở Việt Nam đã có các nhà nghiên cứu cũng như các giáo viên trực tiếp giảng dạy tại các
trường học đã có những bài nghiên cứu cũng như ứng dụng trong giảng dạy, tuy nhiên số lượng
còn hạn chế. Đặc biệt là những bài viết phản ánh về tình hình vận dụng phương pháp “dạy học
* Email: nguyenvantu.hucfl@gmail.com
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ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ” trong giảng dạy ngoại ngữ còn khá ít. Các tác giả đề cập đến phương
pháp này với nhiều tên gọi “dạy học theo dự án”, “dạy học theo phương pháp thảo luận nhóm”,
“dạy học theo phương pháp đóng vai,” v.v... Chúng tôi sử dụng thuật ngữ phương pháp “dạy
học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ” trong bài nghiên cứu.
Bàn về đánh giá trong dạy học theo dự án, trên “Kỉ yếu Hội nghị giảng dạy Vật lí toàn quốc
(Hà Nội-2010)”, Cao Thị Sông Hương có bài “Đánh giá trong dạy học dự án”. Tác giả đã đề xuất
một phương thức đánh giá trong dạy học theo dự án, gồm: đánh giá từ phía giáo viên, đánh giá
hợp tác, đánh giá đồng đẳng và tự đánh giá, giúp giáo viên không chỉ đánh giá được mức độ lĩnh
hội kiến thức của học sinh mà còn đánh giá được tính tích cực, tự lực, sáng tạo và khả năng vận
dụng kiến thức vào thực tiễn. Phương thức đánh giá được cụ thể hóa qua các bảng kiểm với các
tiêu chí đánh giá cụ thể kết quả học tập của học sinh.
Nguyễn Đình Bá và Đặng Thuỵ Liên (2010) trong bài viết “Giảng dạy ngoại ngữ bằng
hình thức giảng dạy theo dự án” đã đưa ra 10 bước thực hiện nhiệm vụ: (1) Giảng viên đưa ra đề
tài cho các nhóm sinh viên; (2) Sinh viên chọn đề tài và bàn luận kịch bản sẽ diễn xuất; (3) Kịch
bản được viết xong, tiến hành dịch sang tiếng Hoa; (4) Giảng viên giúp sinh viên chỉnh sửa kịch
bản và nội dung tiếng Hoa; (5) Sinh viên tự luyện nói ở nhà và học thuộc nội dung; (6) Sinh
viên tập hợp nhóm bắt đầu diễn xuất và quay phim; (7) Chỉnh sửa clip; (8) Trình chiếu ở lớp;
(9) Các nhóm sinh viên khác đóng góp ý kiến cho clip của nhóm bạn; (10) Giảng viên nhận xét
và góp ý, cho điểm. Quá trình này được thực hiện trên lớp và có sự chuẩn bị kỹ lượng ở nhà.
Thời gian thực hiện mỗi bước được tác giả tính là một tuần học (2 tiết).
Lê Thị Trâm Anh (2019) trình bày hệ thống những vấn đề cơ bản về phương pháp dạy
học theo dự án: khái niệm, ưu điểm, cách tiến hành và tình hình áp dụng phương pháp này vào
dạy học tiếng Pháp tại Đại học Đà Nẵng. Đặc biệt tác giả đã tiến hành cho thực nghiệm một số
dự án thực tiễn như: dự án du học, dự án tái sử dụng đồ cũ, v.v. nhận được phản hồi rất tích cực
từ người học.
Trên thực tế thực tế việc dạy và học ngoại ngữ, đặc biệt là dạy và học tiếng Trung Quốc ở
Việt Nam còn gặp nhiều bất cập, chưa bắt kịp với trào lưu, vẫn còn mang nặng tính hình thức, trong
đó việc dạy học kỹ năng nói - một trong bốn kỹ năng quan trọng trong dạy học ngoại ngữ vẫn còn
chưa thực sự phát huy hết hiệu quả.
2.1. Khái niệm phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ”
Theo từ điển trực tuyến Soha định nghĩa: “Nhiệm vụ là công việc do cơ quan, đơn vị hoặc
tổ chức giao cho phải hoàn thành vì một mục đích cụ thể và hoàn thành trong một thời gian nhất
định.” Đối với định nghĩa về “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ”, mỗi học giả có mỗi cách định
nghĩa riêng biệt, song có thể hiểu “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ” chính là người dạy yêu cầu
người học hoàn thành một hoạt động mang tính khả thi. Thông qua quá trình thực hiện hoạt
động bao gồm trước hoạt động, trong hoạt động và sau hoạt động mang đến cơ hội học tập và
hoàn thiện ngôn ngữ của bản thân. Dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ gắn liền với việc sử dụng
ngôn ngữ có mục đích biểu đạt rõ ràng.
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2.2. Nguyên tắc dạy học sử dụng phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ”
Nguyên tắc mang tính chân thực
Nhiệm vụ được thiết kế trong phương pháp dạy học thường gắn liền với những sở thích,
kinh nghiệm trong cuộc sống cũng như học tập của sinh viên. Nội dung của nhiệm vụ bám sát
với những vấn đề xảy ra trong cuộc sống đời thường thì sinh viên dễ dàng để tiếp nhận và hoàn
thành nhiệm vụ trong khoảng thời gian cho phép.
Nguyên tắc mang tính thực tiễn
Phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ” vừa chú trọng đến kết quả, lại vừa chú
trọng đến quá trình thực hiện nhiệm vụ. Đặc biệt nhấn mạnh quá trình thực hiện nhiệm vụ sinh
viên sẽ sử dụng kiến thức ra sao, dùng ngôn ngữ tiếng Trung Quốc vào nhiệm vụ như thế nào.
Nguyên tắc của phương pháp này cũng tập trung đến kết quả của quá trình thực hiện nhiệm vụ.
Học đi đôi với hành, học là một quá trình, vận dụng vào thực tiễn là mục đích hướng tới, đáp
ứng được lí luận cơ bản của phương pháp này trong việc “học và hành”, tức là “học để dùng,
dùng để học”.
Nguyên tắc lấy sinh viên làm trung tâm dạy học
Sinh viên là trung tâm của tiết học, là nhân tố quan trọng nhất trong mỗi nhiệm vụ. Giáo
viên chỉ đóng vai trò là người định hướng và hướng dẫn sinh viên hoàn thành nhiệm vụ.
Nguyên tắc mang tính tương tác
Chúng ta có thể hiểu tương tác ở đây là tương tác giữa sinh viên với giáo viên, giữa sinh
viên với sinh viên, giữa sinh viên với những yếu tố bên ngoài. Tương tác giữa sinh viên với giáo
viên với mục đích để truyền đạt nhiệm vụ đến sinh viên và ngược lại sinh viên hiểu được những
yêu cầu của nhiệm vụ của giáo viên hơn, trong quá trình thực hiện nhiệm vụ sinh viên bày tỏ
những trở ngại, khó khăn cần tương tác với giáo viên để tìm hướng giải quyết, tương tác để khơi
gợi ý tưởng cho sinh viên. Tương tác giữa sinh viên với sinh viên với mục đích trao đổi tri thức,
ý tưởng và thảo luận những quan điểm đơn phương, song phương thậm chí đa phương khi thực
hiện nhiệm vụ, đặc biệt trong khi thực hiện nhiệm vụ học tập ngoại ngữ thì tương tác cũng là
một quá trình trau dồi kỹ năng nói ngoại ngữ... Tương tác giữa sinh viên với yếu tố bên ngoài
(nếu cần thiết) với mục đích hỗ trợ tìm kiếm để hoàn thành các nhiệm vụ được giao.
2.3. Mô hình phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ”
Trong chương trình thực nghiệm phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ” trong
học phần Nói 2 của chúng tôi áp dụng mô hình “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ” của Ellis
(2000). Mô hình Ellis phân làm 3 giai đoạn: giai đoạn trước nhiệm vụ (giai đoạn chuẩn bị), giai
đoạn trong nhiệm vụ (giai đoạn thực hiện) và giai đoạn sau nhiệm vụ (giai đoạn báo cáo kết quả
nhiệm vụ).
Chúng tôi sử dụng phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ” trong một thời gian
nhất định (một học kỳ=45 tiết học) dựa trên mô hình Ellis, sau đó tiến hành quan sát, theo dõi
tiến trình tiếp nhận phương pháp trong học tập. Sau quá trình dạy học kết thúc chúng tôi sử
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dụng phương pháp nghiên cứu định lượng thông qua phiếu điều tra thu thập, phân tích những
con số chứng minh sự hiệu quả hoặc không hiệu quả mà phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo
nhiệm vụ” mang lại trong học phần Nói 2. Bên cạnh đó, chúng tôi còn sử dụng phương pháp
phỏng vấn. Thông qua một vài câu hỏi ngắn giành cho sinh viên ngay sau khi kết thúc tiết học,
từ đó nắm bắt được những phản hồi đến từ người học, chủ yếu kịp thời khắc phục những hạn
chế cũng như phát huy những thế mạnh trong tiết học tiếp theo.
4.1. Tính hiệu quả khi vận dụng phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ” vào học
phần Nói
Trải qua 45 tiết học áp dụng phương pháp dạy “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ” vào
học phần Nói 2, chúng tôi đã tiến hành điều tra khảo sát trên 84 sinh viên tham gia học tập, tính
hiệu quả của phương pháp thể hiện rõ qua các số liệu trong Biểu đồ 1:
Biểu đồ 1. Kỹ năng nói của sinh viên sau khi sử dụng phương pháp "Dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ"
Thông qua biểu đồ tổng hợp về tình hình chất lượng của các sinh viên khi tham gia học tập
bằng phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ”, chúng tôi cho rằng tính hiệu quả của phương
pháp này mang lại rất cao. Nguyên nhân mang lại tính hiệu quả được thể hiện rõ trong Biểu đồ 2.
Biểu đồ 2. Nguyên nhân mang lại hiệu quả của phương pháp "dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ"
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Có sự tương tác hỗ trợ kiến thức từ bạn học và giáo viên

Đặc trưng lớn nhất của phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ” là bố trí các
nhiệm vụ xoay quanh người học. Lấy người học làm chủ thể của cả quá trình học tập. Nên trong
các nhiệm vụ chúng tôi thiết kế rất phong phú, có những nhiệm vụ đơn lập do mỗi sinh viên độc
lập thực hiện, nhưng cũng có rất nhiều nhiệm vụ được thiết kế theo hình thức nhóm nhỏ, nhóm
lớn. Trong quá trình thực hiện nhiệm vụ, đòi hỏi sinh viên cần phải tương tác, hỗ trợ tìm kiếm
thông tin, cùng nhau xây dựng và hoàn thành nhiệm vụ. Mỗi một nhiệm vụ được phân công cho
sinh viên, giáo viên luôn bám sát hỗ trợ sinh viên khi cần, giáo viên là người hướng dẫn, cung
cấp những thông tin cần thiết liên quan đến nhiệm vụ.
Có nhiều cơ hội được giao tiếp bằng tiếng Trung Quốc
Hạn chế lớn nhất của sinh viên Khoa Tiếng Trung là môi trường học tập còn thiếu sự cọ
xát bằng tiếng Trung, tỉ lệ sử dụng tiếng Việt để tiếp nhận kiến thức trong các học phần tiếng
Trung là khá cao. Khi tham gia học tập với phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ”
trong học phần Nói, sinh viên được tiếp xúc và học tập hầu như tuyệt đối 100% bằng tiếng
Trung. Dùng tiếng Trung để học tiếng Trung, dùng tiếng Trung để hoàn thành nhiệm vụ, dùng
tiếng Trung để biểu đạt ý tưởng, dùng tiếng Trung để báo cáo kết quả nhiệm vụ, đấy cũng chính
là một trong những nhân tố mà khiến người học cảm thấy kỹ năng nói của bản thân tiến bộ rất
nhiều khi sử dụng phương pháp học tập này.
Biểu đồ 3. Lượng thời gian trung bình mỗi sinh viên dùng tiếng Trung Quốc khi tham gia mỗi nhiệm vụ
Từ Biểu đồ 3 thấy rõ tổng lượng thời gian sinh viên dùng tiếng Trung Quốc khi tham gia
mỗi nhiệm vụ rất khả thi. Hầu hết các sinh viên đều dùng Tiếng Trung trong khoảng thời gian từ
10-15 phút.
Có môi trường giao tiếp thông qua các nhiệm vụ được giáo viên bố trí
Chúng tôi kết hợp ba nhân tố môi trường giao tiếp vào trong các nhiệm vụ, đó chính là
nhân tố con người, nhân tố tài liệu và nhân tố không gian.
Thứ nhất, về nhân tố con người hay được gọi là giáo viên và bạn học. Giáo viên là người
đóng vai tạo dựng môi trường học tập, đưa người học vào trong môi trường học tập thông qua
các nhiệm vụ, thế nên giáo viên chính là người xây dựng nhiệm vụ, dẫn dắt và hướng dẫn chi
tiết cho người học thực hiện nhiệm vụ đó.
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Thứ hai, về nhân tố giáo trình tài liệu được giáo viên sử dụng trong học phần Nói 2. Đây
cũng là một trong những nhân tố khá quan trọng trong môi trường học tập tiếng Trung Quốc của
sinh viên. Khoa tiếng Trung hiện đang sử dụng cuốn giáo trình chính “发展汉语中级口语”
trong học phần Nói 2. Theo kết quả của người học phản ánh lại khi sử dụng cuốn giáo trình tài
liệu trên, đa số người học cho rằng nội dung giáo trình phù hợp với trình độ của người học, thể
hiện trong biểu đồ 4,5,6:
Biểu đồ 4. Nội dung quá khó Biểu đồ 5. Nội dung quá dễ Biểu đồ 6. Nội dung phù hợp
so với trình độ của bạn so với trình độ của bạn với trình độ của bạn
Thứ 3, nhân tố về không gian học tập. Tuỳ từng nhiệm vụ để áp dụng không gian học tập
phù hợp. Có những nhiệm vụ cần thực hiện ngay trong phòng học, nhưng cũng có những nhiệm
vụ chỉ có thể phát huy được hiệu quả khi thực hiện ngoài phòng học với một không gian mở
(khuôn viên trường học, công viên, quán cà phê, sân bóng đá,...).
Có cơ hội phát huy tư duy, ý tưởng của bản thân
Khi lựa chọn phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ” chúng tôi suy xét đến vấn
đề làm thế nào để sinh viên có thể phát huy được hết khả năng tư duy và phong phú ý tưởng
trong quá trình thực hiện nhiệm vụ, do vậy có những bài học được thiết kế theo “nhiệm vụ mở”,
sinh viên sẽ thoả sức thảo luận đưa ra quan điểm của cá nhân; cũng có những nhiệm vụ khơi gợi
trí tưởng tượng, tăng tính tư duy cho sinh viên.
Nhiệm vụ sinh động, thiết thực, bám sát nội dung học tập
Nhiệm vụ trong phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ” mà chúng tôi thực
nghiệm phong phú và có kết hợp với một số phương pháp lồng ghép trong các nhiệm vụ đó như
thực hiện trò chơi, thực hiện đóng vai, thực hiện nghiên cứu trường hợp điển hình, hợp tác
nhóm, phát hiện và giải quyết vấn đề.
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Tinh thần học tập thoải mái, không căng thẳng

Một trong những yếu tố quan trọng mang lại hiệu quả học tập trong học phần Nói đó
chính là tinh thần của người học. Các nhiệm vụ được bố trí luôn được chú trọng đến yếu tố tạo
môi trường học tập thoải mái, người học vừa có thể hoàn thành các nhiệm vụ, vừa là cơ hội để
giao lưu ý tưởng, thậm chí có những nhiệm vụ mang tính chất học mà chơi chơi mà học, chính
vì thế người học dễ dàng tiếp nhận kiến thức, hoàn thành nhiệm vụ với một tinh thần thoải mái.
Chính vì vậy trong mỗi buổi học sinh viên luôn cảm thấy hứng thú với tiết học, mang đến cho
sinh viên tinh thần “mỗi ngày đến trường là một niềm vui”, do đó hầu hết sinh viên đều rất thích
thú với việc giáo viên bố trí các nhiệm vụ trong mỗi tiết học, thể hiện trong Biểu đồ 7.
Biểu đồ 7. Mức độ thích của sinh viên khi giáo viên bố trí nhiệm vụ
4.2. Những vấn đề còn tồn tại trong quá trình vận dụng phương pháp pháp “dạy học ngôn
ngữ theo nhiệm vụ” trong học phần Nói
4.2.1. Khía cạnh người dạy
Giáo viên lựa chọn nội dung bài học
Một trong những đặc điểm của phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ” chính là
tính thực tiễn. Nội dung trong giáo trình học tập rất phong phú và đa dạng, lượng kiến thức bao
quát, tuy nhiên không phải bài học nào cũng có thể áp dụng được phương pháp “dạy học ngôn
ngữ theo nhiệm vụ”. Có những bài học sinh viên vẫn chưa phát huy được hết khả năng học tập
do nội dung bài học không kích thích được tính sáng tạo cũng như hứng thú của sinh viên.
Biểu đồ 8. Phản hồi sinh viên về nội dung bài học
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Hầu hết nội dung giáo viên lựa chọn ở các bài học đều nhận được phản hồi tích cực của
học viên, tuy nhiên vẫn còn tồn tại một số phản hồi về nội dung bài học chưa tốt. Cụ thể theo
Biểu đồ 8 thấy được rằng số lượng sinh viên yêu thích nội dung bài học số 12 giáo viên lựa
chọn chưa đạt mức 50% tổng số sinh viên tham gia học tập. Qua đó thấy được lựa chọn nội
dung phù hợp với nhiệm vụ học tập cũng là một vấn đề còn tồn trọng trong giáo viên.
Giáo viên bố trí nhiệm vụ chưa phù hợp với mỗi sinh viên
Giáo viên căn cứ vào nội dung bài học để bố trí nhiệm vụ phù hợp với sinh viên thực
hiện, có nhiệm vụ thực hiện theo cá nhân, cũng có nhiệm vụ làm việc theo nhóm. Tuy nhiên vì
tính chất nội dung bài học mang tính tổng thể, hơn nữa giáo viên vẫn chưa nắm rõ được tình
hình cụ thể, cũng như trình độ của từng sinh viên nên trong quá trình bố trị nhiệm vụ có thể phù
hợp với sinh viên A nhưng không phù hợp với hoàn cảnh, trình độ của sinh viên B, dẫn đến khó
khăn trong quá trình thực hiện nhiệm vụ.
4.2.2. Khía cạnh người học
Số lượng sinh viên quá đông
Bảng 1. So sánh lớp học đông người và lớp học ít người trong quá trình vận dụng phương pháp
Lớp học đông người Lớp học ít người

Sinh viên ít nhận được sự quan tâm, hỗ trợ từ Sinh viên nhận được nhiều sự quan tâm, hỗ trợ từ
giáo viên. giáo viên.
Không gian học tập bị hạn chế khi thực hiện Không gian học tập thoải mái khi thực hiện nhiệm
nhiệm vụ. vụ.
Khó quản lý việc thực hiện nhiệm vụ theo Dễ dàng quản lý việc thực hiện nhiệm vụ theo
nhóm vì có quá nhiều nhóm hoặc nhóm quá nhóm.
đông.
Hạn chế về sự đánh giá, nhận xét cụ thể sau khi Nhận được đánh giá, nhận xét cụ thể trong từng
hoàn thành nhiệm vụ. nhiệm vụ.
Thời gian trình bày báo cáo hoàn thành nhiệm Thời gian trình bày báo cáo hoàn thành nhiệm vụ
vụ ít. nhiều.
Một trong những bất cập hàng đầu trong dạy học nói chung và sử dụng phương pháp “dạy
học theo nhiệm vụ” nói riêng đó là tình trạng quá tải về số lượng sinh viên tham gia lớp học. Nó
mang lại một số khó khăn nhất định như: giáo viên khó bao quát được hết tất cả sinh viên trong
lớp; khó đưa ra lời khuyên hay hướng dẫn cho từng sinh viên; vấn đề tổ chức thực hiện nhiệm
vụ trở nên phức tạp hơn.
Cá nhân sinh viên chưa nhiệt tình tham gia nhiệm vụ
Trong quá trình thực hiện vẫn còn tồn tại những hạn chế về tinh thần tham gia học tập của
sinh viên. Một số sinh viên vẫn chưa ý thức được nhiệm vụ, tham gia với thái độ học tập mang
tính đối phó, hoặc không phát huy hết khả năng cá nhân của bản thân đóng góp vào sự thành
công của tập thể, từ đó ảnh hưởng trực tiếp đến chính cá nhân đó và cả tập thể nhóm/lớp.
Sự bất đồng đều giữa các sinh viên khi tham gia thực hiện nhiệm vụ theo nhóm
Phương thức thiết kế thực hiện nhiệm vụ theo nhóm được người dạy ưu tiên lựa chọn khi
sử dụng phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ”. Tuy nhiên chính vì sự bất đồng đều
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về một số yếu tố của người thực hiện nhiệm vụ như giới tính, số lượng, hoặc không cân bằng về
trình độ của mỗi sinh viên trong mỗi nhóm đặc biệt ảnh hưởng trực tiếp đến tiến độ thảo luận và
chất lượng học tập.
4.2.3. Tác động ngoại cảnh
Không gian học tập chưa phù hợp
Không gian học tập có thể hiểu là phòng học, phòng thí nghiệm hoặc không gian sinh hoạt,
nơi sinh viên học tập và triển khai nhiệm vụ. Có những nhiệm vụ cần đến một không gian rộng rãi
thoải mái để sinh viên có thể tự do thảo luận, thậm chí cần có không gian để giàn dựng hoạt cảnh
giao tiếp, hoặc tránh nhiễm sự ồn ào đến từ các cá nhân hoặc nhóm khác. Do vậy đa số sinh viên
tham gia thực nghiệm phương pháp đều cho rằng không gian học tập vô cùng quan trọng.
Trong học kỳ vừa qua, học phần Nói 2 được bố trí tại các phòng học tầng 1 giảng đường
C. Những phòng học này được trang bị đầy đủ thiết bị dạy học như máy tính, máy chiếu, đèn
điện, quạt,... Tuy nhiên có một vấn đề ảnh hưởng trực tiếp đến quá trình hoàn thành nhiệm vụ
đó chính là diện tích các phòng học so với số lượng sinh viên tham gia học tập.
Biểu đồ 9. Diện tích phòng học so với số lượng sinh viên
Sinh viên thuộc nhóm 1 và nhóm 2 là những nhóm có sinh viên số lượng ít và vừa đủ cho
rằng diện tích các phòng học tại trường rộng rãi thoải mái hoặc vừa đủ cho sinh viên hoạt động.
Tuy nhiên nhìn vào biểu đồ của nhóm thứ 3 là nhóm có số lượng sinh viên đông, chúng ta thấy
được rằng sinh viên phản ánh về diện tích phòng học khá chất chội hoặc rất chật chội còn chiếm
một tỉ lệ khá cao.
Giáo trình tài liệu còn hạn chế
Các nhiệm vụ dạy học trong học phần Nói 2 được thiết kế dựa trên nôi dung của giáo
trình “发展汉语中级口语”, giáo trình này trở thành bộ tài liệu tham khảo chính cho sinh viên
trong quá trình tra cứu, tìm kiếm thông tin. Tuy nhiên để hoàn thành nhiệm vụ chất lượng cao
thì sinh viên cần phải tham vấn thêm nhiều tài liệu hỗ trợ khác. Tài liệu tham khảo khan hiếm sẽ
ít nhiều gây nên nhiều trở ngại cho sinh viên trong quá trình thảo luận và tranh luận.
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Thời gian thực hiện nhiệm vụ không đủ

Thời gian học tập có hạn nhưng nội dung và nhiệm vụ học tập nhiều, sinh viên không đủ
thời gian để hoàn thành nhiệm vụ hoặc hoàn thành nhiệm vụ chưa đạt mức lí tưởng, hoặc bị hạn
chế về số lượng cá nhân/nhóm báo cáo tại lớp.
5. Kết luận
Trên nền tảng lý luận cơ bản của phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ”, chúng
tôi đã ứng dụng nó vào dạy học trong học phần Nói 2 tại Khoa Tiếng Trung. Sau một học kỳ
thực nghiệm (45 tiết), chúng tôi đã nhận về những phản hồi tích cực cũng như những hạn chế
của phương pháp từ giáo viên và sinh viên (mục 3.1 và 3.2). Hiệu quả mà phương pháp mang
lại rất khả quan như: Phương pháp tạo nên sự tương tác hỗ trợ kiến thức từ giáo viên và bạn
học; sinh viên có nhiều cơ hội được giao tiếp bằng tiếng Trung Quốc; sinh viên có môi trường
giao tiếp thông qua các nhiệm vụ được giáo viên bố trí; sinh viên có cơ hội phát huy tư duy, ý
tưởng của bản thân; nhiệm vụ sinh động, thiết thực, bám sát nội dung học tập; tinh thần học tập
của sinh viên thoải mái, không căng thẳng,... Bên cạnh đó vẫn còn tồn tại một số hạn chế trong
quá trình vận dụng phương pháp này vào dạy học như: Giáo viên bố trí nhiệm vụ chưa phù hợp
với mỗi sinh viên; số lượng sinh viên quá đông ảnh hưởng đến chất lượng buổi học; cá nhân
sinh viên chưa nhiệt tình tham gia nhiệm vụ; sự bất đồng đều giữa các sinh viên khi tham gia
thực hiện nhiệm vụ theo nhóm; không gian học tập chưa phù hợp; giáo trình tài liệu còn hạn
chế; thời gian thực hiện nhiệm vụ không đủ...
Thông qua bài nghiên cứu này chúng tôi cũng giải quyết được vấn đề đưa các bài học học
lý thuyết chuyển thể sang các bài học thực hành theo phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo
nhiệm vụ”, đồng thời sau khi trải qua quá trình thực nghiệm dạy học và nhận phản hồi tích cực
từ người học, chúng tôi đưa ra kết luận giáo trình “发展汉语口语版” phù hợp với học phần Nói 2
khi dạy theo phương pháp “dạy học ngôn ngữ theo nhiệm vụ”.
Cuối cùng, chúng tôi đưa ra kiến nghị trong tương lai có thể áp dụng rộng rãi để dạy các
học phần thực hành tiếng, đặc biệt là kỹ năng Nói tại Khoa Tiếng Trung, Trường Đại học Ngoại
Bachman, F.F. (2002). Some reflectinos task-based language performance assessment. Language Testing,
19, 453-476.
Cao Thị Sông Hương (2010). Đánh giá trong dạy học dự án. Kỉ yếu Hội nghị giảng dạy Vật lí toàn quốc
(tr. 45). Hà Nội: NXB Đại học Sư phạm.
Ellis, R. (2000). Task-based research and language pedagogy. Teaching Research, 4(3), 193-220.
Krashen, S.D. (1982). Principles and practive in second language acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Lee, C. (2004). Language output, communication strategies and comminicative tasks. In the Chinese
context. Lanham, Md: University Press of America.
Lê Thị Trâm Anh (2019). Áp dụng phương pháp dạy học theo dự án trong giảng dạy tiếng Pháp tại Đại
học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Đà Nẵng. Tạp chí Khoa học Ngoại ngữ Quân sự, 9(21), 34-40.
Nguyễn Đình Bá & Đặng Thuỵ Liên (2010). Giảng dạy ngoại ngữ bằng hình thức giảng dạy theo dự án.
Kỉ yếu Hội nghị khoa học Đại học Duy Tân, 308-314.
416
Robinson, P. (1995). Investigating second langgue task complexity. RELC Journal, 26, 62-79.
Skehan, P. (1996). A framework for the implementation of task-based instruction. Applied Linguistics,
17(1), 38-62.
Từ điển điện tử Soha (truy cập 20/05/2019) http://tratu.soha.vn/dict/vn_vn/Nhiệm_vụ.
APPLYING “TASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING " INTO

TEACHING AND LEARNING CHINESE SPEAKING SKILLS
Abstract: Along with the integrated development in all fields, constantly innovating
teaching methods is required to adapt to reality. In this article, we review a number of
research works on the method of "task-based language teaching", and at the same time
apply this method to teaching and learning. Survey questionnaires showed both the
effectiveness and limitations when applying this method to teaching and learning the
Speaking 2 module at Department of Chinese, University of Foreign Languages, Hue
University.
Key words: Teaching method, task-based teaching, teaching and learning Chinese
language
417
MAJOR PROBLEMS IN PRONOUNCING ENGLISH: A CASE

STUDY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF DALAT
Tran Thao Uyen*
Dalat University

Abstract: Seeing that pronunciation is one of the most important factors influencing
learners’ speech intelligibility, this study investigated the sounds performed by English-
majoring students at the University of Dalat. In an attempt to figure out main pronouncing
errors as well as possible reasons for the students’ problems, 210 English freshmen were
chosen randomly to participate in the study. The data collected from pronunciation tests and
students’ recordings were analyzed descriptively with the application of Wavesurfer
software version 1.8.8p5, 2013. Based on the finding results, the study highlighted four
major pronunciation errors: the omission of final consonants, the mispronunciation of
consonant clusters, the substitution of certain sounds, and the mispronunciation of English
vowels. These errors were considered to originate from the learners’ lack of phonetic
knowledge, the incompatibleness between the two languages, and a negative transference to
balance with Vietnamese learners’ speech organs.
Key words: Pronunciation problems, major errors, possible reasons, English-majoring students
1. Introduction
Obviously, English pronunciation plays a vital part in mastering the international
language, permitting effective communication with native speakers (Roach, 1991, p. 6).
However, it is not always easy for learners to sufficiently pronounce English words as well as
avoid common mistakes. With a great number of books written by famous linguists such as
O’Connor (1980), Kenworthy (1987), Catford (1988), Gimson (1989), Roach (1991), Gilbert
(1993), and Baker (2006), English learners can gain general knowledge about phonetics and
phonology, but many students still struggle with pronouncing English intelligibly. To solve this
issue, Ruellot (2011) as well as Pearson and Da Silva (2011) discuss effective pedagogical
methods and teaching techniques to improve learners’ pronunciation. On the other hand, Zhang
and Yin (2009), Centerman and Krausz (2011), and Hassan (2014), in their recent articles, have
paid more attention to major difficulties in the learning of English pronunciation.
In Vietnam, there have been significant studies on English pronunciation pronounced by
Vietnamese students. These pronunciation features involved vowels, consonants, consonant
clusters, word stress, sentence stress, rhythm and intonation. Some studies analyze contrastively
the differences between English pronunciation and Vietnamese pronunciation while the other
ones highlight common errors made by Vietnamese students. For example, Nguyen Trong Anh
Tu (1991) makes a clear contrast between English and Vietnamese monophthongs; Huynh Thi
Ngoc Hoa and Le Minh Phu (1999) investigate common pronunciation mistakes in stress,
linking sounds, strong and weak forms; Bui Thi Thanh Thuy (2004) discusses difficulties in
diphthong performances of students in Quang Ngai province. Related to English consonants,
* Email: uyentt@dlu.edu.vn
418
Nguyen Thi Thanh Thanh (2006) investigates the students’ pronunciation of inflectional
endings; Nguyen Thi Tich Hien (2006) studies final consonant sounds in Quang Nam’s high
school, and Nguyen Thi An (2007) does a study at Tuy Hoa Industrial College about English
stops. Particularly, Tran Thi Mong Dao (2009) conducts a study at the Pedagogical College of
Dalat, analyzing the pronunciation errors of English vowels. Tran Thao Uyen (2017) also
carries out another study to find out major problems related to the pronunciation of English
consonant clusters performed by students majoring in English at the Pedagogical College of
Dalat. Seeing that pronunciation is one of the most important factors influencing learners’
speech intelligibility, this study investigated the sounds performed by English-majoring students
at the University of Dalat. In other words, the paper is an attempt to figure out major errors as
well as possible reasons for the students’ problems in pronouncing English.The two research
questions, therefore, were:
1. What are the major pronunciation errors made by English-majoring students at Dalat
University?
2. What are the possible causes of these pronunciation errors?
2.1. Mistakes and errors
According to Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics by
Richards et al. (1993), an error is made by a learner who has incomplete knowledge. A mistake,
on a contrary, is made by a learner when writing or speaking and which is caused by lack of
attention, fatigue, carelessness, or some other aspects of performance. According to Brown
(2007, p. 257), “a mistake refers to a performance error that is either a random guess or a “slip”,
in that it is a failure to utilize a known system correctly. Mistakes, when attention is called to
them, can be self-corrected.” However, “an error, a noticeable deviation from the adult grammar
of a native speaker, reflects the competence of the learner” (2007, p. 258). The author also
notes: “The fact that learners do make errors and these errors can be observed, analyzed, and
classified to reveal something of the system operating within the learner, led to a surge of study
of learners’ errors, called error analysis”. Error analysis became distinguished from contrastive
analysis by its examination of errors attributable to all possible sources, not just those resulting
from negative transfer of the native language (2007, p. 259).
2.2. Factors affecting pronunciation
Al-Saidat (2010) clarifies three factors that affect learners’ pronunciation: age, mother
tongue influence, and personality. “The role of age is found to be more prominent in
pronunciation than in other areas” (2010, p. 122). According to Lenneberg, as cited in Al-Saidat
(2010, p. 122), there is a period of time when language learning is more successful than any
other time in one’s life. Consequently, the author strongly believes that children can acquire the
target language much easier than adults. Mentioning the impact of mother tongue, the author
confirms the powerful influence of L1 on L2 pronunciation. Specifically, students usually find it
difficult to imitate the sounds that do not exist in their own language. Finally, an individual’s
personality somehow affects their development of pronunciation skill. It is claimed that
419
confident and outgoing learners are likely more sufficient in pronunciation than those who are
afraid to join conversations with native speakers.
Unlike Al-Saidat, Altamimi (2015, p. 13) points out that English pronunciation is affected
by learners’ attitude, exposure to the target language, and teaching instruction. In terms of
attitude, the author explains that students tend to pronounce English better if they are well aware
of the English pronunciation and vice versa. Moreover, the more students expose to English
input, the better their pronunciation will be. About instruction, the author believes that English
teachers should give a higher priority on English pronunciation during classroom time.
2.3. A contrastive analysis of English and Vietnamese sounds
According to Avery and Ehrlich, as cited in Altamimi (2015), mother tongue directly
influences on learners’ abilities to pronounce English words. It means that English students have
a tendency to mispronounce the sounds which do not exist in their original language.
Kenworthy (1987, p. 4) argues that “the more differences there are, the more difficulties the
learner will have in pronouncing English”. Hassan (2014, p. 32) also states that the differences
in the sound systems of the two languages - L1 and L2 - have a profound impact on learners’
pronunciation. Zhang and Yin (2009, p. 142) comment:
A particular sound which does not exist in the native language can therefore pose a difficulty for
the second language learners to produce or sometimes to try to substitute those sounds with
similar ones in their mother tongue. These sounds include both vowels and consonants.
Certainly, Vietnamese is a monosyllabic language and each letter represents only one
sound. Even though Vietnamese lexicon may consist of one or more syllables, it is easy to read
any word from a written text based on its isolating syllable. English, on the other hand, is
polysyllabic with many features of sound combinations, assimilation, rhythm, stress, and
intonation. According to Avery and Ehrlich, as cited in Nguyen Thi Thanh Thanh (2006), the
sound system of Vietnamese is absolutely different from that of English due to the little
resemblance in sounds. More specifically, there are no consonant clusters and final consonants
articulated in Vietnamese. Tran Thao Uyen (2017, p. 674) summarizes basic differences in terms of
vowels and consonants between the two languages.
Table 1. Differences in the sound systems between English and Vietnamese
420
3. Methods
3.1. Population, participants and sample size
As counted by the department of training management, there are 325 freshmen majoring in
English at Faculty of Foreign Languages, Dalat University, in the academic year 2019-2020, 97 of
whom are male, accounting for 29.8%. These students come from different cities and provinces
throughout Vietnam.
In accordance with the study’s objectives, the sampling of the study was chosen randomly
in order for each sample to be relatively fair. Due to the time constraint, 210 English-major
freshmen were asked to participate in the study. All of the participants, who were between the
ages of eighteen and nineteen, already completed 30 periods of the course named English
Pronunciation Practice. With a sample size of 210 students and 95% at confidence level, the
confidence interval was 4.03. (The figures were calculated based on the guide in the website of
http://www.surveysystem.com/sscalc.htm#one).
3.2. Data collection instrument
The research data were collected through a pronunciation speaking test with 140 English
words containing different vowels and consonants in English. This test was considered
appropriate because it covered most of the sounds that the students have learned in their
pronunciation course. All of 210 participants took turns to read through 140 prepared words and
their performances were recorded for later analysis. In order to figure out significant
pronunciation errors of the participants, the software “Wavesurfer” (version 1.8.8p5, 2013) was
used to visualize the sounds made by each participant in comparison with the sounds
pronounced by an American native speaker who has been teaching English pronunciation for 11
years in Dalat city.
4. Findings
The English sounds pronounced by the participants were extracted from their recordings
of the pronunciation speaking test. The software “Wavesurfer” (version 1.8.8p5, 2013)
significantly contributed to provide visual data for this study. After 210 participants had had
their English pronunciation recorded, the sounds were visualized and compared with the
standard sounds pronounced by Paul Olivier (Ph.D.), an American teacher who has been
teaching English pronunciation for 11 years in Dalat city. Based on the differences in the
visualized sounds, English-major students’ errors of pronouncing English could be recognized
and analyzed in details. Here is an example with the word “was”.
Figure 1. Native speaker’s pronunciation of Figure 2. Students’ pronunciation of “was”

“was” (no final consonant)
421
Figure 3. Students’ pronunciation of “was” (/ɒ/ instead of /ə/)

After having visualized all tested sounds, the participants’ pronunciation errors were
finally synchronized into four different categories as follow:
4.1. The omission of final consonants
Among 210 participants, 179 freshmen making up 85.2% of the total participants had to
encounter the challenges of final consonant which never existed in Vietnamese. /f/ as in “deaf”,
/s/ as in “happiness” and /dʒ/ as in “age” are typical examples of this error type.
Figure 4. Native speaker’s pronunciation of Figure 5. Students’ pronunciation of /dʒ/ as in

/dʒ/ as in “age” “age” (no final consonant /dʒ/)
(Otput extracted from Wavesurfer 1.8.8p5)
Noticeably, the word “moved” seemed to be easy but it was not pronounced correctly in
the test because many participants omitted the final sound /d/ as illustrated in Figure 7.
Figure 6. Native speaker’s pronunciation of /d/ Figure 7. Students’ pronunciation of /d/ as in

as in “moved” “moved” (no final consonant /d/)
4.2. The mispronunciation of consonant clusters

In this study, 31 out of 210 freshmen (14.8% of the total participants) eliminated the first
sound /g/ in the initial consonant cluster /gr/ of “great” and the same number of students
wrongly made the cluster /pl/ for “player”. A great number of English-majoring students
dropped the final sound of consonant clusters, e.g. there were 158 cases of omission of /t/ in
422
“first”, “last” and “kept”; 179 students completely omitted /ts/ of the cluster /nts/ in
“instruments”.
Figure 8. Native speaker’s pronunciation of /pl/ as Figure 9. Students’ pronunciation of /pl/ as in

in “player” “player” (/f/ instead of /pl/)
Figure 10. Native speaker’s pronunciation of /ts/ as Figure 11. Students’ pronunciation of /ts/ as in
in “instruments” “instruments” (no consonant cluster /ts/)
Figure 12. Students’ pronunciation of /ts/ as in “instruments” (no final consonant /s/)
4.3. The substitution of certain sounds

Again, the word “moved” was pronounced incorrectly because there were 43 out of 210
participants substituting the consonant cluster /fd/ for /vd/ as illustrated in Figure 13.
423
Figure 6. Native speaker’s pronunciation of /d/ as in Figure 13. Students’ pronunciation of /d/ as
“moved” in “moved” (/f/ instead of /vd/)
The sound /dʒ / as in “Germany”, for instance, was changed into /g/ and /tʃ/ by 83 and
191 participants respectively. Similarly, 58 out of 210 participants replaced the sounds /ð/ as in
“other”, becoming /d/ instead; 135 out of 210 participants substituted /tw/ for /t ʃ/when
pronouncing the word “twelve”. Besides, the palatal /ʃ/ as in “shall” was replaced with the
alveolar /s/ by 144 participants.
4.5. The mispronunciation of English vowels
In terms of vowel pronunciation, the vowel /u: / as in “soon” was mispronounced as /sɒn/
by 46 out of 210 participants. The word “opera” was also mispronounced as /ɔ:perɑ:/ instead of
/'ɒprə/. The two figures below showed a difference between native pronunciation and
Vietnamese pronunciation for the word “opera”.
Figure 14. Native speaker’s pronunciation of Figure 15. Students’ pronunciation of

“opera” “opera” (wrong vowels)

With the descriptive analysis in this qualitative study, it could then come up to the
conclusion about possible reasons for learners’ pronunciation errors. Firstly, the above errors
originated from learners’ lack of phonetic knowledge. Because all of the participants were
freshmen who hardly studied English Phonetics and Phonology at high schools, they had no
idea of the speech organs with articulators, air stream, vocal vibration, and aspiration. As
Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams (2007) state in their book, English vowels are classified
424
according to four criteria: tongue position, tongue height, lip rounding, and tenseness (pp. 236-
240). However, freshmen were unfamiliar with these linguistic terms. Subsequently, there were
vowels that seemed undoubtedly tough for them to pronounce, leading to cases of vowel
mispronunciation in this study. Secondly, unavoidable errors happened due to the
incompatibleness between the two languages. Because some of the English sounds such as /θ/,
/ð/, /ʒ/, /dʒ/ have no exact equivalents in Vietnamese, they were really difficult for the
participants to make the correct sounds. Hence, many participants tended to replace the difficult
sounds with what they were much more accustomed to. Moreover, in Vietnamese, there rarely
exist two or three consonants combining together to create a cluster, resulting in a fact that the
English-major freshmen at Dalat University hardly used to pronounce complex consonant
clusters. Finally, the errors were caused by a negative transference to balance with Vietnamese
learners’ speech organs. As commented by Ehrlich and Avery (1992), the mispronunciations of
words by non-native speakers reflect the influence of the sounds, rules, stress, and intonation of
their native language. Although Vietnamese and English share similarities in sound segments
and spelling, the way native speakers pronounce English sounds is completely different from the
Vietnamese way. Consequently, language learners usually had problems with the movements of
their tongue towards the articulators due to the deeply rooted way of pronouncing Vietnamese
words. Therefore, a great number of participants would prefer to ignore some difficult sounds
rather than try to pronounce them in a correct manner.
No matter how generalized the study tried to be, there were some certain limitations.
First, the study samples should have been more various in terms of ages and language levels as
the study participants were only freshmen. Second, when the participants got their pronunciation
tests recorded, they just approached the pronunciation course for only 30 periods, which was
considered rather limited. Third, the pronunciation tests were still at word level and the words
were out of real contexts of applying the language into oral communication. Finally, it was not
enough satisfactory to pose the errors of pronunciation without suggesting any solutions to
improve students’ pronunciation of English. Thus, it is necessary to conduct another study in
this area for the purpose of recommending useful programs and strategies for English-majoring
students at Dalat University to enhance their English pronunciation.
6. Conclusion
English pronunciation is clearly a challenge for students majoring in English at the
University of Dalat. On average, over two thirds of the participants taking part in the study were
not successful in correctly pronouncing words containing English vowels and consonants. Four
remarkable errors were the omission of final consonants, the mispronunciation of consonant
clusters, the substitution of certain sounds, and the mispronunciation of English vowels.
Significantly, the errors were considered to originate from the learners’ lack of phonetic
knowledge, the incompatibleness between the two languages and a negative transference to
balance with Vietnamese learners’ speech organs. Although the research topic is not new-
fangled, this study could systematically and clearly point out important errors in the
pronunciation of English-majoring students. Therefore, this research paper could give reliable
foundation for the following studies focusing on effective methods to improve students’
pronunciation.
425
References
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Nguyễn Thị Ân (2007). An investigation into the pronunciation of English stops experienced by the
students at Tuy Hoa Industrial College. Master Thesis. University of Foreign Languages Studies, The
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Trần Thị Mộng Đào (2009). An Investigation into the pronunciation of English vowels performed by the
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NHỮNG VẤN ĐỀ NGHIÊM TRỌNG TRONG PHÁT ÂM

TIẾNG ANH: NGHIÊN CỨU THỰC TẾ
TẠI TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC ĐÀ LẠT
Tóm tắt: Nhận thức được rằng ngữ âm chính là một trong những yếu tố quan trọng ảnh
hưởng đến khả năng giao tiếp của người học, nghiên cứu này tập trung phân tích các lỗi
phát âm của sinh viên Ngôn ngữ Anh và tìm ra các lý do có thể khiến sinh viên phát âm sai.
Khách thể nghiên cứu là 210 sinh viên chuyên ngành tiếng Anh năm thứ nhất tại Trường
Đại học Đà Lạt. Dữ liệu được thu thập từ các bài kiểm tra ngữ âm và bản ghi âm giọng đọc
của sinh viên được phân tích và mô tả với phần mềm Wavesurfer. Kết quả nghiên cứu cho
thấy bốn lỗi phát âm cơ bản của sinh viên là không phát âm các phụ âm cuối, phát âm sai
các cụm phụ âm, thay thế một số âm bằng những âm không chính xác và phát âm sai các
nguyên âm. Những lỗi sai kể trên một phần là do người học thiếu kiến thức về ngữ âm tiếng
Anh, một phần là do sự không tương thích về hệ thống âm thanh giữa hai ngôn ngữ và một
phần là do ảnh hưởng của phương thức cấu tạo từ trong tiếng Việt đã tác động đến cách
phát âm tiếng Anh.
Từ khóa: Vấn đề về ngữ âm, sinh viên chuyên ngành tiếng Anh, lỗi phát âm sai
427
THỂ LỆ GỬI BÀI ĐĂNG TẠP CHÍ KHOA HỌC NGÔN NGỮ VÀ
VĂN HÓA TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ, ĐẠI HỌC HUẾ
1. Bài nhận đăng là bài trình bày kết quả nghiên cứu khoa học có chất lượng và tính mới trong
lĩnh vực khoa học ngôn ngữ và văn hóa. Bài viết chưa được công bố ở bất kỳ ấn phẩm, tạp chí
nào và không đang được xem xét đăng ở tạp chí hay ấn phẩm khoa học nào dưới bất cứ hình
thức nào. Tạp chí không gửi lại bài viết cho tác giả trong trường hợp bài không được chọn đăng.
2. Bài viết phải được soạn thảo trên file Word, dài không quá 12 trang (tính cả phần tài liệu
tham khảo và phần phụ lục). Hình thức trình bày như sau: khổ giấy A4; kích thước lề trang: lề
trên 2cm, lề dưới 2cm, lề trái 2cm, lề phải 2cm; phông chữ Times New Roman; cỡ chữ 11;
khoảng cách dòng 1.15 lines; khoảng cách giữa các đoạn: trước 6pt và sau 3pt.
3. Ngôn ngữ trong bài viết cần có văn phong mạch lạc, không sai chính tả, chính xác, cô đọng,
súc tích. Nếu là tiếng Anh thì theo hệ chính tả của Hoa Kỳ (American English spelling).
4. Bài viết phải nêu bật được những kết quả nghiên cứu của tác giả và phải theo cấu trúc của
một bài báo khoa học bao gồm: phần tóm tắt, đặt vấn đề, nội dung bao gồm cơ sở lý luận, kết
quả nghiên cứu và thảo luận, kết luận, tài liệu tham khảo và phụ lục.
4.1. Tên bài viết (Title): ngắn gọn, cô đọng phản ánh trực tiếp nội dung của bài viết, bằng tiếng
Việt và tiếng Anh, có độ dài vừa phải không quá 15 từ, viết chữ in hoa, đậm, cỡ chữ 14, nằm
giữa trang.
4.2.Tóm tắt (Abstract): 1 tóm tắt bằng tiếng Việt và 1 tóm tắt bằng tiếng Anh, phản ánh nội
dung cơ bản của bài báo, tối thiểu 120 từ và tối đa 150 từ, cỡ chữ 10, lề trái 1cm, lề phải 1cm,
cách dòng 1.0 line.
4.3.Từ khóa (Keywords): quan trọng đối với nội dung của bài viết, gồm 2 phần bằng tiếng Việt
hoặc tiếng Anh, tối đa 5 từ, đặt ở dưới phần tóm tắt.
5. Quy định trình bày bảng biểu, hình vẽ, ký hiệu, công thức: Số bảng biểu, hình vẽ, được đánh
số thứ tự liên tục (từ số 1), tên bảng, biểu ngắn gọn, không quá 12 từ, nếu trích phải ghi nguồn
rõ. Tên của bảng, biểu đặt trên bảng, biểu; tên của sơ đồ, hình đặt dưới sơ đồ, hình; cỡ chữ 10.
Trong bài viết, khi tham chiếu bảng, biểu, sơ đồ, tác giả cần chỉ rõ số của bảng, biểu, sơ đồ đó
(ví dụ Bảng 1), không sử dụng cụm từ như “hình trên” hay “bảng dưới đây”.
6. Trích dẫn trong bài viết: Nếu là tác giả nước ngoài thì trích họ của tác giả, ví dụ: “Theo Smith
(2013),…” hoặc… (Smith, 2013). Nếu tác giả là người Việt Nam thì trích đầy đủ họ và tên, ví
dụ: “Cao Xuân Hạo (2003) cho rằng…” Các phần trích nguyên văn thì phải đi kèm số trang từ
bản gốc. Chỉ trích dẫn các tài liệu quan trọng với nội dung bài viết. Hạn chế trích dẫn từ các
nguồn không chính thức hoặc chưa xuất bản (Ví dụ: luận án, luận văn).
7. Bài viết không sử dụng chú thích (footnote). Lời cảm ơn (nếu có) đặt ở ngay sau phần kết
luận và không quá 25 từ, sử dụng diễn đạt cố định sau: (Các) tác giả bài báo cảm ơn…
8. Tài liệu tham khảo (References): Sắp xếp danh mục tài liệu tham khảo theo thứ tự ABC của
họ tác giả (surname). Liệt kê toàn bộ các tài liệu có trích dẫn trong bài viết, số lượng không quá
428
12 tài liệu. Không đánh số thứ tự tài liệu tham khảo. Cách thức trình bày theo format của Hiệp
hội Tâm lý Hoa kỳ (APA - American Psychology Association Citation format - 6th edition), là
hình thức trích dẫn phổ biến trong các văn bản khoa học ngôn ngữ xã hội. Xem các ví dụ dưới:
- Sách:
Họ, T. (năm xuất bản). Tên sách. Nơi xuất bản (thành phố): Nhà xuất bản.
Ví dụ:
Cao Xuân Hạo (1999). Câu trong tiếng Việt. Hà Nội: Nhà xuất bản Giáo dục.
- Chương sách:
Họ, T. (năm xuất bản). Tên chương sách. Trong/In + Tên. Họ + (Ed./Eds.), Tên sách (pp.
trang đầu-trang cuối của chương). Nơi xuất bản (thành phố): Nhà xuất bản.
Ví dụ:
- Bài báo trên tạp chí:
Họ, T. (năm xuất bản). Tên bài nghiên cứu. Tên Tạp Chí Khoa Học, tập(số), trang đầu-trang
cuối.
Ví dụ:
- Tài liệu Internet:
Tên tác giả (Họ, T.)/Tổ chức. (thời điểm đăng tải). Tựa đề tờ báo. Tựa đề tài liệu tham khảo
trên Internet. Tập(số). Truy cập từ (link tàiliệu) http://www.abcdefghklmn.com/.
Ví dụ:
Bernstein, M. (2002). Ten tips on writing the living Web. A list apart: for people who make
websites, 149. Retrieved on May 3rd 2015 (Truy cập vào ngày 3 tháng 5 năm 2015) from:
http://www.alistapart.com/articles/writeliving.
-Bài báo đăng trong Kỷ yếu Hội thảo:
Họ. T. (năm). Tên bài báo trích trong Kỷ yếu. Tên của Kỷ yếu Hội thảo (pp. trang đầu-trang
cuối). Nơi xuất bản.
Ví dụ:
429
Wang, W. (2006). Exploring teachers’ beliefs and practice in the implementation of a new
English language curriculum in China: Case studies. Proceedings of the Conference on Asia-
Pacific Educational Research (Kỷ yếu Hội thảo Nghiên cứu giáo dục Châu Á - Thái Bình
Dương) (pp. 3-14). Hong Kong.
-Luận văn, luận án chưa xuất bản:
Họ, T. (năm). Tên luận án/luận văn. Luận án Tiến sĩ/Thạc sĩ chưa xuất bản. Nơi xuất bản.
Ví dụ:
teachers in New York City. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. New York University.
9. Phần phụ lục trình bày các công cụ thu số liệu có kết quả trình bày trong bài viết.
10. Tác giả bài viết hoàn toàn chịu trách nhiệm trước pháp luật về nội dung bài viết, xuất xứ tài
liệu trích dẫn.
Để hỗ trợ quá trình phản biện khách quan và bảo mật, tác giả bài viết cung cấp trên trang
đầu tiên của tệp (File) bài viết các thông tin theo thứ tự sau:
Tên của bài viết - Họ tên đầy đủ của tác giả - Tên và địa chỉ cơ quan công tác - Địa chỉ
email.
Từ trang thứ 2 của file tác giả trình bày bài viết và không để lại bất cứ thông tin gì thể
hiện danh tính tác giả của bài viết.
Địa chỉ liên hệ và gửi bài:
57 Nguyễn Khoa Chiêm, Huế
ĐT: (0234)3.938577, Fax: (0234)3.830820
BAN BIÊN TẬP TẠP CHÍ KHOA HỌC NGÔN NGỮ VÀ VĂN HÓA
430
INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS
1. The article to be published is the result of scientific research with quality and originality in
the field of language and culture sciences. The article has not been published in any journals or
periodicals and is not being considered for publication in any scientific journals. The Journal
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2. The text of the article must be typed as a Microsoft Word document (doc file) of no more
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margins: top 2cm, bottom 2cm, left 2cm, right 2cm; Times New Roman font; font size 12; line
spacing 1.15 lines; paragraph spacing: before 6pt and after 3pt.
3. The language in the article should be coherent, accurate, concise, and free of spelling
mistakes. English manuscripts must be in American English spelling.
4. The paper must highlight the research results and follow the organization and layout of a
scientific article, including such parts as abstract, introduction, literature review, methodology,
research results, discussion, conclusion, references and appendices.
4.1. The article title: concise and specific, informative, in both Vietnamese and English, in not
more than 15 words, in bold capital letters, size 15, center-aligned.
4.2. Article abstract: basically reflecting the contents of the article, in both Vietnamese and
English, about 120-150 words, font size 11, left margin 4cm, right margin 3cm, line spacing 1.0.
4.3. Keywords: relevant to the contents of the article, in both Vietnamese and English, up to 5
words, following the abstract.
5. Formatting rules for tables, charts, figures, symbols, formulas: Tables, figures are numbered
continuously (from 1); table and figure captions should be brief, in no more than 12 words with
specified source (if quoted). The caption of a table is put above it, and the caption of a figure, is
placed below it, font size 10 and center-aligned. In the article, when referring to a table or figure
the author should specify its number (for example, Table 1), instead of using phrases like "the
picture above" or "the table below".
6. Citation in the article: If a citation is from a foreign author, use his/her last name, for
example, "According to Smith (2013),..." or ... (Smith, 2013). If the author is Vietnamese, use
the full names, for example: "Cao Xuan Hao (2003) states that...". All direct quotations must
have the bibliographic source indicated, including the number of the page where they appear in
the source. Citation must be relevant to the article contents and citation from unofficial or
unpublished sources (e.g., theses, dissertations) should be limited.
7. Use no footnote in the text. Acknowledgment (if any) is placed immediately after the
conclusion and in no more than 25 words, using the following expression: The author(s) would
like to thank... for…
8. References: Arrange references in alphabetical order by the author’s surname. List all
references cited in the article, whose number is no more than 12. Do not number the references
in any way. Use APA format (American Psychology Association Citation format-6th edition),
431
which is a commonly used way of citing references in the documents of linguistics and social
sciences. See the illustrating examples below:
- Book:
Last name, Initials. (year of publication). Book's title. Place of publication (city): Publisher.
Example:
- Book chapter:
Last name, Initials. (year of publication). Title of the chapter. (giving information about the
editor(s) and book: “In” + initials of the editor’s names + Surname "(Ed./Eds.),") Title of the
book (pp. page numbers). Place of publication (city): Publisher.
Example:
- Journal article:
Last name, Initials. (year of publication). Article title. Title of Scientific journal, volume
(issue), first page-last page.
Example:
- Reference from the Internet:
Author's name. (Last, Initials)/Institution. (Time of posting). Article title. Internet reference
title. Volume (issue). Retrieved from (reference link) http://www.abc.com/
Example:
Bernstein, M. (2002). Ten tips on writing the living Web. A list apart: For people who make
websites, 149. Retrieved on May 3rd 2015 from: http://www.alistapart.com/articles/
writeliving
-Article published in conference/workshop proceedings:
Last name, Initials. (year of publication). Article title. Proceedings title (pp. page numbers).
Place of publication (city): Publisher.
Example:
Exa Wang, W. (2006). Exploring teachers’ beliefs and practice in the implementation of a
new English language curriculum in China: Case studies. Proceedings of the Conference on
Asia-Pacific Educational Research (pp. 3-14). Hong Kong.
432
- Unpublished thesis/dissertation
Last name, Initials. (year of publication). Article title. Unpublished thesis/dissertation. Place
of publication (city): Publisher.
Example:
teachers in New York City. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. New York University.
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sources of the citations.
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the author works-E-mail address.
From page 2 onward, the author(s) types the article contents only, not including any
personal or institutional information leading to their identity.
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Ấn phẩm của Tạp chí Khoa học Ngôn ngữ và Văn hóa,
Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ - Đại học Huế đã được bảo hộ
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Published by the Journal of Inquiry into Languages and
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434
K22 ENGLISH -
MAJORED STUDENT SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH SEMINAR
PROBLEMS IN SPEAKING SKILL OF THE

FIRST YEAR ENGLISH MAJORED STUDENTS
AT HUBT AND SOME SOLUTIONS TO IMPROVE
THEIR SPEAKING SKILL
Nguyen Thi Diep *
SUMMARY :As you know, English is popular all over the world and becomes an
international language. One of the objectives in foreign language teaching in Hanoi
University of Business and Technology is to help students improve their speaking skill.
This study was conducted to investigate English major students who have difficulties in
speaking skill. For the objectives, 50 first-year English majored students were invited
to participate in this study. They were asked to do a survey questionnaire which help
to indentify the reality of learning English speaking skill. Results show that most of
students have difficulties in speaking English for some factors such as lack of English
environment, attitude of learning, methods of learning, lack of vocabulary and cultural
differences. In addition, some suggestions are proposed to help student solve these
problems and enhance their English speaking skill.
Key words: Speaking skill, problems, suggestions.
I. INTRODUCTION in English. To improve their speaking

In recent times, it is undeniable that performance, we must find out problems
English is a pivotal part of Vietnam and influencing students’ speaking skills
the world in general. English is a bridge andsuggest some measures to deal with
for our country to integrate with the them.
international community. Therefore, we This paper aims to identify difficulties
need to have knowledge and understanding in English speaking skills of HUBT’s first
of English as a global language. It is the year English majored students, and then
key to unlock the door, which helps us some solutions will be suggested to help
explore the new world, new culture and them overcome the problems.
broaden our minds about the big world. II. DEVELOPMENT
Speaking is one of the necessary 1. Theoretical background
language skills that English foreign Speaking is a productive, oral
learners need to be proficient in due to skill. Speaking consists of producing
its significance andcommunication use. systematic verbal utterances to convey
However, the first-year English majored meaning (utterances are simply things
students at HUBT university cannot people say). Speaking is an interactive
communicate fluently and effectively process of constructing meaning that
* Faculty of English Language Studies, HUBT Tạp chí 49

Kinh doanh và Công nghệ
No 15E/2021
K22 ENGLISH -
involves creating and receiving, and because they notice their classmates’
processing information (Brown, 1994; attitude. For example, a student stands up
Burn & Joyce, 1997). Its form and and says the wrong one; the classmates
meaning are dependent on the context in often laughed or revised sarcastically. This
which it occurs, including the participants phenomenon has limited the participation
themselves, their collective experiences, of student lessons.
the physical environment, and the More than 30% of students said
purposes for speaking. they are lazy and not motivated to learn
Speaking is probably the language to speak English. Some of them do not
skill that most language learners wish to like to learn English because they have
perfect as soon as possible. When learning no passion for English. Others chose to
a language, the learner’s goal is to speak major in English as their last resort after
fluently, even to communicate like a native they failed their favorite major.
speaker. If they cannot communicate, their
learning of the language is considered
a failure. For first-year English major
students at HUBT university, 60-70%
do not speak English fluently. Therefore,
I conducted a survey to find out what
serious problems they had.
2. English learners’ problems and
suggested solutions in speaking skills
After collecting the information,
some of these problems are as follows:
1) Environment to speak English
There is the fact that most students do
not focus on speaking English, especially
students in the provinces. They are often 3) Methods of learning
taught to pay more attention to grammar. Not having an effective study method
Besides, a common class of more than 30 is one of the reasons why students do
students, with grades up to 35, 40. This not speak English. Students only study
figure often makes all students without in class and then do not practice extra
the opportunity to speak in front of the at home. Some students have learning
class during a class session. Besides, methods, but those methods do not
visual media in classes are too poor. Most work for themselves because theydo not
of the classrooms are not equipped with understand most of the English learning
video or audio recorder, so fail to attract methods how to effectively.
students to thenative environment has not 4) Lack of vocabulary
been real life into the classroom. Students do not have a wide range
2) Attitude of student learning of vocabulary, leading to situations
Vietnam students often shy when where they do not know how to express
speaking. They have no habit of arguing their thoughts. Moreover, many words
in class or dare not raise their own opinion in English have more than one meaning,
Tạp chí 50
No 15E/2021
K22 ENGLISH -
and students do not know how to use such as: “I want to eat banana” to “I want
themappropriately in a certain context. to eat bananas.” Besides, students should
5) Differences in social and cultural use the English-English dictionary to
norms and rules learn the definition in English. Frequent
Students do not have a background use of the English-English dictionary will
knowledge of social and cultural norms increase their ability to think in English.
and rules such as turn-taking, rate of 2) Practice speaking regularly
speech, length of pauses between speakers, Students can find someone to practice
relative roles of participants,making them with - either on Facebook or on language
not clear about who is speaking to whom, exchange sites. Besides, they can join
in what circumstances, about what, and English clubs of HUBT university or
for what reason. All these problems make English competitions organized by the
them confused in the choice of words, faculty to increase their proficiency.
structures, etc. These activities make them feel more
interested and motivated to learn English.
Occasionally on weekends, students can
go out to places where foreigners are and
talk to them to improve their intonation
and pronunciation.
3) Keep listening
3. Suggested solutions Communication is a two-way process.
To help students overcome the People take information up and speak it
above problems, I suggest the following out in their own words. One of the easiest
solutions: ways to work on students’ speaking skills
1) Thinking in English without a partner is listening to English
Learners try to describe everything being spoken. It can be helpful to watch
around them in English. They should English tv shows, listen to English podcasts,
beaware of their thinking in English and to play English-language music.
instead of Vietnamese thinking and then 4) Choose a suitable learning method
translatingit into English. All change in Learners should try a variety of
thought. They have to think that they can learning methods until they find one that
think in English, and whenever a thought works for them. They can seek advice
or a voice in their head tries to translate, from experienced people or instructors.
Tạp chí 51
No 15E/2021
K22 ENGLISH -
5) Reading books out in the survey, students are facing

Students should read books to learn English speaking problems. Each student
about foreigners’ communicative culture should practice speaking more and
and their social and cultural norms and rules. have the appropriate learning method to
Some books you can refer to are Rules, speak fluently and effectively. Moreover,
Britannia,British Culture; Among Cultures learners themselves have to make all
The Challenge of Communication; etc. efforts to overcome the difficulties. It
III. CONCLUSION is hoped that all these suggestions will
Speaking is an important skill be taken into consideration so that all
because speaking is a product of learning problems will be solved and students can
English. Basing on what has been found improve their English speaking skills./.
References
1. Bailey, K.M., & Savage, L. (1994). New ways in teaching speaking. Alexandria,
VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages.
2. Burns, A., & Joyce, H. (1997). Focus on speaking. Sydney: National Center
for English Language Teaching and Research.
3. Lewis, M. (Ed.) (1997). New ways in teaching adults. Alexandria, VA: Teachers
of English to Speakers of Other Languages.
4. Rivers, W.M. (1981). Teaching foreign language skills (2nd ed.). Chicago:
University of Chicago Press
5. https://edu.viettel.vn/bgg-thptngosylien/tin-tuc/nghien-cuu-khoa-hoc/how-to-
teach-speaking-skill-to-english-majored-students.html
CÁC VẤN ĐỀ TRONG KỸ NĂNG NÓI CỦA SINH

VIÊN NĂM NHẤT CHUYÊN NGÀNH TIẾNG ANH
TẠI HUBT VÀ MỘT SỐ GIẢI PHÁP ĐỂ CẢI
THIỆN KỸ NĂNG NÓI
Nguyễn Thị Diệp
Tóm tắt: Tiếng Anh đã trở nên phổ biến và trở thành ngôn ngữ quốc tế. Một trong
những mục tiêu của việc giảng dạy ngoại ngữ tại Trường Đại học Kinh doanh và Công
nghệ Hà Nội là giúp sinh viên nâng cao kỹ năng Nói của mình. Nghiên cứu này được
thực hiện để chỉ ra những khó khăn mà sinh viên chuyên ngành tiếng Anh gặp trong
kỹ năng Nói. 50 sinh viên chuyên ngành tiếng Anh năm thứ nhất đã được mời tham
gia vào nghiên cứu này. Họ được yêu cầu thực hiện một bảng câu hỏi khảo sát giúp
xác định thực tế của việc học kỹ năng Nói tiếng Anh. Kết quả cho thấy hầu hết sinh
viên gặp khó khăn khi nói tiếng Anh vì một số yếu tố như thiếu môi trường giao tiếp
tiếng Anh, thái độ học tập, phương pháp học, thiếu vốn từ vựng và khác biệt văn hóa.
Ngoài ra, một số gợi ý được đề xuất để giúp học sinh giải quyết những vấn đề này và
nâng cao kỹ năng Nói tiếng Anh.
Từ khóa: Kĩ năng Nói, vấn đề, giải pháp.
Tạp chí 52
No 15E/2021
USING ROLE-PLAY TO ENHANCE THE ORAL COMMUNICATION
PERFORMANCE OF NON-ENGLISH MAJOR FRESHMEN AT VAN LANG
UNIVERSITY
ABSTRACT:
Role-play has recently been applied in speaking classrooms to help students
improve their oral communication performance, since it is believed that role-play
provides learners with opportunities to communicate freely, confidently and
spontaneously in vivid and lifelike different situations (Ramos, 2002). However,
few researches have been done on how to apply role- play successfully and take
the most advantage of it in speaking class for students at tertiary education. This
study aims to determine whether or not using role-play in speaking classrooms
might enhance non-English major freshmen’s oral communication performance at
Van Lang University (VLU) and what are their attitudes towards this
technique. Action research method was used in combination with various tools for
data collection such as students’ questionnaire, classroom observation, audio
recording, and student’s scores via pre-test and post- test.
Keywords: Role-play, oral communication performance, Communicative
Language Teaching.
1. Introduction
Role-play has numerous benefits in language classroom. The most positive aspect
is that role-play provides students with opportunities for practicing in class the
language they need for interacting outside the classroom (Raz, 1985). In addition,
Stern (1980) also found role-play to be an effective technique that it affects
communicative competence, motivation and foreign language learners positively.
Role-play, especially, helps create vivid and lifelike situations in which students
can express themselves freely, confidently and creatively and stimulates students’
interest in speaking classroom (Liu, 2010).
Vietnam is integrating into the international community, so students can take many
great advantages of fluency in English communication nowadays. However, many
Vietnamese students are good at English grammar and vocabulary, but not
communication skills. In the same way, students at Van Lang classroom today still
feel hesitant to speak in English even though they may be very competent in
grammar. From observations, the researcher realized that they lack the English
environment outside the classroom in which they can practice their English.
Therefore, how to make students engage in speaking periods, and how to help
learners communicate well in real contexts, the researchers want to know what the
most effective technique in speaking motivates and enhances students’ oral
communication. Besides, there is very little research examining how role-play
affects the speaking ability of non-English student at tertiary level. For those
reasons, this research reports on a study of applying teaching speaking, especially,
using role- play technique, for first year non-English major students at Van Lang
University.
2. Literature Review
2.1. Role play
There are numerous definitions of role play. The definition used for this study is
from Doff (1988, p. 232) “role-play is a way of bringing situations from real life
into classroom. When teacher does role play, they ask their students to imagine”.
In role-play, students may imagine a role, in other words, they pretend to be a
different person (e.g. a farmer, a doctor, a customer). What more, they also
imagine a situation, in other words, they pretend to be doing something different
(e.g. planning a holiday, borrow money, make an appointment). It is concluded
that role-play is a speaking activity in which the students play a role or act to be
somebody else or put themselves into a variety of situations which they can be
encountered in the real life.
2.2. Oral Communication performance
Oral communication performance is defined by characterizing it in two separate
sub-terms, namely oral communication and communicative performance. Oral
communication refers to an ability to understand meaning between two or more
speakers (O’Maley & Valdez, 1996). Communicative performance is the actual use
of language in real situation. (Chomsky ,1965)
2.3. Types and procedures in using role-play
2.3.1. Types of Role Play
In case of role-play activities, according to Don Byrne as cited in Jannah (2011),
role-play can be divided into two forms: scripted and unscripted role-play.
Scripted Role Play
This type involves interpreting either the textbook dialogue or reading text in the
form of speech. The main function of the text after all is to convey the meaning of
language items in a memorably way.
Unscripted Role Play
In contrast of scripted role play, the situations of unscripted role play do not
depend on textbooks. It is known as a free role-play or improvisation. The
students themselves have to decide what language to use and how the conversation
should develop. In order to do this activity, good preparation from teacher and
students is really necessary.
For this paper’s purpose, the researcher chose type of role -playing controlled
through cued dialogues to design for role-play activities because the participants
are just familiar to role-play activities and this type is suitable to their level.
2.3.2. Procedure of teaching oral communication through role-play
Stage 1- Activities before role-play
In this stage, teachers should give some activities to stimulate student’s interest
such as pictures, games, realia, songs and movies. The other activity before role -
play is conducted by introducing new vocabularies and structures in the
compulsory textbook. Finally, a model dialogue presented native speakers should
be played. After the students recognize the vocabularies and dialogue in role-play,
they have a chance to practice the lines together with the whole class (River,
1987).
Stage 2- Activities during role-play
After the teachers guided students to apply the role-play that has been practiced,
diving the students into pairs and having students modify the dialogues to produce
their own dialogue based on role cards given. Learners should be allotted enough
time for discussion, in which they become deeply engrossed in problem-solving,
have the opportunity to try different ways of acting and making situations real
(Chester and Fox, 1996).
Stage 3– Activities after role-play
There are two activities can be carried out in this stage, that is: checking students’
comprehension and checking students’ feedback (River, 1987). After choosing
some groups to perform roles, the teacher asked for learner reflection on the
performance. Then, she highlighted the strengths of each group and the extent to
which they had achieved their learning goals. What needs to be implemented and
improved was mentioned after that.
2.4. Relation between conversation and role-play
Arthur (1987) states that the main purpose of conversation is the exchange of
information among people. While communicating, our students may find
themselves in different social situations playing various social roles and the main
task for language teachers is to prepare them for those real situations they might
participate (p.5). Therefore, role-play is an appropriate technique providing such
situations for students to practice.
2.5. Empirical researches and implications
The effectiveness of role-play activities in improving students’ oral skills has been
demonstrated in a number of research studies.
The impact of role-play activity on the speaking skill is mentioned in the study
carried out by Alwahibee (2004). There were 30 students taking part in the study.
They were all at the same level –in second level classes, came from the English
Department and had no experiences learning with role-play technique before. They
were divided into two groups: control group and experimental group. The study
was conducted in ten weeks. Getting the results from oral interviews, open-ended
questions, short surveys, the author confirmed that role-play technique is an
effective strategy to improve speaking ability, to build students’ self - confidence
and should be used when teaching listening or speaking with more focus on
speaking skill.
Graves’s (2008) study emerges whether role –play is an effective method and
makes learning more meaningful to students. These questions were explored by
conducting a ten-week research involving 75 students at Paw Paw high school in
Southeastern Ohio. Findings came from the analyses of the results collected from
a questionnaire before role-playing project, project scores, Likert – type survey
and interview. After conducting the study, it was concluded that role-play project
helped students “better remember information”, enjoy working with their peers
and it was preferred to traditional methods.
Feng Liu and Yun Ding (2009) aimed at proving the positive effectiveness of using
role-play technique in English language teaching; and simultaneously, indicating
ways to apply it successfully in English class. Using the experimental method and
observation, the authors conducted two fifty – minute classes with the
participation of 30 Chinese freshmen in the same class. What they found after this
study was using role-play improved students’ ability of memorization and
application of new words, appropriate grammar usage in spoken English (“lifelike
forms”) (p. 142), free and fluent communication in different situations.
Also focusing on how to make students interested in oral activities, Liu (2010)
wanted to prove that role - play technique is more effective than English oral tests
in motivating students to speak English. She decided to carry out a four-week
study on two twenty-student groups, all of whom are freshmen from Xu Liu’s two
classes, at the same age and at the same language level. The participants were
divided into Target group (using role-play technique) and Control group (using
English oral tests method). By using observation notes, questionnaire and
interview analyses, Xu Liu found that role-play technique was more effective and
more helpful than oral tests in making students feel interested in speaking English.
Especially, role –play is considered more influential to the low-mark students than
to the excellent students and to boys than to girls. Meanwhile, oral tests were
believed to cause anxiety for freshmen and marked no great changes in motivating
students’ English speaking.
In a nutshell, all of authors mentioned above agreed that role-play is a beneficial
language teaching tool that helps students a lot in enhancing their communicative
competence, building self-confidence, letting them learning speaking actively and
enjoyably and making them to realize the importance of teamwork. The
researcher, nevertheless, has not found out a research about achievement of first
year students ‘oral communication performance after being taught with role-play
in Viet Nam. It is fact that Vietnamese first year students from different
background and have different level. They are shy and reluctant to speak in
English class. It is really difficult to make them engage in speaking class. For this
reason, the researcher would like to conduct this study to answer these following
questions:
To what extent does the use of role-play enhance non- English major first year
students’ oral communication performance?
What is the students’ attitude toward the use of role-play in teaching oral
communication?
3. Methodology
3.1 . Research goals
As mentioned above this study was motivated by the desire to examine (1) the
effect of role-play on enhancing students’ oral communication performance (2)
student’s attitude when taught role-play. For the research purposes, this study was
carried out through an experimental speaking teaching designed on the basic of
role-play activities. The experimental teaching, on the one hand, aims a t getting
learners actively involved in all steps of role -play process by engaging them in
variety of collaborative activities. On the other hand, it tried to make learners
eager to take part in this activity and feel active, confident and interested in role-
play.
3.2 . Research Participants
Participants in this study were from two classes, namely K24A1 and K24KA2 with
the same number of thirty students in each class. These two classes were randomly
chosen as experimental and control group. The students are about 18 -20 years old
and are studying English at post-elementary level in the first semester of their first
year at university. Furthermore, as the students were required to take a placement
test at the beginning of the course, and then were assigned to each class based on
their results, their levels of English are nearly the same.
3.3. Research instruments
To increase the reliability and validity of the research, triangulation, or different
methods combined, was used for data collection: pre-post tests, voice recordings,
observation, and questionnaire.
In this research, it was designed to test whether an intervention (role-play
technique) helps students improve their oral communication performance. Pre-test
was carried out at the beginning of the experimental teaching. Participants had to
do the speaking test individually in form of interview test. There were some
questions based on topics in textbooks: American Jetstream- Elementary B by
Revel, J. & Tomalin, M. (2016). The participants were asked some questions
related to those topics. Purpose of pre-test was to ensure the level of control group
and the experimental group is the same. In addition, pre-test would be compared
with post-test to prove whether role-play can improve student’s oral performance.
Like pretest, participants had to take part in oral test of interview form in posttest.
The purpose of taking posttest was to compare with pre-test to check the
improvements of the students’ oral communication performance during and after
the enactment of role-play.
While students were engaged in role-play activities, the researcher observed to see
student’s feelings, and to know how they make process through each speaking
period using role-play. The researcher designed an observation checklist to chec k
students’ engagement in role-play activities and to verify the improvement of the
participants’ oral communication performance after role-play instruction. The
researcher, moreover, recorded students’ performance at pretest and posttest to
analysis all improvement of role-play characteristics
The researcher, finally, used the attitude questionnaire for experimental group (30
students). The questionnaire comprised of eight questions used to gain responses
in non-face-to-face situations and the questions are focused on applying role-play
technique in teaching oral communication. All of them were close-ended questions
and were written in both English and Vietnamese to avoid misunderstanding. The
main purpose was to check how student’s attitudes toward role-play technique.
This questionnaire was supplied to the students personally. After getting the
response of students, the data was compiled and converted to percentage.
3.4. Procedures of the study
All participants were taught by the researchers in the 11-week course of General
English 1 which met two times a week. After the first week of the course, students
of both groups were asked to do the pretest to confirm whether the experimental
group and control group had the same ability in speaking. The researcher also
recorded student’s performance of the experimental group at the pre-test. During
experimental teaching, the teacher applied role-play as treatment for experimental
group and other techniques for control group. At the same time, observation and
audio records were made when students performed role-play to confirm that they
were improving day by day.
At the end of the experimental teaching, there would be the post-test for both
groups. As for experimental group, the researcher scored and recorded student’s
performance at post-test to check student’s speaking improvement as well as to
analysis how they convey information in each conversation. At the same time, an
attitude questionnaire was conducted to experimental group, the result of
questionnaire shows whether students like role-play technique or not.
4. Findings and Discussion
4.1. Participants’ performance at pre-test and post-test
Table 1: The T-test results of the scores
Source: Authors’ calculation.
As shown in Table 1, pair 1, Sig. value was 0.68 (> 0.05), which satisfied that the
difference in mean scores of the two groups was not significant and can carry out
the experimental teaching.
As illustrated in table 1, pair 2, participants in post-test got higher scores in the
pre-test with = 26.96 ( S.D. =3.77) and = 26.40 (S.D.= 5.19) respectively.
However, the difference in mean scores of the two groups was not statistically
significant because Sig. (2-tailed) was .288, it was larger than 0.05. Thus, the
students did not improve oral communication performance in the control group
after ten weeks with no special intervention.
We can see in table 1, pair 3, the participants’ scores ( = 29.50) in post-test was
higher than that ( = 25.90) in pre-test. Moreover, the Sig. (2-tailed) was 0.01
(<0.05), which showed that the difference in mean scores of the two groups was
statistically significant. Undoubtedly, the student’s oral communication
performance was enhanced after adopting role play.
Table 1, pair 4, displayed that mean scores of the experimental group ( = 29.50,
S.D. = 4.221) was higher than that of the control group ( = 26.96, S.D. = 3.77).
Furthermore, Sig.value was .012 (< 0.05). It is available to confirm that there was
a significant difference in mean scores of the two groups. Therefore, students’ oral
performance in the experimental is more improved than that in the control group.
Using new treatment (role play) in teaching oral communication was effective.
In brief, it was not denied that there was some improvement in the control group,
but this progress was not remarkable. In addition, the scores mean of the control
group in post-test was not significantly higher than that in the pre-test. Unlike the
control group, the scores
on average gained by the students of the experimental group in the post-
test was higher than that in the pre-test and the difference in mean scores of pre-
test and post-test in the experimental group was statistically
significant. Moreover, the mean scores of the experimental group in pre -test is
significantly higher than that in the post-test. Therefore, using the new treatment
in the experimental can improve participants’ oral communication performance.
Moreover, results from t-test in the experimental group showed that students could
improve their fluency and lexical items in details. Pronunciation and grammar
were also enhanced but it is not noticeable.
4.2 . Questionnaire data analysis
4.2.1. Attitudes towards role-play
73.3% students responded that they extremely liked role-play activities and
wanted role-play to be used in speaking lessons. About 16.7% found role -play so-
so while the rest of students considered role-play as a normal speaking activity, so
they had no idea about whether they liked it or not.
How participants felt after taking part in role lay activities are investigated. The
results displayed that all participants felt relaxed and 60% of them were motivated
after learning by role play. Studying speaking through role play, they felt like
speaking English.
4.2.2. Favorite elements of role-play activities
Chart 1: Favorite elements of role-play activities
Most of students liked to use role play in teaching speaking because role play
activities brought them funny atmosphere (90%) and gave them more chances to
speak English in group (83%). Half of participants said that they could use many
gestures in each role play activities. 70% students also showed their interests in
being a different person in interesting situations (67%). Other reasons for
preference were given by nine students (30%), that is, knowing how to role -play
in real situations.
4.2.3. Improvements after role-play activities
Chart 2: Improved areas after role-play

Results from questionnaire showed that 76.7% students strongly agreed that role
play made their speaking better. 46.7% believed that they had made process in
fluency and coherence whereas 10 % students supposed that their grammatical
accuracy developed. 20% students thought that their pronunciation and intonation
was better. 23.3% of them stated that they gained more knowledge of vocabulary.
What more, most of them (81,3%) agreed that role play activities made their
speaking lesson more enjoyable and less challenging and reduced their shyness
and anxiety.
In brief, questions investigated participants’ attitude to using role play in speaking
class. They had a positive with using role play in teaching speaking in classroom.
All students liked using role play in speaking classroom because it created
different interesting situations, which gave students more chances to speak
English. Moreover, working in pairs, students reduced their shyness and increase
their confidence. Students also admitted that their speaking ability also improved
after learning speaking by role play. They felt relaxed and comfortable after role
play activities, so they really want to use role play in speaking class in future.
4.3. Observation data analysis
From observation of behavior, students had positive with role-play activities. At
stage before role-play, all of the students were engaged in tasks, 87,5% students
took notes what the teacher presented. Few students (12,5%) sometimes asked
questions when there are some contents not clear. When the role-play began, 100%
students shared their roles, helped each other, and discussed immediately.
Furthermore, most of them laughed and used body language a lot while they were
working with role-play. 90% of pairs wanted to perform their roles in front of
class. Most of their performance made their friends pay high attention. When one
pair performed, audiences listened carefully, sometimes laughed, or shouted some
sounds like “yeah”, “wow”. Finally, role-play ended, students smiled a lot and still
talked about some plays in the role-play conversation.
4.4. Analysis of audio recordings at pretest and posttest
Promoting language fluency and coherence
Audio recordings at post-test showed that participants spoke with little pauses,
had ability to link simple sentences, gave complex communication, and
maintained flow of speech. They were willing to speak at length, used a range of
connectives, and discourse markers. Some participants spoke fluently with only
rare repetition or self-correction; any hesitation is content-related rather than to
find words or grammar. Others knew to develop topics coherently and
appropriately.
Improving lexical resource
With respect to lexical items, participants knew apply items taught, for example,
they can use some words about food such as mixture, sweet, bitter, flavor, ect,
used vocabularies with flexibility to talk about a variety of topics (about food,
friends, travel, and family). Especially, they had a wide enough vocabulary
resource to discuss topics at length and make meaning clear. Furthermore, there
are some used paraphrase effectively as required, vocabulary with full flexibility
and precision in all topics, and idiomatic language naturally and accurately.
Enhancing grammatical range and accuracy
Participants made few mistakes in grammar and could produce basi c sentence
forms (correct tenses) with reasonable accuracy and some correct simple sentences
easily. Some of them used a range of more complex structures like “if condition”
and a mix of simple structures such as “ I like”, “ I am into” , and “ would
rather” naturally and appropriately with some flexibility.
Developing pronunciation
Pronunciation was also improved after training with role-play, which was proved
clearly that they could produce some acceptable features of English pronunciation,
used of intonation to emphasize important meaning, able to vary speed of delivery
to affect meaning and used a wide range of phonological features to convey
meaning effectively. The examiner could fully understand everything clearly and
easily.
In conclusion, results and audio recordings of pre-test and post-test showed that
participants’ oral communication performance was improved. Apart from
enhancing in fluency, vocabulary, pronunciation and grammar, role-play helped
participants improve conversation skills. They had more chances to interact and
support each other. They know how to take their turns, keep their talk, minimize
overlap, pause, or interrupt and limit repetition.
5. Conclusions
After the treatment, the experimental group’s posttest score was better than
control group’s posttest score. There were significant differences between the
students’ oral communication performance of the experimental group applied role-
play and students’ oral communication of control group received other methods. It
indicates that role-play could improve the students’ oral score better than normal
method.
It is proved that the student’s oral communication was improved in some
elements; fluency and coherence, vocabulary, grammar and accuracy, and
pronunciation. After the treatment was applied, the students in the experimental
group pronoun more accurately, speak more fluently, and use more vocabulary and
correct grammar.
Moreover, from the role-play observation checklist and audio recordings taken
during ten weeks, they showed that role-play activity could develop students’
conversation skills. Thanks to practicing with role-play, students could use turn
taking clues or adjacency pairs to control and increase their turns. In addition,
strategies which made conversation smooth and natural also applied successfully.
On the basis of the data analysis gained from questionnaire and engagement
observation checklist, it displayed that role-play activity could increase the
student’s motivation in joining speaking class. The results from questionnaire
representing the matters of students’ opinion about English subject, speaking skill,
and role-play technique, indicated that most of students agreed that role -play made
the learning process become more enjoyable and fun. The students’ responses also
showed that role-play has a strong effect on improving student’s speaking skill.
Furthermore, role-play could increase students’ confidence in speaking English as
they felt relaxed and comfortable when practicing with role-play.
Besides, student’s motivation was reflected in their efforts in three stages of role -
play. For instances, they asked their friends and also teacher about the lesson at
the before role-play stage. They started to practice immediately and needed more
time to practice their roles. They gave positive behaviors such as smiling and
laughing, nodding, shaking head, hand movement, so on. They wanted to
volunteer to perform their roles in front of class. after the role-play stage, they
still talked about it and discussed some mistakes their friends made. Students’
motivation improvement could be seen from their interest and enthusiasm in
participating in role-play activity.
In conclusion, role-play was effective in enhancing oral communication
performance of first year non-English student at Van Lang University.
5.1. Implications
5.1.1 Implications for English teachers
The researcher would like to suggest some implications for English teacher. Role-
play requires well-organized teaching materials, the teacher should be well-
prepared before conducting the role-play activity. The teacher should choose the
appropriate topics that are suitable to the students’ ability as well as the language
functions that have been mastered by the students. During the implementation of
role-play technique, the teacher should help actively students to solve their
problems. While students practiced with role-play, the class became little bit
noisy, the teacher should be patient. Moreover, the teacher should walk around
class to prevent students from using mother tongue a lot. Besides, the teacher
should manage time efficiently and effectively since role-play sometimes takes
much time. Finally, the teacher should make sure that the students have fully
understood and have the information they need.
5.1.2. Implications for students
Many students are not willing to speak English because they are afraid to make
mistakes and their friends laugh at them. They feel shy and nervous when
speaking in front of crowd or class. Role-play not only helps students increase
their self- confidence but also makes them feel comfortable to speak English. The
students can train themselves by using role-play. They are demanded to imagine
getting fun in role-play activity. Besides using role-play to improve the oral
communication, the students should eliminate their fear to make their mistakes.
Another important implication is related to pairing students. Some students may
not get along well, this, so, is a chance for them to take part in interactions with
classmates.
5.2 Limitations of the study
Although the aims of this current study were achieved, there remained some
limitations. Firstly, the limitation lies in the sampling method used in this research
i.e. nonrandom purpose sampling. In this sampling method, the researcher did not
have the opportunity to pick the participants randomly, but she had to work with
two assigned classes. However, the results of the pre-test showed that the control
group and the experimental group had nearly the same proficiency level or in
other word, the difference between the two groups was not statistically
significant.
Secondly, the limitation concerns the sample size. Specifically, the results of this
study were drawn from the two classes with only 30 participants in Van Lang
University. Therefore, the findings are just restricted to this research site and no
generalization for a larger population can be made.
Lastly, the time limit for implementing role-play is also taken in consideration. As
mentioned earlier, under the specific context of Van Lang University, the
researcher could only teach 1 speaking lesson in two periods in a week. Therefore,
during the process of adopting role play to teach speaking, the researcher did
encounter much difficulty in relation to the time pressure. Hence, it cannot be
guaranteed that the result will be the same in case of the unlimited time.
5.3. Recommendations for Further Research
It can be said that role-play is a successful technique in improve students’ oral
communication. For further study, it is suggested some research possibilities. One
project would be conducting similar studies with different levels and other
schools, particularly with high levels of proficiency. In addition, further studies
should explore the use of other kinds of role-play with different group of learners.
For example, with students who have advanced level, the researcher can apply
role-playing in the form of debate or discussion or roleplaying controlled through
situations and goals. Furthermore, there does not seem to be much research on
using role-play with other skills; listening or reading skill.
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128 Nguyen Phuong Thanh, Truong Van Tuan
DEVELOPING THE SPEAKING SKILL FOR NON-ENGLISH MAJOR STUDENTS

THROUGH ORAL PRESENTATION
Nguyen Phuong Thanh, Truong Van Tuan
College of Commerce; phuongthanh210@gmail.com
Vietnam Korea Friendship Information Technology College; trglamtuan2110@gmail.com
Abstract - Speaking is one of the skills that EFL learners find it To gain more insights into the effective utilization of
difficult to achieve. This can be applied to EFL students whose this teaching strategy, a research entitled “Developing the
majors are not English. However, the speaking competence is speaking skill for non-English major students through oral
really necessary for students after graduating from universities due
to the job requirements in the global integration time. Therefore, it presentation ” was carried out with the research questions:
is comparative that there should be certain strategies to help 1. Is oral presentation really necessary to the development
students develop their speaking skill. Recently, oral presentation
of non-English major students’ speaking ability?
has been employed for this purpose, yet there have been different
ideas about its real effects on students as well as ways of exploiting 2. How does oral presentation help students develop
it. This investigation was carried out to explore this issue from the their speaking skill?
perspectives of teachers and students. The results show that oral
presentation activities are essential for students’ speaking 3. How should presentation activities be employed to
enhancement, and oral presentation does have a great impact on help students develop their speaking skill?
students’ vocabulary, pronunciation, and confidence which are
crucial for their speaking performance. Moreover, ways of carrying The outcomes of this investigation will help teachers
out oral presentation for the best results have also been suggested. answer these questions, and hence help contribute to the
Key words - speaking skill; speaking competence; oral presentation;
finding of solutions to students’ inability of speaking English
communicative activities; develop students’ speaking skill. effectively, which is the current concern of language
teachers, educators, and relevant agencies and bodies.
1. Introduction 2. Speaking skill and the nature of speaking skill
English, as an international language in the world, makes development
it possible for people to access international friendships, new The ultimate aim of learning a language is to be able to
technology, and international markets (Nguyen, 2013). communicate in that language. Therefore, speaking is one
Thus, English has been playing an important role in the of the most desired skills. However, teaching and learning
development of Vietnam. especially in the context of speaking is quite difficult. Shumin (1997) contended
increasing global integration. In fact, “the ability to “learning to speak a foreign language requires more than
communicate effectively in English is a decisive factor that knowing its grammar and vocabulary.” (as cited in
helps a person to fulfill their responsibilities and succeed Khameis, 2007, p. 111). Speaking skill is acquired through
when working for or with multinational companies.” learners’ interaction with one another (Khameis, 2007). In
(Nguyen, 2013, p. 710) This is the reason why the teaching fact, natural and real situations help push students to speak
and learning of English, especially students’ speaking skill, English naturally. Moreover, students are able to speak
have been paid much attention. As one of the requirements well when they are motivated to speak. Students’
of the age for integration, English speaking skill is a must to motivation can be enhanced when students are interested
non-English major students after graduating if their goal is in the activities or the topics or when they have good
to integrate fully into the international world of business. knowledge about what they speak. Students’ motivation is
However, the fact that students’ English level is still low is also activated when they have good preparation about what
an alarming issue. According to Le (2013), the surveys they are going to speak in front of their peers.
conducted by five key universities in 2005 revealed that the
majority of students’ real English level was just elementary. 3. Different ideas about the relationship between oral
Moreover, students’ speaking competence is still a matterof presentationsversus speaking skill
great concern. One of the reasons of this matter is the current Oral presentation can be in an either short or long form
ways of training which are still test-driven and teacher- which can be delivered either individually or as part of a
centered. Students do not have adequate time for their oral group. Students may have to use visual aids such as
practice. There is a need of a more communicative method PowerPoint slides, posters, and pictures to support their
of teaching so that students can develop their speaking skill. spoken language. While participating in the presentation
One of the suggested communicative and student-centered activities, students present and explain the content as well as
activities teachers can employ to encourage students’ answer the listeners’ questions. In turn, the listeners will also
speaking is oral presentation whereby students have to use have the chance to speak when asking questions or giving
oral language to present their ideas and interact with their comments. Can the activities of oral presentation provide
peers and the teacher. This strategy has more or least been students with such motivation stimuli mentioned above?
exploited by a number of teachers with the hope to help
students enhance their oral competence. However, its real There have been different viewpoints about the
effect is still a question to teachers. utilization of oral presentation in teaching students. Erkaya
ISSN 1859-1531 - THE UNIVERSITY OF DANANG, JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, NO. 12(85).2014, VOL. 1 129
(2011) believes the role of oral presentation is so crucial to To get deep insights into the issues and responses from
students’ speaking skill development that “[the] course is students, an investigation was carried out in the light of a
not complete…until instructors teach students oral qualitative approach. Such a qualitative study helps to
presentation skills.” She states, “[o]ral presentation skills understand students’ viewpoints and perspectives about
are an extension of oral communication skills: the former their learning experiences since in this type of study “[t]he
deals with planned usage of language; and the latter, mostly key concern is understanding the phenomenon of interest
with unplanned usage of language.” Besides helping to from the participants’ perspectives, not the researcher’s”
bridge the gap between language study and language use, (Merriam, 1998, p.6, as cited in Ramírez, 2010). For data
developing students’ skills of collecting and organizing collection in this qualitative study, at the beginning of the
information, and enhancing students’ collaborative work, semester, the participants were divided into groups of 2 or
oral presentation enables students to use language skills 3, and presentation topics were assigned to them. Then, at
(King, 2002), especially the speaking skill. In contrast, a the beginning of every class time, from 2 to 3 groups
number of teachers question the appropriateness of this students in turn did their presentation with their chosen
communicative activity in different culture contexts as this topics. The presentation activities lasted for one semester.
is originally a mainly Western approach which may not be Additionally, observations, questionnaires, and interviews
suitable for Asian students. King (2002) argues that were also employed as research instruments.
“presentations can be a face-threatening activity,
particularly for some Asian students” (p. 404), and 5. Findings and discussion
therefore “speaking in public sometimes actually 5.1. The necessity of oral presentations to non-English
undermined students’ confidence and is ineffective in major students’ speaking skill improvement
developing students’ oral proficiency because students
were put on the spot” (p.403). From the data collected, 46 out of 47 the participants
(comprising 98% of the data pool), when asked about the
From the fact, it can be seen that, oral presentation is
necessity of oral presentations, agreed that oral
theoretically an effective strategy for improving students’
presentations should be included in EFL classes for non-
ability of speaking. Nonetheless, if not well-managed, this
English major students, and only one of them said “Don’t
type of activity may have negative results that are de-
know”. Of these 46 students approving the utilization of
motivation and the antithesis of what has been expected
oral presentations, 28 students contended that such
before. Therefore, there is a need to find thebest way to
activities had helped them develop their speaking skill with
help students with their doing oral presentations.
confidence in front of other people, and the rest asserted
Anticipating the problems that may happen as mentioned
that these activities assisted them to improve their English,
above, King (2002) suggests some solutions that can be
including their English vocabulary and pronunciation,
done from the teacher’s side. She emphasizes the teachers’
which in turn also benefited their speaking skill. In general,
role in helping students cope with their speech anxiety by
when approving of oral presentations, all of the students
having students’ open discussions about this phenomenon
believed that these activities provided them opportunities
and the treatment for it. Teachers are also recommended to
to improve their English, especially confident speaking.
avoid group boredom by reminding presenters about using
eye contact and communicative languages to the live Table 1. Student’s opinions about the necessity
audience. Students are believed to be taught the of oral presentation in non-English EFL classes
presentation skill, too. Other roles of the teacher in giving Students’ opinion No of students Percentage %
outlines, grouping and scheduling students’ presentations, Yes 36 98
assisting students to choose topics and gather information,
No 0 0
preparing students’ about how to handle technical
problems, holding Q &A sections, and finally preparing Don’t know 1 2
evaluation forms, are also suggested by King (2002). This once again confirms most teachers’ belief about
However, there have not been any solutions derived from the effectiveness of oral presentation to students’ speaking
the perspectives of students who are also an important part competence as mentioned earlier.
of the teaching and learning procedure. Therefore, this
research seeks the answers from the angle of students’ 5.2. The impact of oral presentation
perceptions and opinions to find the last puzzle piece for a Data analysis showed that all of the students, when
complete picture. asked about the usefulness of their presentations for their
speaking skill, contended that the presentation activities
4. Methods and procedures had more or less positive impacts upon their speaking
The research was carried out in the setting of Duy Tan competence. Their opinions of the helpfulness level of oral
University, one of the biggest private universities in presentations varied from a little (with 4 students-8.5%) to
Central Vietnam, where English is a compulsory subject so so (8 students-17%), helpful (29 students-61.7%) and
for students of non-English major. The participants in this very much (6 students-12.8%). The highest percentage fell
research were 47 non-English major students from the two into the group of students who said that presentations were
EFL classes. They were third-year students participating in helpful to them. None of these participants denied the
advanced-level EFL classes, but most of them felt reluctant positive effects of oral presentations. These data once again
to express their ideas in English. proved the helpfulness of presenting in front of the class.
130 Nguyen Phuong Thanh, Truong Van Tuan
Particularly, when questioned about how exactly oral the repetitions of this kind of activity can create a
presentations benefited them, 100% of the participants multiplied effect on students’ speaking skill.
agreed that these activities were beneficial to them more In short, the data from the research proved the
or less. Specifically, 96% of the subjects believed their effectiveness of oral presentations. Most of the students
experience with oral speaking in front of their class made taking part in the research indicated that they did obtain
them more confident when speaking English, and 41 out of advantages from their experiences with their presenting
47 students (87%) said that these activities helped them tasks in front of the class.
improve their pronunciation. Regarding the improvement
of their speaking fluency, 32 students (about 68%) 5.3. Effective ways of exploiting presentation activities
admitted the positive influence of oral presentations on How to exploit presentation activities was also one of
their speaking fluency. the concerns of the research. Therefore, participants were
Especially, approximately 60% of the students (28 also asked to give their viewpoints about this aspect. When
students) contended that oral presentations helped them questioned about how often should students be given a
develop in all three aspects suggested in the questionnaire chance to perform oral presentations in front of the class
form: pronunciation, confidence, and fluency. Fifteen with the purpose of improving their speaking ability, the
subjects said that oral presentations could be beneficial to majority of the students agreed that the frequency number
them in two aspects, and only 4 of them found just one should be at least two. Interestingly, the numbers of
benefit out of the three aspects from oral presentations. students thinking that the number of frequency should be
Table 2. Student’s sharing about the impact two, three, and more than three were the same (13 students
of oral presentations on their oral competence for each group). From the data, we can see that students
believed there should be repetitions of the time of
Have more Improve Gain presenting times for the purpose of training their speaking
confidence pronunciation fluency
skill. For that reason, teachers should pay attention to
28 students (59.6%) √ (x28) √ (x28) √ (x28) multiplying students’ times of doing oral presentations to
11 students (23.4%) √ (x11) √ (x11) help them get the best opportunities to improve their
4 students (8.5%) √ (x4) √ (x4) speaking skill.
2 students (4.25%) √ (x2) Table 3. Student’s perspectives about the frequency
2 students (4.25%) √ (x2) of oral presentations in each semester.
Total (n=47) 45 students 41 students 32 students Level of frequency No of students Percentage%
(96%) (87%) (68%) Once a semester 8 17.02
In a later interview, the participants confirmed that to Twice a semester 13 27.66
prepare for their presentations in class, they had had to Three times a semester 13 27.66
search for information in order to have the most proper > Three times a semester 13 27.66
content. During this process, they learnt a lot more
vocabulary. They also had to practice presenting in As the 47 students were asked about using notes when
advance at home, and through these steps, they had to presenting, 17% of them (8 students) did not agree with this
adjust their pronunciation and gained the fluency in their strategy, citing this was not useful for their speaking skill
speaking. This shows that oral presentation requires because speakers would depend on the notes and became
students to work not only in class but also at home. The passive and uncreative in their presentation. In contrast, 83%
requirements of the work pushed them to practice more at of the participants (39 students) supported the use of notes
home, which may not be done without the oral presentation when speaking. The reason for this, cited by a number of
tasks. In this way, oral presentation tasks instrumentally supporters, was that notes reduced speakers’ anxiety and
motivated students to practice their speaking skills. increased their confidence and fluency since notes served as
Furthermore, some students also added that correct a reference when presenters forgot words or ideas. However,
pronunciation was also learnt through the teacher’s the other supporters of the use of notes did not approve of
feedback after students’ presentations. the abuse of notes, explaining that presenters should refer to
Observations from the teacher also showed that their notes occasionally when really necessary. Otherwise,
students of the later presentations were more confident than students just relied on the notes and could not develop their
those of the earlier times. Moreover, the ways the students speaking skill. It can be seen that students themselves were
expressed their ideas in their oral presentations were more well-aware of this matter to the development of their oral
logical and smoother than those presenting earlier. These competence. Therefore, the appropriate use of notes should
observations indicated that students not only learned to be one of the presentation assessment criteria that the teacher
adjust their speaking from their own experiences but also needs to inform students prior to their presentations to help
from their peers’. This kind of learning experience is develop their speaking skill instead of standing in front of
another positive effect of oral presentations. It is worth the class and reading the notes.
noticing that the students here were just given one chance Regarding visual aids and technical assistance, e.g.
to speak in front of the class during the research time. For PowerPoint, only two students showed their indifference,
just one time, they believed that presentations had choosing Don’t know, and one student mentioned the use
effectively influenced their speaking performance. Hence, of other kinds of technical assistance. On the other hand,
ISSN 1859-1531 - THE UNIVERSITY OF DANANG, JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, NO. 12(85).2014, VOL. 1 131
96% of the participants showed their referring using speaking skills in EFL setting. However, in the analysis
PowerPoint when doing presentations. These participants above, it has been found that oral presentations are essential
believed that PowerPoint allowed presenters to be more activities in non-English major EFL classes because they do
professional and confident because PowerPoint enabled have positive impact on the development of students’
presenters to be more active as well as to have more speaking skill. Oral presentations were found to help
attractive and persuasive presentations with illustration and improve students’ vocabulary, pronunciation, speaking
visual aids, such as pictures and diagrams. Moreover, they fluency, and confidence, which are important elements for
contended that PowerPoint also assisted the listeners to good speaking. Moreover, proper ways of carrying out this
easily follow the flow of the presentation. For them, if the type of activity were also suggested. Teachers and students
use of notes just assisted the presenter, then PowerPoint who have proper preparation and organization would benefit
gave assistance to both the presenter and listeners. All of from this learning experience, and this can be an enjoyable
these factors just served an aim that was to help the speaker learning activity which helps teacher and students to take a
to gain confidence and hence fluency when speaking. break from textbooks for a while. In addition, it has been
Furthermore, 62% of the students approved that only a showed that, besides oral presentation activities, teachers
certain percentage, not all, of the content of their should also apply other interesting communicative activities,
presentation should be displayed on the slides, citing that including songs and games in their teaching periods to help
too much information on the slides would bore the listeners develop students’ oral competence. It is hoped that teachers,
and would not promote students’ creativity when speaking. with experience from their teaching plus what has been
5.4. Other strategies besides oral presentations that can found in the research here from students’ perspectives, can
help students develop their speaking skill guide their students properly for the best results of their
speaking skill improvement.
For further references, the students were also asked to
show their opinions about what other activities, besides oral The research time was limited, the data pool was small,
presentation, should be employed to help them improve their and each student was given just one chance to do their
speaking skill. A wide range of activities were listed by the presentation in front of the class during the investigation.
students, with listening to and learning English songs being Therefore, the results may not reflect the most general
listed by the most students (22 students) and the three ideas effect of oral presentations on students’ speaking.
practicing the listening skill more, watching videos of However, it is hoped that the findings provide certain
speaking situations, as well as joining English clubs coming insights about the utilization of oral presentations in EFL
last (2 students for each idea). The idea ranking the second non-English major classes seen from the angle of students
highest was playing games in which grammatical points, so that teachers can be aware of how students think and
sentence patterns and vocabulary were the focus with 21 need as well as what they can gain from oral presentations.
students listed. This idea was followed by working in pairs/ Future research may investigate how to effectively
groups with 8 students supporting. Consequently, 4 combine oral presentations with other communicative
participants thought that watching films with subtitles could activities for the best improvement of students’ speaking.
also help them improve their speaking skills.
Table 4. Student’s suggestions about other activities that can be REFERENCES
employed to help them develop the speaking skill [1] Erkaya, R., O., Teaching Oral Presentation Skills to College EFL
Students. Humanising language Teaching, 2011. Retrieved
Activities suggested Noof students Percent-age 06/02/2014, from http://www.hltmag.co.uk/feb11/sart06.htm
Listening to and learning English songs 22 47 [2] Kayi, H., Teaching speaking: Activities to promote speaking in a
Playing games 21 45 second language. The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. XII, No. 11,
November 2006. Retrieved 06/18/2014, from http://iteslj.org/
Working in pairs/ groups 8 17 Techniques/Kayi-TeachingSpeaking.html
Watching films with subtitles 4 8.5 [3] Khameis, M., Using Creative Strategies to Promote Students’
Speaking Skills. In Action Research and Initial Teacher Education
Practicing the listening skill more 2 4.25 in the UAE, HCT Teacher Education Series, Book 2, HCT Press,
Watching videos of speaking situations 2 4.25 2007, pp. 109-118
Joining English clubs 2 4.25 [4] King, J., Preparing EFL learners for oral presentations,
Dong Hwa Journal of Humanistic Studies, No.4, 2002, pp.401-418
Especially, as can be seen from the data, songs and [5] LêHùngTiến, ELT in Vietnam general and tertiary education from
games were still of the students’ preference. This is good second language education perspectives, VNU Journal of Foreign
news for teachers because they are the most popular and Studies, Vol. 29, No.1, 2013, pp. 65-71
the easiest-to-apply techniques. Further research is needed [6] NguyễnPhươngThanh, English as an integration tool in Vietnam:
Theory base, issues, and possible solutions. Paper published in the
to work out the best possible or most appropriate way to yearbook at the 3rd International conference “Integration:
apply these different techniques in teaching students the Achievements and emerging issues” Vol. 1, Thong Ke Publishing
oral presentation skill. House, 2013, pp. 709-717
[7] Ramírez, V. A. C., Students’ perceptions about the developmentof
6. Conclusion their oral skills in an English as a foreign language teacher training
program, 2010. Retrieved 05/16/2014, from http://repositorio.utp.
There have been different ideas about the application of edu.co/dspace/bitstream/11059/1911/1/372452C355.pdf
oral presentation in helping students’ to develop their
(The Board of Editors received the paper on 13/08/2014, its review was completed on 19/09/2014)
http://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/
Research Commons at the University of Waikato
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thesis.
PROFESSIONAL LEARNING IN A VIETNAMESE
UNIVERSITY LANGUAGE TEACHING CONTEXT:
AN INQUIRY-DRIVEN APPROACH
A thesis
submitted in fulfilment
of the requirements for the degree
of
Doctor of Philosophy in Education
at
The University of Waikato
by
PHAN CANH MINH THY
2020
ABSTRACT
This study investigated the engagement in an inquiry process of six EFL (English as a
foreign language) teachers from two Vietnamese universities, and how the inquiry
process shaped the teachers’ professional learning, paying attention to cycles of reflection
and co-construction of knowledge. Student-centred approaches relevant to English
language learners were used as a content focus of teacher learning, and teacher inquiry
was used as a tool to drive reflection and co-construction of new learning. In particular,
the study investigated the process of enactment and reflection as the teachers applied
student-centred approaches (SCA) while working to develop their pedagogical
knowledge, improve their teaching practices, and engage in professional learning
practice.
The study lay within an interpretive paradigm and was predominantly qualitative, using
a small amount of quantitative data from the questionnaire administered at the beginning
of the study. Data were collected via a four-phase process comprising five data collection
instruments. In Phase 1, an online questionnaire was sent out to a wider group of teachers
from the two universities and was analysed descriptively to gather initial information
about the teachers’ reported beliefs and practices to inform me as a researcher how to
proceed the next stage of the study. Qualitative data were collected in Phases 2, 3 and 4
of the study. After the six teachers engaged in the inquiries, their classroom practices
were observed to explore how they interpreted and enacted SCA. Most observed teaching
sessions were followed by a debrief in which the teachers were asked questions to reflect
on certain moments of their practice and to elicit the elaborative reasoning underpinning
their classroom practices. The teachers then took part in group discussions, which gave
them opportunities to present individual reflections on their practice and knowledge and
at the same time established an understanding of how the teachers learned, developed
their professional knowledge, and improved their professional practice. Finally, semi-
structured interviews were carried out individually with the six teachers to gain insights
into their learning experience after engaging in the inquiry process and interactive
professional discussions with other teachers. The interviews also explored the teachers’
reported changes in cognition and practice, along with their concerns. The qualitative data
were then analysed via an inductive thematic coding process and the use of vignettes. It
was not my intention to triangulate data from these sources. Rather, the use of multiple
data collection instruments added to the comprehensiveness, rigour, and saturation of the
i
study and the teachers’ learning process. In this learning process, I sought to capture what
the teachers communicated across the data collection instruments, each of which was
designed to serve a particular purpose, rather than comparing them or integrating them.
In brief, this study suggested that an inquiry-driven, practice-based, and interactive

approach facilitated teacher learning both individually and collectively, and stimulated
professional growth. Engaging in the process of inquiry fostered the teachers’ reflection
on and self-evaluation of their practice and developed self-awareness of their classroom
decisions. Interactive opportunities and collegial dialogues in the group (a learning
community) helped the teachers to learn from each other, problem solve together,
recognise different ways of doing things, negotiate different views, reconsider their
beliefs and practices, shift perspectives and recognise the value of multiple positions. In
both individual and collective learning endeavours, the process of learning placed an
emphasis on the active and agentic engagement of the teachers and their reflective
practice, embedding cognition, enactment and other aspects such as personal, contextual
and socio-cultural factors. All of these were in line with constructivist and situative
perspectives of learning.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to extend my sincere appreciation and gratitude to many people, without
whose assistance and support my research journey would not have been possible.
First, I would like to extent my thanks to the Vietnamese Government, Dalat University
and particularly the Faculty of Foreign Languages for the support and opportunity that
they have given me to pursue my professional development journey and my research
passions in New Zealand.
I wish to express my deep gratitude to Dr Laura Gurney and Professor Martin Thrupp. I
would like to express my sincere appreciation for all your support and guidance at critical
times, without which accomplishing this professional goal would not have been possible.
Constructive and timely feedback on the drafts of my thesis has allowed me to sharpen
my knowledge and critical thinking.
I also acknowledge the supervisory contributions of Associate Professor Margaret

Franken and Dr Judy Hunter and the academic and pastoral support provided by the
Director of Postgraduate Research and Programmes, the Division of Education, Waikato
University.
I am grateful to all the teachers who volunteered to participate in this study. Their
considerable time, strong interest in the study, professional experiences and passion were
invaluable to my study, and allowed me to explore the research questions with depth and
nuance.
I would like to extend a special thanks to external support people. These include my thesis
examiners for their great insights, and the professional editor who provided proof-reading
services. In addition, I received much support and assistance from Waikato University
staff members, particularly administrative staff, IT and library staff.
My special thanks go to my friends in Hamilton and Wellington who have cared for and
assisted me during my stay in New Zealand. I have been blessed to be supported as a
member of the families of Tinh Doan and Helen Nguyen, and Jennie Dean and Margaret
Dean, through all the ups and downs of the journey.
I am blessed to have, and indebted to, my mom and siblings. Their love, support,
encouragement, and trust have been a great motivation for me to continue my journey.
Through tears and laughter, they were the ones who were always by my side, giving me
iii
the strength and determination to keep moving toward my present achievement and
success.
iv
This thesis is dedicated to the loving memory of my father, Phan Canh Trai.
I know that you have always been around to give me the strength and
perseverance to keep going.
I know that you are happy and proud seeing that I made it through this process
and achieved my academic goal.
v
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
CEFR Common European Framework of Reference
CFG Critical Friend Groups
CHC Confucian heritage cultures
CLT Communicative Language Teaching
EF Education First
EFL English as a foreign language
ELT English language teaching
EPI English Proficiency Index
ESL English as a second language
ESP English for specific purposes
GE General English
HERA Higher Education Reform Agenda
IELTS International English Language Testing System
MOET Ministry of Education and Training
NFLP 2020 National Foreign Language Project 2020 (Project 2020)
PLC Professional learning community
SCA Student-centred approaches
TOEFL Test of English as a Foreign Language
TOEIC Test of English for International Communication
ToT Training of trainers
VSTEP Vietnamese Standardised Test of English Proficiency
WTO World Trade Organisation
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................... iii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................................... vi
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ x
LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................... xi
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................. 1
Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1
Motivation for the study ......................................................................................... 2
Rationale and significance of the study .................................................................. 3
Aims of research and research questions .............................................................. 10
Structure of the thesis ........................................................................................... 11
CHAPTER 2: SCENE SETTING ............................................................................... 13
Introduction .......................................................................................................... 13
Vietnamese historical and political influences on language education policy ..... 13
Vietnamese socio-cultural, economic and educational context ............................ 17
English language teacher education in Vietnam................................................... 22
Vietnamese EFL higher education context ........................................................... 26
Context of Vietnam’s education reforms and English language policy ............... 28
Challenges to reaching the reform targets ............................................................ 36
Chapter summary.................................................................................................. 41
CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................... 42
Introduction .......................................................................................................... 42
Student-centred approaches .................................................................................. 42
Predominant pedagogical approaches to teaching English in Vietnam......... 45
Implementation of SCA in Vietnam .............................................................. 47
Teachers’ cognition .............................................................................................. 50
Teachers’ beliefs ............................................................................................ 50
Teachers’ beliefs and teachers’ practices ...................................................... 52
Teachers’ beliefs and teachers’ knowledge ................................................... 54
Studies on EFL teachers’ beliefs and practices in Vietnam .......................... 57
Teacher professional learning ............................................................................... 61
Concept of professional learning ................................................................... 62
Stages of teacher learning .............................................................................. 66
Self-directed and collective teacher learning activities ................................. 70
Paradigm shift in professional learning ......................................................... 71
Theoretical perspectives on teacher learning ................................................ 73
vii
Teacher inquiry.............................................................................................. 75
Professional learning of tertiary teachers in Vietnam ................................... 82
Chapter summary.................................................................................................. 87
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ....................................................... 89
Introduction .......................................................................................................... 89
Interpretive paradigm ........................................................................................... 90
A predominantly qualitative research design ....................................................... 92
Participants and data collection procedure ........................................................... 94
Participants .................................................................................................... 94
Research sites ................................................................................................ 95
Data collection procedure .............................................................................. 96
Instruments .................................................................................................... 99
Data analysis ....................................................................................................... 107
Data analysis: Questionnaire ....................................................................... 109
Data analysis: Observations and debriefs .................................................... 110
Data analysis: Group discussions and individual interviews ...................... 111
Ensuring research quality ................................................................................... 114
Research rigour ............................................................................................ 114
Trustworthiness and reflexivity ................................................................... 116
Ethical considerations .................................................................................. 118
Chapter summary................................................................................................ 121
CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS .......................................................................................... 123
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 123
Questionnaire findings ........................................................................................ 124
Likert scale statements ................................................................................ 125
Open-ended questions ................................................................................. 132
Observation and debrief findings ....................................................................... 134
Routine classroom pedagogy....................................................................... 135
Toward SCA classroom pedagogy .............................................................. 140
Expansion in teaching practices beyond the inquiries ................................. 144
Summary of observation and debrief findings ............................................ 149
Group discussion and individual interview findings .......................................... 149
How did the teachers learn? ........................................................................ 150
Summary of interview and group discussion findings ................................ 165
Chapter summary................................................................................................ 166
CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ............................................... 168
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 168
viii
An overview of the findings ............................................................................... 170
Teachers’ beliefs and practices of SCA .............................................................. 171
Prior to participation in the study ................................................................ 171
After participation in the study .................................................................... 173
Teachers’ professional learning .......................................................................... 181
Teachers’ beliefs should play a vital role in the design and delivery of teacher
learning....................................................................................................... 182
Teacher learning activities should include opportunities for enactment,
reflection, and sharing ................................................................................ 184
Teacher learning opportunities should acknowledge individual differences
but create a common ground ...................................................................... 186
Teacher learning is a mediating process ...................................................... 190
Teacher learning reconceptualises change as a process of growth .............. 196
Towards an inquiry approach to teacher professional learning ................... 204
Contributions and implications of the present study .......................................... 206
Theory.......................................................................................................... 206
Methodology................................................................................................ 208
Practice ........................................................................................................ 210
Limitations .......................................................................................................... 212
Recommendations for future research ................................................................ 213
Final reflective thoughts ..................................................................................... 214
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 217
APPENDICES............................................................................................................. 245
Appendix A: Inquiry framework .............................................................................. 245
Appendix B: Copy of Inquiry 1 ................................................................................ 246
Appendix C: Copy of ethical approval ..................................................................... 249
Appendix D: Copy of information letter .................................................................. 250
Appendix E: Copy of consent form .......................................................................... 252
Appendix F: Copy of questionnaire.......................................................................... 253
Appendix G: Sample of observational protocol ....................................................... 258
Appendix H: Sample of observational notes ............................................................ 259
Appendix I: Sample of discussion prompts .............................................................. 262
Appendix J: Prompt questions in interviews ............................................................ 266
Appendix K: Example of attitudes, attributes and identity table .............................. 267
Appendix L: List of a teacher’s role and a student’s role ......................................... 268
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Political influences and language education policies ................................... 14

Figure 2.2 The Vietnamese National Education System (Ho Chi Minh University of
Technology - Vietnam’s National University, n.d.) ...................................... 23
Figure 2.3 EF EPI ranking of Asian countries and regions (Education First, 2019) ..... 35
Figure 4.1 Collected data organisation in NVivo ........................................................ 108
Figure 4.2 Illustration of pattern codes for interview data .......................................... 112
Figure 5.1 Word cloud for a teacher’s role .................................................................. 133
Figure 5.2 Word cloud for a learner’s role .................................................................. 133
Figure 6.1 Recommended framework for teacher professional learning .................... 205
x
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 English proficiency requirement for teachers in the Vietnamese educational
system ............................................................................................................ 31
Table 2.2 English proficiency requirement for students in Vietnamese educational
system ............................................................................................................ 33
Table 4.1 Participant demographics ............................................................................... 94
Table 4.2 Data collection phases ................................................................................... 97
Table 4.3 Data collection instruments in relation to research questions ....................... 99
Table 4.4 Data collected through different sources ..................................................... 100
Table 4.5 Example of a time plan for Phase 2 and Phase 3 ......................................... 104
Table 4.6 Group discussion topics and participants involved ..................................... 105
Table 4.7 Transcription and reference conventions used in the study ......................... 111
Table 5.1 Demographic information of questionnaire respondents (N = 20) .............. 125
Table 5.2 Participants’ perceptions of a teacher’s role and effective teaching ............ 126
Table 5.3 Participants’ perceptions of a student’s role and effective teaching and
learning ........................................................................................................ 127
Table 5.4 Participants’ perceptions of students’ engagement in teaching and learning
..................................................................................................................... 128
Table 5.5 Participants’ perceptions of the role of a syllabus and textbooks ................ 129
Table 5.6 Participants’ perceptions of a learning environment ................................... 130
Table 5.7 Participants’ reported practice of SCA ........................................................ 131
Table 5.8 Summary of the teachers’ routine classroom pedagogy .............................. 135
Table 5.9 Summary of the teachers’ enactment of SCA activities .............................. 141
Table 5.10 Summary of the teachers’ expansion beyond inquiries ............................. 144
xi
Chapter 1: Introduction
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Introduction
This study investigated the engagement in an inquiry process of six EFL teachers in a
Vietnamese tertiary education context. Overall, the study investigated how this process
of inquiry shaped the teachers’ professional learning, paying attention to cycles of
reflection and co-construction of knowledge. In particular, the study investigated the
process of enactment and reflection of the teachers who applied student-centred
approaches (SCA) while working to develop their pedagogical knowledge, improve their
teaching practices, and engage in professional learning. By enactment, I mean the
translation and transformation of a new idea, a belief or a pedagogical approach into
practice, where each action represents the enactment of something a teacher knows,
believes or has experienced.
The challenges inherent in the field of English language teaching (ELT) in Vietnam are
exacerbated by the curriculum focus on English proficiency and general knowledge for
pre-service English teachers, the lack of pedagogical knowledge, and the imbalance
between theoretical knowledge and teaching practicum. Furthermore, once they start their
teaching careers, English language teachers in Vietnam tend to experience top-down and
one-shot professional development activities, which aim to enhance teachers’ knowledge
and practices. However, this approach to teacher professional development has been
found ineffective in many ways, as discussed in section 1.3. In the absence of sufficient
training and effective professional learning and development, teachers’ ongoing practice-
based learning takes on a critical role for English language teachers in Vietnam.
Professional learning and development has evolved in different professional fields for a
number of decades. In the field of education, professional learning and development is an
integral part of teachers’ professional practice. The terms professional development
(Guan & Huang, 2013; Sithamparam, 2015), professional learning (Cameron,
Mulholland, & Branson, 2013), professional growth (Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002),
informal learning (Eraut, 2004), in-service education, continuous professional
development (Kelchtermans, 2004), continuing education, and lifelong learning
(Finsterwald, Wagner, Schober, Lüftenegger, & Spiel, 2013) have overlapping meanings;
1
however, they are defined slightly differently (Bolam & McMahon, 2004) or implicitly
(Boylan, Coldwell, Maxwell, & Jordan, 2018) by different researchers.
In this study, I use the terms professional learning and teacher learning interchangeably
to refer to the inquiry process that the teachers were involved in, rather than professional
development or professional training, for two reasons. First, the approach to learning
taken in this study, as explained in the literature review chapter, considers a learning
process of ongoing initiatives involving teachers taking an active role in their own
learning. Second, although some scholars may use the two terms interchangeably, the
term development may cause unnecessary cultural confusion with teacher training or staff
development programmes in Vietnam – the old deficit approach to teacher professional
development and training, which implies a deficit in teacher skills and knowledge (Clarke
& Hollingsworth, 2002; Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999; Sithamparam, 2015; Van
Schalkwyk, Leibowitz, Herman, & Farmer, 2015), and is often associated with short-term
professional development activities, such as one-off workshops aiming at teacher mastery
of prescribed skills and knowledge (Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002). Some examples of
teacher training and staff development in Vietnam include summer training (tập huấn
hè/bồi dưỡng hè), qualification improvement training (bồi dưỡng để nâng cao trình độ),
demo lesson training (tập huấn thông qua dạy demo), and in-school training (đào tạo và
bồi dưỡng giáo viên tại trường). However, given the context and the focus of the present
investigation, both learning and development are at times used generically to refer to
wider opportunities for teacher learning and development or when the researchers I am
citing used these terms in the literature.
This chapter first presents the motivation and rationale for the study. Next, it discusses
how teacher professional learning is viewed and provided in the Vietnamese tertiary
context in response to education reforms and the government’s initiatives, which is then
discussed in more detail in Chapter Two. Finally, the chapter ends with an introduction
to the aims of the study, research questions, and an outline of the thesis structure.
Motivation for the study
I have been interested in professional development and learning since I started my

teaching career. When I began teaching, the transition from pre-service training into the
profession of teaching was abrupt, and there was very little preparation for the new
teaching position. I remember having no induction programmes, no coaching plans, and
2
no transition steps during my first year of service. I knew practically nothing because
back in those days there were no practicum requirements in the curriculum in which I had
enrolled. I had to recall how I was taught in English lessons, who my favourite teacher
was and what made that teacher special and her lessons memorable. Ultimately, I adopted
the same approach in my teaching. I spent most of my time in class explaining grammar
rules, lexical meanings and the pronunciation of words. My teaching philosophy was to
be passionate, enthusiastic and engaging every time I was in class with my students. I
wanted to channel a spirit of enthusiasm for learning English to my students and I wanted
them to enjoy and understand the lessons so that they could do well in the examinations.
My first experience with Western knowledge of teaching and learning was in 2008 when
I did my Master’s degree in Education at Monash University. It was a valuable time for
me not only to learn in my subject area specialisation, but also to acquire a broader
knowledge of education and English language teaching. During that time, I read
extensively about language teaching methodologies, learning theories, and language
acquisition. This was when I had opportunities to learn English teaching theories such as
the Grammar-Translation method and the Communicative Language Teaching approach.
I realised that there was much to learn. As a result, my knowledge of language pedagogies
improved considerably.
When I returned to Vietnam after my studies, I adopted new approaches, ideas, and
activities I learnt in Australia. Not all of them were as successful as I thought; they did
not work for my students. I began wondering why, reflecting on my practice, and
adjusting my teaching practice to accommodate the needs, learning preferences and
proficiency levels of my students, and the teaching contexts. The experience changed my
fundamental thinking about teaching methodology and theories. I saw the value of
learning in practice, reflecting on experience, and adapting the theory to suit contexts.
These practice-based professional learning strategies have been helpful for my teaching
practices. My own experience prompted me to investigate how this inquiry approach to
teacher professional learning, focusing on cycles of reflection and co-construction of
knowledge, might work in a wider context.
Rationale and significance of the study
Teaching is a lifelong learning profession, including initial education, induction and

ongoing in-service professional learning (Pitsoe & Maila, 2012). In the academic
3
literature, teacher professional learning and development has been primarily investigated
in Western settings (Deni & Malakolunthu, 2013; Vo & Nguyen, 2010). In her doctoral
research, Tran (2016) conducted a literature review on professional learning and
development for teachers and teacher educators in Vietnam and concluded that teacher
professional learning and development has not been widely investigated in Asia generally
and Vietnam particularly. This claim is consistent with that made by Nguyen, Phan, and
Le (2020). In terms of terminology, in the context of my study, a teacher educator refers
to a teacher or a lecturer who teaches prospective teachers enrolled in pre-service teacher
education programmes. A teacher is used to refer to a teacher of English as a foreign
language (EFL), who teaches English to English major students or English non-major
students. Furthermore, the concept of teacher professional learning has recently widened,
using the constructs of constructivist and situative learning. Such new ways of looking at
teacher professional learning emphasise the active and agentic role of teachers and
learning ‘in situ’ and through social interaction (Evans, 2019); however, these approaches
to teacher professional learning, especially in English language education in Vietnam, are
still under-researched (Evans, 2019; Nguyen et al., 2020).
A number of scholars have recently reviewed the current state of professional learning
and development and the challenges faced by teachers in Vietnam (Hamano, 2008; Le,
2002; Pham, 2002; Vo & Nguyen, 2010). Vo and Nguyen (2010) claim that most teacher
professional learning and development in Vietnam has been conducted using traditional
transmission forms such as seminars, workshops, and conferences. This view is
confirmed in Tran’s (2016) doctoral research on professional learning and development
for teacher educators in higher education in Vietnam, for which 55 lecturers and academic
leaders from three Vietnamese universities were surveyed on their engagement in 14
listed professional learning and development activities. These activities included
participation in internal and external workshops, seminars, conferences and training
courses, teaching clubs or lecturers’ associations, mentoring or coaching, classroom
observations, conducting individual research or co-research, organising professional
learning and development programmes, supervising EFL teacher trainees, and formal or
independent studies. The study reported that attending both internal and external
workshops, seminars and conferences, and internal or external training courses were
frequent activities, ranking second after independent study. Additionally, Le (2011)
points out that, due to time constraints and the large numbers of teacher participants, most
4
training programmes in Vietnam adopt a “cascade approach” (p. 28) – a training model
that “is conducted at several levels by trainers drawn from a level above” (Hayes, 2000,
p. 137). Applying this model, only a few teachers from each province are invited to
participate in the programmes and are responsible for passing on the knowledge to their
colleagues at their institutions (Le, 2011).
Traditional transmission and cascade approaches to professional development have been

described as ineffective and unsatisfactory because of time, funds and human resources
(Nguyen et al., 2020; T. N. Pham, 2010; Tran, 2016), and they have very little impact on
classroom teaching (Gurney, Liyanage, & Huang, 2018) for four main reasons.
To begin with, traditional professional development programmes may not consider

teachers’ and educators’ needs, or their teaching problems, because they are carried out
in a top-down manner, frequently to ‘implement’ government policies (Nguyen et al.,
2020). Such an approach is likely to “undermine teachers’ confidence and leave teachers
feeling disempowered, which would appear to be contrary to an enhancement of their
work” (Buchanan, 2012, p. 345). Nguyen and Mai (2018) confirm this view in their work
examining the Association of Southeast Asian Nations’ (ASEAN) initiatives to increase
English competency focusing on professional development of English language teachers,
stating that “the delivery methods of professional development programs in Vietnam are
centralised in approach (top-down and cascade model)” (p. 18). Consequently, they may
have restricted “the space available for [teachers and] educators to respond to local needs
and innovate at the grassroots” (T. N. Pham, 2010, p. 55). Due to the disconnection
between professional development demands imposed by the government and practical
needs of teachers, the application and enactment of new learning in classrooms seems to
be relatively low, as Truong (2015) found in his study. Truong’s (2015) study investigated
the effects of teacher professional development activities on professional learning and
teaching practices. Findings from a questionnaire surveying 114 teachers showed that
nearly all respondents strongly agreed that participating in professional development
activities increased their professional knowledge and improved their teaching skills.
Although the teachers in the study valued their new knowledge, almost half of them did
not feel that the knowledge acquired was necessary and applicable (46.5%), and many
(44.7%) of the participants reported that their new learning did not practically affect their
day-to-day instruction.
5
Another problem is that some scholars, reflecting on their own experiences with
professional development, have claimed that traditional professional development
activities in Vietnam are context-detached due to the traditional ‘deliver and apply’
model, such as brief workshops or in-service courses (Le, 2002; Pham, 2002). This model
of professional development has led to well-known debates about the “theory-practice
divide” (Hoban & Erickson, 2004, p. 302). Similarly, Le (2002), a senior lecturer in
Applied Linguistics and a teacher educator at Vietnam National University, raises
concerns about these professional development programmes. From his observations,
when teachers return to their classrooms or workplaces, they are unable to apply what
they have been taught because the context is different. This view seems to be in line with
what teachers reported in Truong’s (2015) study, as mentioned earlier.
Pham (2002) and Truong (2015) claim that professional development initiatives that do
not provide applicable alternatives to classroom instruction can make teachers lose
confidence in their teaching and decide not to use new methods; even worse, it can lead
to reluctance to take part in professional development. More importantly, theory and
practice gaps in teacher professional development initiatives are not likely to provide
teachers with opportunities to enquire into and reflect on their practice, learn from
practice, develop their awareness of other ways of doing things, and make more informed
classroom decisions. Gurney et al. (2018) state that effective professional learning and
development should be “bound by the features of the contexts” (p. 512) in which it is
situated. This view is supported by Dr Do Tuan Minh, President of the University of
Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi (ULIS –
VNU). Expressing his view in an interview on Dan Tri Online, he stated that EFL
teachers’ professional development and learning has to be practice- and context-based for
it to be effective (Hanh, 2016).
The third problem is that, as in many countries, most current professional development
programmes in Vietnam are one-off events, which discourage teachers’ engagement in a
continuous process of learning or sustained professional learning (Hoban & Erickson,
2004). This view has been reflected in a review of the literature by C. V. Le (2018). The
programmes fail to provide activities that allow teachers to undertake initiatives such as
self-reflection and self-monitoring of their teaching. Glasgow and Hale (2018) suggest
that professional learning should “create the space and opportunity for teachers to reflect
on what they do and how they do it, and to envision change where it is warranted” (p.
6
71). Similarly, according to Fenstermacher (1994), learning in practice through reflection

helps teachers interpret contextual know-how to apply more effectively what they learn
in practice. Supporting this view, Pham (2002) believes that it is important for teachers
to reflect on their teaching practice to identify problems. They need to think what they
would like to change and what can realistically be changed for future practice.
Fourth, teachers often take an individual approach to their professional learning. Common
barriers have been discussed by Tran (2016), with examples including few opportunities
for collegial interaction and collaboration among teachers; insufficient professional
learning support; busy teaching loads; limited time, skills and knowledge; and tight
curriculum schedules. Tran (2016) states that these barriers constrain teachers and teacher
educators from engaging in effective professional learning, which would provide more
interactive and collegial opportunities for teachers to learn from and share knowledge
with each other. Truong (2017) and Le (2002) suggest that effective professional learning
experience should provide opportunities for teachers to work together, reflect on their
practices, exchange ideas, and share strategies. Teachers learning together is not about
making everyone the same – “the culture of sameness”, as mentioned in Le’s doctoral
study (Le, 2011, p. 27) – but rather about generating ideas, taking risks and encouraging
disagreement through individuality, which are all sources of improvement and growth
(Solheim, Roland, & Ertesvåg, 2018).
Overall, the challenges faced by Vietnamese teachers involve one-off professional

development practice, applying cascade and deliver-and-apply models, focusing on
individual development rather than teachers’ collaboration and a lack of consideration of
teachers’ needs and features of the contexts where professional development takes place
making it unlikely to result in meaningful and ongoing professional learning. In order to
support more effective long-term professional learning for teachers and EFL teachers in
particular, it is of crucial importance to “understand how teacher learning process occurs
and how professional learning is conceptualised” (Nguyen et al., 2020, p. 82). The
discussion suggests that a study of professional learning for teachers in a Vietnamese
English language teaching context, concerning how teachers engage in an inquiry-driven
learning process, and the interplay of various factors during the course of their learning,
would provide a valuable contribution to current understanding of teacher professional
learning and development.
7
In order to address the four concerns regarding teacher professional development

experiences as mentioned above, Day (1999) suggests that teacher professional learning
opportunities “must provide a range of learning experiences which encourage teachers to
reflect upon and inquire into their thinking and practice through interaction between their
own and others’ experience” (p. 201). Day’s (1999) view reflects constructivist and
situative views of professional learning experiences, in which teachers are expected to
take responsibility for and actively engage in professional learning in order to build their
capacity and that of others in learning communities (Simoncini, Lasen, & Rocco, 2014).
Also, the view situates teachers’ professional learning in practical teaching contexts
(Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002).
I wanted to address the four factors identified above, so I set up a study that offered
insights into the complexity and multidimensionality of the teacher learning process. In
this process, a variety of dimensions should come into play, including teachers’ beliefs,
prior learning experiences, learning processes, and personal, contextual, and socio-
cultural aspects. Engaging in inquiry requires teachers’ ongoing involvement in
interrogating, enacting, reflecting, and becoming self-aware, which are fundamental to
their professional growth (Crockett, 2002; Ermeling, 2010; Little, 1993). The study set
up conditions in which these aspects of an effective learning process for teachers were
enabled. The study also provided English teachers with insights into the potential for
making use of reflection and interactive learning as means of professional learning.
In this study, student-centred approaches relevant to EFL learners were used as a content
focus of teacher learning or “knowledge for practice” (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999, p.
254). Student-centred approaches is more fully discussed in Chapter Three, section 3.2.
See Appendix A for a framework of student-centred approaches applied in the study,
which was developed based on the four main strategies in student-centred teaching
practices suggested by O'Neill and McMahon (2005) (see section 3.2 for further detail).
I used the phrase student-centred approaches to refer to a cluster of approaches related to
how students best learn English language, drawing on the literature.
Together with the application of student-centred approaches as a content focus of teacher

learning, teacher inquiry is used as a tool, functioning as the impetus for teachers’
reflection and co-construction of new learning. This was planned through a series of six
inquiries, each of which represents one aspect of student-centred pedagogy. Apart from
O’Neill and McMahon’s (2005) four main strategies in student-centred teaching
8
practices, the inquiries were designed based on my own readings, my professional

understanding of SCA, and effective approaches to English language teaching, according
to the literature. Each inquiry included an overview providing knowledge for practice of
SCA for teachers, a try-things-out with selection of activities that teachers implemented
in their classroom, and a reflection to learn about constraints, opportunities and potential
improvement when teachers applied the approaches in general and the activities in
particular (see Appendix B for an example). The six aspects of student-centred
pedagogies in EFL include:
• Creating opportunities for language output

• Creating opportunities for student interaction
• Supporting students’ thinking beyond language repetition and information recall
• Fostering the use of metacognitive language learning strategies
• Supporting self-regulated language learning
• Encouraging autonomous language learning.
The study was conducted at two universities in Vietnam. One was a public university and
the other was a private one (see Chapter Four, section 4.4.2 for more information
regarding the research context).
The teachers were mostly employed on a full-time basis (five of the six teachers) and had
diverse teaching and educational backgrounds. In their work contexts, they were allocated
into different groups based on their qualifications and experience. There are three
specialised groups in the research context: (1) linguistics and skills (skills refer to
Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing), (2) English for specific purposes (ESP), and
(3) general English (GE). Among the six teacher participants, one teacher belonged to the
first group, three belonged to the second group, and two belonged to the third group. Due
to teacher shortage, all teachers in the three groups were allocated general English classes,
as well as English-major courses belonging to the other two groups.
Within the scope of the study, classroom enactment, observation, reflection, and
discussion were based on the context of general English teaching sessions. These teachers
taught general English to first- or second-year students of other majors such as Business,
Tourism, Nursing, Maths, and Law. The majority of the students had an elementary level
of English at the start and were required to achieve pre-intermediate level after two or
three compulsory general English courses, depending on the curriculum of each
9
university. Language knowledge and skills acquired in these general courses built a
foundation for the students to move on to ESP courses in the third and fourth year.
In each teaching session, the teachers focused on teaching grammar, pronunciation,

vocabulary, getting students to do practice exercises in the textbooks, and guiding
students towards test and exam tasks. Their main professional responsibility was to
improve freshmen and sophomores’ English skills (Listening, Speaking, Reading and
Writing), and lexical and grammatical knowledge. Another responsibility was to help
students achieve higher proficiency levels essential for the ESP courses in the third and
fourth years and reach the levels required for the completion of their academic
qualifications.
Further information about the research participants in this study is provided in Chapter
Four (section 4.4.1).
Aims of research and research questions
This study investigated the engagement in an inquiry process of six EFL teachers from
two Vietnamese universities, and how the inquiry process shaped the teachers’
professional learning, paying attention to cycles of reflection and co-construction of
knowledge. Student-centred approaches relevant to English language learners were used
as a content focus of teacher learning, and teacher inquiry was used as a tool to facilitate
the teachers’ reflection and co-construction of new learning.
The study was designed to address the following over-arching motivation:
What are effective ways of helping Vietnamese EFL teachers, working in higher
education, to adopt more student-centred practices in language teaching?
To answer this general research question, five specific research questions were addressed:
1. What are the teachers’ initial beliefs about and reported practices of student-
centred approaches?
2. What influences on classroom practice are observed and reported when the
teachers assume student-centred approaches?
3. How do the teachers learn within the inquiries?
4. What changes related to professional knowledge, professional practices and
professional development practice do the teachers report?
5. How can the process of inquiry be harnessed to support teacher learning?
10
This study contributes to understandings of EFL teacher professional learning in

Vietnamese higher education and student-centered pedagogy in three major ways.
First, the study offers unique insights into the nature and the process of EFL teacher
learning in the Vietnamese higher education context. In this process, in addition to
looking at the visible learning activities that promote teacher learning and practical
change outcomes, through reflection, teachers’ thinking processes associated with their
enacted activities were examined. Teachers’ thinking processes while learning are
believed to potentially explain the reasons for their practice-based enactment and the
factors supporting or hindering their application of new learning, of which personal,
contextual and socio-cultural aspects are relevant. It was also hoped that the process of
learning would shed some light on how the teachers translated their new learning into
their existing pedagogical beliefs and classroom enactment. All of these contributions
may inform future EFL innovation, EFL teacher education and EFL teacher professional
learning and development in Vietnam and possible similar contexts.
Second, findings from this group of Vietnamese EFL teachers’ cognition and practices in
response to student-centred pedagogy with general English students are likely to inform
understanding of how teachers adopt student-centred practices in EFL classrooms in
Vietnam.
Finally, this study also provides EFL teachers with insights into the potential for using
interactive learning with other teachers as an opportunity for professional dialogues.
Through reflective conversations, teachers can learn from each other, share their practices
in collaboration with others, solve classroom problems together, and negotiate different
views for mutual understanding.
Structure of the thesis
Chapter Two provides the context for the study. This includes Vietnam’s historical,
political and socio-cultural contexts. The chapter also outlines teacher education
programmes, and teaching English as a foreign language in Vietnamese higher education.
Finally, the chapter highlights Vietnamese educational reforms as well as English
language policy and challenges in reaching recent reform targets, which are all relevant
to this study.
11
Chapter Three starts by briefly discussing the literature on the general history of English
teaching approaches and specific student-centred pedagogy. The chapter then continues
to consider teacher cognition, in particular teacher beliefs in relation to knowledge and
practice. The literature review ends with a review of how teachers learn to develop their
knowledge and improve their practice. This is followed by a brief summary of the stages
and forms of teacher learning. This section provides a rationale for the emphasis on
constructivist and situative theories of learning in the study and the paradigm shift of
professional learning in the contemporary context.
Chapter Four outlines the methodology of the research. The chapter begins with a review
of the philosophical stances and briefly revisits the theoretical framework underpinning
the current study. Then I discuss the rationale for predominantly qualitative research
drawing on multiple data sources used in the study. Following this, sources of research
data, data collection, and analysis processes are described. The chapter also outlines how
the study’s quality and ethical considerations were ensured.
In Chapter Five, I present and discuss the findings of four phases of the study. In Phase
1, initial information concerning the teachers’ beliefs about their teaching approaches
from questionnaire data is analysed. Phases 2, 3 and 4 of the study explored the process
of teacher professional learning, individually and collectively, and factors taken into
account during the teachers’ learning process. The results from both phases are reported
and discussed to gain insights into how the teachers changed and grew professionally
during and after the learning experience provided in the study.
The thesis ends with Chapter Six, which discusses the findings, suggests implications and
draws conclusions.
12
Chapter 2: Scene Setting
CHAPTER 2: SCENE SETTING
Introduction
The aim of this chapter is to set the scene for the research project reported in this thesis.
A brief historical and political background of Vietnam during the colonial period is
presented in relation to the country’s language education policy. The chapter then
explores the socio-cultural, economic and educational features that affect the current
prestige status of English language and the teaching profession. Because of education’s
internationalisation and an economic open market approach, in recognising a need for
further radical reform of the education system, the Vietnamese government launched two
reform initiatives: the Higher Education Reform Agenda (HERA) and the National
Foreign Language Project (Project 2020). This chapter discusses challenges that the
Vietnamese education system, educational institutions, teachers and students have
encountered in the enactment of the reform initiatives. Particularly, the chapter highlights
how these two educational reform initiatives affect teachers’ professional learning and
how they develop their professional learning within their work context. Two of the many
barriers to reaching the reform agendas are the quality of teachers influenced by English
language education programmes, and the traditional teaching approaches. These are also
examined in this chapter.
Vietnamese historical and political influences on language education

policy
Vietnam is a multi-ethic country and a multilingual society, with 54 different ethnic

groups who speak more than 100 different languages (Nguyen & Nguyen, 2019). Among
them, ethnic Viet or Kinh is the dominant ethnicity, constituting nearly 86% of the
Vietnamese population (Bradley, 2019). Despite the linguistic diversity, Vietnamese
language is the most widely spoken.
In terms of foreign languages, due to the increasing involvement of Vietnam in regional

and international economic and socio-cultural activities, English has become the most
popular foreign language in Vietnam (Phan, 2008). However, during its history, Vietnam
has witnessed major shifts in the country’s language education policy, which reflect
political influences and the relationships between the country and its allies (Nguyen &
13
Nguyen, 2019). Language education policy cannot be carried out apolitically and
ahistorically (Vu, 2019). Therefore, it is important to investigate language education
policy in its socio-cultural, economic, and political contexts (Kirkpatrick & Bui, 2016).
This section discusses language education policy in Vietnam, focusing on foreign
languages together with the Vietnamese language policies, with full awareness of the
country’s long history of multi-colonisation, the political regime of socialism, and its
position as a developing country in the world economic system. Figure 2.1 shows the
changing political influences on language education policy over time.
Figure 2.1 Political influences and language education policies

For a long time in Vietnam’s early history, with over a millennium under Chinese
domination from 179 B.C. to 938 A.D., Chinese language and its ideographic writing
system was adopted as the official language in Vietnam. Nevertheless, the Vietnamese
people, during that time, were able to devise their own written form of language based on
Chinese characters, which was called chữ Nôm (vernacular language). Although chữ Nôm
used Chinese characters, it was not intelligible to the Chinese people. The attempt to
develop chữ Nôm was considered as an instance of the Vietnamese people’s resistance to
the hegemony of Chinese language and an effort to protect the culture from Chinese
influence (Nguyen & Nguyen, 2019).
Starting in 1858 and ending almost 100 years later, Vietnam was under the rule of French
colonialists. During this time, French was made the official language in Vietnam and was
the medium of instruction at all school levels. During the French domination, chữ Nôm
and Chinese language were abolished and replaced by Quốc ngữ (literally means national
language), “a Roman alphabetic writing system with diacritic markers to mark tones and
pronunciation” (Nguyen & Nguyen, 2019, p. 186). Since then Quốc ngữ has been used
as the official written form of Vietnamese language and is still used today to represent
the modern Vietnamese language. Under the rule of the French, although Quốc ngữ was
promoted as the official Vietnamese language, it was ironically taught as a foreign
14
language at school because it was not used for official documents or classroom
instruction. Any attempt to emphasise the teaching of Quốc ngữ in place of French was
considered an act of rebellion. The language education policy resulted in a social division
between those who spoke French as the elite of society, and those who spoke Vietnamese
as laypersons.
When the French occupation ended in 1954, the Romanised Quốc ngữ officially became
the national language of Vietnam and the medium of instruction at all school levels, in
lieu of French. In 1954, with the partition of Vietnam under the Geneva Agreements, the
country was divided into the Communist North and the Capitalist South, which made the
language education policy more complex (Do, 2006). In the North, as a result of aid and
influence from communist countries, especially the Soviet Union, Russian and Chinese
became popular foreign languages. Meanwhile, in the South, with the involvement of
American troops, English was taught at school and was used bilingually with Vietnamese
as a mandatory language in all government documents. During this period, Vietnamese
was used as the medium of instruction throughout the country (H. B. Nguyen, 2014).
In 1975, after the Americans left, the two divided parts of Vietnam were reunified because
the South Vietnamese administration was overthrown by the North’s forces. The unified
central government of Vietnam has been located in the North since. During this period,
emphasis was placed on strengthening national sovereignty and solidarity. One approach
to this was to promote Vietnamese as the main language used across the country and the
medium of instruction starting with primary school education (Nguyen & Nguyen, 2019).
Due to the subsequent change in the political and economic system and as part of
Vietnam’s alliances with the Soviet Union, Russian became the main foreign language
and the most widely taught language in the country (Do, 2006; Nguyen & Nguyen, 2019).
This reflected the government’s desire to expand relations with the countries of the
communist bloc (Do, 2006). As a result, English and French were removed from the
curriculum and Chinese disappeared from the language education landscape.
After thirty years of war, the country was confronted with many challenges: the loss of
3.4 million Vietnamese lives (Morris, 2003) resulting in a lack of human resources; the
collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 (Nguyen & Nguyen, 2019); the centralised economy
(Pham & Fry, 2004); economic decline (Do, 2006), an embargo on trade by the United
States; and high inflation (H. B. Nguyen, 2014). All of these challenges pushed Vietnam
into a critical situation and urged the Vietnamese authorities to turn outward and think
15
about the future of the country and its political and economic strategies (Pham & Fry,
2004). During this period, Russian became “a dead language” (Nguyen & Nguyen, 2019,
p. 189) and English began to replace Russian because of the withdrawal of Soviet support
and the greater public interest in English. A lot of Russian teachers were re-trained to
teach English during this period.
Responding to the country’s ten years’ crisis, during the Sixth Communist Party congress
of Vietnam in 1986, a new policy, Đổi Mới policy, was introduced as part of a renovation
of the country, aiming at improvement in social and economic conditions (Vu, 2019). Đổi
Mới (Economic Renovation) focused on the social-economic development of Vietnamese
society and opened Vietnam’s doors to the world. The reform aimed to replace centralised
economic planning in the Soviet tradition with a regulated market economy. Since the
adoption of an open market approach in Vietnam in 1986, Vietnam’s language education
policy has experienced a significant shift, with English emerging as the most widely used
language (Nguyen & Nguyen, 2019; Pham & Fry, 2004). At the same time, to reinforce
national culture, Vietnamese was consistently reasserted as the official language. The
Education Law (1998) confirmed that Vietnamese language is the official language used
in schools (Article 5).
In the 21st century, Vietnam has maintained diplomatic relationships with more than 180
countries in the world and has established economic partnerships with over 220 foreign
markets (Nguyen & Nguyen, 2019). Joining the Association for South East Asian Nations
(ASEAN) and the World Trade Organisation (WTO) has boosted the demand for English
(Hayden & Lam, 2010). The Education Law (2005) both re-emphasises Vietnamese as
the official instructional language and specifies that compulsory foreign languages
included in the national curriculum are those commonly used in international transactions
(Article 7). This policy demonstrates proper awareness of the connection between
language learning demands and national economic and social development. This was the
first time that foreign languages were mentioned in education law. The recognition of
foreign languages has important implications for the development of Vietnam’s
education. Since then, English has been promoted as the ‘lingua franca’ of Vietnam – the
most important foreign language across all levels of Vietnamese education (Hoang,
2017).
16
Vietnamese socio-cultural, economic and educational context
Research on education cannot be separated from its context. This makes sense in the
language education area. Gibbons (2002) identifies two kinds of context: “context of
situation” (p. 2) – the particular occasion on which language is used; and “context of
culture” (p. 2) – the shared assumptions and expectations of people in a culture, meaning
that people sometimes take for granted the ways in which things are done. The latter
definition of context is the one discussed by many educators in translating pedagogical
approaches into a particular context (L. V. Nguyen, 2011). This socio-cultural context is
also the focus of discussion in this section, which aligns with the constructivist and
situative perspectives in this study.
As mentioned above, Vietnam was under Chinese domination for almost a millennium
and Vietnam has been influenced by Confucian heritage cultures (CHCs) since.
Historically, Taoism and Buddhism entered and influenced the ancient Vietnamese
cultures before Confucianism (Duong, 2002). These philosophies of Taoism, Buddhism,
and Confucianism shared many commonalities and enhanced one another (Phan, 2008),
creating an integrated philosophy that is nowadays called Confucianism. Confucian
philosophies have contributed to the perceptions of teaching and learning, and to
educational values and practices in the country. In this section, CHCs are discussed with
an emphasis on the contentious debates concerning teaching and learning, importance of
education and lifelong learning, the role of the teacher, the position of English, and the
contemporary view of collectivism in the Vietnamese context.
CHCs’ impacts on teaching and learning have been widely criticised. In CHCs, teaching
is typically based on knowledge transmission and rote learning (Tran, 2013) and teachers
are the central authority (Nguyen, Bulte, & Pilot, 2017), which makes students passive
and unwilling to ask questions or speak up in class (Tran, Hallinger, & Truong, 2018;
Tran, 2013). However, there are findings from empirical research and other scholarship
that challenge the idea of stereotyping CHC learners and teachers. Biggs (1994) reviewed
studies comparing the performance of CHC students and Western students and the
findings reported that CHC students achieved significantly higher than Western students,
especially in languages, mathematics and science. Also, in Biggs’ (1994) review, several
studies, involving thousands of students, compared the general approaches to learning of
CHC secondary and tertiary students with those of comparable groups of Western
17
students, on the basis of self-report questionnaires. In most cases, CHC students reported
a preference for high-level, meaning-based or deep-learning strategies. These findings
related to learning strategies concurred with a comparative study by Salili (1996).
Similarly, Kember (2000) used evidence from over 90 action research projects to disprove
the common assertions that Asian students prefer passive learning and resist teaching
innovations. He explained that “students attempting to learn material by heart could be
following a logical strategy because they perceive that the course and assessment require
them to reproduce bodies of material” (p. 117). There was salient evidence that Asian
students were not resistant to innovative teaching strategies and that if Asian students
were given opportunities, time and support, they would adjust to active forms of learning.
Two different research contexts, one in Hong Kong by De Vita and Bernard (2011) and
one in Vietnam by MacKinnon and Le (2014), reported similar findings with respect to
the higher learning skills of Chinese and Vietnamese students. De Vita and Bernard
(2011) reported that Chinese learners were as capable as Western students of adapting to
modes of learning and assessment requiring a reflective, deep learning approach.
Likewise, MacKinnon and Le (2014) argued that the implementation of collaborative
learning modes in Vietnamese classrooms was appropriate and fitting. Rao and Chan
(2010) confirmed that teaching and learning are culturally embedded activities, but “the
cultural context is constantly changing” (p. 16). The 21st century has brought about
socioeconomic and technological changes, shifts in learning paradigms, new educational
policies and widespread curriculum reforms in Asian countries, and in Vietnam in
particular. This suggests considering the need to revisit CHC education systems (Chan &
Rao, 2010) and acknowledge the strengths of CHCs in Asian education systems,
including the Vietnamese education system. Furthermore, the complexities and diversity
of both CHCs and Western pedagogical philosophies potentially challenge the binary
assumptions associated with these two rationales. See section 6.5.1 for further theoretical
discussion on this traditional dichotomy.
The significance of education stands out in the Confucian tradition. Education is

perceived as important not only for personal improvement but also for society (On, 1996;
Phan, 2008). For the Vietnamese people, this has created a fondness of and passion for
learning and understanding, an eagerness for lifelong learning, and a spirit of social
contribution (MacKinnon & Le, 2014). It explains a spirit of self-cultivation among
18
Vietnamese people, which encourages them to continue to further their knowledge,

learning and enhance their skills and practice.
At the same time, there are considerable hurdles to overcome for many Vietnamese.
Approximately 80 per cent of the population live in rural areas (Macrotrends, n.d.-b)
where literacy levels are rather low (Macrotrends, n.d.-a; World Bank, 2013). Socio-
economic differences between rural areas and the more economically developed urban
areas have resulted in huge gaps in educational opportunities (C. V. Le, 2017). Wealthy
parents in big cities are willing to pay for their children to study in top universities in
English-speaking countries or private international agencies in Vietnam. They hope that
their children will improve their English with native speaker instructors, gain admission
to top universities in Vietnam or overseas, and get desirable, well-paid jobs in foreign
invested companies or joint ventures after graduation (C. V. Le, 2017).
On the other hand, the challenges of living in rural areas make both parents and young
people realise the important role that education plays in contemporary Vietnamese
society. Traditionally, educated people have the highest social status of all classes in
Vietnamese society – Sĩ, Nông, Công, Thương [Literati, Farmers, Artisans, Merchants]
(MacKinnon & Le, 2014). As such, education is considered to offer upward social
mobility (Gurney, 2018; Le, 2011) or “a ticket to ride” (Le, 2011, p. 16) for the younger
generation in rural areas to access better economic and academic futures. Despite low
English proficiency, limited study resources and socio-economic constraints, a lot of
students from rural areas do make an effort to become English teachers for two reasons.
One is that they have an increasing awareness of English learning. Another reason is that
English teacher education programmes are fee-free in Vietnam, which can remove a huge
financial burden from their families. Because of today’s market economy, as mentioned
earlier, teaching careers have become less attractive to higher achievers in secondary
school examinations (Le, 2020). It is a challenge for universities and colleges to get
adequate enrolments in their English teacher education programmes; as a result, they have
had to lower their entry requirements to attract lower achievers from high school.
Consequently, the entry score at teacher training universities and colleges is usually lower
than in other majors such as economics, foreign trade or the like, in order to attract more
students. However, in Vietnam, teaching has traditionally been recognised as a noble
profession (Phan, 2008), second only to the King, as exemplified in a popular motto in
moral education Quân-Sư-Phụ [King-Teacher-Father] (MacKinnon & Le, 2014). It is
19
believed that being a teacher brings honour, prestige and pride to the family. The teacher
is seen as “a guru”, which means weighty or honourable (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005, p.
53) and a “moral guide” (Phan, 2008, p. 113); therefore, teachers are seen to be
knowledgeable and associated with morality and high standards of performance (Phan,
2008). Teachers commonly play the role of transmitters of knowledge and models of
morality; students are expected to obey and follow their teachers in order to give their
teachers face, rather than challenging or criticising them (Le, 2011). These ideologies,
social norms and the function of teachers as role models can still be seen today,
particularly in student teachers’ initial teaching practice, which results from observing
and copying their own teachers.
The concept of role model in the form of successful family members or teachers has
motivational influences on students’ career identities. In my teaching experience, it was
not surprising for a student to say that he or she wanted to go into teaching because one
or both of his or her parents were English teachers. It is called a family occupation (Lortie,
1975). A study by Mate et al. (2017) explored the career identities of Vietnamese students
studying at an offshore (Australian) university in Vietnam. The study used a social
constructionist and narrative psychology approach. Narratives from 31 students showed
that the strongest influence on their career identities and career decision making was
family, which was in accordance with the collectivist cultural values of Vietnam.
Collectivist values emphasise family duty and obligation, obedience to in-group norms,
and collective career decision making (Hayden & Lam, 2010; Truong, Hallinger, &
Sanga, 2017). In other words, the role models established by family members have direct
effects on the development of students’ attitudes towards their careers. Also, parents’
expectations and vocational advice from family influence students’ career decision
making. These students would feel ashamed or guilty if they did not meet their family’s
expectations or chose to go against their parents’ career advice. The study acknowledged
Vietnamese socio-cultural influences, but at the same time encouraged students to make
career choices based on their own personal values, interests, skills and goals.
Another Confucian value is the collectivist view – a “cultural bias towards thinking of
‘we’ rather than ‘me’” (N. H. Tran et al., 2018, p. 89). This view expects individual
teachers to place the good of the group ahead of the individual. Group-referenced
members often make efforts to maintain harmony and value collectivity and solidarity,
avoiding group conflicts, showing peer respect, saving face, and having a sense of duty
20
to the work community (Hofstede, 2011; Nguyen et al., 2017; N. H. Tran et al., 2018;
Truong et al., 2017). However, this interpretation may provide one particular perspective
of collectivist culture and the interpretation may change in response to the current socio-
cultural and educational contexts of Vietnam. The collectivism discussed in the analysis
of socio-cultural context of higher education in Vietnam by MacKinnon and Le (2014)
includes community relationships, group interests, social interaction, and collaborative
spirit. Among these, the need for enhancing the traditional Vietnamese spirit of
collaboration has been confirmed in the Higher Education Reform Agenda as one of the
important skills for young graduates (see section 2.6).
With the spread of mass media and the globalisation of English, Vietnamese people are
demonstrating increasing awareness of the value of learning English, and the economics
of English in the job market today. Doan and Hamid (2019) conducted a study of over
23,000 job advertisements posted on the most popular website for job seekers and
recruiters in Vietnam (http://www.vietnamworks.com) in 2015 and 2018. The findings
indicated that the demand for English in the Vietnamese job market was high, with over
65% of jobs advertised requiring higher than an intermediate level of proficiency in 2015
and 67% of jobs requiring at least immediate level in 2018. Also, although language skill
demands varied across sectors, listening and speaking skills were reported to be more
important than reading and writing. In addition, the trend toward globalisation has created
an international educational market, which attracts more and more students to study
overseas. To meet today’s job market demands and international education requirements,
English plays a prominent role in Vietnamese society, creating “English language fever”
throughout the country (Le, 2020, p. 9) and the “ascendancy of English” (Denham, 1992,
p. 63) is still applicable in contemporary Vietnamese society.
Being rooted in CHC traditions and social values, “Vietnamese teachers actively seek
opportunities to broaden their knowledge and qualifications, together with enhancing
their moral life” (MacKinnon & Le, 2014, p. 153). The ultimate goals are to improve their
instructional practices and improve student learning (Guskey, 2002; Truong, 2015).
However, sometimes there is tension between the aspiration and reality (Le, 2020)
because of student characteristics, top-down directives, assessment backwash, curriculum
and textbook requirements, and teaching contexts (discussed further in section 2.7). In
practice, teachers have to make decisions to negotiate between cultural values, social
ideology, personal values, professional goals, and practical contexts.
21
English language teacher education in Vietnam
This section briefly introduces the context of teacher education programmes in Vietnam
that have potentially had an impact on EFL teachers and specifically on the teacher
participants in the present study.
The Vietnamese education system structure is composed of 12 years of schooling,

followed by a three-year associate bachelor degree (college education) (bằng cao đẳng),
a four-year bachelor degree (university education) (bằng đại học), a two-year master’s
degree (bằng thạc sĩ), and a two-to-four-year doctoral degree (bằng tiến sĩ) as seen in
Figure 2.2. Since 2015, at the end of grade 12, students are required to sit a secondary
school leaving examination, centrally coordinated by the Ministry of Education and
Training (MOET). Students are tested in a foreign language (typically English),
mathematics, Vietnamese literature, and one of three other subjects, varying from year to
year depending on students’ selected strands, which can be either the science strand
(physics, chemistry, and biology) or the social sciences strand (history, geography and
moral education). Each student has to achieve a grade of at least five out of ten in each
subject to pass the examination and to be awarded the Certificate of Secondary School
Graduation (Bằng Tốt Nghiệp Trung Học Phổ Thông). Students who pass, depending on
their scores and their majors, are allowed to apply to two institutions. Each higher
education institution sets its own entry score for admission and selects students using their
secondary school leaving examination results as admission standards. Students who fail
to gain admittance to their first choice of institution are allowed to apply to their second
preference.
22
Figure 2.2 The Vietnamese National Education System (Ho Chi Minh University of
Technology - Vietnam’s National University, n.d.)
Vietnam’s education is regulated by the Education Law. The Vietnamese Ministry of
Education and Training (MOET) is the government agency responsible for directing all
managerial and academic activities in education at all levels, particularly higher
education. Since 2005, under the influence of the government’s overhaul of education, all
Vietnamese tertiary education institutions have adopted the credit system (C. V. Le,
2017), in lieu of the previous tightly structured subject-based model. In the old system, a
cohort of students entered a programme together and studied together throughout the
entire degree programme, following the same curriculum. In the new credit system, with
one credit being equivalent to 15 hours of classroom instruction, courses are assigned a
credit value and students must complete a prescribed number of credits before being
eligible to graduate. The reasons for the change are to be more in line with education
systems around the world, to give institutions more autonomy, and to give students more
flexibility in their studies. The credit system is outlined by MOET with a mandated
number of credits for each degree programme, and institutions commonly develop their
own curricula reflecting the MOET outlines. Furthermore, MOET has granted higher
education institutions increased autonomy to determine their curriculum development and
23
admission quotas (Tran, Phan, & Tran, 2018; Trines, 2017). The design of syllabi for
individual courses and the selection of course books are undertaken by subject teams or
groups of experienced teachers, which creates both diversity and a lack of consensus
about the learning content for English between institutions (Hoang, 2010). It is a common
practice that the syllabus for each course dictates the content to be covered in the set
textbook. Therefore, teachers have to juggle the required content for assessment purposes
and the tight timeframe allocated for each course.
With regard to English teacher education programmes, the new Education Law (2019)
has brought some amendments to the minimum requirements for teachers. To become
teachers, students must finish 12 years of compulsory general education plus three years
of teacher training education (12+3) as the minimum academic requirement. The previous
requirement was 12+2. However, this is only a minimum requirement. Teaching at
different levels requires different qualifications. There are two separate training systems
for EFL teachers in Vietnam: at colleges or universities. According to the Education Law
2019 (Vietnamese Laws, 2019), primary school teachers must complete a three-year
(12+3) teacher education programme at a college. Lower and upper secondary school
teachers must complete a four-year (12+4) teacher education programme at university
level. For tertiary education teachers or lecturers, a master’s degree in their specialist area,
together with a certificate in teaching, is compulsory.
One important change in the Education Law 2019 is that teachers of all school levels must
be teacher education graduates. In the past, school teachers could be graduates in a
specialist subject, with a separate certificate in teaching. The new law has placed more
emphasis on the compulsory pedagogical requirements that graduates attain from teacher
education programmes. At tertiary education institutions, despite the minimum
requirement of the Education Law 2019, a number of teachers who hold a bachelor’s
degree may not meet the standard as a result of the old mechanism and the lack of higher
education teaching staff.
Teacher education programmes in Vietnam comprise four main elements as described in

Kieu, Singer, and Gannon (2016):
• General knowledge: to provide students with basic knowledge in social and

natural sciences
24
• Specific (pedagogical) knowledge: to provide students with knowledge in their

specialisation, such as general teaching philosophy and pedagogic techniques,
with the use of Vietnamese as medium of instruction
• Teaching practice (practicum): where students are sent to schools for at least one
month of practice teaching
• Graduation requirements: students can conduct research, or write a thesis, or take
classes to achieve enough credits for graduation.
During pre-service teacher education period, student teachers have to focus on three
strands of knowledge to earn enough credits for their qualifications. Take an English
teacher education programme at University A (the research sites, as described in Chapter
Four, section 4.4.2) as an example. In order to graduate, students are required to achieve
125 credits, which include 36 credits in general foundation knowledge (for example,
physical education, Hochiminhism, Marxism), 61 credits in linguistic knowledge and
language skills (for example, skill subjects such as listening, speaking, reading, writing;
linguistics such as grammar, phonology, morphology, semantics, syntax) and 28 credits
in education and pedagogical knowledge (for example, teaching methodologies,
educational psychology, testing and assessment). Pedagogical knowledge accounts for
only one fifth of the total training program, which is “strongly theory-oriented” (Hamano,
2008, p. 406). As part of this 125-credit programme, student teachers are required to have
75 hours of practicum teaching experience, which is equivalent to 5 credits. The 75-hour
practicum is usually offered over six weeks to develop students’ understanding of
teaching realities in schools. The practicum period seems too short to prepare student
teachers for actual teaching practice after graduation.
In her study, M. H. Nguyen (2013) compared and contrasted the curricula for English
language teacher education in two universities, one in Australia and the other in Vietnam.
The data were collected from relevant literature, policy and curriculum documents, and
interviews with curriculum developers from the two universities. The study findings
revealed that each curriculum from the two universities included all the six main domains
of knowledge suggested by Richards (1998, as cited in the study), including theories of
teaching, teaching skills, communication skills, subject matter knowledge, pedagogical
reasoning skills and decision making, and contextual knowledge. However, they found
different foci in the domains of knowledge in the two curricula. The Australian university
integrated much more contextual knowledge, pedagogical reasoning and decision-making
25
skills into the curriculum, whereas the Vietnamese institution placed much greater
emphasis on developing pre-service teachers’ knowledge of the subject matter, and
communication skills and proficiency. Also, the study reported distinctive contextual
factors that help to explain this variation – the pre-service teachers’ low proficiency at
entry into the teacher education programmes seemed to play an influential role in the
Vietnamese curriculum. In analysing eighteen Vietnamese course syllabi of pre-service
English teacher education, together with interview and focus group data, Vu and Dudzik
(2020) revealed similar findings indicating student teachers’ experience of gaps between
theoretical knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge, and a lack of contextual
knowledge in the syllabi.
From observation of the teacher education programmes described above, a number of

Vietnamese scholars (Le, 2002; M. H. Nguyen, 2013; Pham, 2002) have called for a more
reasonable balance between teaching theory and practice; a re-distribution of the teacher
education curriculum between general knowledge, linguistic knowledge, language skills,
pedagogical knowledge, and teaching practice; and an increase in the curriculum load in
teaching practice. M. H. Nguyen (2013) suggests that it is important to incorporate core
courses focusing on knowledge of local teaching contexts and knowledge of learners into
the current teacher education programmes to help student teachers envisage actual
teaching realities. Finally, Bui and Nguyen (2016) suggest that English language teacher
programmes should go beyond merely improving English knowledge and skills, but
provide pre-service teachers with life-long learning and reflective skills that develop their
future professional learning.
Vietnamese EFL higher education context
There are two types of English provision at tertiary level in Vietnam. Non-English majors
take general English (GE) during their first and second years and English for Specific
Purposes (ESP) during their third and fourth years. For this group, GE is normally taught
five periods per week for three semesters, for a total of 150 periods (1 period = 45
minutes); ESP is taught five periods a week for 9 weeks in one semester, for a total of 46
periods (Trinh & Mai, 2019). GE courses focus on improving students’ four basic
language skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing) and providing students with the
general knowledge necessary to master English, such as grammar. ESP courses focus on
learning vocabulary and reading skills development in students’ specialist majors. First-
26
year students in this group do not have to take English entrance tests but are tested in
other subjects depending on their majors. Their entry level varies; however, the majority
of them are at elementary English level (equivalent to Level 1) (Trinh & Mai, 2019),
which is rather low. The standardised benchmarking levels of teachers and students’
English proficiency are discussed in more detail in section 2.6. As a result, many tertiary
institutions have to provide English programmes from elementary up to lower or upper
intermediate levels, so that students are able to reach Level 3 by the time they graduate.
According to the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR), it takes
approximately 200 guided learning hours for a language learner to progress from one
CEFR level to the next (Hoang, 2017). In practice, non-English majors in Vietnamese
tertiary institutions are allocated less than 200 hours to progress from Level 1 to Level 3.
This seems to be an unrealistic required outcome for Vietnamese university graduates and
teachers.
English majors, on the other hand, specialise in English studies. They have to take courses
including general knowledge, linguistics and language knowledge and skills, pedagogical
knowledge, and do a teaching practicum as discussed in section 2.4. Their standardised
proficiency requirement to be eligible to graduate is Level 5.
In Le’s (2017) study, a questionnaire with three open-ended questions was used to explore
the views of department heads at 52 universities and colleges across the country and focus
group interviews were organised with senior teachers of English at those universities. The
study investigated respondents’ views about the pedagogic changes introduced in
response to the policy of students’ proficiency standardisation and their estimates of the
achievability of the standardisation. The questionnaire findings reported a perceived low
likelihood of students being able to achieve the mandated proficiency levels: the estimate
from the most optimistic respondents was a maximum of 45% for non-English major
students and 30% for English major students. The interview results showed an even lower
percentage from the teachers’ viewpoints. However, this was primarily a survey study.
There is a strong need for qualitative research to gain more in-depth understanding of the
situation.
The study above reflects the current status of EFL education at Vietnamese tertiary
institutions. Vietnamese EFL higher education has made significant progress; however,
there are many challenges that may affect classroom practice, and teaching and learning
outcomes. Many Vietnamese scholars have noted these challenges, including the culture
27
of teaching and learning in the Vietnamese EFL context, the quality of teachers, large
class sizes, lack of teaching facilities, inappropriate materials, students’ low motivation
and the testing-oriented system (C. V. Le, 2017; Le, 2020; Le, 2012; D. T. N. Le, 2017;
L. V. Nguyen, 2011; Nguyen & Nguyen, 2019; Pham & Fry, 2004; Pham, 2011; Phan,
2015; Trinh & Mai, 2019).
Context of Vietnam’s education reforms and English language

policy
The socio-economic and educational reforms have actively impacted English language
policy in Vietnam. Since 1986 (Đổi mới policy), English has been introduced at all levels
of education and is widely used for international communication and economic
partnerships (see section 2.2).
Between 2000 and 2001, the Vietnamese government initiated general education
curriculum and English language policy reforms via Decree No. 40/2000/NQ-QH10
(2000) and Decree No. 14/2001/CT-TTg (2001) to urgently develop and implement the
national curriculum, including English curriculum, to meet the needs of the country’s
modern development. The reforms further emphasised student-centred pedagogical
approaches, stimulating students’ creativity and autonomy with the ultimate aim of
developing and globally integrating the nation.
In 2005, recognising a need for further radical reform of the education system, the
government produced Resolution 14 on the “Fundamental and Comprehensive Reform
of Higher Education in Vietnam 2006-2020” (also known as the Higher Education
Reform Agenda, or HERA). This presents a vision of what the Vietnamese higher
education system should become (T. N. Pham, 2010). The scale of the reforms proposed
by HERA is huge. One of the general aims of HERA is:
To carry out fundamental and comprehensive reform of higher

education; undertake a process of profound renews [sic] in the area of
the quantity, quality, and effectiveness in order to meet all the demands
of industrialization, modernization, global economic integration and
society’s demand for learning opportunities. By 2020, Vietnam aims to
have a higher education system that is advanced by international
standard [sic], highly competitive, and appropriate to the socialist-
oriented market mechanism. (T. N. Pham, 2010, pp. 51-52)
28
Among the many objectives and responsibilities stated in the HERA document are a focus
on teaching and learning, including the need to build learning societies, a shift from an
instructional to a learning paradigm focusing on student-centered pedagogy, the
development of teacher capacity, and increased opportunities for teacher professional
learning and development, an emphasis on the use of advanced technology in education,
and demand for more relevant graduate skills – ‘industry ready graduates with broader
range of high level and adaptable skills’ (Harman & Nguyen, 2010).
In recognising the importance of foreign languages in educational reform, under Decision

1400, the Vietnam’s Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) issued the National
Foreign Language Project 2020 (hereafter referred to as Project 2020) in 2008. This
national-scale language reform policy focuses on bringing the overall English proficiency
of Vietnamese citizens to a more competitive level, both regionally and globally. The aim
was to approach this target through four major strategies, as described in C. V. Le (2017,
p. 187):
1. Making English a compulsory subject from primary to tertiary levels of education

2. Upgrading teachers’ proficiency in English and their pedagogical knowledge and
skills towards more communication-oriented teaching
3. Introducing a new curriculum and writing new English textbooks
4. Mandating standardised benchmarking of students’ proficiency.
With regard to teachers, professional development forms a part of the English language
teaching initiative. MOET has set Vietnam’s English Teacher Competencies Framework,
including five domains:
1. Knowledge of English and the curriculum

2. Knowledge of instructional methods
3. Knowledge of learners
4. Professional attitudes and values embedded across knowledge domains
5. Informed knowledge of teaching context
This framework is seen as a blueprint for teachers’ professional development and receives
substantial support from the government in terms of resourcing. Within the project
framework, language teachers are re-trained in three stages through professional
development programmes, which consist of a combination of attending conferences and
courses, and self-learning. These programmes aim to improve teachers’ language
29
proficiency, pedagogical knowledge, teaching practice and to provide opportunities to

conduct research.
In order to assess teachers’ language proficiency, MOET initially used the Common
European Framework of Reference (CEFR) as an assessment blueprint. The required
level for primary and lower secondary school teachers is Level 4 and for upper secondary
and university teachers is Level 5 (Table 2.1). However, the mandated proficiency levels
have been described as ambitious and unrealistic, as discussed further in section 2.7.
Following this, a six-level proficiency framework, a modification of the CEFR, was
developed locally, and is called the Vietnamese Standardised Test of English Proficiency
(VSTEP). This is used as an assessment tool for teachers’ proficiency. VSTEP was
developed by local experts using a blend of test materials including the Test of English
as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), the International English Language Testing System
(IELTS), the Cambridge Preliminary English Test (PET), and the First Certificate of
English. This framework is in its infancy and has experienced some constraints such as
lack of communication and consistency from the authorities (Nguyen et al., 2020). The
English competence set out for teachers, however, implicitly functions as a form of
professional identity, within the syllogism that “the more fluent in English, the more
effective the teacher” (Freeman, 2017, p. 32). Critically, this logic considers the teacher’s
English competence as a measure of professional performance, rather than what the
teacher practically and pragmatically does in the classroom (Freeman, 2017).
30
Table 2.1 English proficiency requirement for teachers in the Vietnamese educational
system
Level 6 CEFR C2
IELTS 8.0 – 9.0
Cambridge CPE
Level 5 CEFR C1
IELTS 7.0 – 8.0
Cambridge CAE
Level 4 CEFR B2
IELTS 5.5 – 6.5
Cambridge FCE
Level 3 CEFR B1
IELTS 4.0 – 5.0
Cambridge PET
Level 2 CEFR A2
Cambridge KET
Level 1 CEFR A1
Cambridge Movers
English teachers at
secondary school
secondary school
English primary
school teachers
English lower
English upper
English
colleges and
Equivalent
universities
level
teachers
teachers
One of the very common forms of professional learning for English teachers under Project
2020 in Vietnam is training-of-trainers (ToT); a cascade approach, as mentioned earlier.
In the ToT model, a small number of teachers receive training from key trainers, who are
external educational experts or experienced university lecturers, to become qualified
trainers themselves. Qualified trainers return to their own contexts to train other teachers.
The ToT model aims for capacity building in teachers, which accommodates not only
content knowledge, but also pedagogical skills and practical experience. This model also
helps to reach a large population and provide training. However, this cascade model has
been perceived as ineffective, as discussed in the previous chapter, section 1.3.
Along with the focus on improving teaching and EFL teachers, Project 2020 places an
emphasis on learning aspects and students. The reform aims to cultivate a generation of
31
well-educated Vietnamese graduates with good English language skills in addition to

intercultural and communicative competencies. The government’s Decision 1400 states
that:
...by the year 2020, most Vietnamese youth graduating from vocational
schools, colleges and universities will be able to use a foreign language
independently and confidently to communicate, learn and work in an
environment of integration, multilingualism and multiculturalism.
Foreign languages will be a strength of the Vietnamese people, and will
serve the cause of industrialisation and modernisation for the country.
(Vietnamese Government, 2008, Decision 1400, p. 1, as cited and
translated in Nguyen, 2018, p. 96)
With the enactment of the government’s Decision 1400 and the National Foreign
Language Project (Project 2020), the ultimate emphasis is on foreign language
proficiency so that, by the year 2020, most Vietnamese young graduates from vocational
schools, colleges and universities gain the capacity to use a foreign language
independently, to communicate confidently, and to be able to work and study in a
multicultural environment with a variety of languages. The proficiency framework,
therefore, applies to students at all levels of the Vietnamese educational system (Table
2.2) as a graduation requirement. As can be seen in Table 2.2, arguably, upper high school
students and university graduates, irrespective of their major area of study, are supposed
to achieve Level 3 of the framework in order to be eligible for graduation. Although a
great amount of money has been budgeted for the development of VSTEP, many
universities have opted for TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language) or IELTS
(International English Language Testing System) because of the credibility gap in the
quality of the locally produced tests and test administration (C. V. Le, 2017).
In tertiary education, EFL is an important instructional focus (Le & Chen, 2019). English
is taught as a compulsory non-major subject in the first two years at university and is
increasingly used in ESP courses, where students learn language related to core specialist
subjects, such as mathematics, physics, chemistry, business, tourism, and nursing, in
English. To meet the requirements of the education reform and the country’s
industrialisation and modernisation process, together with the ability to use foreign
languages to communicate independently and confidently, there is a growing demand for
graduates with broader skills. These include critical thinking, initiative, collaboration,
information literacy, planning and management skills, capacity for lifelong learning and
32
self-learning, and flexibility. Given these changes, teaching pedagogy should be re-
considered and outdated teaching methods should be replaced with more appropriate
pedagogical practices. Harman and Nguyen (2010), who have worked in World Bank
higher education projects in Vietnam as consultants, suggest student-centred teaching has
the potential to motivate deep learning and result in learners acquiring higher order
critical, analytical, behavioural, problem-solving and decision-making skills.
Table 2.2 English proficiency requirement for students in Vietnamese educational system
Level 6 CEFR C2
IELTS 8.0 – 9.0
Cambridge CPE
Level 5 CEFR C1
IELTS 7.0 – 8.0
Cambridge CAE
Level 4 CEFR B2
IELTS 5.5 – 6.5
Cambridge FCE
Level 3 CEFR B1
IELTS 4.0 – 5.0
Cambridge PET
Level 2 CEFR A2
Cambridge KET
Level 1 CEFR A1
Cambridge
Movers
Non-English major university students
Non-English major college students
Vocational training school students
English major university students

Lower secondary school students
Upper secondary school students
English major college students

Primary school students
English
Equivalent
level
33
Given the long-term vision of the national reform and Project 2020, the enactment
prompted education institutions, English teachers and learners and Vietnamese people in
general to face and seek solutions to several long-standing problems as well as the
potential challenges related to English language teaching in the country (Nguyen &
Nguyen, 2019). For institutions, considering the situation on the ground, there has been
much to discuss with regard to curricula, textbooks, assessments, and teaching and
learning facilities. For teachers, the reform targets have created a central role for English
teachers in enacting the government policies and required them to undertake professional
learning and development activities to improve their language proficiency, pedagogical
competencies, and practices.
From the learners’ point of view, the rhetoric and the reality of the policy and Vietnamese
students’ English ability still do not match. The English Proficiency Index (see Figure
2.3) shows English proficiency levels of Vietnamese students in 2019, in comparison with
students from other countries across the region. The Education First (EF) Standard
English Test is a standardised online test of English language ability designed for non-
native English speakers. The test is set up and administered by EF, a global language
training company based in the USA. The 2019 test involved 2.3 million test takers from
100 countries worldwide. The Education First English Proficiency Index places the
surveyed countries and territories into five proficiency bands, from very high to very low.
Education First (2019) ranked Vietnam’s English proficiency 52nd out of 100 surveyed
countries and regions and regionally 10th out of 25 Asian countries, falling into the low
proficiency category. Vietnam’s score for 2019 was 51.57, compared to the highest-rated
Asian countries; Singapore (66.82), the Philippines (60.14) and Malaysia (58.55).
34
Index
80.00
70.00 66.82
60.14
60.00 58.55
55.63
51.57
50.00 48.11
45.56
41.51
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
Indonesia
Malaysia
Cambodia
Hong Kong
Vietnam
India
Nepal
Sri Lanka
Afghanistan
Singapore
Philippines
Myanmar
Kazakhstan
Uzbekistan
Taiwan
China
Bangladesh
Japan
Maldives
South Korea
Macau
Pakistan
Thailand
Mongolia
Kyrgyzstan
Proficiency:
Figure 2.3 EF EPI ranking of Asian countries and regions (Education First, 2019)
The following discussion of bilingual policies and the status of English in Singapore and
the Philippines aims to foster a comparative perspective on the enactment of English
language education policy in Vietnam. Singapore and the Philippines are two countries
where multilingualism is an expectation and a norm. A Bilingual Education Policy has
been enacted since 1965 in Singapore (Jain & Wee, 2019) and since 1974 in the
Philippines (Young & Igcalinos, 2019). In the Philippines, beside the national language
35
of Filipino, English is an official language, serving as a medium for business transactions

and as the primary medium of instructions in schools (Young & Igcalinos, 2019). In
Singapore, besides ethnic mother tongues such as Mandarin, Tamil, Malay and others,
English is the ethnically neutral language and “serves as the inter-ethnic lingua franca as
well as the language of socio-economic mobility and global advancement” (Jain & Wee,
2019, p. 273). A snapshot of Singapore and the Philippines in relation to government
policies and education reforms raises a number of questions for Vietnam. We may wonder
if the Vietnamese education system, education institutions, teachers, and students have
been prepared for the reform. We may wonder if the reform goals are adequate and
achievable from the perspectives of the stakeholders involved. We may wonder what will
happen to students who are able to achieve the required proficiency levels and to teachers
if they are unable to improve their language proficiency. We may also wonder what
support channels and means will be provided to help elevate English teaching and
learning quality. Another question relevant to the wider Vietnamese society is whether
there will be a social division between those who can speak English and those who cannot,
because of the greater prestige and value accorded to English, similar to what happened
in the early 1900s between the French-speaking elite and Vietnamese-speaking
laypersons. Within the low-immersion ELT context of Vietnam, where English is learned
in the classroom rather than spoken in daily life (C. D. Nguyen, 2017), these questions
are still unanswered.
The following section discusses further challenges to meet the reform targets.
Challenges to reaching the reform targets
There have been controversial responses to the impacts of Project 2020 from its
beginnings through to the present day (Bui, 2016; Bui & Nguyen, 2016; Le & Barnard,
2009; Le & Yeo, 2016; Nguyen & Mai, 2015). Most previous studies focused on school-
level teachers’ perceptions of the implementation of new curricula and the standardised
benchmark requirements for teachers’ English proficiency. With respect to research on
perceptions of Project 2020’s impacts on teachers’ professional learning, there were
positive outcomes in Nguyen et al.’s (2020) very recent qualitative case study using
activity theory to conceptualise teacher professional learning. Nguyen et al. (2020) found
that Project 2020 has created positive impacts on teachers’ motivation to enhance their
professional learning; however, teachers in their study “have a strong desire for ‘true’
36
professional learning and are in real need of professional development for their effective
teaching” (Nguyen et al., 2020, p. 92). In order to achieve this as well as other reform
targets, the following challenges need to be considered.
A lack of qualified teachers at all levels is one of the inherent challenges in the enactment
of the government’s reform policy (Bui & Nguyen, 2016; C. V. Le, 2017). It is important
to note that quality of teachers in this context refers both to their language proficiency
and pedagogical competencies. Project 2020 has a total budget of VND10 trillion
(US$480 million), divided into three stages: Stage 1 (2008-2010), Stage 2 (2011-2015),
and Stage 3 (2016-2020) (Le, 2020; MOET, 2008; Viet Toan, 2013, March 27). After the
second stage of the project, the aim was to improve Vietnamese EFL teachers’ English
proficiency to meet the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
(CEFR) levels set out by the government as discussed in section 2.6. As mentioned earlier,
the NFL Project 2020 requires primary and lower secondary teachers to reach level B2
CEFR while upper secondary teachers are expected to reach level C1 CEFR.
Unfortunately, this objective was not achieved. According to a report on orientations in
testing and assessment of English in the Vietnamese national education system between
2013 and 2020, 83% of primary teachers, 87% of lower secondary teachers, and 91.8%
of upper secondary teachers did not meet the required benchmark levels (N. H. Nguyen,
2013). These data were acknowledged again by Nguyen Ngoc Hung from the NFL Project
2020 in a review report by Truong (2017). Only 0.1% of upper secondary school teachers
achieved level C2 according to the CEFR (T. Nguyen, 2017).
There were a number of reasons for the failure of stage 2 of the project in terms of
improving teachers’ English proficiency. The first reason was that the CEFR framework
had not been used to guide language syllabus design in teacher training programmes in
Vietnam, explaining teachers’ lack of familiarity with the language test format and their
limited language proficiency, probably due to low entry levels of English language
proficiency (C. V. Le, 2017). Secondly, after the teacher education programmes, there
were no means by which teachers could build their language proficiency and develop
their language practical skills outside the classroom, and the lack of opportunities to
practice English language contributed to teachers’ limited English proficiency (Phan,
2015). Also, teachers’ use of English is often confined to teaching lower-level classes for
a long period of time, which makes it challenging for teachers to maintain their English
proficiency (Nguyen & Mai, 2015). Another possible explanation is mentioned in Mai’s
37
study (2014). In his study, a number of teachers stated that most of the English
enhancement courses they were required to take were designed for getting them to pass
CEFR tests, rather than cultivating the pedagogical competencies they needed to be able
to do their job. Thus, “there is little guarantee that teachers’ language proficiency will be
improved after the retraining programmes” (Nguyen & Nguyen, 2019, p. 195).
Although EFL teachers in Vietnam are aware of the reforms and initiatives, researchers
have observed that teaching in Vietnam’s higher education institutions continues to be
conducted mainly in a traditional way; teachers present knowledge to students (Harman
& Nguyen, 2010; T. N. Pham, 2010). T. N. Pham (2010) and Le and Chen (2019) point
out that traditional methods in language teaching with a focus on grammar, translation,
and drills still have a strong hold on Vietnamese ELT. This observation has been reflected
in teacher education programmes as reported in a study by Kieu Thi Kinh and her
colleagues (2016). To identify challenges in education for sustainable development
implementation in teacher education institutions in Vietnam, these authors interviewed
10 teachers and 75 student teachers in five teacher education institutions across Vietnam
and organised focus groups with groups of student teachers at each university. One of the
challenges reported was the prevalence of top-down pedagogy and teacher-centred
teaching with a focus on content-based teaching, which requires student teachers to
memorise knowledge rather than achieve competencies (Kieu et al., 2016). Pham (2002)
presented a possible reason from his own teaching experience, noting that many of the
older teachers in Vietnam “undertook training in the past, when modern approaches and
methods had not reached the country yet, and were deprived of the knowledge of modern
teaching methods” (p. 36). These teachers tend to apply these approaches in their practice
and their students in turn follow what they learn during their own learning experience.
Another possible explanation for the long-standing of traditional teaching practice in

Vietnam’s educational settings could be the disproportionate disparity between English
language knowledge and skills and the pedagogical knowledge and skills of teachers.
There is also a mismatch between expected learning outcomes and programme design
(Mai & Pham, 2019). In their review comparing Vietnam’s English language teacher
education programme with similar EFL teacher training programmes abroad, such as
American or Australian programmes, Mai and Pham (2019) argued that Vietnamese
English teacher education programmes were structured to develop English language
competencies rather than focusing on pedagogical training in methods.
38
One example was provided from the EFL teacher education programme at the prestigious
University for Languages and International Studies of the Vietnam National University –
Hanoi (VNU ULIS). The VNU ULIS programme consists of 133 credits. The first two
years of the programme offer many courses in English language knowledge and skills
development, and the last two years offer courses in general pedagogical knowledge for
teaching a range of subjects, such as psychology, English teaching methodology, and
higher-level linguistic courses, such as morphology, semantics, and syntax. From Mai
and Pham’s observation, knowledge of specific methods for teaching the four English
skills is taught in the final year but only for a short time and the focus is primarily on
theories. As part of this programme, students are required to have one official 6-week
practicum, during which they are sent to schools to observe teaching and learning and to
familiarise themselves with practical teaching realities. The purpose of the practicum is
for students to learn and gain experience from real teaching and learning contexts.
However, Mai and Pham’s (2019) findings from oral feedback sessions with VNU ULIS
students (from 2012-2013 to 2016-2017) show that this practicum was quite short and
sometimes ineffective because students had a tendency to follow exactly the teaching
steps and lesson plans of the school teachers, without analysing their effectiveness,
because they wanted to satisfy the school teachers, who were perceived as having more
experience and knowledge of the teaching contexts. The findings in this study support the
results M. H. Nguyen (2013) reported in her comparative study of two curricula for
English teacher education in an Australian university and a Vietnamese university,
mentioned earlier in section 2.4. This was not an unusual finding but it has a particular
impact on perpetuating traditional methods in Vietnam in a way that might undermine
new initiatives.
Teachers’ beliefs play a vital role in shaping decision-making and practices. However,
the enactment of policy and implementation of changes by EFL teachers in Vietnam are
complicated by various factors, including teachers’ poor English proficiency and skills,
disparity between teachers’ pedagogical knowledge and skills, a mismatch between
expected learning outcomes and programme design, heavy teaching workloads,
inadequate teacher education and training, and contextual constraints (Bui & Nguyen,
2016; Le, 2007; Mai & Pham, 2019; Pham, 2002). Nguyen and Mai (2015) conducted a
study investigating in-service Vietnamese EFL teachers’ responses to the government
language proficiency requirements imposed on them. In this study, 350 teachers working
39
in four Northern provinces of Vietnam completed a language proficiency self-assessment

survey. Subsequently, 44 teachers were recruited to participate in semi-structured
interviews, and five of the 44 teachers then participated in several in-depth and repeated
interviews over a 10-week period. The findings reported that the teachers wanted a more
appropriate support framework to improve their English proficiency, while
acknowledging that they considered themselves to be competent teachers. Critically, the
current literature fails to explain how changes in educational policy impact professional
learning and how teachers develop their professional learning within their work context
(Nguyen et al., 2020). This also echoes the need for developing teachers’ agency to
implement innovative practices and changes through appropriate and ongoing
professional learning and development.
In the current educational context, the national reform, particularly in English language
teaching, has emphasised the central role of English teachers in ‘implementing’
government policies and has required them to undertake professional learning and
development activities to improve their language proficiency, pedagogical competencies,
and practices. However, taking the above challenges into consideration, there are likely
some gaps between teachers’ proficiency and pedagogical competencies and practices,
and between language policy and practical policy implementation in Vietnam. These gaps
will be followed up in the Chapter Six, section 6.5.3. Higher education teachers generally,
and EFL teachers particularly, need support to enact and achieve the government’s
initiatives. However, from the observations and arguments presented above, there is a
need for a more practice-based and collective approach to ‘meaningful’ teacher
professional learning and development, as mentioned earlier in Nguyen et al. (2020). This
is likely to build a foundation for continuous professional learning throughout teachers’
careers.
In her doctoral research, Huong Nguyen (2015) argued that from her observation of the
reforms in Vietnam, “more attention is paid to the state of change. That is, people appear
to support the surface activities, talk about innovative terms, or evaluate the final products
rather than [go] into the deep structure of the process of innovations” (p. 248). C. V. Le
(2017) reference to “surface changes” (p. 191) may be somewhat overstated as some
progress has been observed as a result of the reform agenda (Nguyen et al., 2020). My
study did not aim to be interventionist, directing the evolution in teachers’ professional
behaviour in a more desirable way (Gurney, 2015). In this study, rather than focusing on
40
the learning activities per se, or the final state of change, I sought to focus on the inquiry
process of teacher learning through enactment and reflection, individually and
collectively, and to gain insights into how teachers translated new learning into practice
and how this inquiry process shaped teacher professional learning.
Chapter summary
English language teaching cannot be understood thoroughly without being bound in local
educational context. This chapter has briefly introduced the historical, political,
economic, and socio-cultural background of Vietnam to set the scene for this research
project. English language teacher education programmes have been discussed to provide
some insights into the transition between pre-service and in-service training of teachers
in Vietnam and its potential impact on teaching staff. The chapter has also presented an
overview of the HERA and Project 2020, focusing on improving the Vietnamese
education system, quality of teaching and learning English in Vietnam to provide insights
into teacher professional learning context in Vietnam, discussed both in this chapter and
in the previous chapter, in section 1.3. Finally, the chapter has presented several
challenges for the country, education institutions, teachers and students to reach the
reform targets. All of these have justified the rationale for and significance of the current
study.
41
Chapter 3: Literature Review
CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
This chapter first reviews key literature on student-centred approaches (SCA) in English
language teaching, which serves as the content focus of the teachers’ professional learning
in this study (section 3.2). The chapter then explores the construct of teacher cognition,
in particular the concepts, the nature of teachers’ beliefs and the factors shaping teachers’
beliefs (section 3.3), and how teachers’ beliefs relate to knowledge and practice. The
focus is then narrowed to studies on English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers’
beliefs and practices in the Vietnamese context. Section 3.4 reviews the literature related
to teacher professional learning and paradigm shifts in teacher professional learning. This
study is grounded via the two theoretical lenses of teacher learning: constructivist and
situative, which are highlighted in the chapter. As this study was located in Vietnam with
a focus on teachers of EFL, I provide a brief overview of professional learning of EFL
teachers in general and tertiary teachers in Vietnam in particular. Finally, the chapter
summarises and highlights the research gaps in which the present study situates itself.
Student-centred approaches
Student-centred approaches have been well established in the past decades in language
teaching (Amini, 2011; Nunan, 1988; T. T. H. Pham, 2010). However, being a broad,
multifaceted, and evolving concept, there is little agreement on the meaning of student-
centredness (Bremner, 2019; Paris & Combs, 2006). In many cases, the term is used
freely, without definition, and with a presumption of shared understanding of the term
(Paris & Combs, 2006). As a result, student-centredness can mean different things to
different people, which has led to confusion surrounding its implementation (O'Neill &
McMahon, 2005).
For the purposes of this study, a student-centred approach is not a method, nor a set of
techniques (Tudor, 1993, 1996). Student-centredness is used to refer to a broad
pedagogical philosophy, which includes a cluster of approaches (Nunan, 1988) or “a set
of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language teaching and learning”
(Anthony, 1963, p. 63). I used Bremner’s (2019) definition of student-centred pedagogy
as:
42
a teaching approach in which learners cease to be passive receivers of

knowledge and become more active participants in their own learning
process; learning is contextualised, meaningful, and based, wherever
possible, around learners’ prior knowledge, needs and interests; finally,
learning is more dialogic and democratic, and learners have more
control with regard to what and how they learn. (p. 54)
Bremner’s (2019) definition of student-centred pedagogy entails a philosophy of student-
centredness. Student-centredness encourages students’ autonomous participatory and
active learning, empowers students to think independently, construct their own
knowledge and draw their own conclusions, and develops students as critical thinkers and
independent learners (Aliusta & Özer, 2017; Pham & Renshaw, 2013). To achieve these
aims, both teachers and students are required to take on significantly different roles to
support students’ active and independent learning. SCA is highly influenced by context,
due to the differences in students’ needs, characteristics, motivations, and the beliefs that
they bring to the class.
Discussion of student-centredness varies in terms of focus and interpretations. Pedersen

and Liu (2003) discuss student-centred approaches focusing on the goals of student
learning, the roles of the teacher and the student, students’ motivational orientation,
assessments, and student interactions. In revisiting the literature on student-centred
education, White (2007) identifies four key interpretations that have guided and
characterised practices of student-centred language teaching. They are student-
centredness as relevance, as responsiveness, as commitment to knowledge construction,
and as a prevailing culture of enquiry. First, student-centredness as relevance means that
learners’ needs are identified and considered by teachers, which is in line with Bremner’s
(2019) view above. Second, responsiveness focuses on the ways in which teachers are
responsive to aspects of individual learners and their learning; for example, their prior
knowledge, background, interests, and experiences (see also Bremner, 2019). Third,
student-centredness as commitment to knowledge construction by the learner means that
learners become more active participants in their own learning process (see also Bremner,
2019). In other words, students “must make sense of new language and experiences in the
context of their unique world view, and teaching should create and sustain personally
meaningful connections between language context and the lived experience and world of
each learner” (White, 2007, p. 322). Finally, student-centredness as a prevailing culture
43
of inquiry means that teachers and students are involved in parallel processes of ongoing
learning.
Empirical studies have also been conducted to explore teachers’ perceptions of SCA
(Aliusta & Özer, 2017; Brinkmann, 2019; Pedersen & Liu, 2003). Conducting an
empirical study, Paris and Combs (2006) explored what teachers meant when they said
they were student-centred. Interview data from twelve primary teachers, four secondary
teachers and two teacher educators found that student-centredness meant placing students
as the starting point for curriculum making (see also Bremner, 2019), teacher and students
as co-participants in the learning process (see also Bremner, 2019; Pedersen and Liu,
2003) and students’ active engagement in their learning process (see Bremner, 2019;
White, 2007). As previously mentioned, there are overlapping as well as different
meanings underlying student-centred pedagogy among these scholars.
The emergence of SCA in language teaching resonates with a strong tradition of students’
active involvement and engagement in English language teaching and learning. A number
of classroom practices, which have gained wide currency in ELT, are believed to promote
student-centred teaching and learning, including the Communicative Language Teaching
(CLT), Task-based Approach, Project-based Approach, and Problem-based Approach
(Pedersen & Liu, 2003). Common to these approaches are engaging students in
communicative processes of information exchange, negotiation of meaning and
interaction (Richards & Rodgers, 2001), and presenting students with a central question
in different forms, including a problem, an issue, or a project, which is framed as a goal
for student learning. Learning is a result of students’ efforts to develop a response (a
solution, an opinion, a decision, a plan of action, a design or a project product) to that
question (Pedersen & Liu, 2003). All of these represent student-centred approaches to
teaching and learning.
As briefly discussed in section 1.3, in this study, student-centred approaches relevant to

EFL teaching and learning were used as a content focus of teacher learning or
“knowledge-for-practice” (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999, p. 254), which relates to
constructivist views of learning (O'Neill & McMahon, 2005). See Appendix A for a
framework of student-centred approaches applied in the study. This framework was
developed based on the four main strategies in student-centred teaching practices
suggested by O'Neill and McMahon (2005): making students more active in acquiring
44
knowledge and skills; making students more aware of what they are doing and why they
are doing it; focusing on interaction; and emphasising transferrable skills.
As mentioned earlier, together with the application of student-centred approaches as a

content focus of teacher learning, teacher inquiry was used as a tool to drive the teachers’
reflection and the co-construction of new learning. This was planned through a series of
six inquiries, each of which represented one aspect of student-centred pedagogy. These
inquiries were designed based on my own readings, my professional understanding of
SCA, and effective approaches to English language teaching, according to the literature.
Each inquiry included an overview, providing knowledge for practice of SCA for
teachers, a try-things-out with a selection of activities that teachers implemented in their
classroom, and a reflection to learn about the constraints, opportunities and potential
improvement when teachers applied the approaches in general and the activities in
particular (see Appendix B for an example). The six aspects of student-centred pedagogy
in EFL used in the inquiries were:
• Creating opportunities for language output

• Creating opportunities for student interaction
• Supporting students’ thinking beyond language repetition and information recall
• Fostering the use of metacognitive language learning strategies
• Supporting self-regulated language learning
• Encouraging autonomous language learning.
Predominant pedagogical approaches to teaching English in Vietnam
The aim of this section is not to look at the history of English language teaching
approaches but to provide the bigger picture of how these approaches may have
influenced the learning experiences and teaching practices of the teachers in this study.
Although the impact of student-centred approaches in language teaching, such as CLT,

has been observed since the 1960s (Nonkukhetkhong, Baldauf Jr, & Moni, 2006;
Richards & Rodgers, 2014; Tudor, 1993, 1996), these approaches were introduced in
Vietnam rather later than in other countries (Le & Barnard, 2009). C. D. Nguyen (2017)
found that English language teaching in Vietnam between the 1980s and the 1990s was
still characterised by ‘traditional methods’, which placed an emphasis on grammar,
vocabulary and reading; for example, Grammar-Translation, Behaviourism and the
45
Audiolingual Approach (C. D. Nguyen, 2017). Although these approaches have made
important contributions to second and foreign language teaching and learning around the
world and in Vietnam in particular, they are criticised for being too focused on forms and
structures and creating passive practices of language learning. Nowadays, linguists doubt
the efficacy of these approaches (Matamoros-González, Rojas, Romero, Vera-Quiñonez,
& Soto, 2017).
In Vietnam, traditional teaching methods have been popularly used at all levels of
education (L. H. N. Tran et al., 2018). However, a number of teachers perceive a need for
change. C. D. Nguyen (2017) conducted a narrative interview study with six EFL primary
teachers in two cities in Vietnam to examine the teachers’ reflections on their EFL
learning experience during their secondary education, from the early 1980s to the late
1990s. On a broader level, the study explored the connections between the teachers’
learning experience and their teaching practice. The prevalence of grammar-focused
practices in all EFL classes were central to the teachers’ narrative stories; however, the
teachers were not content with these practices. The teachers learned and reported that the
prevailing approaches to teaching of that time were no longer appropriate for language
education; as a result, they were prepared for change. The teachers’ narratives also
explained that historical contexts with limited access to the modern ELT world created a
barrier for teachers, inhibiting their exploration of new approaches to teaching. The study
helps explain why traditional teaching approaches are still observed in Vietnamese EFL
teaching today.
The Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) Approach is a well-known,

contemporary approach to English language teaching. This approach aims to promote
communicative competence among language learners and make them more actively
involved in their learning process, beyond repetitive drilling practice as in the audio-
lingual method and language structures as in the grammar translation method (Kim, 2014;
Matamoros-González et al., 2017). In addition to CLT, linguists have proposed other
ways of teaching English language, including the Task-based Approach, Project-based
Approach, and Problem-based Approach. The focus of these approaches is aligned with
the principles of student-centred approaches; in other words, student-centred philosophy
“emerged as an offspring of communicative language learning” (Nunan, 1990, p. 179).
In English language instruction, the development of a student-centred approach has come
with the advent of communicative language teaching as a “cluster of approaches than a
46
single methodology” (Nunan, 1988, p. 24). Therefore, I use the phrase student-centred
approaches to refer to this cluster of approaches as a content focus of this study.
The discussion above highlights different approaches to ELT employed in Vietnam.

Under the English language reforms promoting more active learning and student-centred
teaching, despite SCA being a common pedagogical construct for teachers at all education
levels, it has been subject to multiple interpretations (Tudor, 1993). Its broad, flexible and
evolving concept has meant different things to different people (Nunan, 1999; O'Neill &
McMahon, 2005; Tudor, 1993).
The next section examines the implementation of SCA in Vietnam and the potential
conflicts and challenges that EFL teachers and learners have encountered.
Implementation of SCA in Vietnam
Despite the wide implementation of student-centredness across socio-educational

contexts (Bremner, 2019; Brinkmann, 2019; Dang, 2006), after the Vietnamese
Government’s policies and MOET’s directives about English language reforms, this
approach has been cautiously adopted in higher education in Vietnam (Dang, 2006). A
few studies have explored student-centred pedagogy in Vietnamese tertiary classrooms
(Dang, 2006; T. V. Le, 2014; Nguyen, Dekker, & Goedhart, 2008; V. T. Nguyen, 2011).
In his study, Dang (2006) examined how student-centredness was employed in EFL
teaching at a teacher training college in Vietnam. The data were drawn from document
reviews, a classroom observation, an in-depth interview with a teacher and six EFL
undergraduate students of a chất lượng cao (high quality – both high proficiency and
academically strong) class. During the classroom implementation, students were asked to
join group discussions, give presentations, and participated in whole-class discussion.
Dang (2006) found that the students had positive attitudes towards student-centredness,
and that students were involved actively in their learning. He also critiqued the
assumption that Vietnamese students were passive by nature and found that their learning
was influenced by learning conditions. He found that when the students were equipped
with appropriate EFL teaching and learning conditions and resources, such as comfortable
furniture and technologically advanced equipment, students made full use of available
opportunities to develop their self-study skills (Dang, 2006).
In his study, Dang (2006) also found factors that supported the development and
enhancement of students’ active participation in learning activities. These factors
47
comprised four key elements: teachers, learners, tasks and contexts. To be specific, first,
the teaching and learning of the high quality class was positively influenced by different
levels of contexts, such as national, organisational policies, and favourable classroom
atmosphere. Second, the supportive learning tasks, which were representations of the
curriculum and syllabus, learning material, learning activities and assessment, gave
teachers and students much more freedom in covering the content relevant to the students’
needs and interests. Third, the success of student-centred instruction resulted from
teachers who had an awareness of their roles from a student-centred perspective, and a
vision of the ideal student-centred classroom, involving fairness, enthusiasm and
constructive attitudes towards students and teaching. Finally, various student attributes
were also identified that affect students’ involvement, notably their personal
characteristics and the way they responded to a student-centred approach. Students were
aware of their roles and performed these roles in accordance with the principles of
student-centredness.
In contrast with the findings of Dang (2006), some Vietnamese scholars have explored
numerous constraints and difficulties in relation to student-centredness. One of these
factors is the cultural context of education; as Broadfoot (2001) argues, pedagogies do
not often produce the same outcome in a different cultural context. This view aligns with
the finding by Dang (2006) that at the classroom level, in a classroom culture valuing an
open and non-threatening atmosphere, there was a good rapport between teachers and
students and among students, respect for one another’s ideas, and a spirit of assistance
and cooperation had a direct and significant impact on constructing and developing
involvement in students. The cultural context of education is also linked to the teaching
philosophy applied. In Lewis and McCook’s study (2002), using CLT as a form of SCA,
fourteen Vietnamese high school teachers of English noted that they retained traditional
views and methods while using CLT in class. Particularly, the teachers focused on
teaching not only oral skills, but also writing skills. Furthermore, valuing the cultural
traditions of memorisation and perfection, the teachers thought that memorising and
understanding played a significant role in language acquisition as they helped students
with fluency and accuracy of language forms (Lewis & McCook, 2002). Various
explanations may account for this phenomenon, as reviewed in Phan (2008). CLT has
been criticised for its inappropriateness to teachers and students in countries where
successful teaching and learning is measured in examinations; its additional workload in
48
designing lessons; and its conflict with Asian learning settings, such as material design,
large size class, and a lack of funding for ELT (Phan, 2008).
In her work, T. T. H. Pham (2010) applied Casual Layered Analysis (CLA) as a

framework to examine factors influencing the application of SCA in Vietnam. CLA has
four main components, each of which investigates a level of the problem from the surface
to the deepest. The component levels are described as litany, cause, worldview, and
metaphor. The results indicated that the application of SCA was influenced by various
tensions, contradictions, and invisible drivers at different levels of CLA. At the litany
level, the weaknesses of the dominant teacher-centred approach to teaching and learning
were analysed and criticised for their inadequacy in providing students with newly-
required thinking and learning skills such as communication, cooperation and
independent learning. Systematic causes involved local infrastructure conditions and
limited resources, such as class size, material limitations, and curriculum coverage
requirements. For the worldview and metaphor levels, a number of cultural elements were
raised such as teaching and learning perceptions, culture of power distance and face
saving, and the influence of Confucian philosophies. T. T. H. Pham (2010) suggested that
Vietnamese traditional teaching approaches and SCA embodied different, even opposing
philosophies about the nature of teaching and learning. Consequently, there might be
some potential conflicts in several aspects. This view echoes the work of Phan (2008),
which found that pedagogical values of innovative student-centred approaches “have
conflicted with a number of cultural and professional values embedded in the practice of
teaching and learning in Asia” (p. 91), including Vietnam. Examples include the role of
the teacher in society and issues of respect between teacher and student.
The teachers’ incorporation of traditional aspects of language teaching into their adoption
of SCA, as in Lewis and McCook (2002) and Pham (2016), illustrates the need for
considering cultural continuity in teachers’ uptake of SCA (Chu, 2014). Considering
social and cultural influences in Vietnam, other Vietnamese scholars suggested that the
adoption of SCA should be modified or bridged to become culturally appropriate in the
Vietnamese context (Pham, 2016; Pham, 2011). Therefore, there is a need to elaborate
more on SCA conceptions and enactment, as well as socio-cultural and contextual factors,
in the Vietnamese ELT context.
49
Teachers’ cognition
Research on teacher cognition in the 1990s and 2000s has helped capture the complexities
of who teachers are, what they know and believe, and what they do in the classroom
(Kang & Cheng, 2014). The construct of teacher cognition is commonly discussed in
relation to the process of teacher learning, in which teachers play a central role. In a broad
sense, teacher cognition refers to “what teachers know, believe and think” (Borg, 2003,
p. 81). With regard to language education, Borg (2006b) defines language teacher
cognition as an inclusive term referring to “the complex, practically-oriented,
personalized, and context-sensitive networks of knowledge, thoughts and beliefs that
language teachers draw on in their work“ (p. 272). In reviewing research from the field
of foreign and second language teaching into teacher cognition, Borg (2003, 2006a,
2006b) observes that language teacher cognition is commonly examined with a critical
link to classroom practice and other aspects of their work. Recent research and
scholarship have experienced a shift towards constructivist and situative perspectives of
teacher learning and teacher cognition with complexities being inherent. These two
perspectives are further explored in section 3.4.
This study focuses teachers’ cognition on teachers’ beliefs and knowledge that are
affected by participation in the inquiry process. Further explorations of these components
in relation to teachers’ practice are presented in subsequent sections of this chapter.
Teachers’ beliefs
Teachers’ beliefs, a subset of teacher cognition (Borg, 2003), have been substantially
discussed in the literature for more than half of a century (Bijan, Zohreh, & Nasrin, 2020;
Fives & Gill, 2015; Pajares, 1992; Purwanti & Hatmanto, 2020; Richardson, 1996).
Beliefs play an important role in many aspects of teaching as they help individuals make
sense of the world and influence how new information is perceived. Teachers’ beliefs is
a complex concept because there have been multitudes of terms and variations of
definitions from scholars within and across the fields. Pajares (1992) identifies a list of
other terms used interchangeably in the literature on teachers’ beliefs: attitudes, values,
judgments, perceptions, conceptions, assumptions, implicit theory, personal theory and
the like. In his literature review, Borg (2003) identifies sixteen different terms for teacher
cognition that have been used in the literature in the last few decades, such as personal
50
pedagogical systems, theories for practice, personal practical knowledge, practical

knowledge, personal theories, pedagogical reasoning and the like.
While Kagan (1992) defines teachers’ beliefs as an unconscious assumption about

students, classrooms, and the academic materials to be taught, Borg (2001) views belief
as “a proposition which may be consciously or unconsciously held, is evaluative in that
it is accepted as true by the individual, and is therefore imbued with emotive
commitment” (p. 186). Taking a similar stance to Borg’s view about teachers’ beliefs as
a system, Basturkmen, Loewen, and Ellis (2004) introduce beliefs as:
statements teachers made about their ideas, thoughts, and knowledge

that are expressed as evaluations of what ‘should be done’, ‘should be
the case’, and ‘is preferable’. (Basturkmen et al., 2004, p. 244)
The term beliefs used in this study refers to teachers’ pedagogical beliefs, which
encompasses the essence of teachers’ beliefs represented in Basturkmen et al.’s (2004)
definition. The definition shows the interconnectedness between teachers’ beliefs and
practices and suggests the need to study teachers’ beliefs in relation to their classroom
practices.
The study of teachers’ beliefs sets the foundation for the study of teacher learning in a
number of ways. First, teachers’ beliefs play a role as cognitive filters of information
(Nespor, 1987; Pajares, 1992); that is, beliefs influence how teachers interpret new
information and experiences. In addition, teachers’ beliefs are reflected in the ways
teachers define or frame a problem, particularly ill-defined problems, or a task in the
classroom (Fives & Buehl, 2012; Nespor, 1987). Once the problems are defined, teachers’
beliefs are acknowledged to influence their thoughts and actions in practice (Borg, 2001;
Borg, 2003; Elbaz, 1981; Pajares, 1992; Richardson, 1996; Tamimy, 2015). Teachers’
actions in this study refer to behaviours or practices undertaken by teachers to enhance
student learning; for example, teachers adopt different pedagogies, select relevant
teaching materials, and incorporate suitable learning activities to support student learning
(Tam, 2015). Furthermore, teachers’ beliefs guide the adoption of teaching strategies for
solving practical challenges, and influence the processing of new information. To explain
this, Farrell (2007) claims that “exploring language teachers’ beliefs and corresponding
classroom practices helps clarify how teachers can implement any changes to their
approaches to teaching and learning over time” (p. 36). Teachers’ beliefs, therefore, play
51
a vital role in the design and delivery of teacher learning initiatives to improve teachers’
practices through enhancement or adjustment of their beliefs (Gurney, 2015).
Teachers’ beliefs have been controversial with regard to their implicit (unconscious) or
explicit (conscious) nature. According to the implicit view, beliefs “guide a teacher’s
behavior and filter interpretation of teaching experiences without the teacher’s
awareness” (Fives & Buehl, 2012, p. 474). Therefore, teachers are unable to control their
implicit beliefs and are not influenced by personal reflective practice (Nespor, 1987).
Fives and Buehl (2012) argue that this view of implicit beliefs shows a lack of
understanding of the beliefs of which teachers are aware and rely on to guide their
practice. In contrast, explicit beliefs refer to a deliberate and conscious approach that
requires justification for beliefs to be maintained or adjusted (Fives & Buehl, 2012).
Discussion of teachers’ beliefs also refers to espoused and enacted beliefs. Espoused
beliefs are those that teachers state through verbal or written communication, whereas
enacted beliefs are reflected in the analysis of actual teacher actions or planned actions
(Fives & Buehl, 2012).
Teachers’ beliefs and teachers’ practices
Discussion of teachers’ beliefs in the literature typically includes the connection between
beliefs and practices. Empirical studies of teachers’ beliefs have provided evidence of
diverse relationships between beliefs and practices. These include congruence between
beliefs and practices, incongruence between beliefs and practices, and reciprocal but
complex relationships between beliefs and practices.
There has been support for the view that teachers enact practices based on the beliefs they
hold (Johnson, 1992; Kim, 2014; Lin, Chuang, & Hsu, 2014; Thomas, 2013). In contrast,
findings from other studies have led researchers to conclude that teachers’ beliefs are not
always consistent with their classroom practices (Basturkmen et al., 2004; Brinkmann,
2015; Kaymakamoğlu, 2018). Apparent inconsistencies may be because teachers hold
different beliefs simultaneously (Levin, 2015) and sometimes these beliefs are
contradictory (Kang & Cheng, 2014).
Another alternative to those positions is that there is a complex relationship between

teachers’ beliefs and their practices depending on teachers’ experience (Aliakbari &
Mohsen, 2015; Basturkmen, 2012; Farrell & Bennis, 2013); the teaching context (Farrell
& Bennis, 2013; Levin, 2015); prior knowledge and learning experience (Levin, 2015;
52
Tamimy, 2015); planned or unplanned aspects of classroom practice (Basturkmen et al.,

2004; Johnson, 1992; Tamimy, 2015); culture (Ashton, 2015); and wider social and
institutional contexts (Buehl & Beck, 2015).
Due to the distinct nature of language teaching, Borg (2006b) notes that the relationship
between language teacher cognition and practice is not linear or unidirectional due to a
number of mediating factors. These include both personal and contextual factors.
Personal factors involve teachers’ needs, motivation, preferences, prior knowledge and
experience. Different schools of thought have understood contextual aspects differently
(Eteläpelto & Collin, 2004). For example, anthropologically oriented approaches have
defined context as “socially and culturally conditioned aspects of practical communities”
(Eteläpelto & Collin, 2004, p. 236), whereas cognitive science has viewed context as
“constituted by environmental circumstances . . . and characteristics of tools and artifacts”
(Eteläpelto & Collin, 2004, p. 236). The combination of two learning perspectives in this
study incorporates a wider discussion of contextual factors comprising the environmental
classroom circumstances, faculty or department, institution, and socio-cultural aspects in
which teachers work, some of which can be temporary and situational and some of which
can be more enduring (Borg, 2006b; Levin, 2015). Interaction between contextual factors
and teachers’ cognition tends to occur in two ways: contextual factors may change
teachers’ cognition, or alter teachers’ practices without changing the underlying
cognition. The latter scenario can lead to a lack of congruence between teachers’ stated
beliefs and their actual practices. Borg (2006b) highlights the substantive role of context
in language teaching and learning, and views language teaching and learning as “a process
which is defined by dynamic interactions among cognition, context, and experience” (p.
275).
Teachers’ cognition, especially beliefs stemming from early experiences, has been
controversially viewed as difficult to change and inflexible (Cabaroglu & Roberts, 2000).
This view represents a rigid structure of teachers’ cognition (Pajares, 1992). However,
evidence suggests that teachers’ cognition does change (Buehl & Beck, 2015; Kang,
2008; Kang & Cheng, 2014; Larenas, Hernandez, & Navarrete, 2015). Changes in
teachers’ beliefs can be grouped into three areas, including developmental changes,
changes in pre-service teachers’ beliefs, and changes in in-service teachers’ beliefs (Fives
& Buehl, 2012).
53
In a study of student teachers’ cognition development involving 25 students in a sequence

of three in-depth interviews, Cabaroglu and Roberts (2000) reported development in the
participants’ cognition. They identified eleven change process categories, including
awareness (of a discrepancy, conflict or coherence), confirmation (of existing beliefs),
elaboration (reconstruction of beliefs), addition (of new beliefs), re-ordering
(rearrangement of beliefs), relabeling (renaming of a construct), linking up (establishment
of a connection between constructs), disagreement (rejection of existing beliefs), reversal
(adoption of opposite beliefs), pseudo-change (false change) and no change. These
change process categories have also been observed in in-service teachers, as in the
following example.
In a qualitative longitudinal study, Borg (2011) examined the impact of an intensive 8-

week in-service teacher education programme, a full-time Delta course (Diploma in
English language teaching to adults) in the UK, on the beliefs of six language teachers.
Drawing on data from semi-structured interviews, coursework and tutor feedback, his
study provided evidence that the programme had a considerable impact on the beliefs of
the teachers studied. The programme allowed teachers to think more explicitly about,
become aware of, and articulate their beliefs; to extend and consolidate beliefs they were
initially – and sometimes tacitly – positively disposed to; to focus on ways of developing
classroom practices which reflected their beliefs; and to develop links between their
beliefs and theory. This conceptualisation of changes in teachers’ beliefs resonates with
the findings of Cabaroglu and Roberts (2000) discussed above.
Teachers’ beliefs and teachers’ knowledge
The relationship between beliefs and knowledge has generated much research. The
distinction between beliefs and knowledge is a controversial issue in educational research
(Pajares, 1992; Richardson, 1996). Attempts have been made to differentiate between the
two constructs. Beliefs are regarded as having stronger affective and evaluative
components than knowledge; therefore, teachers’ beliefs typically operate independently
of the cognition associated with teachers’ knowledge (Nespor, 1987). Basturkmen et al.
(2004) define teachers’ beliefs as subjective claims that the individual accepts or wants
to be true, as well as individuals’ evaluations of what should be, ought to be, or is
preferable. In contrast, knowledge is characterised as having a truth component that can
54
be externally verified or confirmed by the wider community. These views are reflected in
the claim made by Borg (2001):
A belief is a mental state which has as its content a proposition that is

accepted as true by the individual holding it, although the individual
may recognize that alternatives beliefs may be held by others. . . .
Knowledge must actually be true in some external sense. (p. 186)
Arguably, the condition of external verification by the larger community raises a concern
regarding who is the larger community and what are the procedures of verification (Fives
& Buehl, 2012). Empirically, these two constructs are difficult to disentangle as they are
interwoven (Fives & Buehl, 2012) and inform one another (Freeman, 2002).
Considerable work has discussed the diverse characterisations of knowledge, stemming

from developments in cognitive science. First, teachers’ personal practical knowledge has
been much discussed by Elbaz (1983), Clandinin (1985), and Fenstermacher (1994).
Personal practical knowledge emphasises the nature of teacher knowledge being
embedded in the teaching act, which is intuitive and tacit (Tsui, 2003). While Elbaz
(1983) places an emphasis on the practical dimension of teacher knowledge, Clandinin
(1985) places a focus on personal dimensions. Elbaz (1983) defines practical knowledge
with “attention on the action and decision-oriented nature of the teacher’s situation, and
construes her knowledge as a function, in part, of her response to that situation” (p. 5).
She asserts that a teacher’s actions are informed by the teacher’s theoretical knowledge
of the subject matter and that practical knowledge closely ties to the teacher’s experience
and the specific contexts of the classroom. Clandinin (1985) states that personal practical
knowledge is embodied in all the professional and personal experiences of the teacher,
with a focus on the teacher’s narratives. In this view, “theory and practice are viewed as
inseparable; practice is seen as theory-in-action” (Clandinin, 1985, p. 364). Personal
practical knowledge is viewed as tentative and subject to change. In other words, the
dialectical view of theory and practice assumes that practice continues to shape the
teacher’s knowledge and how the teacher structures the practical classroom situation in
accordance with her knowledge (Clandinin, 1985).
Similarly, Schön (1992) sees professional knowledge as knowing-in-action. In our day-

to-day practice, we make innumerable judgments of quality or choices of solutions for
situations for which we cannot state adequate criteria, rules or procedures. In such
situations, we are dependent on tacit recognition, judgment, and skillful performance,
55
which is called tacit knowledge, know-how, or knowing-in-action (Schön, 1992). This is

a kind of knowing that does not stem from a prior intellectual operation (Schön, 1992)
but is a subconscious process that we develop and refine as a consequence of learning
from experience (Loughran, 2010). This view highlights the importance of reflection in
the development of professional knowledge and professional expertise. According to
Loughran (2010), through reflection on experience, “teachers’ knowledge-of-practice is
developed and enhanced in ways that help to inform and shape their expertise” (p. 183).
This argument is in line with the concept of knowledge-in-practice – practical knowledge
for teachers proposed by Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1999), which is acquired in everyday
life in classrooms through teachers’ reflections on practice, practical inquiries, or
narrative accounts of practice. To improve this knowledge in practice, teachers need to
have more opportunities to “examine and reflect on the knowledge that is implicit in good
practice” (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999, p. 262). This is discussed in further detail in
section 3.4.6.
Discussion of personal practical knowledge in the studies cited above frequently refers to
the situated nature of teacher knowledge. This means that teacher knowledge is shaped
and developed contextually when the teacher acts in response to a particular practical and
social context of teaching.
Knowledge has been theorised differently in educational research, as discussed above,

and is organised into various taxonomies (Johnston & Goettsch, 2000; Shulman, 1986,
1987). In this thesis, knowledge is conceptualised as personal practical knowledge,
knowing-in-action, or knowledge-in-practice, in alignment with Elbaz (1981);
Fenstermacher (1994); Schön (1992), and Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1999), and as
knowledge-of-practice (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999; Hulme, 2013; Poekert, 2011), as
discussed in section 3.4.6. The former practical type of knowledge is constructed through
teachers’ reflection on and inquiry into their practices. The latter type focuses on teachers’
co-constructed knowledge through interaction and collaboration within inquiry
communities, connecting teacher learning to larger educational contexts. From the two
perspectives of knowledge in this study, it is not assumed that teachers’ knowledge is
generated exclusively by experts and researchers who have studied teaching and learning;
nor is teachers’ knowledge considered an exclusion of formal knowledge that teachers
acquire prior to their entrance to the teaching careers. Rather, it is assumed that
56
professional expertise comes to a large extent from inside the teaching profession itself
(Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999).
Studies on EFL teachers’ beliefs and practices in Vietnam
Numerous studies on teachers’ beliefs have been conducted in English as a second

language (ESL) contexts in English-speaking countries. Borg (2015) reviewed 180
studies on in-service teachers’ beliefs and very few of them were in an Asian context.
However, in practice, there have been a good number of studies on teachers’ beliefs in
Asian countries, most of which have been conducted in Hong Kong and Singapore, as
reviewed by Le (2011) in his doctoral thesis. Because of the scarcity of research that
examines the impact of teachers’ beliefs on their actual practices in Vietnam, particularly
in tertiary education (Pham & Hamid, 2013; Phan, 2018), I was particularly interested in
reviewing studies on EFL teachers’ beliefs in relation to their classroom practices in
Vietnam. These studies emphasised aspects of student-centred pedagogy and learner
autonomy; for example, the use of communicative language teaching, task-based
language teaching, questioning techniques, and effective instruction focusing on students’
communicative skills.
The following studies (Hong & Nguyen, 2019; Nguyen, Haworth, & Hansen, 2019; Phan,
2004) share a common focus on the congruence between teachers’ beliefs and their
classroom practices, in contrast to the study by Mai and Iwashita (2012) in which there
was no practical dimension in the comparison.
Phan (2004) explored two Vietnamese teachers’ accounts of their own teaching
experiences of EFL in Vietnam. Findings from in-depth interviews and journal entries
indicated that the two teachers valued the importance of using Communicative Language
Teaching (CLT) in the language classroom to promote students’ grammatical
competence. In practice, how the teachers helped their students in class was a reflection
of what they believed. However, the study was analysed from the teachers’ reported views
and their perceived practices. What teachers espoused as their beliefs through verbal or
written communication is likely to differ from their actual observed classroom actions
(Fives & Buehl, 2012).
Similarly, Mai and Iwashita (2012) used a questionnaire to compare Vietnamese learners’
and teachers’ attitudes towards CLT in terms of four factors: grammar instruction, error
correction, group and pair work, and the teacher’s role. A quantitative analysis of the
57
responses from 37 teachers and 88 university learners of English in Vietnam showed that
both teachers and learners held favourable attitudes to CLT. However, the teachers in the
study had more positive attitudes than the learners for all factors, except group and pair
work. Similar to Phan’s study (2004), in this study, practising teachers’ beliefs were
investigated in isolation from their classroom practices; in other words, questionnaire
responses may not reflect actual classroom practice in universities in Vietnam. In
addition, quantitative analysis of the data did not give insights into the exact nature of the
participants’ attitudes and the gaps between the teachers’ and learners’ attitudes.
Recently, Hong and Nguyen (2019) reported a descriptive study that explored teachers’
beliefs and their practices with regard to the questioning strategy to scaffold students’
reading comprehension. From a constructivist viewpoint, these two scholars described
reading comprehension as an active and dynamic process of meaning making between
the text, the readers’ cognitive processes and their prior knowledge. Data from sixty-four
EFL teachers in lower secondary schools in the Mekong delta region in Vietnam were
collected through questionnaires, classroom observations, and semi-structured
interviews. Findings showed that the teachers believed that questioning techniques were
helpful and effective in scaffolding students’ reading comprehension in three ways –
leading students to a new topic, arousing students’ interest, and connecting students’
individual experience to the text. The study indicated that the teachers’ beliefs were
aligned with their questioning practices in class. The study also highlighted that open-
ended questions were reported to be the most frequently used by the teachers.
In another study, Nguyen et al. (2019) questioned eight English for Specific Purposes
(ESP) Science lecturers from five colleges within one university in Vietnam regarding
their beliefs about students’ active learning. Findings showed that the eight ESP lecturers
were aware of active learning as a student-centred approach. The study revealed that the
lecturers’ beliefs were aligned with their observed classroom practices – they tried to
implement more active and interactive activities in their classroom practices. As a result
of their attempts to include active learning in their classes, the lecturers recognised that
their expected teaching roles changed as they became facilitators. Nguyen et al. (2019)
concluded that the lecturers’ core beliefs about their professional identities, as committed
academic lecturers in this case, could influence their decision-making process in relation
to changing their practices.
58
However, evidence from other study of English language teaching in the Vietnamese
context also indicated some disparity between what teachers believed and what they
actually implemented in their classes. For example, Nguyen (2016) aimed to investigate
English language teachers’ beliefs and their reported practices regarding learner
autonomy in Vietnam. Eighty-four teachers from six public universities in Vietnam were
involved in a questionnaire and an interview. The questionnaire findings showed that the
teachers emphasised the importance of enhancing learner autonomy and their vital role in
creating opportunities for their students to develop learner autonomy skills. In reporting
their practices in the interviews, the teachers’ responses diverged from their questionnaire
data. In the interviews, most of the teachers reported that they encouraged students to do
further work on their own outside the classroom or participate in group in class. A small
number of teachers reported that they created opportunities for students to develop more
autonomous learning skills such as determining learning goals, making learning plans, or
making choices on topics for learning and materials, and so on. Some evidence of the
students’ characteristics such as their ability and their attitudes, which influenced the
alignment between teachers’ beliefs and their classroom practices, was investigated.
However, there is a need to conduct classroom observations to study teachers’ practical
enactment of promoting autonomous learning.
A number of other studies showed gaps between teachers’ beliefs and their actions in
Vietnamese classrooms. The discrepancies varied from moderate to substantial levels.
This evidence comes from the work of Phan (2018), Pham and Hamid (2013), Ngo
(2018), and V. G. Nguyen (2013). Phan (2018), investigating effective EFL instruction,
showed that there was a wide gap between what was believed and what was actually
implemented by six experienced EFL teachers in one university in Vietnam. The study
took a qualitative approach using focus group discussion, journalling, non-participant
observation, and post observation individual interviews as data collection tools. From the
teachers’ views, effective instruction aimed to facilitate students’ communicative ability
and engender their engagement or motivation in the classroom. Phan (2018) found that
the teachers valued and were actually aware of the benefits of interactive approaches to
students’ communication skills; however, they adopted teacher-centred, grammar
translation-oriented instruction in the classroom. According to these teachers, contextual
and socio-cultural factors such as students’ motivation and low proficiency levels,
traditional educational values and norms, contextual working constraints (syllabus
59
timeframes, large class sizes, physical teaching context), and out-of-work pressures
(family commitments) appeared to affect their teaching practices in the classroom.
Despite the fact that the study was rigorous in terms of methodological approach and data
collection tools, the sample’s limitation of including only one male teacher may have
influenced the data and the interpretation of women’s perceived family roles and
commitments.
Motivated by the same topic as Hong and Nguyen (2019), Pham and Hamid (2013)
investigated the relationship between teachers’ beliefs about quality questions and their
questioning behaviours in terms of questioning purposes, content focus, students’
cognitive level, wording and syntax. Thirteen beginning EFL teachers at a Vietnamese
university participated in open-ended questionnaire surveys and classroom observations.
The findings showed both congruence and incongruence between teachers’ beliefs and
practices. At a broad level, there were consistencies between what the teachers thought
and what they did in terms of lexis and syntax, content focus, and targeted cognitive level.
However, a closer examination of quality questions produced significant discrepancies
between the teachers’ beliefs and their classroom actions. For instance, the questionnaire
data indicated that the teachers first tested students’ conceptual knowledge, then factual
knowledge and procedural knowledge. In practice, however, they put conceptual
knowledge behind the other two. Crucially, there was a substantial gap in terms of the
purposes for the teachers’ questions. The questionnaire data showed that the teachers were
guided by CLT in fostering students’ output and interaction; however, in practice, the
teachers were observed to follow Initiation-Response-Evaluation patterns that gave little
opportunity for students to use the language. The study could have been more
comprehensive if other data collection tools, such as interviews, had been used to provide
more insight into why the teachers’ beliefs were not fully translated into practice.
In their doctoral research on Vietnamese teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding task-
based language teaching and form-focused instruction, V. G. Nguyen (2013) and Le
(2011) conducted two case studies with upper secondary school teachers and found
conflicts between the teachers’ beliefs and their practices. Several factors were explored
for the belief-practice mismatch, including teacher factors, student factors, contextual
factors and institutional factors. A number of other aspects, such as socio-cultural factors,
remained complex and therefore deserve further research. Among the studies reviewed
above, only three discussed socio-cultural factors; Phan (2018) mentioned traditional
60
values and norms; Nguyen et al. (2019) referred to professional identities; and V. G.
Nguyen (2013) pointed out the formation of teachers’ beliefs through a process of
interacting with the context in their community of practice. Brinkmann (2015) argues that
it is insufficient to look only at individual teachers’ beliefs without examining the cultural
context that shapes those beliefs. She adds that it is crucial to examine broad shared
cultural patterns that are dominant across a group or society (Brinkmann, 2015, 2019).
Teacher professional learning
Professional learning and development have become common for many groups of
professionals worldwide, including language teachers (Gurney et al., 2018), and have
been a central theme in the field of language teaching since the mid-1990s (Freeman,
2006). Richards and Farrell (2005) emphasise that opportunities for continuous in-service
professional learning and development are crucial for language teachers, since language
teaching is subject to rapid changes, “both as the profession responds to new educational
paradigms and trends and as institutions face new challenges as a result of changes in
curriculum, national tests and student needs” (p. vii). The knowledge base of teaching
constantly changes and not everything teachers need to know can be provided in pre-
service teacher education (Richards & Farrell, 2005). In the wider view of the literature,
many educational researchers suggest that professional learning and development
therefore play an important role in enabling teachers to improve their professional
competence, to adopt a more dynamic and innovative approach to teaching, to contribute
to improved practice and quality teaching, and to progress in their careers (Ahn,
Shimojima, Mori, & Asanuma, 2018; Cameron et al., 2013; Guan & Huang, 2013; Gurney
et al., 2018; Sadler-Smith, Allinson, & Hayes, 2000).
The following section presents the concept of professional learning, followed by an

introduction to the stages of teacher learning. The subsequent section unpacks the
paradigm shift from top-down to bottom-up approaches to teacher professional learning.
Self-directed and collective activities in teacher learning are introduced. The section
outlines the theoretical perspectives of constructivist and situative learning, on which this
study was based. Following this, an inquiry approach to teacher learning is discussed.
Finally, the section reviews studies related to teacher professional learning in a
Vietnamese education context to illustrate the research gaps that this study aimed to fill.
61
Concept of professional learning
Professional learning is regarded as a very complex, multi-faceted phenomenon (Pang,

2014). Despite professional learning being a common concept in the field of education,
there appears no widely accepted definition. Perhaps researchers have not been able to
agree on a single comprehensive concept of learning “which covers all aspects of
professional learning and provide[s] a complete explanation for how and why
professional learning occurs” (Pang, 2014, p. 592). Often different theories of learning
that have been developed account for different aspects of professional leaning.
In the broad context of professional learning, Eraut (2004) discusses it in terms of nuanced
gradations on a continuum. At one end of the continuum is explicit learning, or formal
learning, which focuses on programmes and content rather than on learning experiences,
views knowledge as transferrable, and may equate with formal (training) courses teachers
attend or coaching programmes they receive (Eraut, 2004; Evans, 2019; Webster-Wright,
2009). At the implicit end of professional learning, a number of scholars link the construct
with people’s awareness (Eraut, 2004; Simons & Ruijters, 2004). Put another way,
implicit learning is interpreted as “learning that [the] learner is unaware of at the time of
its occurrence, but of which s/he may (or may not) subsequently become aware, after the
event [learning experience]” (Evans, 2019, p. 6). My perspective of teacher learning in
this study slides on the continuum, moving toward the implicit end of professional
learning. Put another way, teacher learning opportunity in this study supports teachers to
adapt formal theories, reflect upon, evaluate their classroom actions, and develop their
own practical knowledge and an awareness of different ways of doing things and
reasoning underlying their classroom decisions.
As a basis for this study I have drawn on the work of Shuell (2001) and use his articulated
definition of learning, which states:
First, learning is an active self-regulated, constructive, cumulative, and

goal-oriented process. Second, learning is dependent on (situated in)
particular context in which it occurs. Third, learning is fundamentally a
social, cultural, and interpersonal process; a process governed as much
by social and situational factors as by cognitive factors. (pp. 8615-8616)
From Shuell’s (2001) perspective, learning entails both personal and social
transformation (Packer & Goicoechea, 2000). This definition has been selected because
the components described in it resonate with key areas in the design and the teacher
62
learning process of this study and it aligns closely with my two key lenses for
investigating teacher professional learning: constructivist and situative learning.
For the present study, teacher professional learning was centred on student learning,
which supports teachers to adopt student-centred approaches in EFL teaching in a
Vietnamese university context. In other words, the approach to teacher professional
learning in this study mirrors SCA: teachers-as-learners are central in the learning process
(Buchanan, 2012; Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002; Tam, 2015) and “become enlisted in
self-emancipation rather than mere implementation” (Hoffman-Kipp, Artiles, & López-
Torres, 2003, p. 248). Also, professional learning in the current study focused on
reflective, constructivist, and situative learning opportunities that allow teachers to learn
about, then try out the new learning, reflect on new practices, learn from experience, and
interact and share knowledge and experiences with each other.
Attention now turns to why teacher professional learning is important for developing
teachers’ knowledge and practice. Despite different shades and aspects of meaning,
professional learning is believed to be beneficial for teachers and learners in various ways.
Professional learning has been widely discussed in the literature as a means for improving
teachers’ practices and student learning (Guskey, 2002). Desimone (2009) argues that
effective professional learning contributes to teacher learning and teacher change, and
ultimately improves student learning. This claim is consistent with Avalos’ review (2011)
of publications on teacher professional learning and development in Teaching and
Teacher Education over ten years (2000–2010). Teacher change summarised in Avalos’
work includes teacher changes in cognition and practice. Borg (2006b) argues that
cognitive change and behavioural change are distinct because “one does not necessarily
imply the other” (p. 277).
Besides these potentially visible but narrowly interpreted evidences of teacher

professional learning, centralising teacher change, and improved student learning (Evans,
2019), recent research highlight the benefits of teacher professional learning using the
lens of positive psychology. For example, when teacher learning opportunities meet
teachers’ needs and expectations, teachers’ job satisfaction increases, which contributes
to the improvement of curricular understanding and increased self-confidence and self-
efficacy (Avalos, 2011; Harper & Nicolson, 2013). This in turn empowers teachers’
professional resilience (Hadar & Brody, 2018) and improves longevity in the profession
(Gurney, Liyanage, & Gharachorloo, 2014). Positive psychological benefits are observed
63
especially when teacher professional learning opportunities take place in a wider social
context, such as teacher professional learning communities. In a study on professional
learning community characteristics and positive psychology connections, Owen (2016)
observed linkages between professional learning community characteristics and positive
psychology wellbeing elements. The study drew on data from the case studies of three
innovative schools in South Australia, using document study, surveys, interviews and
focus groups. The participants included school leaders, teachers, and students. The
findings of the study highlighted a number of positive psychology wellbeing benefits
among the teachers, such as building trust, establishing shared norms and identity with
others in the team, reinvigorating teaching passion, and nurturing teacher wellbeing and
flourishing (Owen, 2016).
Furthermore, research on professional learning has produced evidence about how

professional identities and agency are intertwined with professional learning (Eteläpelto,
Vähäsantanen, Hökkä, & Paloniemi, 2014). It is commonly believed that professional
learning contributes to professional growth and identity (Gurney et al., 2014). Teacher
professional learning impacts teachers’ identities – how teachers view “who they are,
their self-image, the meanings they attach to themselves and their work and the meanings
that are attributed to them by others” (Day & Gu, 2010, p. 34). There appears to be a
connection between teachers’ identities and their potential agency (Beauchamp &
Thomas, 2009). Therefore, with increased agency, effective professional learning
empowers teachers to influence, make choices, and take stances on their work (Eteläpelto
et al., 2014). From adaptive teaching principles, effective professional learning promotes
teachers’ instructional adaptability (Parsons, Ankrum, & Morewood, 2016). In the current
environment, where job demands and pressures on teaching staff have increased,
achieving and sustaining a healthy state of positive identity and wellbeing for teachers is
crucial (Day & Gu, 2010). Teacher wellbeing represents teachers’ organisational
behaviour (via job satisfaction, intention to leave, and absences) and their self-reported
health (measured via teachers’ symptoms of exhaustion, tension and anxiety, and levels
of motivation, commitment and resilience) (Day & Gu, 2010). It was also reported in
Owen’s (2016) study that teachers’ pedagogical changes resulting in positive outcomes
for students also helped to ensure teacher wellbeing.
A number of important factors have been identified in the literature regarding effective
professional learning practices. A three-year national longitudinal study by Desimone,
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Porter, Garet, Yoon, and Birman (2002), using a purposefully selected sample of 207
teachers in 30 schools, in 10 districts in five states of the United States, examined the
effects of professional development on teachers’ instructional practice. Drawing on the
findings of Desimone et al. (2002) and a broad base of the literature, Desimone (2009)
confirms that “there is enough empirical evidence to suggest that there is in fact a
consensus on a core set of features” (p. 183) of the effectiveness of professional learning
and development. These serve as the characteristics of professional learning and
development that are critical to increasing teacher knowledge and skills and improving
their practice, and which hold potential for increasing student achievement (Desimone,
2009). The characteristics proposed include: (1) content focus, (2) active learning, (3)
coherence, (4) duration, and (5) collective participation. These five factors align with the
five qualities recommended for effective professional learning and development in
Thacker’s study (2015). These include:
• A focus on the improvement of teachers’ content and pedagogical knowledge

• The use of active learning methods
• Ongoing and sustained learning over time
• Attention to the particular context of the students, teachers, and school
• Collective participation and collaboration among teacher participants (Thacker,
2017, p. 37)
In a review of the literature, Desimone (2009) indicates that there is a similar foundational
conception present in most conceptual or empirical studies. Despite the different
terminology used in Borko’s review of the literature (2004), she focuses on subject matter
(content), engaging teachers as learners (active learning), and strong professional learning
communities (collective participation). Wilson and Berne (1999) suggest three features
of effective professional learning, which seem to overlap with Desimone’s characteristics.
The three features comprise communities of learning, teachers playing an active role, and
critical colleagueship. The overlap appears to reside in the notions of collective
participation that provide opportunities for teachers to share and discuss and active
learning opportunities where teachers lead the professional learning and development.
Although there seems to be generally an agreement about what constitutes effective

professional learning, there has been no set framework or model of an effective
professional learning practice that works best for every teacher. Ono and Ferreira (2010)
point out that there remains a gap between “the rhetoric and reality” (p. 62). Also, this
65
practice varies from teacher to teacher with regard to what is effective for them in
different contexts, different learning goals, and different learning preferences (Louws,
van Veen, Meirink, & van Driel, 2017). As such, it is preferable for teachers to choose a
professional learning exercise that suits their needs and preferences best, and works in
their practical context (Dengerink, Lunenberg, & Kools, 2015; Truong, 2015; Yumru,
2015). Drawing on the common factors regarding the effectiveness of professional
learning practices from multiple professional learning models and being aware of the
local practical context, this study provides holistic perspectives that provide richer
insights into EFL teachers’ professional learning process in a Vietnamese context,
considering the models as representations rather than as tools.
Stages of teacher learning
There are three key stages of teacher learning, comprising the apprenticeship of
observation, formal pre-service teacher education and training, and in-service
professional learning and development.
First, research on teacher learning has showed that teachers normally teach in the ways
they have been taught (Bailey et al., 1996). The reason is that teachers establish their
beliefs about language teaching and learning during their previous experiences as
language learners themselves (Pajares, 1992), or during the ‘apprenticeship of
observation’ (Bailey et al., 1996; Borg, 2004; Lortie, 1975). The apprenticeship of
observation describes the years of schooling during which student teachers observe,
interact with and evaluate their teachers in action (Borg, 2004). This apprenticeship is
responsible for many of the preconceptions that student teachers hold about teaching
(Lortie, 1975).
However, it is considered that this apprenticeship for teaching only partially helps student
teachers learn about teaching. Watching their teachers from a student-oriented
perspective does not allow students “to place the teachers’ actions in a pedagogically
oriented framework” (Lortie, 1975, p. 62). As a result, what student teachers learn about
teaching is “intuitive and imitative rather than explicit and analytical; it is based on
individual personalities rather than pedagogical principles” (Lortie, 1975, p. 62). For that
reason, assessments of their teachers’ performance are usually on an affective basis of
liking and disliking, because student teachers are not likely to make connections between
teaching objectives and the teachers’ actions, or to perceive the teachers’ decisions among
66
teaching strategies (Lortie, 1975). This period of apprenticeship tends to “provide student
teachers with ‘default options’ by way of teaching action” (Tomlinson, 1999, p. 535),
little of which may be or become conscious.
After the apprenticeship of observation, student teachers undergo formal teacher

education or training as the second stage of teacher learning. For example, the teachers in
my study underwent a four-year undergraduate programme offered at tertiary level.
Language teacher education programmes provide student teachers with “knowledge-for-
practice” or a “formal knowledge base” (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999, p. 253) – basic
concepts and principles applicable to teaching and opportunities to demonstrate
instructional principles and practices in the classroom (Richards & Farrell, 2005).
However, they have been historically criticised as too theoretical and fragmented, with a
focus on areas such as linguistics and language acquisition, and deficient in instruction in
teaching methods (Freeman, 1989; Lortie, 1975; M. H. Nguyen, 2013). As a result, it has
been suggested that formal teacher education may contribute to “the lack of systematic
codification of practical experience” (Lortie, 1975, p. 69). The separation of theory from
practice within this formal teaching education period is perceived as creating traditional
classrooms when pre-service teachers experience full-time teaching (Tam, 2015). During
formal language teacher education programmes, the only opportunity for practice
teaching is when student teachers do a practicum as part of their degree requirements
(Lortie, 1975; M. H. Nguyen, 2013). Student teachers tend to find this practicum period
of language teacher education programmes short and relatively simple when they work
alongside with an established teacher and teach school classes under that teacher’s
supervision (Lortie, 1975). Despite the limited duration of practice teaching experience,
most student teachers value its usefulness (Lortie, 1975). However, problematisation of
practice teaching concerns the restricted contact between practice teachers and
supervising teachers (C. V. Le, 2014). Potential problems between practice teachers and
supervising teachers include mismatches of teaching conceptions, poor teaching abilities
in supervising teachers, and lack of effective feedback and support from supervising
teachers (Lortie, 1975); as a result, practice teachers may become less self-confident after
the experience of practice teaching (Yayli, 2012) or arguably they may opt for traditional
and individualistic approaches to teaching, in which they tend to follow exactly what the
school teachers or supervising teachers want them to do (Lortie, 1975; Mai & Pham,
2019).
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Despite the widespread support for formal teacher education programmes, there are
alternative entry routes to the teaching profession through short-term teacher preparation
or training because of the (school) teacher shortages in several countries, such as the USA
(Darling-Hammond, Chung, & Frelow, 2002), or because of a market-driven path, as in
the UK (MacBeath, 2013b). These training systems normally aim at short-term and
immediate intended goals, such as providing teachers with certain skills, techniques, and
strategies (Richards & Farrell, 2005), or focusing on pedagogical knowledge (MacBeath,
2013b). Many training programmes are offered as ways to gain credentials after teachers
have started their teaching (Darling-Hammond et al., 2002). Teachers can also undertake
these teacher education programmes and trainings as their ongoing professional learning
and development, as discussed below. However, these alternative pathways to the
teaching profession are not common in Vietnam because of MOET’s requirements, as
discussed in Chapter Two, section 2.4.
The third stage of teacher learning, after teachers enter their teaching profession, is in-
service teacher learning. Throughout their careers, teachers participate in in-service
professional learning activities to enhance their knowledge, skills and teaching practices.
During this stage, teachers may undertake individual or collective learning activities, and
top-down or bottom-up approaches to their professional learning, as discussed further in
the subsequent sections of this chapter.
During this third stage, teachers’ engagement in their professional learning varies with
their career phases. Beginning teachers in the survival phase tend to experience reality
shock, anxiety, dilemmas, continuous trial and error, and wide discrepancies between
instructional goals and what one is actually able to do in the classroom (Huberman, 1989;
Lortie, 1975; Tsui, 2003). It is also a phase of discovery in which beginning teachers are
excited, enthusiastic, and proud of their profession and having their own students
(Huberman, 1989). This phase is a sharp learning curve for beginning teachers. There is
so much for them to explore. A good deal of prior learning experience and knowledge is
likely to help beginning teachers (Huberman, 1989). Some turn to other teachers for help
or advice; however, because of their isolation, beginning teachers frequently work things
out as best as they can before asking for assistance (Lortie, 1975). Their learning is limited
by their personal resources – their observations or capacity to take effective action
through independent reading of books, journals or online resources (Lortie, 1975).
Positive experience in the first phase leads to a phase of stabilisation, where teachers
68
consolidate their experience from the first phase, gain more experience and master
teaching skills (Tsui, 2003). This is when teachers gain their independence from
supervision, and begin to form their preferred teaching style(s) with a basic instructional
repertoire on which they can rely (Huberman, 1989).
Following this phase, Huberman (1989) observes that teachers go through a phase of
experimentation, diversification and change. Teachers are motivated, enthusiastic and
ready to take on new ideas, challenges and engagements to increase their impact in the
classroom. During this phase, teachers tend to have a high awareness of institutional
constraints and have a desire to go beyond their own teaching contexts to bring about
change and innovation (Tsui, 2003). This ‘renewal’ phase (Tsui, 2003) motivates teachers
to engage in more ambitious and collective projects with the desire to use their newly-
acquired instructional skills and prevent stagnation (Huberman, 1989). Through their
years of experience, teachers are equipped with different forms of formal and experiential
knowledge (Borg, 2006b). This mid-career phase may be a period of increased
reflectiveness for teachers (Huberman, 1989). Some teachers may experience
disappointment or crisis during this phase because of monotonous teaching practices or
unpleasant working conditions, resulting in uncertainty about their teaching commitment
and a need for reassessment (Tsui, 2003). This phase relates particularly closely to most
of the participants in my research project.
Then, teachers come to the serenity phase with peace of mind, accompanied by a decline
in professional investment and enthusiasm (Huberman, 1989; Tsui, 2003). This phase is
followed by a conservatism phase, characterised by resistance to and skepticism about
innovation and change (Huberman, 1989; Tsui, 2003).
These stages of teacher learning should not be considered as discrete stages but as a
continuum of teacher learning from the apprenticeship of observation to pre-service
education and in-service professional learning (Hulme, 2013), because all prospective,
novice and experienced teachers bring prior knowledge and experience to all new learning
situations, which are social and specific (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999). Active learning
is an ongoing process of shaping and reshaping knowledge, skills and practices, which
requires opportunities to link previous knowledge with new understandings (Cochran-
Smith & Lytle, 1999). The introduction of teachers’ career phases enabled the recognition
of potential nuances in professional learning needs and goals in this study.
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Self-directed and collective teacher learning activities
There have been on-going debates about the dualism of learning as an individual or as a
collective endeavour. To capture the two distinct conceptualisations of learning, Sfard
(1998) presents two metaphors of learning: the acquisition metaphor and the participation
metaphor. The acquisition metaphor suggests that knowledge is a commodity to be
acquired by individual learners, whereas the participation metaphor is defined as an action
of “knowing” and “doing” or, to put it differently, learning is an active process of
becoming a member of or involved in a certain community that requires learners to
communicate, negotiate the meaning of norms, and act accordingly.
However, the acquisition metaphor may lead one to conclude that learning is an individual
activity with a connection to the transmission form of teacher learning. Biesta, Field,
Hodkinson, Macleod, and Goodson (2011) argue that the acquisition metaphor separates
out the learner, the process of learning and the content of what is learned. Boud and Hager
(2012) support this view. They further argue that acquisition metaphor suggests pre-
specification and standardisation of the content that is learned and over-simplifies the
nature of professional practice. In other words, professional practice is conceived to be
application of theory, which elevates the theories and understandings taught in formal
professional education and training programmes, whilst potentially “devaluing theories
and understanding that derive informally from experiences of professional practice”
(Boud & Hager, 2012, p. 21). In this study, the term individual learning is better
understood as self-directed learning. Self-directed activities may be undertaken
individually when “teachers are able to formulate their own learning needs and
consequently direct their own learning” (M. Louws, J. Meirink, K. van Veen, & J. van
Driel, 2017, p. 172). This definition of self-directed learning places teachers as active and
agentic agents in their learning. Self-directed activities in teacher learning include
academic research and writing for publication (Gurney, 2015), and self-initiated
professional reading (Beck & Kosnik, 2014; Wermke, 2011).
The participation metaphor, as described by Sfard (1998), is more conducive to social or

collective learning and has become a characteristic of much recent writing about learning
or teacher learning in particular. Teacher professional learning communities represent
one of the various forms of collective learning that are discussed further in section 3.4.6.
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This participation metaphor of learning aligns with the social dimension of situative
learning.
By presenting the two different metaphors, Sfard (1998) further argues that she does not
aim to suggest giving up either of the two but to critically discuss the mutual dependence
of interpretations of the metaphors. She argues that “a dictatorship of a single ideology
may lead to theories that serve the interests of certain groups to the disadvantage of
others” (p. 11) and suggests that a combination of the acquisition and participation
metaphors would maximise the advantages of each of them, while minimising the
drawbacks of each. Likewise, Hodkinson, Biesta, and James (2008) point out why an
‘either-or’ perspective provides insufficient insights into learning in professional working
contexts. Individual learning is often decontextualised and is not always understood as
embodied or social. Additionally, individual cognitive learning often fails to fully
incorporate wider contextual influences such as historical, social, cultural, and political
factors.
In this study, I wanted to examine the complex and multidimensional process of teacher
professional learning. This process of teacher learning promotes both individual and
collective learning as it is believed that these two learning experiences supplement each
other (Solheim, Roland, et al., 2018). Embracing these two perspectives helped me shape
a thick description of how teachers learned and provided a holistic understanding of the
teachers’ learning process and thorough insights into the complexity of teachers’ learning.
The practices of professional learning have undergone a paradigm shift from a top-down
approach to a bottom-up approach. This is reviewed in the following section, which
discusses the two approaches to teacher professional learning – traditional and current.
Paradigm shift in professional learning
3.4.4.1 Traditional paradigm
In the 1980s and 1990s, the term professional development was referred to as staff
development, or in-service training or staff training (Sithamparam, 2015, p. 169), which
was considered largely a “dissemination activity” of knowledge and skills for teachers
(Feiman-Nemser, 2001, p. 1041). As discussed earlier in Chapter One, some professional
development activities are provided in forms of short-term courses, workshops, seminars,
conferences, or lectures by outside experts or educators, from which teachers ‘get’
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knowledge and skills (Feiman-Nemser, 2001; Musset, 2010; Sithamparam, 2015). It is

important to acknowledge this traditional approach to professional learning and
development because this was my participants’ prior experience.
However, these models have been criticised as fragmented, disconnected, and potentially
irrelevant to teachers’ needs concerning classroom practice (Ball & Cohen, 1999;
Feiman-Nemser, 2001; Hawley & Valli, 1999; Lieberman & Miller, 2008; Lieberman &
Pointer Mace, 2010; Pitsoe & Maila, 2012; Sithamparam, 2015). Feiman-Nemser (2001)
points out that these modes of professional development “do not help teachers bring new
knowledge to bear on practice or generate new knowledge in practice” (p. 1041). Feiman-
Nemser’s (2001) view resonates with that of Hoban and Erickson (2004), who confirm
that this traditional deliver-and-apply model of professional development has been seen
as a source of theory-practice divide (Hoban & Erickson, 2004). In agreement, Day
(1999) claims that professional development opportunities must “provide a range of
learning experiences which encourage teachers to reflect upon and inquire into their
thinking and practice through interaction between their own and others’ experience” (p.
201). Therefore, this paradigm of traditional professional development has been
recognised as “woefully inadequate” (Borko, 2004, p. 3) despite the recognition of the
importance of professional learning (Feiman-Nemser, 2001; Sithamparam, 2015). These
critiques have spurred a reconceptualisation of professional development.
3.4.4.2 Current paradigms
From the late 1990s, a paradigm shift occurred from a top-down to a bottom-up approach
to professional learning. This relates to Borko’s (2004) situative perspective on teacher
learning and professional development, which focuses on sustained professional growth
and teacher learning orientation (Sithamparam, 2015). Borko’s theory conceptualises
teacher learning as “changes in participation in socially organised activities, and
individuals’ use of knowledge as an aspect of their participation in social practices”
(Borko, 2004, p. 4). In other words, this is the process of “increasing participation in the
practice of teaching, and through this participation, a process of becoming knowledgeable
in and about teaching” (Adler, 2000, p. 37). In agreement with these scholars, Hoban and
Erickson (2004) argue that learning is fundamentally situated in the context in which
teachers act. Sithamparam (2015) highlights that this process of learning produces growth
for teachers in terms of subject matter knowledge, understanding student thinking, and
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knowledge of instructional practices. These are the three key areas of focus for
professional learning in order to produce changes in teaching practices, thus resulting in
more effective learning (Sithamparam, 2015).
Together with the recognition of the importance of learning in practice (action setting),
Hoban and Erickson (2004) highlight two other influential elements supporting teachers’
long-term professional learning. One is the personal dimension that teachers bring to their
learning setting; the other is the socio-cultural influences on learning. The personal
dimension includes personal history, beliefs, dispositions, prior knowledge, needs, and
motivation. Also, “other related aspects of personal learning include the notions of agency
and relevance as manifested in a need for individuals to try out ideas . . . , and the freedom
for individuals to make decisions about and to experiment with personal practice” (Hoban
& Erickson, 2004, p. 303). Socio-cultural influences are present at a variety of different
levels, including the immediate social group (professional practice settings mediated by
other group members), and professional practice settings engaged with others who are
outside the immediate social group. The current paradigm of teacher professional learning
is in alignment with the constructivist and situative lenses, as discussed in the next
section.
Attention now turns to discussing what this paradigm shift means in relation to theories
of learning and what it meant in the present study. As mentioned earlier, often different
theories of learning account for different aspects of professional leaning.
Theoretical perspectives on teacher learning
Views of learning theories are often associated with a particular philosophical

perspective. Shuell (2001) argues that “to fully understand learning, one must realise that
a particular theory may provide a good explanation of learning in one situation but a poor
explanation of learning in a different situation” (p. 8614–8615). Teacher professional
learning in this study was grounded in two perspectives: constructivist and situative
learning.
3.4.5.1 Constructivist perspective of learning
Primarily stemming from Jean Piaget’s cognitive theory, constructivism is not a unified
theory but contains different viewpoints and various emphases. The common belief of a
constructivist perspective is that learning is the process of construction (Jonassen, 1999;
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Pang, 2014; Shuell, 2001; Tam, 2009). In particular, constructivists conceive of learning
as an active process, in which learners are active constructors of knowledge who make
sense of the world and learn by interpreting events through their existing knowledge and
beliefs (Putnam & Borko, 2013). In terms of teacher learning, according to
constructivism, teachers are viewed as active agents who interpret new information from
their own views, based on their schemata – the network of interrelationships among the
constituents of their learning (Donald, 1987), including existing knowledge,
preconceptions, beliefs and previous experiences (H. T. M. Nguyen, 2014). For that
reason, different teachers may arrive at different answers or make sense of new learning
in different ways. Furthermore, the constructivist view advocates learning as a dynamic
process of making meaning or constructing one’s own understandings, determined by the
complex interplay of existing knowledge, social context, and the content of what is to be
learned (Tam, 2009).
3.4.5.2 Situative perspective of learning
A situative perspective of learning views learning as a social practice, situated in

particular physical and social contexts (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Lave and Wenger’s
(1991) view is supported by other scholars, who state that learning is an interactive and
social act outside of the learner’s mind involving social interactions, and embracing wider
social, cultural and political factors (Borko, 2004; Desimone, 2009; Hodkinson et al.,
2008; Pang, 2014; Putnam & Borko, 2000, 2013; Sfard, 1998), which, therefore, cannot
be considered separately from the context in which learning takes place (Mason, 2007).
According to the situative view, teacher learning is seen as a process of enculturation

(Mason, 2007), in which teachers participate in, communicate with, and belong to a
community. Lave (1991) proposes learning is “a process of becoming a member of a
sustained community of practice” (p. 65) and states that “developing an identity as a
member of a community and becoming knowledgably skillful are part of the same
process” (p. 65). From that viewpoint, knowledge is situated and learning is viewed as a
cultural activity. Brown, Collins, and Duguid (1989) argue that “knowledge is situated,
being in part a product of activity, context, and culture in which it is developed and used”
(p. 32). In this sense, Bang (2015) further contends that culture is historically constituted
and dynamically changing through participation in social practices and making sense of
life.
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From this perspective, the focus is on socio-cultural forms of learning. Situative scholars
conceptualise learning as legitimate peripheral participation (Lave & Wenger, 1991;
Mason, 2007), and the unit of analysis is not the single individual but the social setting
(Pang, 2014). This socio-cultural focus of the perspective is illustrated through the use of
the participation metaphor proposed by Sfard (1998), as discussed in section 3.4.3, which
reinforces the view of learning as an active process of becoming a member of or involved
in a certain community that requires learners to communicate, negotiate the meaning of
norms, and act accordingly.
Constructivist and situative learning theories involve attention to both individual teachers
as learners and their participation in social learning communities. Cobb (1994) contends
that constructivist and situative views of learning should be seen as complementary
perspectives, one focusing on the sense-making of individuals within a social context,
and the other focusing on the social context and how it shapes individual learning. Due
to its constructed, situative and socio-cultural nature, teacher learning is viewed as
dependent on personal factors of teachers, such as prior knowledge, experience, and
socio-cultural and contextual factors of the learning environment. These perspectives
shaped the design of teacher learning in the present study.
Teacher inquiry
Teacher inquiry is seen as a powerful professional learning strategy because teachers are
active agents in the process of generating practical knowledge (Beck & Kosnik, 2014;
Poekert, 2011). Current education reforms require more authentic professional learning
and development than the conventional approach of delivering particular content or skills
for teachers to master (Poekert, 2011). Teacher inquiry is relevant to the current shift in
teachers’ professional learning because it takes place in the context of instructional
practice and meets the needs of teachers (Poekert, 2011). Beck and Kosnik (2014)
recommend using the term teacher research to refer to teacher inquiry; however,
Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1999) argue that the goals of teacher learning through inquiry
may or may not be to do research and to produce findings, as is often the case for other
researchers. In this study, teacher inquiry was used as an umbrella term referring to a
teacher learning approach, and teacher research is considered as one form of teacher
inquiry.
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Teacher inquiry is founded on constructivist learning theory. The central theme is that
learning is the process of constructing meaning. Poekert (2011) defines teacher inquiry
as teachers’ systematic and intentional reflection on their own practice. More specifically,
it is an “active learning approach focusing on teachers’ questioning, critical thinking,
problem solving and reflecting” (Gunawardena, 2003, p. 146). Teacher inquiry can
involve individual or collegial reflection. Teacher inquiry is grounded in the creation of
knowledge-of-practice (Poekert, 2011). Knowledge-of-practice is the idea that “teachers
learn collaboratively, primarily in inquiry communities and/or networks where
participants struggle along with others to construct meaningful local knowledge and
where inquiry is regarded as part of larger efforts to transform teaching, learning and
schooling” (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999, p. 278). It is a shared process, engaging other
teachers in collaboration in connection to larger educational contexts, such as political
and social agendas (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999). Next, this process is adaptive,
because when teachers collaboratively participate in inquiry, they continually adapt and
apply knowledge and pedagogical approaches in response in their work in the classroom.
The iterative cycles of reflection drive teachers’ deep learning, and improve critical
thinking, reasoning and reflective skills. This contributes to “the generation of teacher
knowledge by promoting the development of a culture of inquiry at the sites where it is
utilized” (Poekert, 2011, p. 20). This culture of inquiry is developed by a professional
orientation to communities and collaboration; for example, professional learning
communities or communities of inquiry (Butler & Schnellert, 2012).
Building on Dewey’s work, Schön further developed the concepts of inquiry and
reflective practice (Ermeling, 2010). Since Schön (1992) built on and developed the
theory of the reflective practitioner, the notion of reflection has gained much popularity
in education. In his work, Schön (1992) describes two types of reflection: reflection-in-
action and reflection-on-action. Reflection-in-action, or phrases like “thinking on your
feet”, “keeping your wits about you”, or “learning by doing” (Schön, 1992, p. 54) is when
the practitioners think about what they are doing, even sometimes while doing it. Schön
(1992) explains that the process of reflection-in-action occurs when
there is some puzzling, or troubling, or interesting phenomenon with

which the individual is trying to deal. As he tries to make sense of it, he
also reflects on the understandings which have been implicit in his
action, understandings which he surfaces, criticizes, restructures, and
embodies in further actions. (p. 50)
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In other words, when there is a situation puzzling to us, we usually ask questions about
why and how that happened. Then reflection-in-action helps us to find solutions and
reshape the situation. During the process of reflection-in-action, we often connect our
thinking with experiences, feelings and theories to deal with the situation. Sometimes we
find that the knowledge we bring to the situation may not fit the new situation and needs
to be changed to suit the new situation. This entails the building of new understanding or
knowledge.
Schön (1992) argues that one can also reflect on action after the action has been done, to
reflect on what worked well, what did not work well, and what can be done differently in
the future using one’s repertoire of experiences. Reflection-on-action is defined as “a
deliberate process developed and purposely used to reconsider existing knowledge,
beliefs, possibilities, ideas and actions” (Loughran, 2010, p. 163). Schön (1992) explains:
Practitioners do reflect on their knowing-in-practice. Sometimes, in the

relative tranquility of a postmortem, they think back on a project they
have undertaken, a situation they have lived through, and they explore
the understandings they have brought to their handling of the case. (p.
61)
Schön’s (1992) reflection theory explains the way new knowledge and skills are
constructed using schemata – the networks of interrelationships among constituents of
learning (Donald, 1987), including existing knowledge, preconceptions, beliefs and
previous experiences (H. T. M. Nguyen, 2014). These constituents exist in the mind and
are drawn on when practitioners engage in the process of reflection, comparison,
evaluation and self-direction for their learning.
In English language teaching and learning, reflection is increasingly seen as a key means
to support teacher learning (Farrell, 2007; Hoffman-Kipp et al., 2003). Self-inquiry and
critical thinking help teachers move from “a level where they may be guided largely by
impulse, intuition, or routine, to a level where their actions are guided by reflection and
critical thinking” (Richards, 1990, p. 6). There are a number of empirical studies
involving EFL teachers focusing on reflection (Farrell, 1999; Fatemi, Shirvan, &
Rezvani, 2011; Harford & G., 2008). In a study investigating in what ways regular group
discussion promoted reflective thinking with three experienced EFL teachers in Korea,
Farrell (1999) found that the teachers discussed theories of teaching based on personal
opinions when they met for discussions. Furthermore, the teachers in this study reflected
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critically by evaluating their teaching problems and lessons and generating solutions to
these problems. The research findings were drawn from the use of multiple data collection
sources such as the researcher’s field notes and written logs, group meetings, individual
meetings, the participants’ written reaction-journals, and written artifacts. Farrell (1999)
suggested the use of teacher development groups as a means to promote critical reflection
for EFL teachers.
When reflection is treated as an isolated skill, it is unlikely to support meaningful teacher

learning (Hoffman-Kipp et al., 2003). The reason is that consciousness from reflection
alone is not sufficient; it must synchronise with meaningful praxis – “the dialectical union
of reflection and action” (Hoffman-Kipp et al., 2003, p. 249). Teacher learning through
reflection is regarded as building theory and practice together (Cordingley, 2013). As
discussed in the previous section, this study is well suited to the situative perspective of
learning, which emphasises the shared nature of reflection through three concepts:
situated activity, reflection as a social endeavour, and reflection as a distributed process
(Hoffman-Kipp et al., 2003; Putnam & Borko, 2013). From this perspective, reflection
occurs in teachers’ everyday teaching activities with an opportunity to interact with their
colleagues, and is distributed through wider social contexts and artifacts of national
policies, institutional systems, and teacher groups or communities. This concept
represents the complexity of the reflective nature of teachers’ practice and learning with
a desire to achieve praxis.
Various documented models of professional inquiry focus on improving classroom

instruction. These include as lesson study (Crockett, 2002; Cheung & Wong, 2014; Doig
& Groves, 2011; Tran, 2014), teacher research or action research (Bleicher, 2014; C. V.
Le, 2018; Mertler, 2009; Poekert, 2011), the Getting Results model (Ermeling, 2012;
Saunders, Goldenberg, & Gallimore, 2009), teaching journaling or journals (Farrell,
2007; Jay & Johnson, 2002; Nurfaidah, Lengkanawati, & Sukyadi, 2017), and teacher
study groups or teacher learning communities (Richards & Farrell, 2005; Tam, 2015;
Vescio, Ross, & Adams, 2008). It should be noted that there was no attempt to promote
or validate one particular model of professional inquiry in this study. These models are
introduced here as a synthesis of the relevant literature. This study focused on the inquiry
process to present evidence for the value of inquiry and explore how teachers learned in
practice. As mentioned earlier, teacher inquiry is used as a tool, functioning as the impetus
for teachers’ reflection and co-construction of new learning.
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There are some studies using one of these aforementioned approaches as a means of
teacher learning in Vietnam, as discussed in the subsequent sections. However, collegial
approaches to teacher learning that enable Vietnamese teachers to interact and collaborate
are under-researched. Some scholars claim that this may be because of Vietnamese
teachers’ lack of dialogical custom (Saito, Tsukui, & Tanaka, 2008) or habit of working
together (Vo & Nguyen, 2010). So, what is evident from the literature is that further
investigation is required to better understand the cultural aspects affecting teacher
collegial learning and how EFL teachers in the Vietnamese university context construct
knowledge, improve their practice, and enhance professional learning practice through
the process of inquiry.
3.4.6.1 Lesson study
Lesson study, initially adapted successfully in Japan, is “a form of action research in

which teachers working in collaboration set goals for student learning, design and teach
a lesson incorporating these goals, collect evidence for evaluation, and if appropriate,
improve the design, and teach again with a view to improving learning outcomes” (Wood
& Sithamparam, 2014, p. 1).
Positive findings about this model of professional learning have been mentioned in the
literature. Crockett (2002) researched four mathematics teachers in an elementary school
in Southern California. Their engagement included a weekly open-ended problem, a
video teaching vignette, lesson planning sessions, and the examination of student work.
The participants commented that through discussions and interactions in these activities
their subject matter knowledge was enhanced and their thinking and their understanding
of student thinking were shifted. Similarly, a lesson study was carried out by a group of
mathematics teachers in a Vietnamese high school setting (Tran, 2014). It is reported that
lesson study is served as a means to introduce innovation in mathematics teaching, where
teachers play a central role in bringing innovations into their actual classrooms and in
helping each other with mathematics instruction. This consequently triggers improvement
in students’ learning. All in all, it can be seen that this model is an innovation in the
implementation of collaborative professional learning for teachers.
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3.4.6.2 Teacher research
The second form of teacher inquiry, teacher research, is a process in which teachers
interrogate and problematise their own practice. Teachers begin by wondering about their
classroom practice, form a research question from this wondering, collect relevant data,
analyse the data based on research literature, and take action in the classroom based on
their findings (Poekert, 2011).
A number of studies have used teacher research as an approach for teachers’ professional
learning and development. Of note is Poekert’s study (2011) in the elementary school
context in Florida. This qualitative study examined the pedagogy of facilitation by
following the experiences of six first-time teacher inquirers working under the direction
of a facilitator who guided them through various stages of the inquiry process. Interviews
were initially conducted to allow participating teachers to freely express their thoughts
and feelings, and the facilitator to talk about her perspectives on the supports provided in
the inquiry process. Then, teachers were invited to identify a dilema in their teaching
practice. They had access to a wide variety of resources to generate new ideas, applied
these new ideas in their classroom practice and evaluated the effectiveness of their
interventions by recording evidence from the teaching and artifacts. Ideas, advice,
artifacts and obstacles were discussed in monthly meetings and individual sessions.
Finally, the sharing stage involved teachers’ public presentations of their learning. The
research findings were reported positively in terms of teacher learning and professional
development. However, this model of teacher research applying the inquiry approach still
regards teachers as a group of individuals (Saito et al., 2008), placing the main focus on
individual experiences and the learning of each teacher inquirer throughout the inquiry
process. In addition, the constraint of the study resides in the research tools, as the study
“did not involve direct observation of teacher practice in the classroom and therefore
cannot substantiate claims of changes in teacher practice beyond the reports of teacher
participants” (Poekert, 2011, p. 24).
Borg (2013) provides a foundational framework and empirical data regarding teacher
research in language teaching. Borg (2013) asserts that teacher research “has the potential
to be a powerful transformative force in the professional development of language
teachers” (p. 6). However, this approach still remains “a minority activity in the field of
language teaching” (p. 6) due to a number of barriers such as limitations in teachers’
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awareness, beliefs, skills and knowledge, limited resources, and lack of teacher
motivation (Borg, 2013).
3.4.6.3 Teaching journals
Richards and Farrell (2005) describe a teacher journal as “an ongoing written account of
observations, reflections, and other thoughts about teaching, usually in the form of a
notebook, book, or electronic mode, which serves as a source of discussion, reflection or
evaluation” (p. 68). They argue that journal writing can help teachers question and analyse
their teaching practice. According to Farrell (2007), writing journal entries regularly can
help teachers clarify their thinking, explore their beliefs and practices, become aware of
their teaching styles, and be able to monitor their practices. Teachers can engage in
individual or collaborative journal writing (Farrell, 2008).
Journals can vary depending on the levels and dimensions of reflection. Jay and Johnson
(2002) suggest three dimensions of reflections in writing journals: descriptive,
comparative, and critical. At the descriptive level, teachers can simply track class
materials, such as the use of illustrations and activities to avoid repetition or omission,
and write down comments from students and exchanges with them during class
discussions to take on students’ ideas. The comparative level of teaching journalling
provides a way for teachers to compare their practices against alternatives, or to compare
teachers’ instructions with misunderstandings from students’ perspectives as a rich source
of possible change and revisions in the future. The highest-order thinking occurs in the
critical dimension of reflection. This is when teachers self-critique, make judgements and
consider the broader implications and deeper meaning of classroom instruction for
continuous learning and improvement.
3.4.6.4 Teacher learning communities
Within the situative paradigm, a vast body of literature explores the role of professional
communities of teachers in their learning (Russ, Sherin, & Sherin, 2016). The shifting
paradigm of collaborative professional development encourages greater participation and
interaction between teachers, peer-based learning through sharing skills and experience,
and solutions to common classroom problems. This is the foundation for a teacher
learning community to build on (Richards & Farrell, 2005). The notion of a teacher
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learning community is a key way in which contemporary professional learning is

envisioned.
A teacher learning community is generally defined as “a group of people sharing and

critically interrogating their practice in an outgoing, reflective, collaborative, inclusive,
learning-oriented, growth promoting way” (Stoll, Bolam, McMahon, Wallace, &
Thomas, 2006, p. 223). Those communities are flexible and vary in size, including
members with similar or different roles or responsibilities from one group, or members
of multiple groups, or representatives from different groups (Learning Forward, n.d.) on
the condition that they have “a focus on a shared purpose, mutual regard and caring, and
an insistence on integrity and truthfulness” (Hord, 2009, p. 40). Scholars have described
five essential characteristics of professional learning communities, involving shared
values and norms, an emphasis on student learning, reflective dialogues, de-privatisation
of practice to make teaching public via classroom observations or giving and receiving
instructional feedback, and a focus on collaboration (Louis & Marks, 1998; Tam, 2015;
Vescio et al., 2008). Dialogues, action research, reflections and classroom observations
are the collaborative activities that teachers frequently engage in when they belong to
learning communities (Tam, 2015).
Teacher learning communities have proved to be an effective model for promoting

professional learning for English language teachers in Western countries (Yhao, 2013).
However, it is a relatively new approach for English teachers at tertiary level in Asia
(Yhao, 2013). Yhao’s paper highlights the need to construct teacher learning communities
for English language teachers at tertiary level because teacher learning communities will
help teachers tackle teaching problems through collaboration, inquiry, reflection, sharing
and peer evaluation (Yhao, 2013).
Professional learning of tertiary teachers in Vietnam
As described in Chapter One, Vietnam has enacted a Higher Education Reform Agenda
(HERA) generally, and foreign language education reform in particular, across all
education levels. One response is the launching of Project 2020, in which MOET set a
Vietnam’s English Teacher Competencies Framework stating what teachers of all levels
are required to achieve in order to be qualified in the profession (see Chapter Two, section
2.6). A number of professional development activities have been undertaken in Project
2020, including professional development training to improve teachers’ language
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proficiency and pedagogical competence, and opportunities to conduct research (C. V.

Le, 2018; Nguyen & Mai, 2018). A few studies on Vietnam’s teacher education and in-
service professional development training have been conducted by foreign scholars after
the implementation of teacher training projects by foreign partnerships (Hamano, 2008;
Saito et al., 2008; Tsukui & Saito, 2018). There have also been some studies in related
fields conducted by local researchers, but mainly focused on English teacher education
(Kieu et al., 2016; Le, 2002; Pham, 2002; N. H. Tran et al., 2018; Tran, 2014).
As mentioned in section 3.4.6, thoroughly documented models of teacher inquiry include

lesson study, teacher research, teaching journaling, and teacher learning communities.
Apart from these inquiry models, other professional learning models, such as peer
observation, mentoring and critical friend groups, are also documented in the scholarship
of teacher professional learning. Although, in Vietnam, teacher inquiry has been explored
in various modes, such as lesson study, teacher research, and collegial study groups (see
studies reviewed below), H. T. M. Nguyen (2014) highlights that “scant attention has
been paid to the field of teacher learning through [the] practice of teaching” (p. 75).
Likewise, the mentoring model has been a focus of teacher education (for pre-service
teachers) and approaches to teacher professional learning and development for beginning
teachers (H. T. M. Nguyen, 2017); however, this is beyond the focus of this study.
Lesson study, as described in section 3.4.6, is a collaborative inquiry model of

professional development developed in Japan (Ahn et al., 2018; Rock & Wilson, 2005).
Lesson study “involves groups of teachers meeting regularly over a period of time . . . to
work on the design, implementation, testing and improvement of one or several research
lessons” (Rock & Wilson, 2005, p. 78). This model is a school-based approach, used
notably in primary school education and to a lesser extent in secondary school education
(Doig & Groves, 2011; Saito, Khong, Hidayat, Hendayana, & Imansyah, 2018). This
model is no longer restricted to Japan but has expanded to the West and throughout South-
East Asia (Chen & Zhang, 2019; Doig & Groves, 2011).
However, in Vietnam, limited research is available on teacher professional learning

through the use of lesson study. Tran (2014) investigated the effectiveness of lesson study
as a professional development practice in teaching and learning mathematics for year 7
in Vietnam. The teacher participants were introduced to lesson study at a research
workshop and then guided to prepare lesson plans adopting innovation and good practice
in teaching mathematics. Through classroom implementation, their teaching sessions
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were videotaped, analysed and discussed. The findings of the study indicated the relative
contribution of lesson study in both teaching and learning mathematics, focusing on
higher order thinking.
In a different school setting, Tsukui and Saito (2018) primarily used field notes and
interviews with one Vietnamese primary school teacher, Mr Moi (pseudonym) describing
his experiences and reflections on the events that occurred following the introduction of
lesson study from Japan into Vietnamese schools during 2006–2009. The study was
grounded in situative and socio-cultural perspectives. Mr Moi and his colleagues acted as
strollers, who “walked around in classrooms on foot or used their eyes to seek real
encounters with students – their minds, learning and existence” (Tsukui & Saito, 2018, p.
176). The conventional construct of ‘inspection’ focused on bureaucratic actions and the
values of teachers to underline compliance with prescribed curriculum and plans;
therefore, teachers had a tendency to strictly check and evaluate students’ work and even
their colleagues’ work to see whether their achievements were satisfactory. The emerging
construct of ‘strolling’ used in this study represented democratic actions and values that
appreciated students’ existence and learning. The study indicated that Moi and his
colleagues began to accept this new act of strolling in their practices and they re-focused
on students’ learning when they performed a stroll. Another finding of the study was that
strolling helped teachers to make use of and improve their collegiality. Tsukui and Saito
(2018) suggested that lesson study provided teachers with the experiences of seeing
themselves and their underlying values to generate possible momentum in the shift to new
learning.
There is a gap in the literature with regard to the engagement of tertiary teachers in
conducting research as a means of professional learning. In his study, Hiep H. Pham
(2006) analysed data from official documents relating to the regulation of research at
Vietnamese universities and interviews of seven English language educators from three
tertiary institutions in Vietnam. The study shows that the educators espoused the need to
conduct research as a professional learning practice. However, multiple factors such as
researchers’ dissatisfaction with the current evaluation regulations, lack of time, lack of
resources and opportunities for research and research publication opportunities, and
inadequate research training and research skills tended to discourage the teacher
educators from engaging in research activities. Current research shows a stronger
involvement of English language university teachers. Framed within a sociocultural
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viewpoint, Huong H. Le’s (2018) qualitative case study, using survey questionnaires and
interviews, indicated that the way English language university teachers engaged in
research was intertwined with the current context where the research was done. Action
research on English teaching methodologies was reported to be popular. Interestingly, the
research findings supported the Project 2020 initiative, part of which was an action
research training project conducted in 2015 as described in Canh V. Le’s (2018) project.
Although the action research projects reported by Huong H. Le (2018) and Canh V. Le
(2018) highlighted positive outcomes, these valuable learning experiences for teachers
still need to be paid attention to and should be researched in depth.
Another aspect of teachers’ collegial learning was studied by Vo and Nguyen (2010). In
their qualitative study using interviews and observations, Vo and Nguyen (2010)
examined the value of Critical Friend Groups (CFGs), a collaborative model of teacher
professional learning, which involves teachers’ collaboration in problem solving and
mutual learning. Four beginning Vietnamese EFL teachers participated in a CFG over
one semester. The teachers participated in a full CFG process, which involved three
feedback meetings. Two weeks after the completion of the CFG process, interviews were
conducted with each of the four teachers. The teachers were also observed in their
feedback sessions. Drawing on the data collected, Vo and Nguyen (2010) found that the
four beginning EFL teachers expressed great pleasure and satisfaction with their CFG
experience. The teachers valued the opportunity to satisfy their growing needs for
feedback from their colleagues and to exchange professional ideas in a relaxed manner.
The four teachers also reported that they felt more positive thanks to the good work
relationships built up, resulting in a sense of community and mutual understanding. The
interview data revealed that the positive outcomes enhanced the teachers’ motivation for
teaching, encouraged them to provide greater care for their students, and improved lesson
preparation. Vo and Nguyen (2010) suggested the application of CFGs as a model of EFL
teacher professional development in Vietnam.
Another innovative collaborative professional learning activity – professional learning

communities – has recently been paid attention to. Phan (2017) used primary schools in
Thanh Van city (pseudonym) as the research site in her doctoral thesis. To be specific,
Phan’s (2017) study investigated a mandatory activity for primary school English
teachers (PETs) called Sinh hoạt cụm chuyên môn (Participating in Professional
Communities), referred to as professional learning communities (PLCs) in this study.
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There were six PLCs in this city involving PETs from seven or eight primary schools,
meeting once or twice every semester (four months) to discuss professional matters. In
phase 1, with consent from the Department of Education, PLC leaders, an EFL consultant
and PETs, Phan (2017) examined PLCs’ operation by observing four professional
learning communities (PLC A including 21 teachers, PLC B 18 teachers, PLC C 24
teachers, and PLC D 19 teachers), interviewing PLC leaders, and the EFL consultant. In
phase 2, Phan (2017) looked for evidence about the PLCs’ affordances on the PETs’
learning by observing the PETs’ EFL lessons at their shools, followed by an interview
after each lesson. Framed within a socio-cultural perspective, which highlights the
situatedness and interactiveness of teacher learning, the study showed positive results in
the reshaped professional learning communities, allowing for bottom-up professional
learning. The study indicated that the PLCs helped cultivate a culture of reflective inquiry
among the PETs through individual reflections (private reflections) on their own teaching
and shared reflections together in groups (public reflections). The teachers also reported
their learning through social interactions among PETs and with the experts, including
PLCs’ leaders and the EFL consultant. Phan (2017) suggested models of professional
learning communities appropriate to the Vietnamese context.
One important point revealed by these studies is that the authors of these studies focused
on using one of the professional development activities or models to investigate its
application and effectiveness in the local context. This entails a causal model of
professional development (Biesta, 2007). It is based on the idea that “professionals do
something – they administer a treatment, they intervene in a particular situation – in order
to bring about certain effects” (Biesta, 2007, p. 7). Effectiveness, in this sense, has an
intrumental value and does not say anything about what an intervention is supposed to
bring about (Biesta, 2007). In contrast, a situative perspective focuses on teacher learning
processes to gain insights into the processes of how teachers learn, drawing on unique
features relevant to the socio-cultural, polical and institutional particularities of the
Vietnamese context.
Recent research on teacher professional learning in the Vietnamese context has been
predominantly theoretical and conceptual discussion papers based on researchers’
experiences and observations (Duong, 2003; Le, 2002; Mai, 2018; Pham, 2002; Truong,
2017). Vietnam is an under-explored context, and little research has been conducted in
relation to professional learning for university EFL teachers. Empirical research needs to
86
be conducted on tertiary EFL teacher professional learning; within this, the processes of
how tertiary EFL teachers learn via reflection and co-construction of knowledge are
worthy of investigation.
Chapter summary
Through the review of literature on empirical studies of teacher professional learning in

Vietnam, the following gaps have been identified:
• First, scant attention has been paid to teacher professional learning that uses
teacher inquiry focusing on teachers’ reflection and situative learning in the
practice of teaching.
• Second, research on tertiary EFL teachers’ engagement in research activities as a
form of teacher learning is limited.
• Third, collective and interactive opportunities for teacher learning, such as Critical
Friend Groups or Professional Learning Communities have not been widely
explored.
• Fourth, research on teacher learning in Vietnam appears to place greater emphasis
on learning activities and teacher change than on exploring the complex process
of teacher learning.
• Fifth, recent research on teacher professional learning in Vietnam predominantly
comprises conceptual discussion papers based on researchers’ experiences and
observations. There is a need for more empirical studies of tertiary EFL teacher
professional learning.
• Finally, there is a need to elaborate more on SCA concepts and implementation,
as well as cultural and contextual factors, in the Vietnamese ELT context.
To address these gaps, this study examined how engaging in the process of inquiry shaped
teachers’ learning. The study adopted a constructivist and situative perspective on
learning, which defined teachers as active agents in the process of sense making. Their
learning was social and situated; as such, multitudes of factors – personal, contextual, and
socio-cultural – were explored to investigate the complexity and multidimensionality of
the teachers’ learning processes.
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A predominantly qualitative research design was used to collect data and gain insights
into the process of teacher learning in this study. Chapter Four covers the study
methodology in detail.
The study was guided by the following five research questions:
1. What are the teachers’ initial beliefs about and reported practices of student-
centred approaches?
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Chapter 4: Research Methodology
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Introduction
The present study investigated teachers’ engagement in an inquiry process in English

language teaching (ELT) in a Vietnamese tertiary education context. Overall, the study
examined how the process of inquiry shaped the teachers’ professional learning, paying
attention to cycles of reflection and co-construction of knowledge. In particular, the study
investigated the process of enactment and reflection in teachers who enacted student-
centred approaches (SCA) while endeavouring to develop their pedagogical knowledge
and teaching practices, and engage in a professional learning practice. Through this
learning process, the study examined how the teachers translated their new learning of
SCA into their practices.
As mentioned in Chapter One, the study was guided by the following questions.
1. What are the teachers’ initial beliefs about and reported practice of student-
centred approaches?
In asking these questions, I explored the beliefs about teaching approaches initially held
by the teachers before they took part in the inquiries to inform me as a researcher how to
proceed the next stage. The study also investigated how the teachers interpreted and
implemented student-centred approaches (SCA), and unpacked the influence of their
reflections on implementing classroom inquiries. I also wanted to study the extent to
which the teachers interacted and co-constructed their pedagogical content knowledge
specifically related to SCA and their instructional practices through collective learning
opportunities with other teacher participants. Furthermore, I sought to investigate shifts
in the teachers’ pedagogical knowledge, classroom practices, and professional learning
practices. Importantly, I examined insights into how the process of inquiry engagement
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via enactment, reflection, and co-construction of knowledge shaped the teachers’

professional learning experiences.
This chapter describes the research methodology, methods, participants, and processes of
data collection and analysis used in the study. First, it provides a detailed discussion of
the interpretive paradigm including the ontological and epistemological stances in
relation to the two theoretical perspectives of constructivist and situative learning. The
study used a predominantly qualitative research design to gain in-depth insights into the
inquiry process of the teachers’ learning, how they made sense of their learning
individually and collegially, and how they translated the new learning in practice. Five
instruments for data collection were used in a four-phase process to explore the research
questions: a questionnaire in Phase 1, classroom observations and debriefs in Phase 2,
group discussions in Phase 3 and individual interviews in Phase 4. The research context,
participants and the process of recruiting the participants are also described. In analysing
the data, I used a qualitative inductive data analysis approach. Most of the data were
analysed thematically, apart from the group discussion and individual interviews, which
were analysed and presented in the form of vignettes. The questionnaire data were
analysed descriptively. The chapter ends with an outline of how the research quality was
assessed.
Interpretive paradigm
Wilson (2001) defines a research paradigm as “a set of beliefs about the world and about
gaining knowledge that go together to guide your actions as to how you are going to go
about doing your research” (p. 175). A paradigm encompasses elements of epistemology,
ontology, theory, and methodology (Punch & Oancea, 2014). Each of these elements will
be unpacked in the following sections.
A researcher always brings into the research a number of philosophical assumptions, as

Punch and Oancea (2014) argue:
Methods of inquiry are based on assumptions – assumptions about the

nature of the reality being studied, assumptions about what constitutes
knowledge of that reality, and assumptions about what therefore are
appropriate ways of building knowledge of that reality (p. 16).
These philosophical assumptions are believed to come from different sources, such as
personal experience, education, professional practice, professional communities and the
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like. Philosophical stances are of profound importance in research because they shape
how the researcher formulates the problems and research questions. Also, these stances
inform how the researcher views the world, and are thus are likely to influence the
interpretation of data and the research outcomes. This study takes interpretive inquiry as
its research paradigm, which is represented in the philosophical assumptions discussed
below.
The first philosophical perspective embraced in this research relates to ontological stance,
which refers to the nature of realities (Wilson, 2001). Taking this ontological position,
people believe, see and understand the kinds of things that exist and the meaning of their
existence in relation to themselves and to other entities. As a researcher, I understand
reality to be pluralistic (Schwandt, 1994) and believe that knowledge changes constantly
because knowledge is reliant on social interactions among people as they take place
(Walliman, 2016) and on the contextual elements where they take place. Therefore,
knowledge is not pre-defined but constructed and the process of knowledge creation is
not linear, but fluid and dynamic among the creators.
The second philosophical assumption encompassed in the study is the epistemological

stance. Epistemology is a term describing how we know things and what can be regarded
as acceptable knowledge in the field (Walliman, 2016). In this study, my stance is that
teachers view the world differently and the way they view the world will influence what
they regard to be true. I thus hold a subjective epistemology of the world because I believe
knowledge is reliant on teachers’ subjective experiences. Teachers have their own values,
beliefs, interests, education backgrounds, and personal, contextual and socio-cultural
experiences. In acknowledging my subjectivity as a researcher, I recognised the
importance of on-going reflexivity as I planned my research, enacted my research
practices, and interpreted my findings. I will discuss reflexivity and how it was integrated
in this study in section 4.6.2.
In qualitative research, philosophical assumptions are embedded within an interpretive

framework to understand the meaning of reality and research phenomena. An interpretive
approach studies how people make sense of the world differently because they have
different perceptions about the world they live in. This is an attempt to understand the
subjective meaning of the human experience within a context. This study used an
interpretive approach in the way that it looked at the teachers’ complex and
multidimensional process of learning, and sought to understand teachers’ beliefs,
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perceptions, socio-cultural and contextual factors, and their experiences linked to their
teaching behaviours and the learning process. The purpose of the research was to gain in-
depth insights into the process of how the teachers learned, interpreted the new learning,
acted in practice, and gained an understanding of why they acted the way they did.
As mentioned in Chapter Three, section 3.4.5, this study looked at teachers’ professional
learning through two theoretical lenses: constructivist and situative. From the perspective
of constructivism, learning is a complex and dynamic process of making meaning, and
constructing and interpreting one’s own understanding. In this learning process,
individuals play a central and active role. With regard to teachers’ professional learning
in this study, the teachers were not passive recipients of knowledge but active constructors
of new knowledge, who made sense of the world and learned by interpreting events
through their existing knowledge and beliefs. The teachers had their own values, beliefs,
interests, education backgrounds, and personal experiences prior to the learning
experience. Constructivist and interpretivist are related approaches to research in that
knowledge is a form of interpretation based on the teachers’ existing conceptions and
experiences (Putnam & Borko, 2013). From the situative perspective, teacher learning is
situated in particular physical and social contexts and is social and distributed in nature.
With that said, the situative perspective of teacher learning gives insights into contextual
and socio-cultural influences in interaction with others in the teacher learning process.
Given the contextual and socio-cultural influences, knowledge constructed is not static
but changes all the time depending on social interactions among the teachers and the
contextual elements where the process takes place. In Chapter Three, section 3.4.5
provides a detailed discussion of these two theoretical approaches to teacher learning used
in this study.
A predominantly qualitative research design
Some scholars view quantitative and qualitative methodologies as two fundamentally

incompatible research approaches (Bryman, 2016; Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004;
Punch, 2009) with each playing to its respective strengths and weaknesses. For example,
the strengths of quantitative research include its capacity to conceptualise variables,
profile dimensions, trace trends and relationships, formalise comparisons, obtain
objective facts, use large representative samples, and generalise to a wider population (L.
V. Nguyen, 2011; Punch, 2009). However, there are arguments against using quantitative
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research in isolation. For instance, the positivist stance of quantitative research was
criticised for its mechanistic and reductionist view of nature and human behaviour, and
for the objectivity brought into research (Bryman, 2012; Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004;
Punch, 2014). This results from overlooking in-depth understanding of the social and
cultural contexts of the participants.
On the other hand, qualitative research, as predominantly used in this study, brings the
strengths of “sensitivity to meaning and to context, local groundedness, the in-depth study
of smaller samples, and great methodological flexibility which enhances the ability to
study process and change” (Punch, 2009, p. 290). Gray (2014) explains that thanks to its
characteristics being highly contextual and data being collected in a natural, real-life
setting (for example, a classroom setting), qualitative research can show how and why
things happen, incorporating people’s motivations, emotions, prejudices and incidents of
interpersonal cooperation and conflict.
To examine the complexity and multidimensionality of the teacher learning process in

this study, incorporating a multitude of factors such as cognition (beliefs, knowledge,
attitudes), contextual factors, socio-cultural elements, the study accordingly had a
predominantly qualitative research design, involving a number of characteristics as
described by Miles, Huberman, and Saldaña (2020). This study was conducted in the
teachers’ classroom context, with a focus on the processes and the ways in which the
teachers acted, to account for their actions and constructed knowledge. The research
findings emerged from the data and my role as a researcher was to gain a holistic or
integrated overview of the teachers’ learning process, including their underlying thinking.
The study was predominantly qualitative, with a small amount of quantitative data
collected via a questionnaire at the beginning of data collection. The study used a
combination of methods, including classroom observations, debriefs, group discussions
and individual interviews (as discussed in section 4.4.4). The complementary use of
methods reflected both the complex and multidimensional nature of teacher learning and
the philosophical stance that reality is pluralist and complex.
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Participants and data collection procedure
Participants
Six EFL teachers working on a part-time or full-time basis in two tertiary institutions in
the Central Highlands of Vietnam participated in this study. Throughout the thesis, the
names of the teachers have been replaced by pseudonyms. Participant demographics are
presented in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Participant demographics
Name Age Gender Highest qualification Years of service
Tien 40 - 50 Female Bachelor’s degree in English above 20

Master’s degree in TESOL
Lanh 20 - 30 Male Bachelor’s degree in English 1-5
Manh 20 - 30 Male Bachelor’s degree in English 1-5

Translation
Nhi 30 - 40 Female Bachelor’s degree in English Language 15 -20

Teaching
Master’s degree in Applied Linguistics
Uy 30 - 40 Female Bachelor’s degree in English 10 - 15

Master of Business Administration
Trinh 30 - 40 Female Bachelor’s degree in English Language 10 -15

Teaching
Master’s degree in Applied Linguistics
Three teachers from University A (one worked on a part-time basis) and three full-time
teachers from University B were involved in this project. They were aged between 24 and
50 years. Two were males and the rest were females. These six teachers had a range of
expertise, teaching experience, and courses that they oversaw. Three teachers had
backgrounds specialising in English language teaching (Tien with a Master’s degree in
TESOL, Nhi and Trinh with Bachelor’s degrees in English Language Teaching and
Master’s degrees in Applied Linguistics). Uy held a Master’s degree in Business
Administration. The other two had a Bachelor’s degree in English, in which pedagogical
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courses were optional. One veteran teacher had been in service for 22 years; the middle
group’s teaching experience ranged from 11 to 16 years; and the group of novice teachers’
service was between one and two years. Most of them were in charge of English major
and non-English major courses, except Manh, who taught three non-English major
courses during the semester.
Participant demographics are presented in Table 4.1 to enable readers to understand the
diversity of the participant group. The selection of the six teachers from two research sites
not only allowed for variations in terms of contexts, perspectives, and experiences, but
also added rigour to the data collected and permitted in-depth analysis. Bryman (2012)
argues that a small sample size “increases the qualitative researcher’s chances of getting
close involvement with their participants. . . and generating fine-grained data, features
that are significant for their study” (p. 426). He further argues that “conducting qualitative
research in more than one setting can be helpful in identifying the significance of context
and the ways in which it influences behaviour and ways of thinking” (p. 402). In practice,
the number of participants involved in this project was justified by the work of other
qualitative researchers working in the area of teacher professional learning and
development, who used a similar number of participants (González & Skultety, 2018; H.
B. Nguyen, 2014; L. V. Nguyen, 2011; Sarfraz, 2019). However, due to the study scope,
research aims and small sample size, no claims or generalisations are made in this thesis
about the correlation between participants’ variables and the research findings.
Research sites
The study was carried out in two universities in Vietnam – University A and University
B. These two universities were selected because these were the only two universities in
the city chosen for the study. Other than these two, there are a few colleges in the city;
however, concerns that different training programmes and durations could cause
discrepancies in comparing instructional content, teaching practices, and professional
development practices drove my decision not to involve other tertiary institutions in the
research.
University A is a public multidisciplinary university in the Central Highlands of Vietnam,

with 19 faculties offering 39 programmes. The Faculty of Foreign Languages –
University A, established in 1992, offers two programmes: a Bachelor of English and a
Bachelor of English Language Teaching for both on-campus and off-campus students.
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The faculty is also in charge of providing instruction for general English courses and ESP
courses for another 37 non-English major programmes at the university. Every semester
one teacher is usually in charge of approximately five courses, consuming about 300
teaching hours. Beside teaching commitments, teachers are required to engage in research
activities: writing articles, and participating and presenting at workshops, seminars, or
conferences.
University B, a non-state university in Vietnam’s Central Highlands, was founded in

2004. The Department of English Language – University B was established in 2004 with
the first batch of trainees entering in 2005. Because English was recognised as an
indispensible tool for graduates’ future careers, at the time of data collection, all English-
major students were required to pass a standardised English test – the Test of English for
International Communication (TOEIC) – to be able to graduate. With an emphasis on
students’ communication skills, the department’s teaching materials and teaching
approaches emphasised improving students’ speaking skills. Given that purpose,
activities incorporated in the courses had to ensure they improved students’ speaking
skills. At this research site, commitment to research was not compulsory when the
teachers participated in this study in 2016. Therefore, teachers were not required to
commit to certain numbers of research hours although engagement in research activities
was encouraged.
Data collection procedure
Data were collected via a four-phase process (see Table 4.2) over a semester. In the first
phase of data collection, a questionnaire was used. Phase 2 onwards involved fieldwork,
when primary qualitative data were collected. This was when the teachers engaged in the
inquiries of SCA. For the second phase, classroom observations were conducted to
investigate how the teachers interpreted and translated the new learning of SCA in
practice, which was followed by debriefs to gain some insights into their underlying
assumptions or rationales for their classroom activities. The third phase in the process
was the group discussion, and the fourth phase was the individual interview.
Detailed discussion about the data collection instruments, including the questionnaire,
observations, debriefs, group discussions, and individual interviews is provided in the
following section.
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Table 4.2 Data collection phases
Data collection Instrument Procedure description Participants

phase used
Phase 1 Questionnaire An email was sent out to 20

briefly introduce my study
(Jan – Feb 2016)
and invite English teachers
in the Faculty of Foreign
Languages from University
A and teachers in the
Department of English of
University B to engage in an
online questionnaire.
Phase 2 Observation, Each teacher’s instructional 6

practice was observed in
(Feb – Jun 2016) Debrief
their class. A debrief
followed as soon as the
teaching session finished.
Phase 3 Group Six teachers were invited to 6

discussion engage in a group discussion
(Feb – Jun 2016)
after each cycle of
classroom observation.
Phase 4 Individual Interviews were conducted 6

interview individually with each
(Jul – Aug 2016)
teacher.
In Phase 2, the six inquiries were categorised into four cycles of observation based on
their theoretical relevance. They were:
• First cycle of observation focusing on Inquiry 1

• Second cycle of observation focusing on Inquiries 2 and 3
• Third cycle of observation focusing on Inquiries 4, 5 and 6
• Fourth cycle of observation synthesising all inquiries.
Prior to the commencement of participant recruitment, ethical approval was obtained

from the University of Waikato (see Appendix C). Two documents, an information letter
and an informed consent form, were also approved by the Research Ethics Committee of
the Faculty of Education at the University of Waikato. Before the fieldwork started, I sent
the information letter in English (see an example in Appendix D) and briefly translated it
into Vietnamese to apply for approval from the top institutional level of University A,
then departmental agreement, and faculty support. Once the approval was granted, I
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approached potential teacher participants (see below for further detail). The information
letter and consent form (see an example in Appendix E) were sent out to four teachers at
University A who expressed their interest and availability to participate in this study. An
allowance of two days for teachers’ consideration was given before the teacher signed the
consent forms. However, one teacher ultimately had another training commitment and
was unavailable to participate in this study. All the signed letters and forms were kept on
file in hard copy format.
Due to the available number of participants from University A and because of the aim of
the study, I saw a need to conduct my project at an additional research site and to involve
other colleagues in the project. Therefore, I decided to extend an invitation to teachers in
the Department of English Language at University B. I was unable to start Phase 2 until
I received ethics approval for the extension of the research project from the Research
Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Education at the University of Waikato. The same
process of gaining access and obtaining consent from participants was adopted. Three
teachers agreed to participate in the study. At each site, an initial group meeting was
organised to allow the teachers to get to know more about each other, their teaching
practices, and the details of the study.
The information letter and consent form for the participants mentioned one extra
instrument for data collection: blogging on a wiki page. This instrument was originally
selected for the study but later discarded during the data collection process due to practical
concerns when I was carrying out fieldwork in Vietnam. An individual interview with
each participant was used to supplement the richness of data. The participants were
informed of this change and consented to participate in the individual interviews.
From Phase 2, this study used a purposive sampling technique, which is widely used in
qualitative research (Bryman, 2012). Purposive sampling “used the judgement of an
expert in selecting cases or it selects cases with a specific purpose in mind” (Neuman,
2006, p. 222). Reflecting on the purpose and the questions guiding the study, my selection
of the six teachers was based on a number of characteristics described generally in broad
categories to maintain ethical anonymity of the participants. The characteristics included
teachers’ availability throughout the semester, teachers’ interest in professional learning
and development, and particular types of cases who were diverse in terms of genders,
years of experience, and educational backgrounds (qualifications).
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Instruments
The section below unpacks the rationale behind my selection of data collection
instruments. Table 4.3 shows the data collection instruments in relation to the research
questions. As discussed earlier, triangulation of data from these different sources was not
my intention. Rather, the use of multiple data collection instruments added to the
comprehensiveness, rigour, saturation of the study and reflected the complexity and
multi-dimensionality of the teachers’ learning process. This unique combination of data
collection methods aimed to capture the entire process of teacher learning through
iterative cycles of reflection, which is further discussed in Chapter Six, section 6.5.2.
Table 4.3 Data collection instruments in relation to research questions
Research question Research method Rationale
1. What are teachers’ initial Questionnaire To investigate general beliefs and

beliefs about and reported reported practices about SCA from
practice of student-centred a broader group of teachers from
approaches? two institutions.
2. What influences on Observation, To investigate how the teachers

classroom practice are interpreted and enacted SCA in
Debrief
observed and reported when their classroom practice.
teachers assume student-
centred approaches?
3. How do the teachers learn Group discussion, To examine the process of teacher
within the inquiries? learning, paying attention to cycles
Interview
of reflection and the process of co-
construction of knowledge.
4. What changes related to Group discussion, To reflect on the changes in terms

professional knowledge, of pedagogical knowledge,
Interview
professional practice and professional practice, and
professional development professional learning practice the
practice do teachers report? teachers reported.
5. How can this process of Group discussion, To identify supports and

inquiry be harnessed to hindrances in the teacher learning
Interview
support teacher learning? process.
A summary of the data collected via the five different instruments is outlined in Table
4.4.
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Table 4.4 Data collected through different sources
Source Length of time University A University B Total
Questionnaire 30 items 17 participants 3 participants 20
Observation 60 minutes each 12 sessions 13 sessions 25
Debrief 15 minutes each 6 debriefs 10 debriefs 16
Group discussion 60 minutes each 3 participants 3 participants 6
Individual 30 minutes each 3 interviews 3 interviews 6

interview
4.4.4.1 Questionnaire
In Phase 1 (1 January–14 February 2016), a questionnaire was used (see Appendix F).
Before I went back to Vietnam for my fieldwork, I sent out an email briefly introducing
my study and inviting twenty-three English teachers of the Faculty of Foreign Languages
of University A to engage in an electronic questionnaire. The same questionnaire was
emailed to four English teachers in the Department of English Language at University B
when approval was obtained to extend the research coverage. This questionnaire aimed
to gather initial information about the teachers’ reported beliefs and practices to inform
me as a researcher how to proceed the next stage of the study. Twenty responses were
collected.
The questionnaire had four main parts. Part A asked for general information about the
respondent and their classes. Part B inquired into the teachers’ reported classroom
practices. Part C included 20 five-point Likert scale statements which sought to examine
the teachers’ perceptions of SCA. Part D consisted of two open-ended questions to
explore the teachers’ perceptions of the roles that a teacher and a learner play in teaching
and learning. The questionnaire was piloted with three postgraduate students in the
Faculty of Education at the University of Waikato in New Zealand and one postgraduate
student at the University of New England in Australia. Three of them were English
lecturers and one was a physics lecturer. The aim of the pilot was to seek feedback on the
content, the question sequence, and the comprehensibility of the questionnaire. Their
comments provided me with an opportunity to review and refine the statements and
questions in the questionnaire.
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Questionnaires are “one of the main instruments for gathering data using a social survey
design” (Bryman, 2012, p. 232). Questionnaires have a number of advantages: they are
cheap, quick to administer, convenient for respondents; there is an absence of interviewer
effects and no interviewer variability (Bryman, 2012). Even though questionnaires are
often used in quantitative research, in this study, I used a descriptive questionnaire to
understand the teachers’ perceptions before beginning to work with them. It was not my
intention to use the questionnaire data for triangulation or integration with data from other
sources.
4.4.4.2 Observations
The fieldwork was carried out between 15 February and 20 August 2016. This was when
the inquiry process started (February–June 2016). As mentioned in section 3.4.6, this
study used teacher inquiry as a tool, functioning as the impetus for the teachers’ reflection
and co-construction of new learning with each other. There were six inquiries, each of
which represented one aspect associated with student-centred pedagogy. As mentioned
above, the six inquiries were categorised into four cycles and each cycle incorporated one
or more aspects of inquiries, which relied on their theoretical relevance. For example,
cycle 1 included Inquiry 1, cycle 2 combined Inquiries 2 and 3, cycle 3 comprised
Inquiries 4, 5 and 6, and cycle 4 integrated all the inquiries from 1 to 6. These inquiry
cycles were the basis for the observation sessions.
When I went back to Vietnam for my field work, I asked for permission from one senior
teacher to observe her class as an observation pilot because I wanted to practise the
multiple skills including observing, note taking, listening during the teaching session and
identifying pertinent moments to discuss with the teacher in the briefing afterwards. The
pilot went well and it was noted that if I missed anything, I could use the audio recording
as a backup.
After the teachers engaged in each cycle of inquiries, classroom observations were
planned. The purpose of observation sessions was to explore how the teachers interpreted
and enacted SCA, guided by the six inquiries in practice. As the teachers might teach
several courses during the semester, observation sessions were conducted in classes that
were chosen by each teacher. I perceived that culturally, the teachers and their students
could feel uncomfortable and unfamiliar with me as the researcher being in the classroom
and observing them. The flexibility, to a certain extent, allowed the teachers to select the
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classes and teaching sessions that they were most comfortable and confident with.
Because the teaching schedules of the two universities were quite different, it was agreed
that each teacher would notify me of the observation schedules one week in advance.
Also, observations were scheduled into one-week intervals between the two groups of
teachers from the two universities to avoid timetable clashes and to allow the teachers
sufficient time to thoroughly prepare and translate the new learning into classroom
enactment.
Each teaching session was 3 hours long, including a 10-minute break. However, each
observation lasted for approximately 60 minutes, which could be before or after the break
to minimise classroom disruption. As can be seen in Table 4.4, twelve teaching sessions
involving University A’s teachers were observed and thirteen sessions involving
University B’s teachers. There was one extra observation session at the University B site:
at the end of the four inquiry cycles, although classroom observation among the
participant teachers was not a tool used in this study, the teachers in University B
expressed their desire to observe Uy’s lesson. These teachers were passionate about
project-based teaching (Inquiry 6) and wanted to learn how to use this approach in their
class because they were concerned about the low proficiency level of their students and
time limitations. The teachers discussed with Uy how to organise a co-teaching session
for a consolidation lesson. I joined this group of teachers in this extra teaching session.
During each observed teaching session, I sat in an unobtrusive spot in the classroom,
usually at the back, where I observed and took notes in an observational protocol (see
Appendix G). After gaining consent from the teachers in the consent form and verbal
consent from their students, classroom activities were audio recorded during observation
sessions and, together with my observation notes, they served as rich on-site data.
Observation notes were typed shortly after each observation and kept on file in soft copy
(see a sample of typed observation notes in Appendix H).
4.4.4.3 Debriefs
After each of the lessons observed, a debrief was conducted with each of the teachers.
Debriefs were carried out in the teaching staff room during teachers’ breaks or in the
classroom after the lesson finished. Most observed lessons were followed by a debrief,
except for a few instances when evening classes finished late and the teachers were in a
hurry to go home.
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Debriefs provided opportunities to gain insights into the teachers’ reflection on their
practice when it was still fresh in their mind. In other words, during the debriefs, the
teachers were asked questions to reflect on certain moments of their practices. Questions
were not prepared in advance but emerged from the teachers’ instruction and teaching
activities. Debriefs focused on SCA pedagogy or repeated practice in observed lessons. I
used the questions ‘why’, ‘in what way’, or ‘could you explain about . . .?’ to elicit
elaborative reasoning underpinning the teachers’ actions in the class. On average, each
debrief lasted about 15-20 minutes. They were audio recorded, then transcribed and
translated into English. In total 16 debriefs were conducted: 6 with University A’s
teachers, and 10 with University B’s teachers.
4.4.4.4 Group discussions
A group discussion is an informal discussion among a small number of people, usually

from six to eight, and rarely more than twelve, about a particular topic (Hiratsuka, 2014;
Liamputtong, 2011; Wilkinson, 1998). The particular advantage of group discussions, as
Wilkinson (1998) states, is the opportunity for group participants to share their
experiences and their ways of making sense of these experiences (p. 189). Group
discussions, therefore, offer an opportunity for researchers to gain insights into the
commonly held assumptions, concepts, and meanings that constitute and inform
participants’ talk about their experiences (Wilkinson, 1998). Group discussions also
enable researchers to “observe how people engage in the process of collective sense-
making: how views are constructed, expressed, defended and (sometimes) modified
within the context of discussion and debate with others” (Wilkinson, 1998, p. 186). In
this study, group discussions, regarded as a social activity, enabled the participants of the
group to explore existing understandings of teaching approaches and SCA in particular,
and collegially reflect on their practical experiences. Group dynamics allow participants
to make meaning of their experiences through interaction (Kamberelis & Dimitriadis;
Moloney, as cited in Hiratsuka, 2014), which is sometimes hidden in in-depth interviews
(Liamputtong, 2011). Via group discussions, this study investigated how the teachers’
participation in this interactive opportunity, which shaped their professional learning.
In Phase 3 (February–June 2016), the teachers participated in three group discussions,

which were usually organised after each cycle of observation. Each group discussion was
scheduled to be 60 minutes in duration; however, due to the productivity of the
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discussions and the number of topics covered, discussions sometimes went longer than
scheduled. Three group discussions were organised during the teaching semester.
Because Phase 2 and Phase 3 occurred over a period of four months with the six teachers
and three different data collection measures, a careful timeline was planned to ensure
sufficient time for teachers’ lesson plans and reflection. Table 4.5 shows an example of
the first cycle of inquiry. The initial O was for observation, D was for debrief, and GD
was for group discussion.
Table 4.5 Example of a time plan for Phase 2 and Phase 3
UNIVERSITY B UNIVERSITY A
Week
Uy Nhi Trinh Lanh Manh Tien
O D GD O D GD O D GD O D GD O D GD O D GD
Week 1 Inquiry 1 was handed to the teachers
Week 2     
Week 3      
Week 4      
Before each group discussion, the teachers were provided with a list of discussion
questions in the discussion prompt prepared (see Appendix I). The questions addressed
aspects of their enactment of student-centred inquiries in practice; for example, what
activities they tried out, how successful they were, what supporting or hindering factors
influenced the implementation, what the teachers would do differently in future practices,
and what other useful activities or techniques they would suggest. This approach was
chosen for two reasons. One was that the approach provided the teachers with
opportunities to think carefully about their classroom enactment, meaningful learning
experiences, and to identify and reflect on relevant aspects of their teaching. The other
reason was that, culturally, good preparation for meetings is preferred in Vietnamese
culture as it is believed that well-informed preparation contributes to fruitful and in-depth
discussions. The teachers used Vietnamese to discuss matters in the group and, from my
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observations, common linguistic terminology was mentioned in English. Group

discussions were audio recorded, then transcribed and translated into English.
Despite successful data gathering through group discussions, there were a number of
challenges while carrying out the group discussions with the teachers: different teaching
schedules among the teachers from two universities; teachers’ heavy teaching loads; and
other work and family commitments. Not all of the six teachers were able to make time
for group discussion 1 and group discussion 3. Table 4.6 provides details of the discussion
topics and participants.
Table 4.6 Group discussion topics and participants involved
Topic University A University B
Group discussion 1 Inquiry 1 Lanh, Manh Uy, Nhi, Trinh
Group discussion 2 Inquiries 2 & 3 Lanh, Manh, Tien Uy, Nhi, Trinh
Group discussion 3 Inquiries 4, 5 & 6 Lanh Uy, Trinh
4.4.4.5 Semi-structured individual interviews
Interviews are the most common form of data collection in qualitative research
(Lichtman, 2006). An interview is defined as a method that permits the researcher and the
participants to engage in a verbal exchange (Brinkmann, 2018). In my study, I used
individual face-to-face semi-structured interviews with my participants. Vietnamese
culture values face-to-face interaction, which helps to build trust and fostered the
relationship with the participating teachers. The research questions served as a guided
interview protocol to ensure valid data were obtained from the teachers’ responses.
The interview and group discussions were not piloted in practice due to time constraints
and concerns about practicality, particularly concerning a pilot group discussion.
However, after drafting the interview and group discussion questions, I shared them with
the four teachers with whom I piloted the questionnaire and with a few colleagues in
Vietnam to ascertain how comprehensible the questions were. The comments were
generally positive and constructive, and I was prompted to make several minor changes
to expression in order to improve clarity.
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Qualitative researchers often select this method because of the following benefits.
Interviews yield rich data and at the same time allow immediate follow-up and
clarification if required (Marshall & Rossman, 2016). Importantly, “interviews reveal
evidence of the nature of the phenomenon under investigation, including the context and
situations in which they emerge, as well as insights into the cultural frames people use to
make sense of these experiences and their social worlds” (Miller & Glassner, 2016, p.
51). Combined with observations, interviews allow the researcher to understand the
meanings underpinning the daily practices of the participants (Marshall & Rossman,
2016).
However, interviews have limitations. The richness and depth of the data collected via
interviews is very much reliant on trust and thus on openness between the researcher and
the respondents. That led to my decision to conduct face-to-face interviews with the
teachers instead of a virtual interview.
In Phase 4 (July–August 2016), semi-structured interviews were carried out individually

with the six teachers. Each interview lasted from 30 to 45 minutes on average. The
interview venue was decided based on the teachers’ convenience: at their university, a
café, or in their home. The interviews were recorded, transcribed and translated into
English. Five of the six teachers answered in both Vietnamese and English. Lanh was the
only one who used English in the interview.
I encouraged the teachers to use Vietnamese and/or English in the interviews according
to their preferences. I understood that the teachers had different language competencies,
and the intention of allowing the use of both Vietnamese and English was to enhance
communication and build rapport. Like in the group discussions, five teachers used both
Vietnamese and common English language terminology to express their opinions. Lanh
was the only one who used English in the interview. The teachers’ use of translanguaging,
blending between English and Vietnamese, in the interviews enabled communication
more effectively. The translated transcripts were emailed to each teacher for verification.
The interviews had five main themes. A list of prompt questions for the individual
interviews was prepared (see Appendix J). First, the teachers reported their perceptions
of their role as a teacher. Then, the teachers were asked to describe the changes they
perceived in terms of their classroom practices and cognition through the cycles of inquiry
reflection. The teachers were also asked to reflect on the extent to which the group
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discussions with other teachers affected their practice and cognition and how this
interactive opportunity shaped their learning. The next part of the interview concerned
factors that they felt supported or hindered the process of learning generally and of
enactment of SCA particularly. Looking forward, interviews also enabled the teachers to
share their future intentions and desired support for their professional learning and
development.
Data analysis
In this study, in analysing the data, I used a qualitative data analysis approach, which is
an iterative process of describing, classifying (categorising), and connecting data
(Maxwell & Chmiel, 2014). There is no single right way to do qualitative data analysis
and much depends on the purposes of the research and careful consideration of the
proposed method of analysis with regard to other parts of the research from the start
(Punch, 2014). Regardless of the methods or approaches to analysis to be used, they need
to be systematic, disciplined, transparent, and described (Punch, 2014). For the purposes
of this study, I followed an inductive analysis process and I also adapted thematic coding
strategy, which permitted themes to emerge from the data (Bazeley, 2013). Inductive
analysis process allows concepts to be developed inductively from the data and raised to
a higher level of abstraction, and their relationships are then traced out (Punch, 2014).
Thematic coding helps identify, analyse and interpret the patterns of meaning (themes)
that emerged from the collected data (Punch, 2014). The combination of inductive
analysis and thematic coding captures the richness of the researched phenomenon in this
study, that was, the teachers’ learning process.
Throughout the process of analysis, I used the NVivo qualitative data analysis programme
for organising, visualising and categorising data. NVivo provided a database for storage
and navigation of questionnaire responses, observation notes, and debrief, group
discussion and individual interview transcripts (see Figure 4.1 for illustration of data
storage in NVivo). This analysis tool also allowed the creation of memos to document my
thoughts, doubts, and insights that were emerging as I was going through the data. The
detailed process of data analysis is elaborated in the following sections of this chapter.
Despite NVivo being described as effective and efficient as a qualitative data analysis
tool, NVivo and similar software packages are basically data management packages,
which support researchers during the data analysis process (Zamawe, 2015). The use of
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NVivo did not compromise my own analysis. This explains why I incorporated a manual
coding step using hard copies of transcripts prior to NVivo coding. See the subsequent
sections for specifics of the data analysis process.
Figure 4.1 Collected data organisation in NVivo
As a qualitative researcher, I acknowledge that my position in the study would have had
some impact on the participant teachers and the information I got from them at different
stages of the study. The potential reason, as argued by Maxwell and Chmiel (2014) and
Benaquisto (2008), is that social science researchers are likely to either derive them from
the existing literature or be influenced by the literature in their creation. Also, as
mentioned in section 4.2, my philosophical position had some impact on how I viewed
the world and the teacher learning in this study.
In the following sections of the chapter, data analysis procedures are presented for each
type of data: questionnaire, observations and debriefs, group discussions and individual
interviews.
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Data analysis: Questionnaire
Questionnaire data were analysed descriptively. Descriptive statistical analysis is

commonly used to explore trends. Specifically, in this study, measures of central tendency
(percentages) were used to analyse patterns in the data relating to participants’ views of
SCA and their experiences. The use of descriptive statistics is an effective means for
presenting initial information about the problem or phenomenon being surveyed in this
study – the teachers’ beliefs and reported practices of SCA.
At the beginning of the research project, an electronic questionnaire, which I designed,

was forwarded to a wider group of EFL teachers in two universities. Twenty responses
were returned. The 20 Likert-scale statements in the questionnaires pertained to five
meaningful categories. These were: 1) teacher’s role and effective teaching, 2) student’s
role and effective teaching and learning, 3) students’ engagement in teaching and
learning, 4) role of syllabus and textbooks, and 5) English language environment.
These main themes or categories were considered as part of the questionnaire design
process. However, to deal with social desirability bias (Andres, 2012; Gittelman et al.,
2015) (the tendency to want to be accepted, which may lead to providing inaccurate
answers to questions) and assimilation effects (Andres, 2012) (when the placement of a
particular question affects responses to subsequent questions), I decided not to group the
questions in the questionnaire by topic, but mixed them up with the hope to receive the
most accurate answers from the teachers. When I received the teachers’ responses, I re-
grouped them into the five categories, in line with the initial design.
The last two questions in the questionnaire were open-ended and the respondents were
asked to describe the teacher’s role and the students’ role in their own words. The
participants’ responses to the these two questions were analysed manually by creating
two word clouds based on word lists and the key-word-in-context (KWIC) technique
(Bernard & Ryan, 2010). For analysis, the same and very similar single words (nouns)
were identified and grouped. Verbs were converted into corresponding nouns. For
example, the response “in my class, I always try to facilitate the process of learning of
my students” was converted to ‘facilitator’. For further detail, see section 5.2.2 in Chapter
Five.
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Data analysis: Observations and debriefs
In preparing to analyse observation and debrief data, first, I listened to observation audio
recordings a couple of times and simultaneously read my observation notes. Based on
this, I tabulated the observed classroom activities of the six teachers to foreground the
key similarities and differences in their practices. I then grouped the commonly observed
activities into three levels of adoption and innovation in the teachers’ practices. They
were routine classroom pedagogy, changes towards SCA classroom practices, and
expansion in teaching practices beyond the inquiries. Following this step, I listened to the
recordings and read the observation notes again to select data excerpts to illustrate the
teachers’ practices. Together with the debriefs, I commenced the process of transcribing
and translating.
Transcribing and translating were done simultaneously by me with the assistance of

transcription apps. All debriefs and selected observed teaching excerpts were translated
to English. I transcribed the recorded data manually with the support of oTranscribe
(https://otranscribe.com/), a browser-based tool that keeps everything contained within
the browser, which reduces changing between open windows and apps. The Vietnamese-
language raw data remained on secure computer audio files and the English translations
were available for access if necessary. Since I conducted the observations and debriefs, it
was easy to ascertain the context in which the participants spoke and the Vietnamese
language content that the participants delivered. However, the process of translation from
Vietnamese verbal conversations to English textual form was carefully considered. After
the translation, the English translations were all checked by a colleague, and sample
checked by my supervisors for accuracy and readability. The English translations
included non-verbal features such as pauses, laughter, or hesitations in the participants’
speech. The English translations were emailed back to the teachers to check their accuracy
and to invite additions or changes. This step aimed to check the translations against
recordings (Corden & Sainsbury, 2006). Two feedbacks were received from one teacher
in terms of typos and the translation of the phrase trình độ cơ bản, where the teacher
preferred to use low-intermediate level instead of elementary level. The process of
checking translations against recordings and checking the quality of translation was
iteratively conducted by me until the completion of writing up the findings. Despite my
translation being checked carefully, in some instances when the participants’ expressions
were vague or could be translated in different ways, I included English translations and
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original Vietnamese data in square brackets. I endeavoured to present the translated

transcripts with as little editing and interpreting as possible in order to mirror the words
spoken by the participants (Corden & Sainsbury, 2006). Table 4.7 illustrates the
transcription and reference conventions used in this study.
Table 4.7 Transcription and reference conventions used in the study
Convention Explanation
R Researcher
U Uy
N Nhi
Tr Trinh
L Lanh
M Manh
T Tien
O1 Observation 1
O1D1 Observation 1 debrief 1
GD Group discussion
... Parts of quotation omitted within a sentence
.... Parts of quotation omitted between a sentence
[ ] Translated text or text inserted by the researcher
Italic text Vietnamese original text
After the preparing and organising of data for analysis, the coding process began, which
is described together with group discussion and debrief data in the following section.
Data analysis: Group discussions and individual interviews
Once the debriefs, group discussions, and individual interviews were translated, all the
English translations were printed as hard copies. Care was taken to read through the
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English translations several times to familiarise myself with the content, begin to
understand the meaning, and make connections between the teachers’ stories.
Once the English translations of the transcripts had been read repeatedly for
familiarisation, I started the process of initial descriptive coding (Neuman, 2006) or open
coding (Punch, 2014) manually by putting tags, names or labels against significant pieces
of data (Neuman, 2006). I marked the translations with coloured pens, put notes beside
them, and underlined significant statements that could potentially be extracted as quotes.
This manual coding process was done for each instrument and with its correlated
instrument: debriefs in accordance with related observations, group discussions in
accordance with inquiries, and individual interviews. This enabled me to make
comparisons and identify patterns. Then, this process was repeated in NVivo, which gave
me another opportunity to review the data and consider participants’ statements and initial
codes. In NVivo, these identified statements were extracted, grouped together, organised
together, and generated as axial codes (Neuman, 2006) or pattern codes (Punch, 2014),
which are smaller number of meaningful units pulled together (Punch, 2014). Figure 4.2
illustrates pattern codes for interview data of this study in NVivo.
Figure 4.2 Illustration of pattern codes for interview data
A similar coding process was initially conducted for the three group discussions. I
grouped similar codes together to reduce overlapping and redundancy of codes and
develop them into themes (Creswell, 2014). However, at this final stage of data analysis,
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involving comparing the teachers’ responses across the instruments (group discussions
and individual interviews) and reflecting on the research questions, I realised a challenge
in preserving the interactive nature of the group discussion data (Wilkinson, 1998). In
addition, presenting the group discussion findings by providing numerous direct
quotations from the group participants added unnecessary length and tedious repetition
of the data. In presenting extracts of participants’ words, I shared the view that
understanding and explaining how the participants make sense of their experiences,
careful selection of their words, phrases and excerpts, providing coherent linkages and
interpretation in relation to other factors, and meaningful conceptualisation of the data
were real evidence, in lieu of long, disjointed data excerpts (Corden & Sainsbury, 2006).
As a result, I decided to use vignettes to report the findings of group discussion and
individual interview data.
A vignette is “a focused description of a series of events taken to be representative,

typical, or emblematic” in the study (Miles et al., 2020). The use of vignettes is
recommended as one of a number of ways to analyse group discussion data while
preserving the social context in the group (Wilkinson, 1998). Furthermore, vignettes
“provide a valuable technique for exploring people’s perceptions, beliefs and meaning
about specific situations” (Barter & Renold, 1999, n.p.). To help me to explore the
research questions without repeating excerpts of data, four vignettes from the three group
discussions were selected to analyse and report. In this analytic coding step, various
vignettes provided opportunities to explore the structure and dynamic of the discussions
and the multidimensionality of how the teachers learned. Boeije (2010) suggests three
levels of group discussion analysis: the intragroup level, intergroup level and the
individual level, but “not every study demands an analysis of three levels” (p. 140).
Because of the scope of the study and the small group size, this group of six teachers was
treated as a group itself, so it was purposeful in having two levels of group analysis in
this study. In analysis of group levels, attention was paid to group interactions, such as
levels of agreement, consensus, conflict, negotiation, and changes in opinion, collegial
sharing of experiences, and collective understandings of shared problems and solutions
to the problems (Bazeley, 2013; Boeije, 2010; Wilkinson, 1998). In analysis of individual
levels, the responses and behaviours of separate members were examined in relation to
contextual factors and personal factors such as prior experience and existing knowledge.
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Ensuring research quality
Qualitative researchers in general and interpretivists and constructivists in particular find

it challenging to justify their analyses of qualitative data (Burr, 2003). It was proposed
that the same criteria, including validity and reliability, used for traditional research
methods should be used for evaluating qualitative research (Lichtman, 2006). However,
these criteria are believed to oppose the nature and the soundness of qualitative research.
Flick (2007) suggests that managing quality in qualitative research concerns not just
issues linked to the use of one specific method or step in the research process but rather
considers the research process as a whole in addressing issues of quality in qualitative
research.
With a process-focused inquiry, this study took into account three central discussion
points in ensuring quality throughout the research project. They were research rigour,
trustworthiness through reflexivity, and ethical considerations.
Research rigour
Morse (2018) reframes strategies to evaluate qualitative research rigour, which are
primarily concerned with the adequacy and appropriateness of data quality. These
strategies include audit trail, member check, comprehensiveness of data, and saturation.
In my study, a detailed description of the research process, participant recruitment,

research contexts and challenges has been provided in this chapter, to describe the study
and the complexity of the research. This chapter has also clearly presented how the data
were analysed. This practice is supported by Creswell and Miller (2000), who recommend
developing an audit trail - “a clear documentation of all research decisions and activities”
(p. 128).
Member checking, known as participant validation, is one means of enhancing rigour in

qualitative research and ensuring credibility of the data being collected. Birt, Scott,
Cavers, Campbell, and Walter (2016) summarise three methods of member checking,
including returning transcripts to participants to review the accuracy of the data, carrying
out member check interviews after returning transcripts to the participants, and
undertaking a focus group to validate the results of a study. In this study, because of
distance constraints between New Zealand and Vietnam, transcripts of debriefs,
interviews, and group discussions were returned to the six teachers via email to review
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the accuracy of the transcription. This was the opportunity for the teachers to add more
information, clarify, or edit what they had said. All six teachers responded to my email
and appreciated the opportunity to see their experiences recorded. As mentioned in
section 4.4.3, apart from one feedback requiring minor changes, the five other teachers
required no amendment to the transcripts. Furthermore, as discussed in section 4.5,
translated transcripts were thoroughly reviewed and revised through iterative cycles by
me, a colleague and my supervisors.
Triangulation refers to the use of multiple methods or sources of data in a study (Bryman,
2016). The original intent of triangulation was for reliability and replication (Morse,
2018). However, a more recent interest, which aligns with my study focus, is in the
comprehensiveness of the data. In this study, the participants were from two universities,
which helped me to explore different levels and perspectives of the same phenomenon of
teacher learning. This research project was not a comparative study of teacher
professional learning in two groups of teachers, but the selection of research sites and
classroom-based environments contributed to the complexity and multidimensionality of
the depiction of their learning process. Furthermore, looking at teacher professional
learning through the two perspectives of constructivist and situated learning
complemented each other. Finally, the use of multiple data collection instruments and
different approaches to data analysis added value to the comprehensiveness and rigour of
the study.
Saturation in qualitative research commonly refers to the point in the research “when
there is enough information to replicate the study when the ability to obtain additional
new information has been attained, and when further coding is no longer feasible” (Fusch
& Ness, 2015, p. 1408). However, in reframing the concept of saturation in qualitative
research, Morse (2018) argues that saturation is more than seeking replication. Saturation
links similar concepts and processes in different instances, experiences, contexts and
events. It “develops concordance within the data set, not necessarily at the micro-analytic
“quotation” level but at conceptual level” (Morse, 2018, p. 812). As long as research
findings are provided with multiple, strong examples of concepts and presented in logical
coherent manner, there is saturation in the research. Saturation gives readers certainty in
the ‘rightness’ of the data analysis (Morse, 2018). This view is supported by Corden and
Sainsbury (2006). In this study, a comprehensive description of the data analysis process
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and the importance of the interconnected conceptualisation of the data presented in a

coherent way, as discussed in section 4.5, contributed to the research saturation.
Trustworthiness and reflexivity
4.6.2.1 My role as researcher
Participating in this study, as a researcher, I had worked at the same institution with three
teachers – Tien, Lanh and Manh. The other three teachers, including Uy, Nhi, Trinh, were
working at a different institution in the same city – University B. Therefore, at the start
of the study, my professional relationship with the participating teachers could be
considered to be that of both an insider researcher (University A) and an outsider
researcher (University B). It is crucial to discuss my role in the study to balance my insider
and outsider perspectives over the course of the study.
The term insider researcher has a number of characteristics and definitions. An insider
researcher is a “member of the in-group” (Le Gallais, 2008, p. 146) having access to its
past and present histories (Jenkins, 2000), sharing characteristics such as cultural,
linguistic, political, and occupational similarities (Loxley & Seery, 2008), similar cultural
values (Merriam et al., 2001) and identities and experiences (Chavez, 2008). My insider
status was clearly recognised in having multiple commonalities with my participants from
University A, such as a shared organisational culture, educational experiences, and
working experiences. My insider status gave me insights into and understandings of the
practices and the culture of University A.
In addition to the advantages when conducting an insider research, it is essential to discuss

the pitfalls an insider researcher might encounter. The first challenge is that “the risk of
over-rapport can limit data gathering opportunities” (Atkins & Wallace, 2012, p. 52). This
over-rapport can be a double-edged sword. On one hand, it can encourage participants to
reveal stories that may take a great deal of time for an outsider researcher to obtain. On
the other hand, the participants may feel uncomfortable talking about their practices or
institutional information for fear that their future professional relationships could be
affected, or that their information could be disclosed to senior leaders. Thus, when
working with the teachers, I had to make sure that they were well-informed of all ethical
considerations when they got involved in the project, including the kind of information
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the project would focus on, and that the data reporting and disclosure maintained
confidentiality about themselves and the organisation.
An outsider researcher is viewed as someone who is not a member of that group and
possesses a different set of characteristics (Loxley & Seery, 2008). Claims of my
‘outsiderness’ in this study are based upon the fact that I was not employed at University
B and that I was a full-time researcher working alongside the teachers over the project
period.
It was critical for me as a researcher to balance and bring both the insider’s and outsider’s
perspectives into the inquiry process. The reason is that how researchers position
themselves in the research setting determines power relations between the researcher and
the participants, research ethics, and the validity or trustworthiness of the study’s findings
(Herr & Anderson, 2005). To address the positionality concern, my continuous self-
reflection and reflexivity throughout the study process was very effective in terms of the
trustworthiness of the study and the ethics of the research. This is discussed in further
detail in the following section.
4.6.2.2 Reflexivity
Creswell and Miller (2000) note that engaging in reflexivity is a common practice to
legitimatise the trustworthiness of the research process. Berger (2015) views reflexivity
as a “process of a continual internal dialogue and critical self-evaluation of researcher’s
positionality as well as active acknowledgement and explicit recognition that this position
may affect the research process and outcome” (p. 220). Engward and Davis (2015) believe
that being reflexive enables the researcher to make transparent decisions in the research
process, enhances the trustworthiness of the data and research findings, and eventually
develops the quality of the research. In other words, reflexivity is the researchers’ own
reflections on their actions and observations in the field and their feelings (Gray, 2014).
In my study, reflexivity was not purely viewed as the awareness to maintain a distance
from the two groups of teachers. Instead, sliding between the insider and outsider
positionings as discussed above, I found that reflexivity was crucial and helped me to
balance my insider and outsider perspectives, critically provide reasonings to justify my
data and findings, and avoid taken-for-granted assumptions or prejudice that might hinder
important dimensions of the participants’s stories, thus avoiding blind spots in my data
(Unluer, 2012).
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During my fieldwork, I kept a fieldwork diary for myself. I wrote down informal
descriptions and reflections about the context, myself and the participants. For example,
I described where and how the contexts were, what contextual influences might influence
the participants’ feelings and responses, what I was feeling and thinking at that time, how
the participants responded or reacted to the questions or situations, what factors need to
be considered in the responses, and so on. In the observation sheets, beside the description
column, there was a reflection column for me to note down or draw situational maps. In
addition, I created tables to compare attibutes, age and attitudes between me and the
participants to show whether I assumed a total insider positioning, a total outsider
positioning, or a partial insider-outsider (see an example in Appendix K). These factors
would clarify my assumptions, values and beliefs that might impinge upon the data
analysis and the findings of the study. On my observation sheets and interview question
sheets, there was a small text box, which was like a bracketing note (Lichtman, 2006),
allowing me to make notes of pre-assumptions or biases that arose in my mind. This
helped me avoid imposing my views on the participants and impacting the research
findings. Finally, I always made sure that key discussion questions were prepared and
sent out to the teachers prior to the meeting dates. This gave the teachers some clues about
what they would discuss in the meetings and avoided me asking biased questions.
Ethical considerations
Ethics is always a concern in research because we are humans, whose behaviours are
subject to ethical principles, rules and conventions (Anderson & Arsenault, 1998). Ethics
as principles to “guide the behaviour of researchers and offer security and protection to
participants” (Anderson & Arsenault, 1998, p. 26) are fundamental. This is even more
compelling for qualitative research, in which there is an emphasis on multiple realities,
idiosyncratic local context and closeness to the participants of qualitative studies (Miles
& Huberman, 1994). Flick (2007) argues that “quality of research can be seen as a
prerequisite for ethically appropriate research” (p. 125). Therefore, ethical considerations
must be ensured through different stages of the research process, including recruiting the
participants, getting their consent, on-going fieldwork, data analysis and reporting.
This section discusses these crucial areas including (1) informed consent, (2) avoidance
of harm and risk, (3) managing power distance and conflict in roles, and (4) honesty and
trust.
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4.6.3.1 Informed consent
Informed consent is the most fundamental principle for research ethical consideration
(Anderson & Arsenault, 1998; Atkins & Wallace, 2012). It is critical for participants to
be clearly informed of the nature and purpose of the research, and the risks and benefits
of their participation.
The process of gaining approval and consent from the two universities, the two faculties
and the teachers was discussed in section 4.4.3. By undertaking the study within my own
workplace (University A), I was aware that with pre-existing relationships, the teachers
were far less likely to refuse to participate in the project. Therefore, I repeatedly
acknowledged that their participation was voluntary, with no coercion, and that they could
withdraw their consent at any time before the analysis stage.
In the first group discussion with the participants, I explained once again about the
research project in Vietnamese and invited questions from the participants just in case of
missing information or cultural issues of hesitancy about asking questions in a bigger
group in the workshop. Furthermore, in order to ensure the on-going consent of the
participants, a short oral reminder about their rights, well-being and required discussion
etiquette was delivered to the participants before every group discussion session.
Even though in observation sessions, the classroom students were not the key focus of
my observation, I orally gave a brief introduction about myself and the research project,
and ensured them that their performance would not be recorded or evaluated. This helped
students understand and recognise my presence in the class without interrupting their
learning process.
4.6.3.2 Avoidance of harm and risk
According to the Ethical Conduct in Human Research and Related Activities Regulations
of the University of Waikato, harm can entail a number of facets: physical, psychological,
social, economic, or cultural. In addition, potential harm can include pain, stress, fatigue,
emotional distress, embarrassment, and exploitation. I will address in detail a number of
concerns in terms of individual and organisational harm and risk of harm in my project
as follows.
Firstly, it was essential that the identities of the participants in the project were protected.
I used pseudonyms to address the participants in the study. This helped to protect their
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identities not only during my fieldwork but also later in the reporting and publishing
stages. Additionally, I avoided personal conversations with the participants at the two
research sites, except for debriefs after the observation sessions.
Secondly, in observation sessions, the participants were assured that no negative

judgement or evaluation would be made of their teaching and that what I observed in the
classroom, at that stage, would be confidential. I stressed that appreciative evaluation
looking for positive enactment of SCA would be the focus of my intervention. Also, no
information would be reported to their senior leaders.
Thirdly, in group discussions, some ground rules were explicitly explained to the
participants, who came from two different universities with possibly different cultures
and codes of practice. They were encouraged to give their opinions from their
experiences. In doing so, there were asked not to talk over or talk about each other. They
were expected to treat what other people said as confidential and not to be repeated
outside the discussion sessions. Opinion sharing and contribution of experiences were
welcomed, but critiques of one’s practice and organisational culture were excluded.
Negative evaluative commentary that could intimidate other participants or other teachers
was not the kind of data I was looking for. As the group moderator, I closely followed the
discussions and debates among the teachers so I could intervene if necessary. All of these
contributed to protecting the participants from harm and building trust among the
participants.
Finally, professional relationships among teachers from two universities and between the
researcher and the participants were maintained because no disclosure of certain
confidential information of the two organisations was recorded.
4.6.3.3 Managing power distance and conflict in roles
During my fieldwork, I tried to maintain a neutral position with all the participants. I did
not approach any of the teachers for private catch-ups. In group discussions, I called the
teachers by their titles (‘Thầy’ for a male teacher and ‘Cô’ for a female teacher) before
their names and I addressed myself as ‘tôi’ (I) to avoid the hierarchy of age and intimacy
of the relationships. Also, I found myself using ‘we’ in conversations with the teachers
from both universities whenever I referred to both groups of teachers, to make them feel
they belonged to the same group. Seating arrangements were also important so that all
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the teachers from one institution did not sit together. This created an opportunity for
interactions with teachers from the other group.
Finally, to bridge the power imbalance between researcher and participants, I tried to
avoid showing that my knowledge could be superior and that I knew more about the topic
of the study than the teachers. My strategy was to gather the data with my eyes open but
assuming that I knew very little about teaching methodology and that the teachers would
be experts in English language teaching because I did not do a teaching certificate at
university. Also, I would try to avoid receiving deferring responses from participants; for
example you know what I mean, by asking them clarification questions to elaborate their
thoughts (Greene, 2014). I tended not to provide instant solutions or advice regarding
teaching methodology when asked by the teachers but sought group solutions or
recommended resources for their reference.
In the event of a dispute, the participants were encouraged to talk to me about their
concerns. If we were not able to resolve the problem, participants were advised that they
could contact my Chief Supervisor. Contact details were provided in the information
letter and consent form.
4.6.3.4 Honesty and trust
As I was conscious that building trust was a decisive factor of a qualitative research, I
was always open and honest with the teacher participants. It was even more challenging
when the participants were from two different organisations. It was important to ensure
with the teachers that any information revealed was for research purposes only and not to
be reported or discussed with anyone outside the participant group. In the first meeting,
the teachers and I agreed on some ground rules so that we acted to build trust with each
other. For example, if any of us had any concerns during participation in the group
discussion, it was agreed that we would be upfront and bring it to the table for further
discussion in the group.
Chapter summary
The purpose of this chapter was to introduce the philosophical positions underpinning
this study. The study was conducted under the assumptions that there are multiple realities
as people view the world differently and that what people bring to a situation is subjective
as they are not empty entities. That is, they have their own perspectives about the world,
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their own contexts, experiences, cultures, and beliefs. An interpretive approach and a
predominantly qualitative research design allowed in-depth insights into the participants’
experiences, engaging in the inquiry process to construct and co-construct knowledge
collectively.
Additionally, the chapter has presented the details of the research process. As can be seen
in the research design, each phase of the research process played a crucial role in
promoting this professional learning experience, which took place in the classroom
contexts of the teachers. Six EFL teachers employed at two universities in Vietnam
participated in this study. Five data collection instruments were used in four phases of
data collection: questionnaire, classroom observation, debrief, group discussion and
individual interview. Data analysis was carried out using three approaches: descriptive
analysis for the questionnaire, inductive thematic analysis across the six teachers for
observations and debriefs, and analysis in the form of vignettes for group discussions and
individual interviews.
The following chapter, Chapter Five, examines the outcomes of this analysis.
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Chapter 5: Findings
CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS
Introduction
The first four chapters have provided the rationale, contextual, theoretical and
methodological background for this study. Chapter One briefly described my motivation
for doing this study, its significance and the research aims, research questions and also
provided an outline of the thesis and some key concepts. Chapter Two provided a
description of the historical, political, economic, social, cultural, and educational contexts
of Vietnam where the study was carried out. Chapter Three reviewed various aspects of
teacher cognition, in particular the concepts and nature of teachers’ beliefs, factors
shaping teachers’ beliefs, and relations between their beliefs, knowledge and practice.
Chapter Three also reviewed the literature and outlined teacher learning focusing on
reflective and inquiry practice. As presented in Chapter Four, this study was
predominantly qualitative in order to seek an in-depth understanding of the teachers’
application of student-centred approaches (SCA) in practice. These methods included
observation, debrief, group discussion and individual interview. This study also used a
small amount of quantitative data collected via a questionnaire at the beginning of data
collection. Through the process of inquiry, paying attention to cycles of reflection and
knowledge construction, the study investigated how this process shaped the teachers’
learning.
Chapter Five presents the findings from the four phases of the study. In the first section,
questionnaire results are described, providing an overview of the participants’ initial
beliefs and stated experiences of SCA. It was, therefore, important for me to know what
was going on in these institutions and what the wider group of teachers believed or
thought about SCA before I commenced working with the focus group of six teachers.
Next, the qualitative data are presented in two clusters: (1) observation and debrief data
and (2) individual interview and group discussion findings. The former was analysed
thematically across the six teachers to establish the teachers’ understanding of SCA and
how they interpreted and implemented this in practice, with a focus on commonalities,
relationships and differences. The latter was analysed and presented via four vignettes of
the group discussions to examine the teachers’ learning process focusing on cycles of
reflection and the co-construction of knowledge. The use of vignettes ensured the
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Chapter 5: Findings
preservation of the social context in the group. Comments from the teachers’ individual
interviews helped clarify meanings and underlying beliefs and assumptions of the
teachers when they interacted with each other, how their engagement in this inquiry
process shaped their professional learning as well as factors impacting their learning.
As mentioned in Chapter Four, section 4.5, using two approaches – thematic and vignette
analysis – to analyse the data helped to explore individual teachers’ approaches, as well
as commonalities within the group. Also, the two analysis strategies helped to tie the
observed practices into the teachers’ reported interviews as well as the individual and
collective learning dimensions.
Questionnaire findings
Descriptive statistical analysis is commonly used to explore trends. Specifically, in this

study, measures of central tendency (percentages) were used to analyse patterns in the
data relating to the participants’ views of SCA and their experiences. The use of
descriptive statistics was an effective way of presenting initial information about the
problem or phenomenon being surveyed in this study – the teachers’ beliefs and reported
practices.
Because the questionnaire aimed to capture teachers’ overall perceptions of SCA to

inform me as a researcher the next step to proceed in this study, the data from the
participants’ responses were aggregated and the analysis was presented across the two
research sites.
This section outlines the key findings for the first research question.
• What are the teachers’ initial beliefs about and reported practice of student-
centred approaches?
In total, 20 participants from the two universities completed the questionnaire (17
participants from university A and 3 from university B) (see Table 5.1 for demographic
data).
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Chapter 5: Findings
Table 5.1 Demographic information of questionnaire respondents (N = 20)
Variables Number Percentage

Gender Male 8 40%
Female 12 60%
Highest qualification Bachelor’s degree 5 25%
Master’s degree 12 60%
Doctorate 3 15%
Teaching experience 1–7 6 30%
(years) 8 – 15 6 30%
16 + 8 40%
English language General English (GE) 4 20%
group
English for Specific Purposes 5 25%
(ESP)
Linguistic knowledge and 11 50%
language skills
Likert scale statements
Findings from the questionnaire analysis are presented in four sections. The first section
explores the participants’ beliefs about SCA. Participants responded to nineteen
statements in five categories: (1) a teacher’s role and effective teaching; (2) a student’s
role and effective learning; (3) students’ engagement in teaching and learning; (4) the role
of syllabus and textbooks; and (5) the English language environment.
The participants were asked to select a position on a five-point Likert scale: strongly
disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, and strongly agree (see Appendix F). For each question,
the frequency of the participants’ responses is presented as a percentage.
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Chapter 5: Findings
Table 5.2 shows how the participants perceived their role as a teacher and how they saw
this affecting their teaching practices. As can be seen in the table, the overall findings
indicate that the participants appeared to have an awareness of SCA.
Table 5.2 Participants’ perceptions of a teacher’s role and effective teaching
Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly

To what extent do you agree with the disagree agree
following statements?
% % % % %
A teacher’s role and effective teaching
Teachers should manage the learning

process as they know best how students 5 10 15 50 20
learn.
One of the teacher’s major roles is to

5 0 15 60 20
provide an English language model.
It is the responsibility of teachers to

5 0 5 55 35
determine the objectives of the lesson.
English teaching should exploit things

that students like to use, e.g. 0 0 20 40 40
technology.
Overall, the participants placed a high value on a strong role for the teacher in the learning
process. Table 5.2 shows that the majority agreed or strongly agreed that learning
objectives should be determined by the teacher (90%) and that an English language
learning model should be provided to help the learning process (80%). In addition, most
participants agreed or strongly agreed that English teaching should exploit tools that
students like to use to support learning; for example, technology incorporation. Two
thirds of the participants agreed that the teacher should be managing the learning process
because they know best how students learn.
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Chapter 5: Findings
Table 5.3 presents the participants’ perceptions of a student’s role and what makes for
effective teaching and learning.
Table 5.3 Participants’ perceptions of a student’s role and effective teaching and learning

% % % % %
A student’s role and effective teaching

and learning
The best way for students to correct

their errors and improve their language
5 20 45 15 15
is to have teachers provide an
explanation of the errors.
It is important for students to reflect on

their learning and engage in self- 0 0 0 50 50
assessment.
Memorising rules will help students

5 20 25 45 5
learn English better.
Student interaction is beneficial for low

proficiency students because they learn 10 15 10 40 25
from each other.
This table shows possible conflict between perceptions of a teacher’s role and a student’s
role in English teaching and learning. On one hand, all participants placed an emphasis
on students’ reflection on their learning and engagement in self-assessment (50% agreed
and 50% strongly agreed). On the other hand, a number of participants (15% agreed and
15% strongly agreed) reported that error correction and explanation on the part of the
teacher would help to improve students’ learning. Nearly half of the participants held a
neutral view on whether or not error correction was the teacher’s responsibility. Also,
forty per cent of the participants agreed and twenty five per cent strongly agreed that
student interaction would help students with a low level of English proficiency because
students could learn from each other. The results presented in Table 5.3 also show that
the participants valued high-level thinking skills in students, such as self-reflection and
self-assessment in their learning, but half of the participants believed that low-level
thinking skills such as memorising rules would help students learn better. A quarter of
them were undecided.
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Chapter 5: Findings
Table 5.4 shows the participants’ perceptions of the importance of students’ engagement
in teaching and learning.
Table 5.4 Participants’ perceptions of students’ engagement in teaching and learning

% % % % %
Students’ engagement in teaching and

learning
Teachers cannot do a good job unless

0 5 10 25 60
students are engaged in learning.
Teachers should change the teaching

methods and activities when they see 0 5 5 35 55
that students are not engaged.
Students would participate more if they

0 10 10 40 40
had more of a say in class.
Communicative tasks can undermine a

20 25 30 25 0
teacher’s discipline.
The majority of the participants agreed about the vital role of students’ engagement in
teaching and learning. Nearly 90% strongly agreed or agreed that effective teaching
requires active engagement of students, and 90% strongly agreed or agreed that the
teacher should change the teaching methods and activities when they see that students are
not engaged. Additionally, 80% of the participants strongly agreed or agreed (40% and
40% respectively) that the degree of student autonomy represented in terms of students’
say in class contributes to participation and engagement. There was not clear agreement
on whether communicative tasks can weaken the teacher’s discipline. As many teachers
agreed (25%) as disagreed (25%) that communicative tasks can weaken the teacher’s
discipline. Slightly less than a third (30%) held a neutral view on that perspective.
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Chapter 5: Findings
Table 5.5 further outlines the role of a syllabus and textbooks. The figures show a high
agreement among the participants, favouring a less structured syllabus and having a more
flexible use of textbook content and activities.
Table 5.5 Participants’ perceptions of the role of a syllabus and textbooks

% % % % %
Role of a syllabus and textbooks
It is necessary for teachers to

incorporate new activities to
0 5 15 35 45
complement the topics covered in the
textbook.
Teachers should design and incorporate

new learning activities to suit their
5 0 5 20 70
students’ proficiency levels and
learning styles.
Activities in the textbook should be

15 50 30 5 0
strictly followed.
A very small proportion of the participants (5%) expressed their agreement with the view
that activities in the textbook should be strictly followed, whereas 65% (15% strongly
disagreed and 50% agreed) expressed an opposing view. This finding was consistent with
what the participants perceived about a student-centred approach in the other two
statements. Over 80% stated that the teacher should change teaching methods and
incorporate new activities to suit students’ learning levels and learning styles. Similarly,
over three quarters of the participants agreed or strongly agreed that incorporating new
learning activities, apart from suiting students’ learning preferences and proficiency
levels, could complement the topics covered in the textbook. In the same vein as the other
two statements, only 5% disagreed with the statement.
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Chapter 5: Findings
Table 5.6 shows the participants’ perception of a desirable learning environment for
English language students.
Table 5.6 Participants’ perceptions of a learning environment

% % % % %
English language environment
It is important for teachers to use as

much English as possible even if
10 25 10 35 20
students don’t understand everything
they say.
It is important for students to use

language more even though they may 0 0 0 15 85
have errors in their spoken language.
Students should be encouraged to learn

as much English as they can outside the 0 0 0 20 80
classroom.
Exposure to English is an important

0 0 5 25 70
way to learn.
Not surprisingly, there was almost total agreement that exposure to English helps
learning. The participants agreed that the more students use the language, in class or
outside class, the more it helps their learning and that they might not use perfect language
but they can learn from their errors. However, the statement, ‘It is important to for
teachers to use as much English as possible even if students don’t understand everything
they say’, generated different responses from the respondents. They had various views
across the scale: 10% strongly disagreed, 25% disagreed, 10% were neutral, 35% agreed
and 20% strongly agreed. There may be many different explanations for these diverging
views, which cannot be captured on a Likert scale like this.
The next section examines the connection between what the respondents stated as their
beliefs and what they reported they did in their class. Findings concerning reported
classroom practices are presented in Table 5.7.
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Chapter 5: Findings
The participants were asked to select the relevant level of frequency for each of the listed
student-centred teaching activities they conducted in their classes. This section asked
about the seven activities that could be compared and triangulated with statements in the
previous section to map the participants’ stated beliefs and reported practices.
Table 5.7 Participants’ reported practice of SCA
Rarely or A few A few Almost

In any of your classes that you teach, never times/semester times/month every class
how often do you…?
% % % %
Have students work in pairs or small
5 5 10 80
groups
Have class discussions 5 15 35 45
Get students to ask questions in class 5 5 40 50
Ask students to monitor and assess
their own spoken and written 26 16 37 21
English
Get students to think about or set
learning goals before the lesson 10 15 25 50
starts
Get students to work on individual
tasks or projects outside of class 5 20 35 40
which they then share with others
Ask students to summarise or reflect
what they have learned after each
20 35 20 25
lesson and then share their summary
with the class
Overall, the participants reported aspects of SCA in their teaching practices. The majority
of the participants (from 75% to 90%) said they provided opportunities for students to
talk, ask questions, share their work, and interact in pairs, groups or with the entire class.
Half of the participants reported that they asked students to set learning goals in almost
every class and 25% said they did that less frequently – a few times per semester. Fewer
participants reported prompting students to reflect on what they learned (20% rarely and
35% a few times/semester) or do self-review or self-assessment (26% rarely and 16% a
few times/semester).
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Chapter 5: Findings
Open-ended questions
The last two questions in the questionnaire were open-ended and the respondents were
asked to describe a teacher’s role and a students’ role in their own words. The
participants’ responses to the these two questions were analysed manually by creating
two word clouds based on word lists and the key-word-in-context (KWIC) technique
(Bernard & Ryan, 2010). For analysis, the same and very similar single words (nouns)
were identified and grouped. Verbs were converted into corresponding nouns. For
example, the response “in my class, I always try to facilitate the process of learning of
my students” was converted to ‘facilitator’ (see Appendix L for the initial complete list).
Long meaningful phrases were converted into representative equivalents. For instance,
one participant mentioned the learner role as ‘acting as a sponge and soaking up
everything of value they can from their teachers, textbooks and their own experience’;
this statement was interpreted as ‘knowledge absorber’ and ‘knowledge sponge’. I then
used Pro Word Cloud (a Microsoft add-in tool) to generate the word clouds describing
the role of the teacher and the role of the learner. Word clouds represent frequency in the
way their items are represented so that the more frequent a term the larger and bolder it
appears. Given that Pro Word Cloud is not flexible in recognising two-word nouns with
or without a hyphen (-); for example, autonomous learner or self-directed learner, I chose
to write these nouns as one word (for example, autonomouslearner).
The main finding from the open-ended questions was that the participants had a diverse
range of understandings about the roles of the teacher and the learner. From the teachers’
responses, the participants viewed their role very much as a facilitator, an organiser, an
observer, a supporter, a consultant, a participant, a guide, a helper, a friend, or a learning
enabler (see Figure 5.1). At times, some terms which placed more weight on the teaching
role of the teacher can be seen, such as teacher, instructor, and knowledge provider.
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Chapter 5: Findings
Figure 5.1 Word cloud for a teacher’s role

From the teachers’ responses, as can be seen in Figure 5.2, they viewed the various roles
of a learner as a self-directed learner, an active participant, a self-assessor, and so on.
Figure 5.2 Word cloud for a learner’s role

In a later section, I will return to the analysis of the two open-ended questions to discuss
in detail how these pre-conceptions of the teacher’s role and the learner’s role were
elaborated in other qualitative data sources.
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Chapter 5: Findings
Observation and debrief findings
After completing the questionnaire, six teachers from two universities were invited to
participate in Phase 2 of the study – observation of their teaching sessions. As mentioned
in Chapter Four, section 4.4.1, the range of their teaching experience was 1 to 21 years.
One of the teachers was very experienced (Tien with 21 years’ experience); three had
moderate experience (Uy, Nhi and Trang with over 10 years’ experience); and two were
less experienced (Lanh and Manh with 1 to 2 years’ experience). All of the participating
teachers taught general English to students of different majors such as nursing, business
administration, and tourism. For more participant demographic information, see Chapter
Four, section 4.4.1.
This section presents data concerning the teachers’ enactment of SCA in their
instructional practices, their critical reflections on what happened in their classes, and
their underlying beliefs and assumptions about their practice. This section outlines the
key findings for the second research question:
• What influences on classroom practice are observed and reported when the
The framework for analysis captured three levels of adoption and innovation in the
teachers’ data. The levels were: (1) routine classroom pedagogy, (2) changes towards
SCA classroom practices, and (3) expansion in teaching practices. This framework is in
line with Kennedy’s (1991) and Putnam and Borko’s (2013) views about teacher learning.
Kennedy (1991) claims that “teachers, like other learners, interpret new content through
their existing understandings and modify and reinterpret new ideas on the basis of what
they already know or believe” (p. 3). Each level of the framework is examined in the
individual cases below.
It is important to note that although student-centred approaches and activities adopted in

this study may not be precisely an innovation in other contexts, the term ‘expansion or
innovation in teaching practices’ can be taken differently in this study context. This refers
to practices that are different from the way the teachers traditionally approach their
teaching practices and these are something not recommended in the inquiries. The
definition of SCA activities in this study is, therefore, context specific.
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Chapter 5: Findings
Routine classroom pedagogy
The data from the six teachers’ classroom observations showed that there were frequently
repeated practices from class to class. These included reviewing the lessons, checking the
meaning of the words, correcting pronunciation, checking understanding, translating
instructions between English and Vietnamese, reading from the board, and doing choral
repetition (see Table 5.8). Examples of the routine instructional practices are described
below with reference to observation data and explanation from debriefs.
Table 5.8 Summary of the teachers’ routine classroom pedagogy
Activities Uy Trinh Nhi Lanh Manh Tien
Reviewing lessons    
• asking questions
• doing vocabulary exercises
Checking the meaning of words      

Presenting and explaining
vocabulary
Checking and correcting      

pronunciation
Checking understanding of      
instructions, grammar and content
• Asking questions
• Asking students to translate
Translating instructions between      

English and Vietnamese
Reading from the board   

Reading scripts
Doing choral repetition     
As observed across all the teaching sessions, the six teachers mainly used English as a
medium of instruction in their general English classes. They reflected that exposure to
English instructions, especially spoken English, would help students “be familiar with
English” (O1D1_Manh) and “be able to use English more if they understand the
instructions in English” (O1D1_Nhi). The teachers reported that they observed students
as a way of checking whether students understood what the teachers were saying (Nhi,
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Chapter 5: Findings
Manh). However, at times it was observed that students were hesitant in replying after
listening to their teachers’ instructions, as Nhi commented: “This is just the second week
of the semester. Students will need time to familiarise themselves with my accent”
(O1D1_N). Further discussion regarding this will be elaborated in sections 5.3.2, 5.4.1,
6.4.4.
It was observed that translation was mainly used to check students’ understanding of
instructions in all the six teachers’ classes. In the debrief reflection, Nhi commented that
she could have used other techniques to check students’ understanding of instructions;
for example, yes, no and short answer questions. She noted: “It is probably more effective
when students can understand my instructions in English because students will be able to
use English more. As a result, students are exposed to more spoken English”
(O1D1_Nhi). After taking part in the inquiries, the teachers became more aware of
different ways of checking students’ comprehension beside translation technique, and
from the subsequent teaching sessions, it was observed that the teachers were trying to
use yes/no questions, simple questions, or choice questions to check students’
understanding of their instructions. The following excerpt from the second observation
illustrates the adjustment of the technique of checking understanding.
Nhi: In pairs, working with your partner, think about something you
borrowed from your partner. Unfortunately you broke it. Say sorry to
your partner. Remember to give some explanation when you apologise.
Do you understand?
Nhi: Who do you work with?
Ss: In pairs.
Nhi: What do we do? Did you use the things of your own or your
partner’s?
Ss: Partner’s.
Nhi: What can you borrow from your partner?
Ss: An eraser, a pen, a book.
Nhi: What happened?
S: Something was wrong with it.
Nhi: What will you do?
[No response from students.]
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Chapter 5: Findings
Nhi: And give?

Ss: Give explanation.
Nhi: And next?
S: Say sorry.
(O2_Nhi)
As another example, after giving instructions, particularly for activities outside the
textbook, Uy asked students short and simple questions in English, for example yes/no
questions, either/or questions and simple wh- questions to check and make sure students
understood what they were expected to do.
Uy: We’ll move to part d. Listen for general meaning. Listen to a girl
and a boy talking about their school. How many people are you going
to listen to?
S: Two.
Uy: A? and a?
S: A girl and a boy.
Uy: What are they talking about?
[No response from students.]
Uy: Their house, their girlfriend or boyfriend? So what are they
talking about?
S: Their school.
(O1_Uy)
In addition to checking students’ comprehension of instructions, the teachers used
different techniques to check students’ comprehension of grammar and content. The
teachers (Uy, Trinh, Nhi, Manh) used short or direct questions more often. For example,
from observations, Uy asked a direct question Do you understand? and the answer from
the class was frequently Yes. Checking students’ understanding was also evidenced by
asking students to translate into Vietnamese (Uy, Trinh, Nhi, Lanh, Manh, Tien). This
technique was observed when students were called upon to give their answers to the
textbook exercises. During my first observation, students were asked to do an exercise in
the textbook. They had to decide whether can in the sentences referred to permission or
ability. Uy called on some students to give their answers. They were asked to read an
entire sentence, not just give the answer, and then translate the sentence into Vietnamese.
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Chapter 5: Findings
To explain this practice, Uy commented:
I wanted students to read sentences because, besides giving the right

answers, reading the sentences was an opportunity for students to
practice their pronunciation and speaking . . . . They had to read the
English sentences before they translated them into Vietnamese. After
reading the English sentences, I corrected their pronunciation as
well . . . . I think this would help students to be aware of correct
language forms and structures.
(O1D1_Uy)
A similar practice was observed when students were asked to complete grammatical tasks
in the textbook in Nhi’s class. Students were asked to work in pairs and then nominated
to read the sentences and give their answers to the teacher, and finally to translate the text
into Vietnamese. Nhi explained: “There are sample answers in the course book. I want to
make sure that students understand what they are doing” (O1D1_Nhi).
The teachers’ observed practices were aligned with their reported beliefs and instructional
goals. For example, vocabulary and pronunciation activities were major parts of Lanh’s
teaching. Lanh believed that “before improving students’ language skills, they [students]
need to have knowledge of the language, vocabulary in particular” (O1D1_Lanh). He
spent time in class explaining the meaning of new vocabulary and got students to use
choral repetition to practice pronunciation of the words. In the same vein, in her teaching,
Uy had a strong focus on oral skills and pronunciation. When students made mistakes,
she corrected them on the spot as she believed that this helped students be “aware of
correct language forms, structures and pronunciation” (O1D1_Uy). Below is an example
of Uy’s error correction practice.
Uy: What did you have for breakfast this morning?

S: /brit/
Uy: /brit/ or /bred/ or /bru:d/?
[Uy gave the student three options to choose the correct pronunciation.]
[No response from the student. Uy nominated another student to give
correct pronunciation of the word.]
S: /bred/
[The teacher then asked the previous student to repeat the pronunciation
of the word bread.] (O3_Uy)
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Chapter 5: Findings
Interestingly, the three teachers from University B (Nhi, Trinh and Uy) shared a similar
practice of writing key words or symbols on the board and then asking students to read
[the recipe for making kebabs] from the board in the third lesson about cooking recipes.
Commenting on this practice, Uy explained:
Repetition helps familiarise students with the language and the forms.
It then can become their own language over time in the practice
stage . . . . Students should do well at repetition; then, they’ll do well
in the language production stage.
(O3D3_Uy)
Considering the proficiency level of their students, both Trinh and Uy perceived the
importance of input such as vocabulary and structures. Repeating the language could
contribute to students’ use of language in the production stage. Uy reflected:
Because my students’ language proficiency is limited, they should be

well prepared for the repetition tasks; then they can produce something
in the language production stage. If students do not practice, they still
can do it but they will do it incorrectly. Then it turns out to be very time
consuming and ineffective later. So spending some more time for
students to practice is a good idea, from my experience.
(O3D3_Uy)
Likewise, Nhi asked students to read scripts and listen to recordings at the same time. In
the debrief, Nhi reflected that these practices could promote language acquisition because
it enabled students to notice linguistic elements such as grammar, vocabulary,
pronunciation, and phonological and orthographical features, while reading scripts. After
that, students were nominated to work in pairs and role play the dialogue to practice their
speaking and pronunciation. Nhi explained this practice:
Through this, students learn actual words and how they are pronounced.
I think it's effective for my students. I know my students' limited level
of proficiency and I think that they don’t have enough vocabulary and
structures to make free conversations by themselves. I think reading
scripts is a way to support students' speaking.
(O3D3_Nhi)
While Uy and Nhi provided the reasoning for this practice from their experience, Trinh
reflected from a theoretical perspective. Trinh thought about her pedagogical approaches
in practice and referred to her prior knowledge when she did her master’s degree. The
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Chapter 5: Findings
reflective debrief below shows that Trinh recognised her teaching practice was influenced
by her prior knowledge and confirmed the role that it played.
When I did my master’s study, I learned behaviourist theory. . . . It is

the process of learning in which learners learn by repeating and
imitating or mimicking the language. Some teachers might think that
this theory is out-of-date but, to me, it’s good because learning English
by repeating can help the learners use it correctly first; then they can
move on to the next step - that is language production.
(O3D3_Trinh)
Overall, there were a number of commonly observed routine practices in the six teachers’
instructions, focusing on translation between English and Vietnamese, repetition and
memorising vocabulary and grammatical structures and practicing pronunciation and
scripted dialogues. Some of these teachers frequently conducted these activities in their
classes, reflecting their instructional goals, pedagogical beliefs, and teaching experience;
whereas, others based their actions on their existing theoretical knowledge. The above
commentary from Trinh confirmed that traditional teaching approaches such as
behaviourism played a role in her instruction.
Toward SCA classroom pedagogy
It is evident from the teachers’ observed practice and reported reflection that they were
open to the uptake of student-centred pedagogy and that they reported an increased
awareness of the inclusion of opportunities for students’ output, interaction, and free
production of English language. The designation of SCA teaching activities in this study
is context specific, as mentioned previously. Some instructional attempts were also
conducted by the teachers to support students’ higher thinking and learning skills (see
Table 5.9). Unlike Uy, Trinh, Nhi, and Lanh, who were active in experimenting with the
SCA activities suggested in the inquiries, Manh and Tien were implementing SCA with
caution.
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Table 5.9 Summary of the teachers’ enactment of SCA activities
Question-answer drills      
Students asking questions,   

summarising lessons
Pair work and group work      
High-level thinking skills    
Learning skills    
Delayed correction of students      
Teachers’ questions were used in every teaching session by the six teachers. Some used
this technique as pre-, while-, or post-listening or -reading activities, or as a warm-up
activity. The teachers also used question-answer drills in teaching vocabulary and
grammar. The following observation excerpt about school rules illustrates the way Uy
used lead-in questions in her pre-listening activity. In some instances, when there was no
response from students, Uy had to answer her own prompting questions. This happened
in other teachers’ classes as well (Trinh, Nhi, Manh and Tien).
Uy: Can you give me some rules at the university campus? Can you
smoke?
S: No.
Uy: You can’t smoke in classroom. What else?
S: You can’t wear jeans.
Uy: What else?
S: You can’t cellphone in the class.
Uy: Động từ gì nhỉ? [What’s the verb?] Give me a verb here.
S: Selfie.
Uy: How about use?
S: You can’t use cellphone in the class.
(O1_Uy)
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Uy explained the importance of this questioning technique in her classes although the
questions were short and simple. She stated that different ways of questioning could serve
different purposes:
It was similar to a pre-listening activity. This served as guidance

towards the content of the recording. This would help students
brainstorm and predict the content of the recording . . . . I think teachers
should include some kinds of lead-in activity before a listening task,
which will be very helpful for students.
(O1D1_Uy)
Trinh agreed with Uy that teachers’ questions in a pre-listening activity prompted students
to brainstorm. This was the first stage of the English language learning process that Trinh
had learned in the past. She also mentioned the stages of language teaching including
language input [presentation], practice, and reproduction [production] (O1D1_Trinh).
Another observed practice in the teachers’ classes that supported students’ language
output was getting students to ask questions, which was not observed during the first
couple of lessons. In the lesson about cooking recipes, before asking students to do
exercises, Uy said:
First take a look and check the meaning of the new words. Các bạn nhìn
qua các từ mới xem có từ nào các bạn không hiểu không? [Are there
any new words that you don’t know in the sentences?] If you don’t
understand any words, please ask me.
(O3_Uy)
This was an opportunity for students to clarify the meaning of new words. Students used
the same structure What does … mean? to ask Uy. Although the students asked the same
type of meaning-checking question, Uy believed that the practice was still helpful as it
helped her know what new words students were having difficulties with to provide
support. This practice was also observed in Lanh’s class. In one reading comprehension
activity, Lanh instructed students to read a passage and each group had to ask two
questions, which could be content questions or vocabulary questions. About six groups
of students asked the same type of question What does . . . mean?. Lanh recognised that
this practice was not producing output when students used the same structure, so he
changed the strategy by asking students questions.
Positive feedback after successful enactment of SCA in the teachers’ classes were
reported. For example, Nhi commented: “I have a feeling of satisfaction when conducting
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successfully the activity in the class” (O4D4_Nhi). At the same time, constraints to
implementing SCA also emerged throughout the teachers’ commentaries about their
lessons. These constraints fell into two categories: institutional factors and students’
characteristics. Institutional factors included textbook design, text book coverage
requirements, exam focus and class time limitations (Nhi and Uy). The majority of the
teachers’ commentaries were related to barriers caused by students’ characteristics. These
included students’ low proficiency (Lanh, Tien, Trinh, Uy, Manh and Nhi), students’
attitudes and behaviours in class such as being shy, lazy, and passive (Tien, Nhi and
Manh), and students’ habit of using Vietnamese (Manh and Lanh). A few comments
referred to the nature of the activities promoting SCA; for example, the suitability of the
activities (Nhi and Trinh) and students’ lack of familiarity with the activities (Uy and
Lanh). Reflectively, Trinh, Uy and Nhi discussed their own perceived shortcomings
during the implementation, such as giving unclear instructions or providing insufficient
input in terms of vocabulary and structures to students.
When acknowledging the limited proficiency level of their students and reflecting on their
error correction practice, the teachers reported some changes. Uy’s attention to students’
language accuracy shifted. In trying to ask her students a lot of questions to encourage
their responses, it was observed that Uy did not often pause and correct students’
pronunciation or spoken structures immediately, as she did at the beginning of the first
session. Uy explained: “I hope that students could use their vocabulary knowledge; at this
stage, the focus was not on accuracy but to refresh their vocabulary” (O1D2_Uy).
Similarly, Manh delayed correcting students’ grammar and pronunciation mistakes
(O1D1_Manh). Tien commented that she placed more emphasis on students’
communication skills and as long as the errors did not affect the meaning, immediate error
correction was not necessary. She decided to correct students “when they finished their
talks so that they could continue their speaking naturally” (O2D2_Tien). In contrast,
Trinh’s rationale was more about achieving communication purposes.
Nowadays, teachers are more focused on communicative approach.

This means that when students communicate and people understand
what you say, that's good. Accuracy is not the most important issue.
(O3D3_Trinh)
Overall, the teachers were observed implementing SCA in line with the inquiry
suggestions, including creating opportunities for students’ language output, student
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interaction through pair work or group work, and supporting students’ thinking and
learning beyond repetition and recall. The use of pair work and group work represented
a radical departure from the teachers’ normal practice of lecturing and explaining to the
whole class. Practical examples of these constituted a higher level of questioning,
brainstorming, summarising, and freer practice. The observed practice and reported
reflection showed the teachers’ willingness to incorporate SCA in their instruction. They
also considered possible constraints on the implementation of SCA, in terms of both
institutional and student factors.
Expansion in teaching practices beyond the inquiries
The inquiries were based on my review of English teaching theories and literature as well
as my professional understandings of SCA and effective practices for teaching English;
therefore, they could be viewed as a theoretical foundation to help the teachers become
more aware of SCA, bridge theory-practice gaps, and justify their theoretical
interpretation of SCA. Opportunities for students to use English and for the teachers to
promote student-centredness expanded beyond interactions between the teacher and the
students or students and students in pair work or group work. Table 5.10 illustrates
expansion in the teachers’ practice beyond the inquiries.
Table 5.10 Summary of the teachers’ expansion beyond inquiries
Do presentations    
Mind mapping  
Four teachers (Uy, Trinh, Nhi and Lanh) endeavoured to incorporate opportunities for
their students to practice and do presentations in class. Speaking of her first experience
with this, Uy said:
The first presentation was a homework assignment. It was not very easy
for my students to get together and prepare the presentations. So they
did not do it very well and carefully as homework. Learning from that
experience, I decided to ask my students to do their second presentation
in class. It could be time consuming in formal class time but helped
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Chapter 5: Findings
students a lot as we could see the improvement in today’s session.

Students presented with confidence without reading their notes.
(O4D4_Uy)
At first, her students were reticent and uncomfortable speaking in front of the class. They
spoke softly. However, later on, they appeared to benefit from Uy’s feedback on their
presentations and improved, as Uy mentioned above. Uy confirmed this in the following
comment:
I usually provided feedback in terms of the language used, the content

of the presentation and the presentation skills. For example, students
speaking too softly and other students couldn’t hear; text on the slides
was too small and others couldn’t see; there were grammatical errors in
their speech and on the slides. These would help students to be more
aware when giving presentations.
(O4D4_Uy)
In facilitating one reading activity in Observation 4, Uy had her students to read through
the reading passage quickly and created a diagram representing the structure of the
reading text. She explained this observed practice:
Understanding the structure of the text would help students have better
comprehension in their reading process, and help their imagination.
This skill helps them not only in their English learning but also in other
courses or subjects.
(O4D4_Uy)
A few times in her reflection, Uy was not sure of the theoretical terminology when
explaining her practice. Uy was trying to explain this technique from her personal and
practical experiences. She reflected:
I am not sure. I think it's called mind mapping. Honestly, I have heard
about the concept of mind mapping but have not done much reading on
mind mapping. From my personal and practical experiences, it would
be much easier for students to understand and to remember.
(O4D4_Uy)
Following the activity, Uy asked her students how they could identify the structure
without having to translate it into Vietnamese to understand the details. Some students
said that they looked at the headings, some mentioned key words and main ideas, and
some said that they looked for the existing vocabulary they knew about the topic. Then
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Chapter 5: Findings
they discussed it within their groups. Explaining the general purpose of the activity from
her own view, Uy stated:
I wanted to help students know how to solve problems in their reading.

Sometimes students do not understand the text, paragraphs or words,
and they may not know what to do to solve it. I wanted my students to
be aware of their problems and how to solve the problems. When they
were able to solve their problems this time, they would be able to solve
[them] next time – for a different reading passage.
(O4D4_Uy)
In another observation session, taking a similar approach, Uy asked students to work in
groups of five. They talked within their groups about the future of one of these topics –
TV, weather, study, house, and travel. Beside practicing speaking and listening, and
supporting student interaction, Uy explained the purpose for this activity as follows:
Other skills were important in this activity too, such as group work and
note taking. Every member had to contribute their ideas, know how to
negotiate the ideas, reach an agreement within the group’s discussion.
Group ideas are more diverse. Students will need to be able to make
judgement about others’ ideas whether they were good or not. Besides,
collaboration is crucial too. For example, each group had five members;
each student gave one idea.
(O2D2_Uy)
Generally, by giving opportunities for students to communicate, Uy was observed moving
beyond question-answer drills and providing them with opportunities to do oral
presentations and free practice of the language. Also, interaction went beyond the
boundaries between teacher and student, or between students in pair work, or small
groups.
Expanding beyond the classroom activities in the inquiries, Lanh shared some significant
new pedagogical ideas in his practice. Lanh challenged his non-English major students
by assigning them to groups and asking them to prepare an icebreaker for every class. In
each lesson, one or two groups were randomly appointed to initiate an icebreaker, which
could be a game, a quiz, a listening activity or a presentation. In this lesson, one group
played a video introducing Niagara Falls in English. Most of the students couldn’t
understand it because the audio was in English and required good English proficiency to
understand. Then that group was asked to briefly translate the audio into Vietnamese for
better understanding of the video content. The second group introduced the topic of The
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Hidden Beach in Mexico. One student, on behalf of the group, introduced key features of
this destination, including geographic features, history, transportation and activities. In
the last slide of the presentation, the group put up a list of new vocabulary in English and
Vietnamese. At the end of the presentation, Lanh read the vocabulary in the list and asked
students to repeat after him. When being asked why he required students to do this
icebreaker every lesson, Lanh commented:
I wanted to focus on the usefulness of the activity. Students have to

understand what they are presenting or showing [video]. If they don’t
understand what they are presenting, other students will not understand.
That’s not useful.
(O1D1_Lanh)
Lanh mentioned the benefits of the activity as in the following debrief excerpt:
Preparing for this activity – presentation, game or video – requires

students to do research to gain information. This will help to enrich their
background knowledge. This is for their long term benefit as well their
future success. This activity also helps to build up confidence for
students, especially when they have to present in front of the class. Each
time the group has to change the presenter, which means that every
student in the class has an opportunity to present at least once (for 5
minutes) during the semester.
(O1D1_Lanh)
The fourth teaching session was the first time Trinh provided students with a reading text
outside of the textbook and asked them to look for the structure of the text. Trinh’s
purpose was to integrate a similar activity to the mind mapping that Uy carried out in her
class, as described above. Students started to read and translate it into Vietnamese to
understand the structure of the text. Trinh did not explicitly explain to students how they
should read, because she believed that explicit instructions on reading skills, including
skimming and scanning, would not help students but would cause them confusion.
Talking through her experience in a reading comprehension course for English for
Specific Purposes (ESP) students, Trinh commented:
I don't know why but I teach one reading course this semester and my
students don’t know how to use the skills of skimming and scanning. If
I include too many strategies like skimming and scanning in one unit or
lesson, I don't think it will be effective because students will be
confused so they will do as they normally do - reading each sentence,
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trying to translate and understand it. Students are too familiar with the
grammar translation method, so they think that translating helps them
have better understanding of the text.
(O4D4_Trinh)
As reflected, Trinh held a mix of different pedagogical beliefs and instructional goals. On
one hand, she wanted to teach mind mapping, skimming and scanning techniques; on the
other hand, she was skeptical of their effectiveness with her class. Trinh’s compelling
expression illuminates a critical inquiry of what counts as standard knowledge of effective
teaching pedagogies. She wanted to improve students’ communication skills (O1D1 and
O3D3_Trinh) but she stated that students were more familiar with the grammar
translation method. Trinh reflected that she found herself “contradictory” (O3D3_Trinh).
She was unable to articulate specific approaches or theories that she applied in her
practice. Her pedagogical decisions were based on her “intuition” that what she was doing
just felt right (O3D3_Trinh). She explained:
Being a teacher when you enter a class, you feel the atmosphere, then
you know what to do and how to make it suitable and good for students.
I can't explain it. . . . Teachers should not apply activities or tasks
automatically like a machine. The teacher should be flexible to make it
suit the class and the students. . . . I teach with my intuition depending
on factors such as the class sizes, students' level, students' personalities
affecting learning styles, so they will need different task design. . . . I
don’t usually use or apply one particular theory or teaching approach in
my practice. . . . I never use the same way to teach different groups of
students even though they are taking the same course and same lesson
content.
(O3D3_Trinh)
These inquiries reflect the confusion, flexibility, fluidity, and an intuition- and practice-
approach to Trinh’s teaching.
Overall, the observation and debrief data showed that four teachers expanded their
practices beyond improving students’ linguistic knowledge and skills. In her instruction,
Uy integrated other higher level thinking skills such as metacognition, and other skills
such as presentation, collaboration, decision making, critical thinking, discussion and
problem solving. Likewise, Lanh’s justification for the use of presentation as a warm up
activity went beyond teaching students vocabulary or language skills. He focused on
improving general background knowledge, developing skills such as research, and
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Chapter 5: Findings
building students’ confidence for future success. These are considered crucial skills and
qualities for guiding students towards becoming independent and self-directed learners.
For the expansion of practice, the teachers reported using their intuition, personal and
practical experiences to design activities that were right, and effective, for their students.
Summary of observation and debrief findings
The analysis has so far highlighted that the six teachers in the study demonstrated similar
adherence to traditional pedagogy such as behaviourism and grammar translation with a
reliance on the textbook. This was reflected in their specific classroom practices.
Reflecting on their practice, it appeared that the traditional classroom pedagogy continued
to have a role to play in the teachers’ practice.
From observations and debriefs, the teachers showed their uptake of more student-
focused activities that were built up in the inquiries. In the debriefs, the teachers critically
reflected on their teaching, which helped them to become more conscious of their
classroom decisions, the shortcomings, and the constraints.
Four teachers were observed implementing innovative classroom activities such as asking
students to do presentations and practicing mind mapping. However, these activities were
built on the teachers’ personal prior and practical experiences.
The following section presents findings from the interview and group discussion data.
Group discussion and individual interview findings
The findings from the interviews and group discussions that occurred in Phase 3 and
Phase 4 of the current study are presented below. The findings offer more insights into
the process of how the teachers learned and how the teachers translated the new learning
into their practices. Teacher learning and change are complex processes. Measures of
change are defined differently and may not be effectively discussed in isolation from each
other. Discussion of how the teachers learned, changed and grew professionally was
interwoven with group discussion data through the use of vignettes, as discussed in
section 4.5.3. While the vignettes of the group discussions illustrated different dimensions
of the collective learning process, the reflective interview data provided evidence of the
changes or growth in the individual teachers’ cognition and how they translated these into
their practice. Factors that supported or hindered the teacher learning process were
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Chapter 5: Findings
reflected in both group discussion and individual interview data. These were the rationales
underlying my decision to group the three research questions together in the findings
presentation and discussion of this study.
This section outlines the findings of the three research questions:
• Question 3: How do the teachers learn within the inquiries?

• Question 4: What changes related to professional knowledge, professional
practices and professional development practice do the teachers report?
• Question 5: How can the process of inquiry be harnessed to support teacher
learning?
How did the teachers learn?
The interviews and group discussions explored the process of how the teachers learned.
At the beginning of the process, the teachers reported that they participated in formal
teacher education programmes or English language programmes (undergraduate
programme) some time ago, when they were taught English language teaching methods
such as grammar translation, behaviourism, audio-lingualism, and top-down and bottom-
up approaches. They realised that there might be gaps in their knowledge. The reported
findings also demonstrate that the teachers recognised that their teaching practices were
influenced by their prior learning experiences but they were unsure whether the prior
knowledge and learning experiences were still applicable for effective teaching practice.
This caused them to think that “the study would be very useful” (Group discussion
1_Trinh) as they could be exposed to new learning and new knowledge (Group discussion
1_Uy). Examples are below.
During my years at university, one of the courses I did was Teaching

Methodology. I think the background knowledge I learned was just
basic concepts, basic knowledge that helped me to develop on it - kind
of very fundamental. I was taught English language teaching methods
such as audio-lingualism, behaviourism, and grammar translation. I
knew all of these methods and I followed the principles of these
methods to design my own activities. My knowledge is limited to some
extent though.
(Individual interview_Lanh)
From my experience as a language learner, I followed a traditional
approach, which means teachers giving instructions; students copying
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what was taught. That somehow affects me and my teaching. One

reason was that I did not have any training in English Language
Teaching.
(Individual interview_Manh)
The teaching methods used were copied from my former teachers. I
teach the way I learned from my teachers at university.
(Individual interview_Trinh)
In this inquiry process, the teachers had opportunities to close the gaps between theory
and practice by engaging in cycles of inquiry, reflection and enactment with regard to
aspects of student-centred pedagogy. Four vignettes developed from group discussions
and individual interviews are featured below to demonstrate different dimensions of
teacher learning in this study after their classroom enactment of SCA.
Each vignette includes the teachers’ engagement in a cycle of: (a) encountering a state of
perplexity, (b) reflecting individually, and/or (c) interacting collegially, and (d)
constructing new knowledge. Encountering a state of perplexity was a regular feature in
group discussions, when the teachers shared problems experienced when applying SCA
inquiries in their classes. Individual reflections prepared the teachers to critique their own
lessons and become self-aware of what had worked, what had not, what they should adapt
for future classroom actions, and the pedagogical reasoning for their classroom decisions.
Interactions with each other in the focus group were an opportunity for collegial
professional dialogue. While examining new learning in connection with the classroom
context and their enactment, the teachers had opportunities to reconsider their beliefs and
practices. This was when new learning was constructed or old learning was adapted or
enhanced. It is crucial to note that this was not a linear process of causality of teacher
learning and desired changes to practice or knowledge. This process focuses attention on
the complexity of the teachers’ learning.
To enhance communication, findings are accompanied by excerpts taken from the group
discussion and interview transcripts.
5.4.1.1 Vignette 1: Encouraging students to speak English
After enacting the first inquiry cycle on encouraging students’ English language output
by creating more opportunities for students to speak, the teachers met together and
discussed their classroom experience. The two suggested activities in the inquiry were
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Chapter 5: Findings
encouraging students to ask questions and asking students to do lesson consolidation in

English.
The teachers started the first discussion with the challenges they encountered in getting
students to ask teachers questions. Some of the potential reasons for the difficulties they
faced included students’ characteristics such as being shy, passive, and quiet (Nhi, Lanh,
Trinh, Uy), the learning culture (Nhi, Lanh, Uy), the culture of face (Manh, Trinh),
students’ low proficiency levels in English (Trinh, Lanh, Uy) and students’ lack of
familiarity with the questioning activity (Lanh). Nhi revealed her own learning experience
to further explain this lack of students’ questioning habit:
When I was a student, I seldom asked questions in front of the class

especially when I did not really understand the lesson. But, generally, I
hardly asked questions.
(Group discussion 1_Nhi)
In addition, the teachers directed the reflective discussion towards more student-
orientation with a focus on teacher action. The following reflective comments from the
teachers suggest greater emphasis on the students’ attitudes, needs, interests, motivation
and necessary skills, which affirmed the teachers’ positive beliefs about SCA practices.
Students usually think that English is not their major, so they do not
usually want to study it in depth. . . . They don’t have a habit of digging
[into] the lesson in depth. . . .They are happy with the amount of
knowledge from the teacher.
(Group discussion 1_Uy)
In contrast to Uy, Manh shared an observation from his experience that “those students
who understand the lesson usually ask questions to have deeper knowledge about the
lesson … students are interested in asking questions when they want to know other uses
of language or language forms in other situations” (Group discussion 1).
Besides students’ attitudes, needs and interests, in their reflective comments, the teachers
realised higher skills were required in students’ questioning techniques such as critical
self-inquiry, which meant “self-questioning; for example asking why, what if, or so what
questions” (Group discussion 1_Uy), and “analytical and synthetic skills” (Group
discussion 1_Trinh).
In negotiating the interaction with other teachers in the group, Lanh diverted the collegial
conversation to more pragmatic solutions. He said:
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I think there are many reasons why students are afraid of asking
questions. But we need to have enough evidence to address the reasons
why. So I am not going to discuss about the reasons here. But in terms
of solutions, I have noticed that students only ask when they are
motivated. They ask questions when they like it. They ask in order to
solve a certain learning task. There are many ways to motivate students.
(Group discussion 1_Lanh)
Lanh suggested a number of approaches that teachers could use to encourage students to
ask questions in the class; for example, teachers’ flexibility in the use of classroom tasks
or topics and the importance of teachers observing and adjusting instructions. Manh’s
following comment showed his strong emphasis on students – their needs, reactions to
the lesson, motivation, interests, autonomy, critical thinking, problem solving and
creativity and what teachers could do to provide support and guidance to their students.
One example is [that the] teacher should not strictly follow the content
in the course book. When the teacher observes the class, if there is no
longer a positive reaction from the students to the lesson, the teacher
had better change topic, move the lesson to something that students feel
interested in and they want to ask about. The teacher should be flexible,
looking for an interesting topic for students to talk about and to ask. I
usually give them tasks and ask students to solve the tasks, for example
drawing or story making and storytelling. The teacher should provide
some guidance to students. While they are doing that task, they will ask
the teacher questions to clarify or to find ways to solve that task.
In agreement with Lanh, three other teachers provided practice-based solutions for
encouraging students’ English language output. These included “group work via
discussions” (Trinh) “appropriate and well-designed tasks” (Uy) and “clear instructions”
(Nhi) because “when students are well aware of the instructions and they know what they
are required to do, they will speak more English in class” (Group discussion 1_Nhi).
Appropriate and well-designed tasks and activities, like Uy shared, might be perceived as
departures from their routines. The use of questioning techniques is one example. Besides
using questioning techniques pre-, during-, or post-activity, Uy asked students questions
about their daily life as a warm-up activity. Commenting on this different type of warm-
up, Uy explained:
This activity helps to create a relaxing atmosphere for students to use

English before starting the lesson. The questions are not in the lesson
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content, so they don’t have to open the textbook or notebook to check

and read information. They just need to use the structures they learned
in the previous lesson.
(Groups discussion 2_Uy)
In making connections between the activity, students, implementation, and required
outcomes, the teachers commented that the purpose of the inquiry activities was
“positive” and “interesting” (Group discussion 1_Nhi). Some were suitable for students;
some were not because of the lesson content and the skills required in each lesson;
therefore, in some instances, implementation could be challenging (Nhi). Nhi further
suggested a macro-level solution in relation to curriculum and textbook design. She
added: “One important thing to engage students’ speaking is to select appropriate course
books which provide well-designed activities for students to perform” (Group discussion
1 _Nhi).
With a desire to expand her understanding and practice, Uy wanted other teachers in the
group “to share some activities that could help students speak and understand lessons
more in-depth” (Group discussion 1_Uy). A number of activities were recommended with
step-by-step descriptions, which included storytelling (Manh), object description (Trinh)
and picture comparison (Nhi). In the interview, the teachers valued the opportunities to
share new ideas and practices (Uy, Lanh), learn from other teachers (Nhi, Uy and Manh),
interact to seek advice and measures from each other (Uy) and understand difficulties in
other teachers’ teaching practices (Uy and Lanh). The teachers also realised that activities
might bring about different learning outcomes depending on the classroom contexts and
students’ characteristics, so it would be helpful to “look at problems from different
perspectives” (Lanh). Below is an example from Uy.
I have learned a lot from other teachers. I also understand difficulties in

other teachers' practice and classrooms. I like the the way we interact to
seek advice and measures from each other in the group. This is very
helpful for teachers as we are aware of the possible challenges and how
to deal when applying student-centred approaches in our class.
(Individual interview_Uy)
In addition to exchanging pedagogical ideas and practices, the teachers reported their
experiments with the new activities or practices in their own classes. Nhi reflected:
I applied [questioning as] the warm-up activity at the start of each class
that Uy recommended. The learning atmosphere became better in my
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class. . . . I used to think that teachers’ instruction in English or

Vietnamese is not really my concern. In one of the group discussions,
some teachers suggested that using English in class is better because
students are immersed in this language. As a result, they will be more
aware of the use of English in the class. I applied that in my class and
my students were happy with the new approach.
(Individual interview_Nhi)
The reflective discussion continued and the teachers raised key barriers in asking students
to summarise the lesson content at the end of each teaching session. All the teachers
reported that, despite their awareness of its importance in improving students’ speaking
skill and checking students’ understanding, time limitations prevented them from asking
students to summarise the lesson content. However, the teachers realised that there were
different ways to ask students to review the lessons and to check their understanding,
which could be incorporated in the following teaching session. Uy revised the previous
lesson by asking students questions, or wrote a word on the board [related to the lesson]
and asked students to describe it or define it. One alternative approach that Nhi shared
was to ask students to write on a piece of paper one to three things they thought about in
the previous session, then discuss this in groups and then talk in front of the class. Uy
liked the way Manh and Trinh approached the consolidation task – writing key words on
the board and asking students to summarise the lesson content, acknowledging that
students might make mistakes but after several attempts students would do it better
(Group discussion 1_Uy).
5.4.1.2 Vignette 2: Creating opportunities for student interaction
In the second cycle of inquiries, the teachers’ practice was focused on creating
opportunities for student interaction and students’ thinking beyond language repetition
and information recall. Among many activities suggested, the teachers reported their
reflection on the three activities they implemented in their classes, which were
storytelling, story completion, and debate. All of the six teachers selected the topics for
the activities in alignment with the lesson content. However, each teacher slightly
modified the activity to suit the contexts: Manh breaking the activity into smaller steps to
guide students through, Uy asking students to make up the story by themselves to
encourage their creativity and using interactive warm up activity, Nhi and Trinh using
jigsaw activity to accommodate the tight classroom time, Tien conducting group listening
activity, and Lanh trying out movie storytelling. Generally, the teachers reported positive
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impacts on students’ learning as evidenced by their affective responses. For example,

students were very excited, motivated and engaged in the activity (Individual interview
and group discussion:_Uy, Tien, Lanh, Manh, Trinh, Nhi). Below is an example from
Lanh.
I played a short video (2-3 minutes) about family. At first, I asked my

students to watch the movie carefully, [and write] down words referring
to objects/things they could see in the movie. They should try to
understand and remember as much information as possible because I
would then ask them some questions. One of the questions I asked them
was to write down their feelings about the character of the father after
watching this short movie. I thought that my students could not do it.
However, it turned out differently and really surprised me. After
watching the movie, students discussed together in their groups. They
presented their opinions. They were really, really good, very thoughtful.
Because of the nature of these activities that promoted student interaction, students had
more opportunities and greater freedom to work in pairs or in groups. This was when the
teachers experienced a dilemma regarding students’ use of Vietnamese. The six teachers
expressed their opposing views about this practice. While Uy and Lanh were against
allowing students to speak Vietnamese in class (Group discussions 1 and 2), the other
four teachers had a more flexible view of student use of the mother tongue (Groups
discussions 1 and 2). Manh justified his practice on the basis of his individual experience
as a student, as follows:
From my experience as an English major, I used to use mostly

Vietnamese when I discussed in my group. It was impossible for us to
use 100% English in class. And now I am teaching non-major students,
how can I ask them to use 100% English in the class?
(Group discussion 1_Manh)
Critically, Nhi used research to back up her views. She commented:
I don't think that we can forbid students using Vietnamese because

research shows that this is a controversial issue. Some scholars are
advocates of using [students’] first language to express their meaning
in a language classroom, which is still more effective than trying to use
100% target language.
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In contrast, Lanh had quite a strong view about the idea of ‘no Vietnamese’ in his classes.
He commented:
In my class, speaking Vietnamese is forbidden. I won't allow students

to use Vietnamese in the class, especially when discussing in groups.
My students all know the rule. So, whenever they see me around
monitoring the class, they speak English. I am not a strict teacher but in
this case I have to do that.
Despite the different views, the teachers all agreed that teachers should encourage the use
of English in their classes. In negotiating the differences, Tien and Uy shared some
strategies from their practical experiences to encourage English speaking in class.
I think one of the ways to encourage students to use English is that, as

a facilitator of activities, the teacher moves around the class when
groups are working. At the same time, monitor their use of English or
Vietnamese. If any student uses Vietnamese, I remind them and ask
them to say it again in English. If we do it again and again, it will
become a habit of speaking English for students. I don't really know
any other ways. It is not easy at all.
(Group discussion 2_Tien)
I usually ask my students to do pair work and I think that it's more effective
because students won't use as much Vietnamese as they do in group
work. . . . When working in pairs, my students can use about 80% to 90%
English. Too many students in one group can prevent students from
speaking English.
Another example from Trinh’s reflective conversation could challenge the consensus
about pair work and group work in promoting student interaction for low level students,
trigger re-consideration of learning outcomes and learning effectiveness, stimulate the
teachers’ thinking, and seek confirmation from her colleagues. Trinh described the
activity she conducted in her class aiming to foster student interaction and expressed her
uncertainty, hoping to get other teachers’ thoughts.
This morning I carried out one group work activity. I was not sure if it
would promote a lot of interaction among students. But I think it was
more effective than pair work. The lesson was about used to. I asked
one student to stand up and give one example of what they used to do
in the past. Another student was called on randomly to repeat the first
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student's sentence and stated their own sentence. The last person would
tell everyone's past habits and state his own sentence. I think this
activity did not create much opportunity for student interaction but it
was very effective.
(Group discussion 2_Trinh)
Uy agreed with Trinh that the activity could be considered effective in terms of engaging
students and encouraging them to speak English. However, the teaching practice
challenged the relationship between task accomplishment and learning outcome
achievement because, in this case, students appeared to be working to complete the task
rather than interacting with each other (learning outcome). She posed questions in terms
of task accomplishment for the group to consider, for example: “How could students talk
and interact with each other? And which language did they use?” (Group discussion 2).
Manh added: “If students talk and discuss in Vietnamese, they don’t need to negotiate
meanings at all” (Group discussion 2). The teachers (Manh, Lanh, Tien) were uncertain
about the interactive purpose of this activity.
The findings also show several instances when the teachers experienced dissonance –
defined as “the discrepancy between teachers’ reports in their expectations and plans for
a lesson and what actually happened” (Solheim, Ertesvåg, & Dalhaug Berg, 2018, p. 525)
– between their teaching practices and classroom situations.
After implementing the debate activity with their students, Nhi and Uy reflected on the
experience. Nhi asked students to debate two versions of the food pyramid. In
experimenting with a new approach, Nhi decided to not provide pre-activity input to
students as she normally did; however, in her reflection, she commented that students
were unable to provide logical and possible reasons for their arguments in favour of their
selected version of pyramid, which could stimulate their thinking. She concluded: “I was
not happy with students’ performance” (Group discussion 2_Nhi).
Reflecting on the activity, Nhi not only explored the possible causes of the students’
unsuccessful performance, but also considered clear instructions and better guided tasks
as ways to approach the practice differently in the future.
I think that was because of my guidelines and my instructions. What I

would do differently next time is to give more straightforward
guidelines and more information before they could do this activity.
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Expanding on Nhi’s comment, in the group discussion, the teachers noted that, in addition
to the need to provide more input to their students, teachers should be more aware of their
instructions. They reported that they sometimes provided confusing or incomplete
instructions (Nhi, Uy, Trinh). Lanh emphasised the importance of clear instructions in the
interview. He added:
The application of activities is very important, especially at the planning

stage. Teachers should plan classroom activities very carefully and
teachers should foresee what difficulties their students might encounter.
Giving clear instructions is crucial to the success of students'
performance in those activities.
In Uy’s lesson using debates between buying a PC or a laptop, Uy was aware that
students’ language proficiency was a constraint for unguided language production as in a
debate. Uy thought the activity was not as effective as planned because “students simply
looked up the words in a Vietnamese-English dictionary and put the words together to
make sentences. Sometimes, the statements don’t make any sense or [are] grammatically
incorrect” (Group discussion 2_Uy). Additionally, it was a challenge for Uy to monitor a
class debate involving more than thirty students.
In the group discussion, when Uy shared how she incorporated the debate activity with
other teachers, Uy realised that providing more input as a guided practice would be
helpful for students:
Definitely I should have provided students with some language for the
debating first . . . . Although some input was provided at the beginning
of the activity, students still needed more support, for example
vocabulary and basic grammatical structures for debating.
The above examples indicate that the teachers sometimes experienced dissonance
between their expectations and practical classroom implementation. When they reflected
further and sought to understand the reasons for the dissonance, they were able to develop
better ways to enact the activity in the future.
5.4.1.3 Vignette 3: Teaching high-level thinking and learning skills
As the group discussions developed and participants found their voices, the conversations
developed greater complexity and depth. Discussion on whether higher thinking and
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Chapter 5: Findings
learning skills should be taught to non-English majors produced conflict among the
teachers. Interview and group discussion findings revealed the teachers’ underlying
assumptions and the reasoning behind their views. When encountering conflicting views,
the teachers tried to negotiate different views for mutual understanding; however, in some
instances, the teachers recognised the value of both positions. The teachers reported a
lack of awareness of teaching learning skills in the practice because of the focus on
linguistic knowledge and skills. All of these contributed to the teacher learning process.
Almost immediately, conflict arose when the teachers discussed their views and
implementation of the last three inquiries, aimed to foster students’ metacognitive
strategies, higher thinking and self-directed learning skills. The teachers used think-aloud
to improve reading comprehension as an activity for discussion because most of them
found this activity possibly more applicable. In the interview, Manh reported that teaching
these skills and strategies was impossible due to students’ low proficiency level and their
negative attitudes to English learning. Strongly supporting Manh’s viewpoint, Lanh
entered the group debate commenting that it was “a waste of time” teaching those skills
and he was “doubtful of the feasibility and effectiveness of the application” in practice
(Group discussion_3). He acknowledged that his idea could be “biased, subjective and
against others’ views in the group” (Group discussion 3). With an exam-directed view of
teaching and learning, Lanh constructed learning as “a process when students have to
learn on their own and my teaching is to prepare them for exams” (Group discussion 3).
An example of his comment is:
My teaching approach is usually for the exam, which means that I

usually direct my instruction to the skills or knowledge that students
would need for the exam [so] that they can do better in the exam.
He defined metacognitive language learning as preparation strategies before the actual
learning period (Group discussion 3). Lanh further explained that exams required more
cognitive skills than metacognitive skills and that metacognitive language learning
strategies are “just learning skills, not exam strategies” (Group discussion 3). Lanh also
assumed that higher-level students should already know and use these metacognitive
skills in their learning (Group discussion 3), which might explain why Nhi believed that
these skills were more suitable for juniors and seniors than freshmen and sophomores
(Individual interview). Lanh concluded:
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Chapter 5: Findings
Teaching activity such as think-aloud can be applied to: firstly children

or first time language learners who have not been familiar with English
language; secondly, learners of low English proficiency level; thirdly,
learners with no exam pressure. . . . Teaching metacognitive language
learning strategies may help learners improve their learning gradually.
But I am not sure about the possibility that students would do better in
the exam if they use these strategies.
Lanh’s comments display a common perceived backwash of examination orientation,
reflect some confusion about metacognitive language learning strategies, and show some
false assumptions about suitability of higher thinking skills and student levels.
In contrast, Trinh and Uy shared different insights into the theory of metacognition in
language acquisition. Trinh described metacognitive strategies as “strategies to help
students understand their thinking and how they learn” (Group discussion 3). Both Trinh
and Uy had very positive opinions regarding the implementation of think-aloud activity
in their classrooms. Trinh commented:
Think-aloud is a way to help students think and read more effectively.

This helps students be aware of necessary steps in thinking while
reading. . . . Gradually, this will help students have a habit or
consciousness of the steps and strategies for better comprehension.
While Lanh believed in a ‘practice makes improvement’ approach, Trinh and Uy believed
in a strategic approach. In order words, according to Lanh, the more students read and did
exercises, the more they improved in reading skills. On the contrary, Uy and Trinh
thought that a good reader had reading strategies. For example, if students did not know
the meaning of a word, they needed to know how to guess the meaning of the word in
context. Lanh defended his view and stated that prediction was not always a wise strategy
for students. He commented:
Prediction is not a wise strategy for students. . . . Prediction based on

background knowledge could be wrong. . . . Background knowledge
does not guarantee to be correct and therefore does not guarantee the
success of the reading. It is a must for students to carefully read and
understand the text content.
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The discussion continued, though the teachers were polarised on the practice of teaching
higher thinking and learning skills. At the same time, the debate provided the seeds of an
emerging negotiation of different views for mutual understanding and a recognition of
the value of both positions. Trinh explained:
I understand where Lanh was speaking from in terms of exam-oriented

teaching but to me these strategies are also very important to do well in
a reading test or exam.
Uy, in considering Lanh’s opposing position, tried to ease the tension, commenting:
As a teacher, I think teaching for an exam is one of the objectives for

teachers. They try to look for similar types of questions or exam
situation for their students to do in order to be prepared for the exam or
what we say test/exam taking strategies. However, besides that, I think
a teacher really wants their students to be able to use the strategies and
a proper attitude to their learning. I agree with Lanh that the more
reading practice students do, the better students will perform. However,
I also believe if students are able to apply strategies during their reading,
the performance will become even faster and more effective.
Uy’s rationale seemed to have an effect on Lanh; the positions shifted, and a consensus
about the role of higher thinking and learning skill instruction was achieved. Lanh agreed
with Trinh and Uy that these skills should be incorporated in the lessons at early stages
and should be taught explicitly. Even higher-level students, for example English majors,
might not be aware of these strategies if they were not taught explicitly. Importantly, they
agreed that scaffolding these strategies and skills throughout the semester would result in
greater long-lasting benefits for students (Lanh, Uy, Trinh, and Nhi).
In the interview, Uy mentioned the lack of self-awareness in her teaching practices and
emphasised that “to be growing in the profession, teachers should be aware of their
gaps” (Individual interview_Uy).
The reason for not teaching learning skills is that I am not aware of them
and that I am not familiar with the ideas of improving learning skills for
my students. I think I should change. Learning strategies should be
explicitly introduced to students in early sessions and scaffolding
throughout the course so that students are aware of the strategies and
can apply them in different learning contexts. (Individual interview_Uy)
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Chapter 5: Findings
Importantly, Uy added: “when teachers are conscious of strategy instructions, they will
teach students in a conscious way.” (Group discussion 3_Uy). In a similar vein, Trinh
expressed her awareness of the importance of guiding students’ self-directed learning.
I have to say that there have been so many changes. But the major
change is my awareness of students' self-directed learning. Students
have to be active in their learning. This is what all the teachers should
guide them [toward].
Nhi, Uy and Trinh’s emphasis on the changes in their increased awareness of students’
learning and their teaching was part of the teacher learning process and closely connected
with professional growth.
5.4.1.4 Vignette 4: Incorporating classroom activities to promote SCA
The interview findings showed that the teachers had diverse perceptions of and attitudes
towards SCA activities. Some inquiry activities were completely new to some teachers
and some were not. For example, while Manh was not aware of the inquiry prior to his
participation in the study (Individual interview), Uy commented that some recommended
activities were familiar to her (Individual interview). Furthermore, three teachers (Trinh,
Lanh and Tien) shared slightly negative perceptions of classroom activities during their
interviews. Trinh interpreted a number of classroom activities as “trò” [games]
(Individual interview). Likewise, Lanh and Tien classified some classroom activities with
an element of fun (Individual interviews). These three teachers commented that carrying
out these games in the class was time-consuming given syllabus and textbook
requirements (Individual interviews). To these teachers, activities promoting SCA were
positive but the implementation would be challenging due to students’ low proficiency
level, Vietnamese students’ learning cultures, students’ lack of familiarity with SCA
activities, and teachers’ busy teaching loads (Group discussion 1). As a result, they were
hesitant about their use. Lanh commented:
Teachers need to balance between having fun and teaching the textbook
content. If students study content too much, they will get bored. But if
teachers focus on having fun too much, students will not learn anything
and that affects the results when students have the exams.
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Chapter 5: Findings
Another finding emerged from the teachers’ interview, indicating that the teachers had a
tendency to adopt SCA practice unconsciously, overlooking underlying pedagogical
reasoning. This resulted from the teachers’ prior learning experience, as Nhi stated:
I did incorporate activities in my teaching. However, I was not aware

of the purposes. I applied them unconsciously. I did not know how and
what activities could improve the students' learning. I applied what I
learned during my pre-service training. I did not know how and whether
the activities support learning.
The reflective comments from the teachers after their enactment become more positive
because of the connection between the theory of SCA and the enactment of SCA activities
in practice. Each inquiry started with an overview of an SCA topic; for example, creating
opportunities for students’ language output. This section introduced what the topic was
about (what) and why it was important for students’ learning (why). Then, a ‘try things
out’ section suggested topic-related activities that teachers could try out in their class
(how), followed by a few reflective questions for the teachers to respond to after the
implementation. The systematic presentation of the what, why, and how in the inquiries
enabled Uy and Nhi to link those elements consciously in their practice and thus link
theory with practice systematically. Uy reflected in her comment:
Actually, some activities are not absolutely new to me and they are
sometimes applied in my class. However, when they go in each inquiry
with a brief overview, I become more aware of those activities and
purposes; I mean the what, why, and how when choosing the activities
to conduct in my class. . . . I think, for any teaching strategy, it is
important to start from the foundation - the what, why and how of the
application. Then it’s the implementation stage when I implement it in
the class. Then in the reflection stage when I reflect on the success and
the failure of the application, lessons learned and how I will make it
better next time or in other classes.
Interestingly, in the interviews, both Trinh and Nhi reported that, after the learning
experience in the study, they became more self-reflective about their classroom decisions.
They often set a specific goal for themselves before each teaching session. The trilogy of
teachers’ beliefs, actions and intentions (goals) as part of the learning process was
reflected in the following comment.
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Chapter 5: Findings
The most obvious thing that I have recently noticed in my practice is

that I always come to the class with a goal in mind; for example, today
I want to focus on my instructions, and tomorrow I will focus on
students' talking time. Not just coming to class with an empty mind
trying to tick off the sections in the textbook.
It appears that Lanh’s perception of incorporating classroom activities changed from
seeing them as just having fun to supporting students’ learning. The extract suggests that
positive feedback from students might be a contributing factor to the change in Lanh’s
perception.
I am thinking of ways to incorporate activities into the classroom but

that has to support learning. I have a chance to apply different activities
in the classroom and see how my students react to activities, and most
of them are very positive.
Summary of interview and group discussion findings
The interviews and group discussions reported the process of how the teachers learned.
In this process, all the teachers engaging in Phase 3 and Phase 4 of the study did some
puzzling and inquiring into their existing pedagogical knowledge and were open to SCA.
The four vignettes illustrated different dimensions of the learning process, focusing on
reflective connections between theory, cognition and practice, interaction with other
teachers, and construction of new knowledge. The reflective data provided evidence of
the changes in the teachers’ cognition and how they translated these into their teaching
practice.
In addition to personal learning experiences, the teachers experienced interactive and

collegial learning opportunities with other teachers in the group. Engaging in professional
dialogues and continuous reflection helped the teachers not only gain more insights into
their own teaching practices, but also to learn new teaching techniques from each other,
find solutions to their pedagogical problems collaboratively, discuss practical
alternatives, stimulate each other’s thinking, negotiate different perspectives for mutual
understanding, reach consensus, and/or consider the value of different views.
Finally, contextual factors and barriers, teachers’ attitudes and students’ characteristics
played a crucial role in the teacher learning experience and the enactment of the new
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Chapter 5: Findings
learning. In response to these internal and external barriers, the teachers acted with their
agency by selecting what to experiment with, how to adjust the activities to suit their
students, and what and how best to teach their students. All of these contributed to the
complexity and multidimensionality of the learning process.
Chapter summary
This chapter has presented the findings relating to the five research questions.
• The main finding for the first research question was that before participation in
this study, the teachers reported an awareness and favourable perceptions of SCA
and aspects of SCA in their stated teaching practices; however, some
inconsistencies in their reported beliefs were noted.
• The findings for the second research question revealed the teachers’ openness to
the adoption of student-centred pedagogy. The study indicated that all the teachers
in the study changed certain aspects of their practice and cognition regarding
SCA. This was evidenced by the various strategies and activities the teachers
implemented in their classrooms and by their reflections. However, traditional
teaching pedagogy continued to play a role.
• The findings for the third research question suggested that the teachers learned to
bridge theory-practice gaps by enacting, inquiring into, reflecting on, and
critiquing their practices, which contributed to the development of their self-
awareness or self-realisation of pedagogical reasoning for their classroom
decisions. This enabled the teachers to adapt their teaching practices, construct
their practice-based knowledge, and monitor their professional growth and
development. Further, engaging professional dialogues and continuous reflection
supported the teachers to learn from and with each other, problem solve together,
realise different ways of doing things, and become involved in the process of
negotiating views and meanings with each other.
• The findings for the fourth research question indicated that the teachers shifted
their beliefs, practices, and developed their pedagogical knowledge. However, the
relationships of these changes were diverse. Being reflective teachers, they were
able to reach a state of self-awareness, self-realisation, and self-evaluation from
practice, which contributed to the construction of their practical knowledge.
Further, the teachers reported experiencing dilemmas or recognising the
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Chapter 5: Findings
shortcomings in their practices. All of these were part of the learning processes to
enable them to professionally grow and develop.
• The findings for the fifth research questions revealed personal, contextual, and
socio-cultural factors that could support or hinder the teachers’ learning process
and their application of new learning. This ultimately required the teachers’ local
(situated) knowledge and experience, and their enactment of active and agentic
role in order to make the learning processes effective and meaningful. Further
discussion on the findings for the fifth question in relation to the teacher learning
is examined in Chapter Six, section 6.4.4.
The next chapter contains a discussion of these findings. Chapter Six explores the
relationships between this study’s findings and other research findings in the area. The
findings are contextualised in the literature on teacher learning, presented in Chapter
Three, and the implications of the findings for EFL teacher professional learning in
Vietnam are discussed.
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CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Introduction
This study investigated the engagement in an inquiry process of six EFL teachers from
two Vietnamese universities, and how the inquiry process shaped the teachers’
professional learning, paying attention to cycles of reflection and co-construction of
knowledge. This study situated the learning process in the context of student-centred
approaches (SCA) inquiry. This was used as the ‘content’ of teacher learning. I explored
the teachers’ initial beliefs and their reported practices, how they interpreted and
integrated new knowledge of SCA in their classroom practices, how their pedagogical
knowledge of SCA developed, and how their beliefs about teaching and learning changed.
I also wanted to find out how cycles of reflection influenced an increased awareness of
their teaching practices, how collective learning opportunities in groups contributed to
their learning. The study also examined the teachers’ professional growth from their
experience of engaging in the inquiry process. These included changes in the teachers’
beliefs, pedagogical content knowledge, teaching practices, and professional learning and
development practice. I hoped that an in-depth understanding of the complexity and
multidimensionality of the teachers’ learning processes in their practical context would
provide insights about how to support teachers’ professional learning in the Vietnamese
higher education context.
As mentioned in Chapter Three, teacher learning in this study was approached using
constructivist and situative lenses. Constructivists conceive of learning as an active
process of making meaning, in which teachers are active agents and knowledge is
individually constructed and socially co-constructed, determined by the complex
interplay of multiple factors (Donald, 1987; Pang & Ling, 2012; Putnam & Borko, 2013).
These factors include personal influences, such as existing knowledge, prior experiences,
interests, motivations, needs, preferences, experiences with the world, beliefs, and
interactions with wider contextual influences, which can be institutional, social, and/or
cultural. From the constructivist view, teachers may perceive and interpret new
information differently. Within both situative and constructivist perspectives, learning is
conceptualised as a social practice; teachers participate in, communicate with, and belong
to a community (Borko, 2004; Desimone, 2009; Lave & Wenger, 1991). From these two
views, knowledge is situated and responsive to the context in which it is negotiated.
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Therefore, it is important to take into account contextual and socio-cultural dimensions
that the community or the group is built on.
In order to explore and document the complex process of teacher learning, the research
used a predominantly qualitative research design, with a small amount of quantitative
data collected via a questionnaire administered at the beginning of the study. Besides the
use of the questionnaire sent to a wider group of EFL teachers at two universities in
Vietnam in Phase 1, a variety of data collection instruments were used. These involved
carrying out classroom observation sessions and debriefs with a group of six selected
teachers (three from each university) in Phase 2; collecting data from group discussions
involving the same group of six teachers in Phase 3; and conducting individual interviews
with these six teachers in Phase 4. Questionnaire data were analysed by using descriptive
statistics to examine the teachers’ initial beliefs and reported practices of SCA. Then,
observation and debrief data were thematically analysed and presented for the six teachers
to reinforce the teachers’ understanding and enactment of SCA. Finally, group discussion
and interview data were analysed and presented in the form of vignettes to examine the
teachers’ learning processes. The analysis approaches specifically focused on how the
cycles of reflection and co-construction of knowledge supported teacher learning, what
changes related to professional knowledge, teaching practice, and professional
development practice were reported, and what factors should be taken into account.
Chapter Six combines both the discussion and conclusion relating to the study. First, it
briefly summarises the findings of the study based on the five research questions. This is
followed by a discussion of the findings for the five research questions in relation to the
literature and other research. In answering these questions, the discussion is organised
into two main sections. One examines the teachers’ stated beliefs, reported practices and
observed practices regarding SCA; the other explores the process of teacher learning in
the study’s context.
The chapter further expands the discussion about theoretical, methodological and
practical implications for EFL teacher learning in Vietnam. Limitations and
recommendations for future research are suggested.
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An overview of the findings
From the questionnaire responses, the participating teachers reported an awareness of

SCA. However, there were a few instances when their reported beliefs diverged from
SCA principles. In practice, observations of their classroom instruction showed an
increased practical application of SCA in their classes. At the same time, the teachers
demonstrated complex inter-relationships between their beliefs and practices.
Engaging in the inquiry process, the teachers made sense of SCA principles through
classroom enactment, cycles of reflection, and construction of knowledge both
individually and in collegial group dialogues. Individual critical reflection enabled the
teachers to critique their own practices and develop an awareness of pedagogical
reasoning for their classroom decisions. Having reflective dialogues with other teachers
provided opportunities for the teachers to reflect on their own and others’ practices. In
this social learning environment, the teachers shared their repertoire of pedagogical
practices, analysed classroom problems and discussed possible responses. Reflecting on
their enactment in groups also revealed teachers experiencing dissonance – the
discrepancy between their pedagogical intentions and enactment outcomes. Such cases
prompted critical thinking and reflection on possible causes for the dissonance, linking
theory and practice, context and teaching purposes, developed their awareness, and
recognised alternative classroom solutions. Group discussions stimulated teachers to
think and to seek ideas and confirmation from their colleagues. As the group discussion
developed and the teachers encountered different views, the dialogues became more
complex and critical. The teachers demonstrated their learning through negotiating their
views, reconsidering their beliefs and practices, reconciling differences, shifting
perspectives, or recognising the value of multiple positions. In both individual and
collective learning endeavours, the process of learning emphasised the active and agentic
engagement of the teachers and their reflective practices, embedding cognition,
enactment and contextual aspects.
Engaging in the process of inquiry fostered the teachers’ learning, leading to professional
changes and growth. The teachers reported a number of factors that needed to be
accounted for: personal, contextual and socio-cultural. The teachers reported a need for a
support framework from institutions and authorities in order to be able to engage in
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ongoing professional learning and development while fulfilling other academic
commitments.
Teachers’ beliefs and practices of SCA
Prior to participation in the study
Prior to their participation in the study, the teachers reported an awareness and favourable
perceptions of SCA, and expressed their agreement with the key tenets of the approaches
(section 5.2.1). From the teachers’ questionnaire responses, they valued many aspects of
SCA principles. These included the importance of learners’ autonomy (having a say in
class) (Tudor, 1996), self-directed learning skills (self-reflection, self-correction, and
self-assessment) (Hoskinson, Barger, & Martin, 2014; Tudor, 1996), learners’ active
participation and engagement in class (Nunan, 1988; Tudor, 1996), an English-rich
learning environment (Ulla, 2018), and less prescriptive use of the syllabus and textbooks
(Nunan, 1988; Richards & Rodgers, 2001; Tudor, 1996).
However, the analysis confirmed two preliminary observations when the teachers
reported inconsistent beliefs with regard to student-centred pedagogy in the
questionnaire. First, while valuing learners’ autonomy and opportunities for self-directed
learning, many of the teachers also supported a strong role for teachers in the learning
process, particularly in class management. They believed that teachers should determine
the objectives of the lesson, manage the learning process, provide an English language
model, and give explanations of students’ language errors. There are a number of possible
reasons for these inconsistent reported beliefs. First, a teacher-centred teaching tradition
has existed in Asian education contexts for a long time (Aliusta & Özer, 2017; Ellis, 1994;
Pham & Renshaw, 2013; L. H. N. Tran et al., 2018; Trinh & Mai, 2019), which may have
influenced the teachers’ perceptions prior to their participation in the study. Another
possible explanation is that, prior to their participation, the teachers may have had varying
understandings and perceptions of SCA. With regard to cognition theory, as discussed in
Chapter Three, section 3.3.2, the teachers may hold different beliefs simultaneously
(Levin, 2015) and sometimes such beliefs are contradictory (Kang & Cheng, 2014). As a
result, their classroom decisions are never simple (Lampert, 1985). Furthermore, in terms
of research methods, it has been suggested that discrepancies between teachers’ reported
beliefs and/or practices may arise through the use of particular ‘pencil and paper’ data
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collection instruments, such as questionnaire and other self-report procedures
(Basturkmen, 2012; Borko, Jacobs, Eiteljorg, & Pittman, 2008; Isikoglu, Basturk, &
Karaca, 2009; Richardson, Anders, Tidwell, & Lloyd, 1991).
Another inconsistency was how the teachers saw themselves in the two open-ended
questions (see Chapter Five, section 5.2.2). The teachers identified a number of teacher
roles that exist within the context of student-centredness. However, while the teachers
seemed to move towards a strong view of the self-directed role of students and facilitating
and organising roles of teachers, they still placed weight on the traditional teaching role
of teachers, for example, as an instructor or a knowledge provider. For example, Lanh
perceived his multiple roles in class; as a facilitator who facilitated the process of student
learning, as a model for them and as their friend. In contrast, Lanh’s questionnaire
response stated that there were a few times he had to act as a traditional teacher who
maintained classroom management and required students to complete tasks. Similarly,
Manh and Tien recognised their various roles in class, including the mutually exclusive
roles of a facilitator and a knowledge provider (Manh) or instructor (Tien) who taught
students basic knowledge. This finding is consistent with Chu (2014) findings on
teachers’ conceptualisation and implementation of a learner-centred approach to TESOL
in Vietnam. In her study, the participants used terms such as facilitator, helper, guide,
and instructor to describe the role of a facilitator. Chu (2014) found that the participants
in her study used instructor to refer to both the role of a facilitator and the role of a
knowledge provider. The roles of knowledge provider and knowledge expert are not
directly linked to student-centredness.
Sometimes teachers may have difficulty making transitions from their culturally and
traditionally defined roles to their newly assigned roles in the student-centred system,
which links to the previous discussion point, in relation to teacher-centred teaching
tradition. According to Confucian philosophy, teachers should always know better than
students. They are considered masters, who are a source of knowledge (T. T. H. Pham,
2010) and are highly respected (H. B. Nguyen, 2014; Phan, 2008), as discussed in section
2.3. The expectation that teachers view their role as masters is simplistic and limiting,
which is reflected in the findings of this study. These perceptions are likely to challenge
the principle of student-centred approaches and may be a strong cultural impediment to
teachers “accepting any pedagogical practice that tends to put teachers on a par with their
students and detracts from teacher authority” (T. T. H. Pham, 2010, p. 28). Further, Lee
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and VanPatten (2003) state that if teachers and students are not ready to assume their new
roles, they are unlikely to undertake new kinds of learning tasks and activities because
roles dictate tasks. Therefore, it is crucial to raise teachers’ awareness of their new roles
in the execution of SCA (Chu, 2014; Tudor, 1996) and enhance teachers’ understanding
of the theory of SCA (Aliusta & Özer, 2017).
It is significant to note that the questionnaire responses were based on the teachers’ self-
reported beliefs and practices, which may have created a potential bias, as noted earlier.
Furthermore, the questionnaire data were collected from a wider group of participants,
and thus captured wider views. Discussion is now narrowed down to the group of six
teachers who participated in phases 2-4 of the study.
After participation in the study
After participating in the study, the results displayed diverse relationships between the
beliefs and practices of SCA among the six teachers. The evidence indicated that the
teachers became more aware of student-centred pedagogy, especially in relation to their
roles. For example, in the interview, Trinh reflected that she had to shift from her
knowledge transferring role to take on more diverse roles: an instructor who gives
instructions to students, a monitor to assess students’ performance, a facilitator, and an
observer. Trinh stated that “in order to assist student learning, a teacher is not only a talker
in the class” (Individual interview_Trinh). This reflects evidence in the literature
suggesting that the types of classroom activities in SCA imply various new roles for
teachers, including being a facilitator, a monitor, a needs analyst, a counsellor, and a
group process manager (Pedersen & Liu, 2003; Richards & Rodgers, 2014; Tudor, 1996).
Five out of six teachers reported being facilitators. For example, the interview finding
indicated that Uy perceived her role mainly as a facilitator of learning. Uy stated:
I think a teacher has to be a good facilitator in class. In order to be a

good facilitator, teachers should prepare various activities to implement
in class to motivate and engage students, to provide them with
opportunities to practice and use the language in class, which is a crucial
element of an effective English class.
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Uy also reflected about what had contributed to the success of her facilitating role and a
teaching session. Uy stated:
[to facilitate student learning in class], first, I identify and introduce

[the] main content of a lesson, which can be considered as the objectives
of a lesson, then integrate to present the content and have students
practice. When implementing activities, students play a key role and the
teacher is the one who facilitates the activities and monitors students.
Findings from the observational data showed a high degree of coherence between these
teachers’ beliefs and their practices in performing their student-centred teacher roles. It is
also evident from the teachers’ debrief, interview, and group discussion data that they
seemed to recognise the importance of making students central to their teaching practice.
Careful lesson planning and activity design focusing on student-centredness, anticipating
students’ challenges (section 5.4.2.1), giving clear instructions (section 5.4.2.2),
developing high-level thinking and independent learning skills (section 5.4.2.3) were
foregrounded as ways to help students speak more, foster student interaction in class,
construct meaning and develop skills to become independent learners. The reflective
comments from the teachers, as reported in section 5.4.2, suggested greater emphasis on
the students’ attitudes, needs, interests, motivations and development of necessary skills,
which affirmed the teachers’ commitment to SCA practices. From observations and
debriefs, the teachers enacted more student-centred activities that were built up in the
inquiries and began to expand their activities beyond the inquiries. For example, the
teachers attempted to translate new learning of SCA into their practices by having
students work on communicative and interactive activities such as questioning, jigsaws,
story completion, or debate to generate more interaction and language use. Four of the
six teachers also incorporated activities that enhanced students’ thinking and learning
skills. The findings from this study add to previous knowledge, which suggests that
teachers enact practices based on the beliefs they hold about SCA (Johnson, 1992; Kim,
2014).
The results also indicate that there was some congruence between the teachers’ reported
and observed practices. Aspects of student-centred instruction were reported in the
teachers’ practices; for example, the importance of students’ active participation and
engagement in class. The teachers agreed that effective teaching requires active
engagement of students and that teachers should change their teaching methods and
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activities when they see that students are not engaged. In observing their practices, the
majority of the teachers provided opportunities for students to talk, ask questions, share
their work, and interact in pairs, groups, and with the entire class as ways to encourage
students’ participation and engagement in class activities. The teachers were also
observed changing or adapting activities or instructions when they saw no engagement
from their students.
However, the teachers’ reported beliefs did not always correspond with their practices.
For example, the interview data show that Manh viewed himself as a facilitator in class,
but in his description, he shifted back to the traditional teacher-centred role. Manh
commented that teachers played a decisive role in student learning. He viewed what
teachers said as the truth, and believed that students listened to and learned from teachers.
In his reflection, he was aware of his traditional practices, and explained:
I had to use the traditional approach. I taught and students wrote down
information to learn. They did not know that they needed to use English
in class. . . . There was no other way. . . . That was because of the low
proficiency level of students.
Manh’s comment echoed his prior learning experiences, as reported in section 5.4.2.
From my experience as a language learner, I followed a traditional

approach, which means teachers giving instructions; students copying
what was taught. That somehow affects me and my teaching.
In line with this belief, the observational data produced a similar picture, showing that
Manh continued to perform traditional roles, despite his self-described role as a student-
centred facilitator. Although Manh used Microsoft PowerPoint in place of the blackboard
to present lesson content, lecturing, explaining, demonstrating, questioning, and
translating were the most commonly used techniques in his classes, suggesting that the
teacher held the authority and control, making all decisions regarding teaching and
learning (Aliusta & Özer, 2017). This supports previous studies that found traditional
teacher roles still commonly influence teaching practices, especially in developing
countries where SCA has been introduced through national government policies (Aliusta
& Özer, 2017; Yilmaz, 2009). The data suggest that Manh’s awareness or knowledge of
SCA increased and he attempted to change his classroom practices; however, his beliefs
were not necessarily affected. The findings relating to Manh are slightly different from
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those of Meirink, Meijer, and Verloop (2007), who found more changes in cognition than
in behaviour. However, in their study, the findings may have been influenced by the
heterogeneous group of six teachers of six different subjects: science, mathematics,
English language, cultural and arts education, economics, and history, compared to the
homogeneous group of teachers in my study. Another possible explanation is that the
findings were based on interviews and teachers’ digital logs. Using a different method of
data collection, such as observations in classrooms, might have resulted in different
findings.
This finding generally fit well with several prior studies (Basturkmen et al., 2004;
Brinkmann, 2015; Kaymakamoğlu, 2018) that indicate inconsistencies between beliefs
and practices, as explored in section 3.3.2. Understanding the inconsistencies requires an
awareness of a number of factors, as discussed in section 3.3.2. They include teachers’
experience (Aliakbari & Mohsen, 2015; Basturkmen, 2012; Farrell & Bennis, 2013), the
teaching context (Farrell & Bennis, 2013; Levin, 2015), prior knowledge and learning
experiences (Levin, 2015; Tamimy, 2015), planned or unplanned aspects of classroom
practice (Basturkmen et al., 2004; Johnson, 1992; Tamimy, 2015), culture (Ashton,
2015), and the wider social and institutional context (Buehl & Beck, 2015). These
influences are explored in-depth in association with teacher learning in the following
sections.
At a more complex level, the teachers reported mixed beliefs and enacted practices of
both teacher-centred and student-centred approaches. For example, Lanh acknowledged
the traditional role of knowledge transmission alongside other student-centred roles that
a teacher performed in class. Lanh’s comments below suggest that he believed students
played an active role in their learning and he viewed himself as a facilitator, organiser,
guide, and observer who facilitates students’ learning process and responds to students’
needs and interests. He stated:
I think that a teacher now has not only the responsibility for teaching
students, but being a facilitator. In their various roles, teachers have to
organise and facilitate the learning process of students and try to create
a good learning environment for students.
When the teacher observes the class, if there is no longer positive
reaction and engagement from the students in the lesson, the teacher
should change the topic, or shift the lesson to something that students
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feel interested in and they want to ask about . . . . The teacher should
provide some guidance to students. While students are doing a required
task, they will ask the teacher questions to clarify or to find ways to
solve that task.
The findings suggest that the teachers in this study practice at the interface of multiple
and sometimes competing influences, including Confucianism, SCA, their professional
values and goals, and their students’ attributes. These factors influence how the teachers
understand and enact their roles. As a result, they seem to have adopted elements of both
traditional and SCA-oriented teaching.
It is evident from the observation and debrief data presented in section 5.3 that in
participating in the inquiry process, the six teachers demonstrated similar adherence to
traditional classroom practices, adopting behaviourism and grammar translation methods
with a reliance on textbooks. From the lesson observations and teachers’ debriefs, their
interpretation of SCA seems to centre around student interaction and linguistic production
with a focus on developing students’ speaking, listening, reading and writing skills. The
teachers shared similar classroom methodological approaches to presentation, practice
and production, and input, interaction and output. Uy, Lanh, Nhi, Trinh and Manh
commented that linguistic knowledge influenced the improvement of language skills such
as listening, speaking, reading and writing (see section 5.3.1) and that student interaction
was enacted mainly via pair work and group work (see section 5.3.2). At times, the
teachers fostered student interaction through pair work and group work with a traditional
teaching orientation. For example, to practice grammatical tasks from the textbook,
students were asked to work in pairs and then nominated to read the sentences, give their
answers to the teacher, and finally to translate the text into Vietnamese. This is illustrated
in the following example:
Nhi: Work in pairs. Fill in the sentences in the exercise with correct
relative words and find out the rules for using these relative words.
(O1D1_Nhi)
After allowing students to work in self-selected pairs, Nhi nominated one student to
correct each sentence in the exercise.
Nhi: Let’s correct the exercise. I’d like you to read the whole sentence
and translate into Vietnamese.
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S: This is the camera which students often use for their project
work? - Đây là cái máy chụp hình mà sinh viên thường sử dụng cho các
dự án.
Nhi: Which thay thế cho từ nào vậy em? [What does which replace
for?]
S: The camera.
Nhi seemed to introduce an interactive learning opportunity; however, her instruction
focused on a grammar-translation approach. Another observed practice fostering SCA
with a traditional orientation was that after presenting a new language form or structure
to students, the teachers got students to work in pairs to rehearse the new language form
or structure (behaviourism or total physical response approach).
SCA aims to develop students as critical thinkers and independent learners, as noted in
section 3.2.1. Activities requiring independent learning, high-level thinking and
articulated skills, such as collaboration, group work, goal setting, self-monitoring, self-
reflection, self-review, self-assessment and project-based teaching, received different
reactions from the participating teachers. There was some disparity between how SCA
was perceived and how the teachers reported their practical applications, especially those
related to higher thinking and learning skills. For instance, the teachers believed that skills
such as self-reflection and self-assessment are crucial in helping students to become self-
directed learners. Despite these activities being very student-centred, the teachers
reported that they did not often get students to reflect on what they learned or do self-
review or self-assessment. In practice, these two activities were rarely observed in the
teachers’ classes, except in Uy’s last two observed sessions. Similarly, in their espoused
practices, three quarters of the teachers reported that they frequently asked students to
think about or set learning goals before lessons started. In the enacted practices of the six
teachers, only Lanh and Trinh attempted to incorporate goal-setting activity in practice.
As reported in sections 5.4.2.1 and 5.4.2.2, the teachers described challenges when getting
students to work together in pairs or groups. Unlike common critiques of Confucian
heritage cultures (Nguyen et al., 2017; N. H. Tran et al., 2018; Tran, 2013), the teachers
in this study explained that the challenges were due to students’ use of Vietnamese and
the lack of structures for communicating when working in pairs or groups. In the second
group discussion, Trinh suggested that teachers “should spend the first teaching session
of each course to provide students with some guidance on how to work in groups, together
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with useful language and structures students can use to discuss with each other”. Tien
agreed with Trinh and further added this practice should be institutionalised as a formal
practice in the two organisations (Group discussion 2). This reflects a crucial
consideration of students’ voices and needs in the reform process and practice change.
Like their teachers, students need to be trained about the philosophy, methods and skills
underlying SCA (Aliusta & Özer, 2017).
What was most noteworthy in this study was that five of the six teachers eventually
adopted a more pragmatic “hybrid” approach, which implied using a combination of
teacher- and student-centred approaches. For example, Lanh commented in the interview
that he did not apply one particular teaching method or approach in his class but tended
to combine methods and approaches. Two of his favoured methods were Communicative
Language Teaching and Audio Lingual because they focused more on repetition,
communication and grammar, rather than other skills and knowledge that were not
necessary for speaking skills. The use of a hybrid approach is supported in the literature
by a number of studies (Bremner, 2019; Pham, 2016; Tam, 2015). In contemporary
classrooms, teachers are likely to encounter students from diverse backgrounds with a
range of learning needs and preferences (Bremner, 2019). Teachers are also faced with
the realities of teaching environments, which include the physical classroom, institutional
structures, national policies, and wider socio-cultural contexts (Baeten, Kyndt, Struyven,
& Dochy, 2010; Nguyen, 2016; Pham, 2016; Schweisfurth, 2011; Tamimy, 2015). The
approaches used depend on how appropriate they seem to be in different situations, and
what is best for student learning. The teachers in this study were student-centred in that
they took account of students’ characteristics and socio-cultural contexts, and institutional
constraints. However, the teachers’ ideal teaching practices were sometimes superseded
by pragmatic concerns about how they might best help students learn. This implies a
paradigm of principled pragmatism, in which the relationship between theory and
practice, ideas and actualisation can only be realised in practical applications informed
by teachers’ experience and contextual factors (Kumaravadivelu, 1994). Accordingly, a
number of teacher-centred routine practices were conducted in their classes, as they were
believed to build up students’ linguistic knowledge and language skills, which were
considered crucial for students at low proficiency levels. The five teachers endorsed both
teacher-centred and student-centred approaches.
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The use of hybrid approaches is suggestive of the tensions between core and peripheral
beliefs (Pajares, 1992), as mentioned in section 3.3.1. For example, Trinh’s comment
illustrates shifting between core and peripheral beliefs. She reflected:
When I started my teaching career, my main goal of teaching practice

was to help students achieve high marks in the exams. Then my goal
changed to help students be able to speak English. And now [after
participating in this study] I realise the importance of student autonomy
and their self-directed learning.
Although Trinh stated that, after participating in this study, she believed in the importance
of fostering student autonomy and self-directed learning both inside and outside the
classroom (Individual interview), in practice, she reverted to enacting various traditional
teacher-centred approaches to teaching such as behaviourism (section 5.3.1) and her
previous instructional goal, which was creating opportunities for students to speak. She
reflected that these would help her students (section 5.3.1) even if it meant adopting
typically teacher-centred methods. Because of her students’ characteristics and contextual
constraints such as the curriculum, textbook design, and large class sizes, Trinh’s core
belief (what was best for her students) appears to have overridden her peripheral belief
(value of SCA). Trinh realised that her beliefs were contradictory (section 5.4.2), which
is supported in the literature: teachers may hold different beliefs simultaneously and
sometimes these beliefs may conflict with each other (Kang & Cheng, 2014; Levin,
2015). This is when teachers’ experience plays a role in teachers’ decisions about what is
best for students (Basturkmen, 2012) and teachers need a degree of autonomy to respond
to students’ physical, intellectual, and emotional needs (Croft, 2002).
Student-centredness and teacher-centredness should not be a dichotomous choice or

competing approaches, because “the merger of practical realities and theoretical
complexities tends to collapse the binary of teacher-centred and student-centred
classrooms” (Kain, 2003, p. 104) or influence implementation success versus failure
(Schweisfurth, 2011). Croft (2002) argues that student-centred practices – insofar as they
prioritise learning outcomes – may mean that teachers develop different teaching
practices in different situations in relation to local conditions and available resources to
best facilitate student learning, even if this means teaching in a teacher-centred way.
O'Sullivan (2004) and Kain (2003) make similar points. As a result, instead of student-
centred approaches, a number of researchers have proposed new terms such as learning-
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centred (Brinkmann, 2019; Kumaravadivelu, 2006; O'Sullivan, 2004) or classroom-
centred (Kain, 2003) to refer to any teaching approach in which teachers place an
emphasis on effective facilitation of student learning.
Shifting from teacher-centred education to a student-centred approach can be a complex

change process related to educational reforms, which may involve uncertainty, adversity
and resistance (Aliusta & Özer, 2017; Bremner, 2019; Pratt, 1992; L. H. N. Tran et al.,
2018). For the reforms to be successful and change to happen, all interdependent
components of the educational system need to be simultaneously addressed; most
importantly, the curriculum, assessment practice, and the people embedded in it, such as
students and teachers. Teacher engagement is considered a vital determinant of success
(Buchanan, 2012; L. H. N. Tran et al., 2018). Teachers need to be adequately supported
if they are expected to change their beliefs about teaching and learning, adopt new roles
and acquire new knowledge and practices (Aliusta & Özer, 2017; Beauchamp & Thomas,
2009; Bremner, 2019; Brinkmann, 2019). One supportive measure is the cultivation of
teacher professional learning and development, which is discussed in the following
section.
Teachers’ professional learning
The results of this study, as summarised in sections 6.2 and 6.3, raised some points for
discussion that centre on teacher learning. These include:
1. Teachers’ beliefs should play a vital role in the design and delivery of teacher
learning.
2. Teacher learning activities should include opportunities for enactment,
reflection, and sharing.
3. Teacher learning opportunities should acknowledge individual differences
and create a common ground.
4. Teacher learning is a mediating process.
5. Teacher learning reconceptualises change as a process of growth.
Taking into account of all these points, which are explored further below, a recommended
framework for teacher professional learning was developed, drawing on the findings of
this study.
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Teachers’ beliefs should play a vital role in the design and delivery of
teacher learning
In this study, a questionnaire was conducted in Phase 1 before the teachers participated
in the inquiry process. The questionnaire provided teachers with an opportunity to reflect
upon their existing beliefs and prior practices to gain an awareness of their preconceptions
about teacher roles, learner roles, and teaching and learning. Through reflection, the
teachers were encouraged to articulate their beliefs to become more aware of the origin
of those beliefs and could then decide whether they remained valid and useful for their
particular context in the subsequent phases of the study.
There has been ample research on teachers’ beliefs and practices of SCA (Bremner, 2019;
Brinkmann, 2015; Chu, 2014; Dang, 2006; Kaymakamoğlu, 2018; Lin et al., 2014).
However, to understand how teachers learn to teach with a student-centred focus, we need
to extend findings about learning from students-as-learners to teachers-as-learners and we
need to define teacher learning as a function both of the teacher-learner and of the learning
experience itself (Kennedy, 1991). Kennedy (1991, p. 3) argues that it is crucial to design
research that examines “what teachers bring with them to new experiences – what they
already know, believe, or value” in their professional learning, particularly with an
ongoing, practice-based, and bottom-up approach. Similarly, in the study of teacher
thoughts and decisions, Woods (1996) notes that how teachers think depends on their
existing knowledge and belief systems. This study mirrored a teachers-as-learners
approach, so obtaining teachers’ initial beliefs was an important starting point to ensure
that the new practices or strategies were well aligned with their existing ones (Guskey,
2002) and to “negotiate acceptance of the innovation” with the teachers (Tudor, 1996, p.
232). This starting point can also avoid superimposing potentially inappropriate
theoretical frameworks derived from the knowledge of the researchers or outsiders
(Johnston, 1992). Teacher learning opportunities that take prior beliefs into account are
likely to avoid competition between new learning and teachers’ existing beliefs and
theories (Farrell, 2006).
The literature has indicated that teachers’ initial beliefs are important indicators that
reflect teachers’ change in the process of teacher learning (Tam, 2015). Their initial
beliefs can be formed during the apprenticeship of observation or pre-service teacher
education or training (Lortie, 1975), as mentioned in section 3.4.2. Teachers’ early
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beliefs, as discussed in section 3.3.1, along with their understandings of teacher roles,
student roles, and the way they think about teaching and learning, are cognitive filters that
guide the way they act in the classroom (Aliusta & Özer, 2017; Nespor, 1987; Pajares,
1992; Tam, 2015). Teacher beliefs also guide teachers to adopt teaching strategies for
solving practical challenges and influence the processing of new information (Farrell,
2007). More importantly, teachers’ beliefs about learning determine not only the
instructional decisions that they make but also “determine what learning they themselves
undertake” (Opfer & Pedder, 2013, p. 94). The findings indicated that the teachers, both
prior to and after participating in this study, had an awareness and favourable perceptions
of SCA, as discussed in section 6.3. While Desimone (2009) contends that changing
teachers’ beliefs has been considered a prerequisite for instructional developments and
reforms, Guskey (2002) argues that professional learning and development activities
designed to initiate change in teachers’ attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions, leading to
change in practices and student learning outcomes, may be ineffective for experienced
teachers. Guskey (2002) then proposes an alternative model, suggesting a different
sequence for the three major outcomes: change in teachers’ classrooms practices, leading
to change in student learning outcomes, followed by change in teachers’ beliefs and
attitudes. Arguably, these two proposals of teacher change imply a linear procedure of
change (Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002), which may need re-consideration because
teacher learning and change is a complex process (Tam, 2015). Teacher change is further
discussed in section 6.4.5.
Although there are different opinions about the sequence of events in teacher change, it
has been generally accepted that pre-service and in-service teachers come to any teacher
learning, development and training opportunities with prior knowledge and beliefs
(Aliusta & Özer, 2017; Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002; Desimone, 2009; Farrell, 2006;
Lortie, 1975). However, prior beliefs are usually held tacitly or taken for granted (Pratt,
1992), forming subconscious assumptions on which practice is based (Farrell, 2006).
These implicit beliefs are not consciously articulated without some assistance (Johnston,
1992). Therefore, teacher learning needs to provide activities for teachers to articulate
and make their implicit beliefs about teaching and learning explicit, to achieve “awareness
conceptions of teaching before any change can be considered” (Farrell, 2006, p. 244). In
this study, the questionnaire and debrief were used to make the implicit explicit
(Thornbury, 1991, p. 198). As Thornbury (1991) has noted, without adjustments at the
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level of awareness of prior beliefs, the effect of teacher learning and development may
only be superficial. It is not possible to decide whether teachers’ existing beliefs are right
or wrong (Farrell, 2006) even if the existing beliefs are built on conventional pedagogies,
as choices among techniques, principles and approaches depend on learning outcomes
(Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011) and teaching contexts.
Teacher learning activities should include opportunities for enactment,

reflection, and sharing
In education research, reflection has been considered integral to learning (Farrell, 2007;
Hoffman-Kipp et al., 2003; Schön, 1992). Professional learning is widely believed to be
more effective when it is based on self-development and practice-based learning (Stoll et
al., 2006). Research has indicated that teachers learn when they have opportunities to
examine and reflect on their practical experience (Day, 1999; Solheim, Roland, et al.,
2018; Webster-Wright, 2009). Reflection is a process of becoming more conscious about
actions, conditions, and the consequences of action (McCotter, 2001). Conscious
reflection on practice enables teachers to provide a descriptive account of what they do
in the classroom and critique their practice. When “what they [teachers] do is discussed,
raised consciousness and shared collegially, they lay groundwork for systematic self-
evaluation and improvement” (MacBeath, 2013a, p. 17).
This study found that the teachers had numerous opportunities to critically reflect on their
cognition, practice, and specifically the why – the reasoning behind and justification of
their classroom decisions. The learning process provided the teachers with opportunities
to reflect on their classroom practices and activity enactment. They critiqued and learnt
from their own lessons when they realised that, in some instances, dissonance between
the teachers’ expectations and classroom reality. This was when the teachers looked for
ways to close gaps or mitigate contextual constraints, which triggered new learning. The
teachers reported an awareness of their traditional role and practices alongside SCA and
theory-practice gaps; an increased realisation of importance of student-centred pedagogy
and incorporation of classroom activities; and increased consciousness of enactment,
critical examination and justification of their practices (see Chapter Five, section 5.3).
Engaging in critical reflection also creates the possibility of transformative change and
growth when teachers question their underlying habitual patterns of thoughts and actions
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(Webster-Wright, 2009) to avoid “doing for the sake of doing” (Individual
interview_Trinh). This is discussed further in section 6.4.5.
Engaging in reflective dialogues and interaction with each other, the teachers had
opportunities to learn from others who share the reality of classroom life (MacBeath,
2013a), share the repertoire of their pedagogical knowledge and practical experiences;
and realise and discuss different ways of doing things (Vignette 1). These learning
activities also happened often in collective learning settings in other studies (Meirink et
al., 2007; Solheim, Roland, et al., 2018) and are a key feature of social learning (Meijs,
Prinsen, & de Laat, 2016). In enacting new understandings of SCA, in sharing their
experiences of dissonance between expectations and classroom reality, and of classroom
problems, the teachers were open to new practical knowledge by analysing causes and
suggesting possible responses to problems (Vignette 2). In this collegial interaction, the
teachers sometimes challenged and stimulated each other’s thinking, especially when
they expressed different views about a certain instructional practice or problem. This type
of interaction is regarded as an important collaborative component of meaningful
professional learning, which includes critique and dissent among members (McCotter,
2001). In this case, the teachers either re-considered, shifted their views and decided to
reconcile the differences (Vignettes 2 and 3), or negotiated their different views, defended
their positions, and ultimately recognised the value of different positions (Vignettes 2 and
3). Finally, from the teachers’ learning experiences, all six teachers reported development
in their recognition, awareness, change, and growth (Vignettes 1- 4). These learning
activities illustrated how the teachers learned in the social world. This study confirms
previous studies (Crockett, 2002; Meijs et al., 2016; Tam, 2015; Vescio et al., 2008),
which found that teachers’ collective learning, in situations such as professional dialogues
or professional learning communities, provides a powerful learning environment which
in turn leads to teacher growth. However, this is not to claim that what teachers learned
and how teachers changed and grew were the same for all participants. Further discussion
in terms of teachers’ reported and observed change and growth follows in section of 6.4.5.
The findings in this study critically challenge the claim by Bui and Nguyen (2016) that
EFL teachers in Vietnam tend not to develop and practise the habits of collegiality. This
discussion is built on in more depth in sections 6.4.3, 6.4.4, and 6.4.5.
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Teacher learning opportunities should acknowledge individual
differences but create a common ground
As discussed in Chapter Three, section 3.4.5, this study is grounded in two key theories
of constructivist and situative learning, which reflect the need for attention to both
individual teachers as learners and their participation in social learning communities.
Cobb (1994) contends that these two views complement each other, one focusing on the
sense-making of individuals within a social context, and the other focusing on the social
context and how it shapes individual learning. It is, therefore, crucial to highlight the
importance both of individuals and the social world (learning communities),
acknowledging the differences between individuals and the common ground of
communities.
Undertaking a teachers-as-learners approach to learning ought to keep teachers at the
centre of learning processes. Kennedy (1991) argues that “teachers, like other learners,
interpret new content through their existing understandings and modify and reinterpret
new ideas on the basis of what they already know or believe” (p. 3). Teachers have their
unique existing beliefs, as discussed in section 6.4.1, and prior knowledge and learning
experiences, which influence teachers’ present thinking and practice, projecting and
shaping their professional learning (Freeman, 2002). Teachers’ prior knowledge is unique
and comes from the “apprenticeship of observation” (Lortie, 1975) and prior learning
experiences are potentially from “memorable teachers” (Pratt, 1992, p. 203) during their
years of schooling and teacher education and training. The findings from this study are
consistent with the literature. All six teachers reported that their present teaching practices
were copied from their former teachers.
The conceptualisation of teacher professional learning, as stated by Freeman (2002), is
established over time, throughout a teacher’s career, which points to stages in
development and practice, as mentioned in Chapter Three, section 3.4.2. At different
stages of teachers’ careers, they have different professional goals, interests, and concerns
(Freeman, 2002). This view is supported by M. Louws, K. van Veen, et al. (2017).
Interview data from sixteen secondary teachers found that different domains of
professional learning goals were related to varying levels of teaching experience. Early
career teachers (0-7 years) formulated their learning goals in terms of communication and
classroom organisation. Learning goals pertaining to curriculum and instruction were
formulated by all teachers across three groups, although mostly by early career teachers.
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Learning about technological innovations in the classroom and learning related to
extracurricular tasks were typical of mid-career teachers (8-19 years) and late-career
teachers (20+ years). Learning about oneself as a professional was mentioned only by
early- and mid-career teachers. In another study, using a sense-making approach, M. L.
Louws, J. A. Meirink, K. Van Veen, and J. H. Van Driel (2017) further found that
teachers’ workplace conditions, especially cultural and structural conditions, could direct
teachers’ learning goals.
Another possible explanation for differences in professional goals, interests and concerns
at different stages of a teacher’s career stems from a cognitive perspective. Berliner
(2001) argues that, for every stage, different knowledge structures are distinguished,
moving from rule-driven, disorganised and exemplary knowledge (novice) to an
integrated, holistic, intuitive and situated knowledge (expert) (Berliner, 2001). As a
consequence, novice and expert teachers can be expected to differ in what, how and why
they want to learn. Interestingly, in this study, Trinh reported her interests depending on
different cohorts of students. She commented:
For non-English major classes, I am usually concerned about my

teaching methodology, whereas, for English-major classes, I am
concerned about the knowledge that students are supposed to learn. This
probably results from my learning experience as a student at university.
At that time, I just wanted to grasp as much knowledge about the subject
as I could and didn't pay much attention on the teaching methodology.
(Individual interview)
To add to this, Lanh acknowledged that teachers’ personality traits might potentially
influence their preferred approaches to learning. For example, some teachers may prefer
a self-initiated learning approach such as doing research (like himself), whereas others
may opt for a collective learning experience (Individual interview). Likewise, the teachers
reported their cultural preference for face-to-face discussions over online ones (Individual
interview_Lanh, Trinh, Nhi, Uy, Manh). Further, considering the possible diversity of
teachers’ instructional interests and concerns, this study did not impose any single method
on the teachers, but took SCA as a broad content orientation of teacher learning. Different
methods with a student-centred focus offer teachers alternatives to what they currently
think and do (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011).
Individual and collective learning is interrelated (Solheim, Roland, et al., 2018).

Collective learning both enhances individual learning and serves the collective goals of
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learning groups or professional communities (Richards & Farrell, 2005; Solheim, Roland,
et al., 2018). As discussed in Chapter Three, section 3.4.6.4, essential conditions and
characteristics, under which collaboration and collegiality are most effective for teacher
learning in social settings, involve shared interests and values, mutual goals, and
reciprocal trust, respect and support (Hord, 2009; Louis & Marks, 1998; Tam, 2015;
Vescio et al., 2008), which served as a common ground for the teachers. Participating in
this study, all the six teachers had a common interest of developing new knowledge and
skills of SCA. Elements of collegiality were reported in the interview with Lanh, who
highlighted the importance of the group’s purpose, working rules, and mutual trust. In
terms of trust, he commented that “trust is not defined by people’s geographic locations.
Trust is achieved when people are open-minded. They [teachers] don’t criticise each
other. . . . They encourage each other to realise what should be done” (Individual
interview). Integrated in Lanh’s definition of ‘trust’, there is a common ground of mutual
engagement on which the teachers build their community (Wenger, 2000). That is,
teachers work together to negotiate their joint inquiry, identify and address gaps in their
knowledge and practice in a supportive way. In addition, Lanh’s definition of ‘trust’
aligns with the Confucian’s values of harmony, collectivity, avoiding group conflicts,
showing peer respect, saving face and having a sense of duty to the community, as
discussed in section 2.4.
Likewise, Trinh conceived of shared goals, interests, mutual trust and openness to
collegial discussions in her experience. Through conversations with trusted colleagues,
teachers are able to visualise a better practice (Tam, 2015). Trinh reflected:
Teachers in the study were working towards the same goal, so we were
very much on the same page and discussed similar concerns. Every
time, participating in the group discussion, I found it very helpful. We
shared the difficulties that we might or might not have encountered;
sometimes, we encountered but yet recognised it as a challenge. We
discussed problems and shared solutions that have worked for our class
or solutions that we could think of. That was when we sometimes had
'ah ha' moments. Personally, I felt that the group was very open to
discussions.
As discussed elsewhere in this thesis, a situative perspective posits teacher learning as
emerging through social interaction within a community or a social world (Lave &
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Wenger, 1991; Richards, 2008). Such social participation and interaction shape not only
what teachers do, but also who they are and how they interpret what they do (Lieberman
& Pointer Mace, 2010). This view is confirmed by Richards (2008), who notes that
teacher learning through a situative lens involves the process of shaping and reshaping
the teachers’ identities and identities within the social interaction. Identity reflects how
teachers see themselves and how they enact their roles in different settings. As the
teachers reported in section 6.3.2, they enacted various roles towards SCA, such as an
instructor, facilitator, monitor, and observer. However, as teacher-learners in the group,
they no longer enacted simply the Confucian traditional roles of a guru, a moral guide, or
a knowledge transmitter, but started to develop their identities as members of a
community of practice (Lave, 1991). They negotiated their identity through the social
interaction of the community and their new roles were adopted. Collegiality creates new
roles for teachers, such as team leaders, teacher trainers, critical friends, mentors and
peers (Richards, 2008; Richards & Farrell, 2005).
Situative learning develops practical knowledge that teachers draw upon in their work.
This type of knowledge is concrete, integrated and rich in detail and connected to context
(Ball, Ben-Peretz, & Cohen, 2014). Unlike general expert knowledge, this practical
knowledge (as discussed further in section 6.4.5) remains unique and private. For
example, Uy used conventional questioning techniques as a warm-up activity to create a
relaxing classroom atmosphere in relation to previous lesson content. In contrast, Lanh
challenged students with group presentations as a warm-up activity; without focusing on
lesson content or presentation skills, he understood that the activity would benefit
students in many ways, such as building their confidence and enriching their background
knowledge. Central to teachers’ collective learning in a professional community is the
construction of shared knowledge based on the individual experiences of its members; in
other words, this creates common ground when “individual experience becomes
communal, distributed expertise can be shared, and standards of practice can evolve”
(Shulman, 1998, p. 521), which is in line with a situative perspective (Putnam & Borko,
2000, 2013). Hiebert, Gallimore, and Stigler (2002) propose building a system for
developing a professional knowledge base out of what individual teachers know and can
do. Ball et al. (2014) share a similar view and call this system “the collective knowledge
base” of a learning community (p. 320).
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Overall, teacher learning based on constructivist and situative perspectives regards
learning as an active and interactive process used by teachers as individuals and members
of a learning community. When it comes to learning, teachers bring with them unique
prior knowledge, learning experiences, professional goals, interests, preferences and
professional wisdom. When participating in a social learning setting, teachers become
members of a community, sharing communal goals, mutual trust and collective
knowledge and experiences.
Teacher learning is a mediating process
From the theoretical perspectives of constructivist and situative learning described in

Chapter Three, section 3.4.5, a fundamental concept is that learning is mediated by a
number of factors. Therefore, teacher learning involves several mediating influences, for
example student characteristics (Darling-Hammond & Sykes, 1999), individual teacher
characteristics (Richardson, 1996), contextual factors (Little, 2002), and wider socio-
cultural factors (Hodkinson et al., 2008). These mediators may enhance or impede teacher
learning.
New conceptualisations of teacher learning have created a key and active role for teachers
in their learning process. Individual teacher characteristics, such as experience,
knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes (Desimone, 2009) contribute to their interpretations and
development of new learning experiences, as discussed in section 6.4.1. In addition,
teachers’ theory-practice gaps during their teacher education and training programmes
(see Chapter Two, section 2.4) and their practicum experiences with supervising teachers
(see Chapter Two, section 2.7) may have a particular impact on teachers’ new learning
experiences. Further, Vermunt and Endedijk (2011) take into account other personal
factors such as teachers’ learning motivation, professional identity, agency, and
personality traits, as discussed in sections 6.3.2, 6.4.3, and 6.4.5.
Besides teachers playing a mediating role in the process of enacting SCA, student
characteristics and contextual constraints provided obstacles to the application of SCA.
In this study, constraints to implementing SCA emerged throughout the teachers’
commentaries about their lessons. As briefly mentioned in sections 5.3.2 and 5.4.2.1,
students’ characteristics, such as shyness, learning culture, the culture of face, and low
levels of English proficiency caused barriers to SCA enactment. There was evidence that
the teachers saw students’ characteristics as being an impediment to the implementation
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of student-centred instruction. These factors included students’ lack of familiarity with
student-centred classroom activities and their limited English language proficiency,
particularly in general English classes. These findings concur with the barriers
highlighted in the literature (Farrell & Bennis, 2013; Levin, 2015; Schweisfurth, 2011).
Evidence from the interviews and group discussions showed that institutional influences,
such as time limitations, curriculum requirements, and exam orientation (see Chapter
Five, section 5.3.2), influenced teachers’ adoption of new learning. Time constraints also
related to various work commitments on top of the teaching loads that each teacher was
assigned. Uy explained: “We are very busy. We usually go home after our teaching
sessions end. We don’t have time to sit together and share professional issues” (Individual
interview). Nhi added: “If there are meetings at our department, they are brief and mainly
about administrative requirements” (Individual interview). These factors referring to
work processes and organisational arrangements are argued to inhibit the teachers’
learning potential (Ellstrom, 2001) because lack of peer support and lack of opportunities
to engage in social or collective learning with other teachers can severely restrict learning
opportunities and therefore development and growth (Boud & Hager, 2012).
With respect to contextual factors, the perceived value of professional learning and
support from leadership also influenced teachers’ motivation for professional learning.
Teachers’ engagement in professional learning cannot be achieved without leadership
support, and teachers’ intentions and motivation for such activities is more likely to be
sustained with professional recognition and an organisational learning culture. Lohman
(2000) found four environmental inhibitors to teacher learning, including lack of time for
learning, lack of proximity to learning resources, lack of meaningful rewards for learning,
and limited decision-making power. In a later study, Lohman (2006) indicated that the
degree of teacher engagement in learning activities depended on collegial availability and
support, as well as the organisational climate for learning. Lohman’s (2006) study also
reported other inhibitors of teacher learning, including time constraints, inaccessibility to
colleagues’ work areas, and budget constraints. A number of these factors were reflected
in Lanh’s comment:
First and foremost, I would say the policy supporting professional

learning plays a crucial role. The organisation should be encouraging
teachers to engage in professional learning and development and
creating more opportunities for teachers to reflect on their teaching,
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exchange their practical and research ideas. . . . If teachers’ commitment
to professional learning and efforts for improving their teaching
practice was recognised by the institution via encouraging rewards, they
would be more likely to continue the same effort. …more funding for
research activities.
Uy reported the role of professional learning and the influence of leadership on teachers’
motivation and interest in professional learning. A possible explanation for this resistance
to professional learning relates to the hierarchical political system of Vietnam. In this
system, “without receiving command or guidance from superiors, subordinates would not
act” (L. H. N. Tran et al., 2018, p. 14). However, this explanation does not fully take into
account the role of teachers’ agency in their learning. What is more important is how to
motivate teachers to take active, self-directed, and agentic positions in learning (Evans,
2019).
In the past, in my faculty, there used to be strong professional learning

and development requirements for teachers such as writing papers,
presenting at workshops or seminars, classroom observations and
teachers' sharing sessions. But the practice no longer exists under new
leadership. So teachers are not doing it if it is not compulsory from the
faculty.
Teachers’ adaptation of an educational innovation explained by their personal and
contextual factors in this study fit well with a study by L. H. N. Tran et al. (2018). This
study identified factors that influenced the implementation of SCA in Vietnamese
universities and confirmed that teachers disengaged from the implementation of SCA or
executed it with discrepancies because of their teacher-centred beliefs and a lack of
student-centred teaching expertise. Moreover, the study found that existing contextual
factors associated with institutional leadership and management practices were an
impediment to changing teachers’ practice. These factors included a lack of visibility and
accessibility of policy and implementation strategy to teachers, incentives, and
management tools to promote the application of SCA, and an absence of continuous
professional development and communities of practice where teachers could be supported
in the use of new SCA teaching and assessment practices.
To resolve the tensions between student-centred practices and contextual constraints, the
teachers, at times, had to be selective to ensure alignment between their instructional goals
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and the curriculum requirements (Individual interview,_Nhi), or compromise new
learning and practice; in this case, student-centred practices for content coverage
(Individual interviews,_Nhi, Uy, Lanh, and Trinh). As a result of these tensions, the
instructional decisions teachers make may be affected by exigencies in the classroom
rather than by deliberate methodological considerations (Gurney, 2015; Larsen-Freeman
& Anderson, 2011). It can be argued that the teachers’ practices in this study are emergent
from the context because “context transforms practice in an ongoing creative process”
(Boud & Hager, 2012, p. 23) In terms of teacher learning, all six teachers reflected that,
because of constraints, their common professional learning activities were self-directed
ones such as reading published materials (Manh, Lanh) and/or conventional forms of
professional development such as participating in workshops and conferences (Trinh,
Nhi, Uy, Lanh, and Tien). The professional development activities reported in this study
concur with the doctoral research findings of Tran (2016), as mentioned in Chapter One,
section 1.3. This finding highlights the importance of creating autonomous and supportive
contexts for teacher learning and has implications for the design of teacher learning in
practice, aligning with constructivist and situative principles.
Learning is a cultural phenomenon involving practices, interaction and communication

(Hodkinson et al., 2008). Social learning opportunities enable teachers to interact and
learn from each other and with each other. In this study, there were a couple of instances
when the teachers raised concerns in relation to cultural aspects in the knowledge co-
construction process. One response from Lanh showed that lack of collaboration among
teachers could be an influential factor in a social learning opportunity. Talking about
teachers, Lanh said:
Some teachers may not be comfortable with the idea of learning from
or learning with each other. . . . They may want to learn by themselves.
They don't want to collaborate or they don't find collaboration important
and helpful.
Lanh considered the relationship among teachers in a professional learning community to
be the key to success. He expressed his view in the following excerpt.
The relationship among the teachers in the group plays a significant

role. This is because once people are close to each other, they might be
more open-minded and more willing to listen to others’ ideas. Thus, a
strong relationship among the members of the learning community
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should also be a necessary condition for successful professional
learning and development.
As the teachers (Lanh and Trinh) commented earlier, group discussions in this study
enhanced a culture of openness among the teachers. Previously, having professional
dialogues with colleagues had not been a common professional learning practice in either
of the universities involved in the study. Uy reported that she usually sought professional
solutions by herself as she did not have opportunities to share with other colleagues. In
contrast to Uy, whose interaction with faculty was limited, Trinh commented that she
often talked to other teachers about issues related to teaching or student learning during
lesson breaks and sought advice from her colleagues; however, the talk might be
perceived as “cordial everyday talk” (Hadar & Brody, 2018, p. 107). She was told those
were common issues in every class but received no professional advice from her
colleagues. She explained:
This is probably because I didn't sound serious enough to get my

colleagues' attention on the issue. My colleagues might think that this
was just part of a chat to start a conversation and that I might not
desperately need advice.
When explaining why she received little professional advice in conversations with
colleagues, Trinh talked about the influence of culture. Trinh’s compelling expression
below reflects the Confucian philosophy of harmony and modesty and humbleness of self
in society in general and at the workplace in particular.
Perhaps one aspect of the Vietnamese culture or Asian culture is that

we don't usually feel comfortable giving advice to colleagues, for
example, why don't you do this . . . ? Why don't you try this . . . ? The
receiver of the message might think that you are giving a lesson.
Despite common critique about Vietnamese teachers’ lack of dialogical custom (Saito et
al., 2008) or collaborative work habits (Bui & Nguyen, 2016; Vo & Nguyen, 2010),
various contextual and cultural explanations could account for this phenomenon. For
example, teachers are not trained to work collaboratively during their pre-service
professional education and training (Bui & Nguyen, 2016). Another possible explanation
is that teachers’ on-campus time constraints hinder comprehensive conversations about
194
issues relating to teaching and student learning. Also, teachers may find it inconvenient
to come to staff rooms during their short breaks (usually 15 minutes) as they are normally
far away and there are not always staff rooms in each campus building (Tran, 2016), see
Chapter One, section 1.3. Unlike the findings of Le and Nguyen (2012), stating that
teachers perceived that asking for help or raising their own teaching problems with
colleagues would betray their ignorance, in this study, Trinh’s willingness to share her
teaching concerns with her colleagues indicated a feeling of trust. However, in relation to
Trinh’s comment above, another explanation for the rarity of professional dialogues with
colleagues during breaks might come from Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism
cultures, which have all influenced Vietnamese culture. All have contributed to the idea
of humbleness of self, harmony among people, and respect for colleagues (Truong et al.,
2017), as described in Chapter Two, section 2.3.
Successful teacher learning, both individually and collectively, cannot be taken for
granted. Individual (student and teacher) and contextual (physical classroom and
institution) factors, and socio-cultural elements can impede the adoption of educational
innovations and hinder teachers’ engagement in professional learning. The reasons
include the amount of risk involved, the communicability of the innovation, compatibility
with existing practices, the number of stakeholders involved, the perceived benefits of
innovation, and the organisational, political, social and cultural context (Richards, 2008).
Collective learning is particularly difficult to sustain (Beck & Kosnik, 2014); therefore,
teachers’ learning practice must be carefully planned, monitored, and supported (Richards
& Farrell, 2005). Butler and Schnellert (2012) suggest valuable support such as time,
resources, and structured opportunities for interaction and collaboration. Their suggestion
is reflected in Lanh’s commentary.
To support teacher learning and sustain the practice, I think, there

should be more opportunities for teachers to exchange their teaching
and research ideas... Teachers should be supported by reducing their
teaching loads and providing them with necessary resources for their
learning and development, such as financial grant for doing research...
[the] working environment should be encouraging and supportive...
strong supportive relationships among teachers in the same faculty as
well as within [the] same institution.
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Teacher learning reconceptualises change as a process of growth
Teacher learning is commonly seen as a pathway to developing teacher knowledge and

professional competence (Cheng, 2009), which in turn results in improved student
learning outcomes (Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002; Wood & Sithamparam, 2014).
Educational institutions and researchers commonly position teachers and teacher learning
in relation to change (Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002; Desimone, 2009; Guskey, 2002).
These are assumptions linking teacher learning and evident tangible outcomes, as
mentioned in earlier sections of this study. An example in this study was that Trinh
reported that she had “a nice diary to record all the useful tips, activities and ideas learned
in this study project and suggested by the teachers” (Individual interview). However,
change can mean different things and is not always measurable (Richards, 2008). In this
study, change is seen as a complex process that involves learning (Clarke &
Hollingsworth, 2002), predicated on the idea that it is “a learning process for teachers that
is developmental and primarily experientially based” (Guskey, 1986, p. 7) and
conceptualised as growth – “teachers change inevitably through professional activities”
when teachers are learners in a learning community (Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002, p.
948). In this study, teacher change as growth is described in terms of teachers’ willingness
to implement something new or different, cognitive, affective and behavioural change.
Measures of change involved the teachers in inquiry into practices, reflection on their
practices, self-evaluation, self-realisation and self-awareness, which enabled the teachers
to monitor their growth and development over time.
Observations of teacher change include cognitive and behavioural changes (Avalos,

2011; Borg, 2006b). Changes in cognition and behaviour are considered separately in this
conceptualisation of learning, because one does not necessarily imply the other (Borg,
2006b; Meirink et al., 2007). This study found that the teachers’ change in cognition
corresponded to a number of the cognitive change process categories of Cabaroglu and
Roberts (2000), as described in section 3.3.2. The teachers reported an increased
awareness and knowledge of SCA instruction, realisation of theory-practice gaps, and
conscious enactment and critical examination and justifications of their practices, as
reported in Chapter Five, particularly sections 5.4.2.3 and 5.4.2.4. Engaging in this
inquiry process enabled the teachers to reconstruct, re-order, and link up constructs of
SCA and student-centred practices. For example, Uy and Nhi reflected that although the
inquiries were not completely new, they allowed the teachers to consciously and critically
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link the theory of the what, why, and how of SCA and their practices (see Chapter Five,
section 5.4.2.4). In addition, while the teachers made sense of and adopted new beliefs
and knowledge of SCA, they simultaneously confirmed their existing beliefs and
knowledge of traditional teacher-centredness as they commented that traditional teaching
approaches still played a role in their classes due to the multiple factors discussed in
Chapter Three, Chapter Five, and this chapter (section 6.3). Numerous studies have
reported similar findings (Bremner, 2019; Brinkmann, 2015; Chu, 2014; L. H. N. Tran et
al., 2018).
Teacher changes in cognition were also evident in the way the teachers perceived their
facilitative roles, re-labelled classroom activities beyond the element of fun - “trò”
[games], and in their willingness to try out new SCA activities. Teacher growth is
reflected in the process of negotiation between existing and new knowledge and beliefs.
Sometimes, the teachers moved away from their existing beliefs to new ones, or disagreed
with the new knowledge and experience, and shifted their views later. For example, Lanh
was initially opposed to the idea of teaching higher-level thinking and self-directed
learning skills, such as goal setting. Realising the benefits of teaching students thinking
strategies during their learning, he changed his initial beliefs. Lanh reflected in the
individual interview:
I didn't set goals for my students. I was guilty about not setting goals in
the past until I read the inquiry and especially until yesterday I read
some papers on setting goals and learning motivations. I say “oh my
goodness, this is good” and then I realised that setting goals is important
for the learners’ self-directed learning.
Lanh realised the importance of the students setting their own learning goals so that they
made efforts to work towards their goals, and the need for teachers to know how to
implement this in the class to make it work. From Lanh’s comment, it appears that Lanh
attached great importance to researching knowledge or “deliberate search” (Evans, 2019,
p. 10). Then he became more convinced when there was evidence of effectiveness from
published research. Further deliberate searching and evidence of effectiveness
contributed to Lanh’s consideration of his beliefs and practices so that he enhanced or
adjusted them.
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Teacher growth is also a process of the construction of a variety of knowledge types,
which is in line with the interpretive paradigm and the constructivist perspective in this
study. This study differentiated knowledge constructed by individual teachers in response
to their reflective engagement in this learning experience and knowledge co-constructed
in their interactions with other teachers in the learning community. There is knowledge
that forms a backdrop of awareness for teachers (Gurney, 2015); the new knowledge that
increases teachers’ awareness of factors and ideas relevant to their practice, but is not
necessarily (immediately) applicable in teaching activities. They may also need time to
get comfortable with new ideas, and think about how they might use them in their
classrooms, before launching them. Trinh reflected “some activities learned in the study
might not be fully applied in the courses I teach this semester but I am aware of step by
step how to carry out them in class. . . . I have noted down in my teaching diary for my
future practice. I can’t name all the new knowledge I have benefited from the discussions.
Recommendations of classroom activities and how to manage classroom activities are
definitely helpful” (Individual interview_Trinh). A possible explanation is that teachers
do not experiment with all new knowledge and classroom activities because of the annual
plans they have to follow. For example, Uy stated that she finished her teaching sessions
for one course before her participation in the study (Individual interview). The one-
semester period is also quite short, as Nhi reported earlier. However, the teachers reported
their intentions to incorporate more student-centred practices in the following semesters,
as discussed further below.
Another type of knowledge is personal practical knowledge, which is similar to

knowledge-in-practice or experiential knowledge, based on which teachers make their
pedagogical decisions, as discussed in sections 3.3.3 and 5.3.3. It is important to note that
the boundaries between these types of knowledge are sometimes blurry. Personal
practical knowledge can be tacit and intuitive, as stated in Trinh’s comment “Being a
teacher when you enter a class you feel the atmosphere, then you know what to do and
how to make it [teaching] suitable and good for students” (O3D3_Trinh). Personal
practical knowledge is also closely tied to teachers’ experience and the specific context
of the classroom (Elbaz, 1983). As Uy stated in section 5.3.3, she conducted an activity
in her class without knowing that the activity was termed ‘mind-mapping’. From her
personal and practical experiences, she commented that the activity (mind-mapping)
could enhance students’ imaginations and help students visualise connections.
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In teachers’ working lives, they commonly experience a detachment between theoretical
knowledge and everyday practice (Hoban & Erickson, 2004; Kuusisaari, 2013). The
examples above (Trinh and Uy) suggest that many of the problems in teachers’ work
settings are solved using their own experience or intuition (Kuusisaari, 2013; Richards,
1990). This type of personal practical knowledge helps bridge the gaps between theory
and practice. For example, Trinh, reflecting on her learning experience when she did her
Master’s studies, found that the disconnection between theory and practice made her
confused and unable to master broad conceptualisations of English language teaching
such as cognitive acquisition, metacognition and the like (Individual interview). Her
learning outcomes at that time, because of other work and life pressures, were “to submit
assignments on due dates and pass” (Individual interview,_Trinh). In contrast, she valued
the learning experience in the present study because “it’s easier and more helpful to learn
from practice” (Individual interview). In addition to the examples in section 6.3, the
following comment from Trinh depicts her awareness of the logical link between theory
and practice.
Reflecting on my previous lessons, I think I incorporated higher-level

thinking skills and learning strategies in the lessons, but I was not aware
that they were thinking skills and learning strategies. I implemented it
for the sake of doing it without knowing the purposes or reasoning.
That’s why the implementation was not logical and effective. Now I am
aware of the rationale underpinning those activities, learning tasks. I
think I will plan my lessons better to support student learning more
effectively.
The last type of knowledge distinguished in this study is knowledge-of-practice. This
notion of knowledge links with the situative perspective of learning, in which learning is
regarded as a dynamic social activity situated in physical and social contexts and
distributed across persons, tools, and activities (Borko, 2004; Johnson, 2006; Lave &
Wenger, 1991; Putnam & Borko, 2000, 2013; Vygotsky, 1978). The situative perspective
has viewed teachers not only as users but as “creators of knowledge who make decisions
about how best to teach their students within complex socially, culturally, and historically
situated contexts” (Johnson, 2006, p. 239). Such a view has radically transformed the
notion of teacher learning (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011). From this perspective,
teacher learning is not viewed as translating knowledge and theories into practice but as
learning from experience (Shulman, 1998) and “constructing new knowledge and theory
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through participating in specific social contexts and engaging in particular types of
activities and processes” (Richards, 2008, p. 164). This process of theorising practice
enables teachers to generate knowledge-of-practice (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999) or
practitioner knowledge (Richards, 2008), which is a source of teachers’ practices and
understandings (Richards, 2008). Teacher learning must provide opportunities for
teachers to learn the “skills of reflectivity” and “the discourse and vocabulary that can
serve participants in renaming their experience” (Freeman, 2002, p. 11). A focus on
teacher learning as a field of inquiry in this study, grounded in constructivist and situative
perspectives, was well-positioned to address the two functions mentioned above. First,
the teachers’ reflections, both individually and in groups, cultivated skills in reflectivity,
illustrating the thinking underlying the behaviours the teachers enacted in the classroom
in order to understand the rationale for the decisions that they made. This learning
experience also acknowledges the situated and the social nature of learning, which can
support or inhibit new learning. This, in turn, contributes to the process of knowledge
construction and shapes the process of teacher learning. Second, the inquiries could be
viewed as a theoretical foundation or discourse to help the teachers become more aware
of SCA, bridge theory-practice gaps, and justify their theoretical interpretations of SCA.
Finally, group discussions were means of socialisation into professional thinking and
discourse that enabled the teachers to rename their experiences and to learn via their
professional experiences.
Teacher growth is a complex and ongoing process associated with learning in practical
teaching contexts, taking beliefs, knowledge and practice into account. The following
comment illustrates the reported learning experience and professional growth, which in
turn resulted in “a feeling of satisfaction” (O4D4_Nhi) and “a source of encouragement
and inspiration” (Individual interview_Lanh).
I think I have been more aware of my teaching and my practice,

including teaching methods, classroom activities, learners, their
learning needs, their learning styles and preferences, and the
importance of their self-study. I have continuous adjustments to my
teaching. It was a very good opportunity to discuss with other teachers
and learn from them. Although it was only one semester, I have to say
that the biggest change is that I am more aware of my teaching. I know
what I am doing and importantly why I am doing that in my classes
[conducting activities in class]. (Individual interview_Nhi)
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Behavioural change encompasses ideas and knowledge that are or may be enacted in
practices, and teachers’ willingness to take risks by trying out new teaching approaches.
From such a perspective, teacher growth involves student-centred practices by the
teachers, which are iteratively refined through a process of enactment and reflection, as
outlined in sections 5.3, 5.4 and 6.4.2. In this study, the teachers’ efforts in applying SCA
in their teaching contexts was evident when they believed that learning from the inquiries
and ensuing pedagogical practices helped to shift (to a certain degree) teaching and
students’ learning towards being more student-centred. However, professional growth is
an ongoing journey, not a destination (Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002; Tam, 2015), which
requires iterative cycles of implementation and reflection (Individual interview_Nhi). For
example, reflecting on her experience, Nhi explained that, as a teacher, she could learn
from her own experience by reflecting on the practice, asking herself what she could do
better next time and how she could deal with a particular challenge, and modifying for
improvement in the future practice (Individual interview). Therefore, besides being
selective of or compromising student-centred practices, as discussed in section 6.3.2, the
teachers also reported their “personalized enactment” of SCA activities, knowledge and
beliefs (Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002, p. 955) to suit their students and the teaching
context.
The interview data indicated general improvement in the teachers’ skills and practices.
For example, after the new learning, Trinh appeared to invest more time in designing
lesson plans and classroom activities. Trinh reflected:
I spent more time and efforts in designing lessons and activities for
students. That’s why my lessons are more well-planned this semester.
This change was also supported by comments from other teachers:
After participating in the study, I have more energy and more thoughts
on the teaching methodology and I have more innovative ideas to
implement for my classes.
From the project, I think I need to do more research to look for
appropriate activities for my students.
During their practical implementation, the teachers looked to their students for evidence
of improved learning and enhanced practices. Generally, the teachers reported a positive
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impact on students’ learning as evidenced from their affective responses. For example,
students felt more motivated, excited and engaged (Individual interview_Lanh, Manh,
Uy). The teacher learning outcomes were reported via students’ cognitive evidence –
evidence that students understood the concepts being taught indicated student learning in
the second group discussion.
Students were able to use the structure which was taught in the lesson
– passive voice. Also, they were able to describe objects such as
materials, size, shapes, and so on.
Students were very excited, motivated and engaged in the activity. They
had very good opinions to back up their arguments.
I thought that my students could not do it. It turned out differently and
really surprised me. After watching the movie, students discussed
together in their groups and then presented their opinions. They were
really good and very thoughtful.
Teacher growth in both cognition and behaviour was also present in the ways teachers
extended their new knowledge. Teacher learning was not limited to the content of
particular learning activities. For example, valuing the learning opportunities in this study
and considering the learning experience as a source of inspiration (Individual
interview_Lanh), the teachers reported their future intentions to introduce different sorts
of learning activities in order to strengthen their SCA practice. For example, they were
motivated to locate and read more materials on student-centred language teaching (Lanh,
Uy), do research (Lanh, Trinh), and observe each other’s classes (Trinh, Uy, Nhi, Lanh).
The teachers excitedly share their intentions for future classes. For example, Uy shared
some teaching plans aimed at promoting students’ self-directed and autonomous learning
via project work for her classes in the coming semester. Lanh reported that he was
preparing to apply a flipped classroom approach in one of his courses the following
semester. Trinh made plans to re-design teaching materials for Reading Comprehension
courses for more student-centredness, promoting more self-directed learning. Nhi
intended to use SCA more often. These outcomes concurred with the findings of Meirink
et al. (2007), who examined how teachers actually learned in collaborative settings by
exploring learning activities in relation to reported changes in cognition and/or behaviour
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of six teachers. They found seven configurations, in five of which the teachers reported
their intentions to apply new learnings in future practice. Based on self-determination
theory, it has been argued that teachers’ autonomous motivation in every aspect of their
work, including in-service professional learning and training, is “a vital ingredient for
their optimal functioning and professional growth” (Gorozidis & Papaioannou, 2014, p.
3).
However, the connection between teacher learning and change as growth is not always a
simple and linear causal chain (Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002); rather it is a complex
process (see Chapter Five, sections 5.3 and 5.4, and Chapter Six, section 6.3). Tam (2015)
distinguishes three common patterns: change in belief but not in practice; change in
practice but not in belief; and change in both belief and practice. The findings of this
study complicate, problematise and add to the patterns proposed by Tam (2015). As
discussed in section 6.3, there were diverse relationships between the teachers’ beliefs
and practices. Numerous influential factors led the teachers to undertake a hybrid
approach to learning, which combined existing beliefs, values and knowledge with new
ones to achieve effectiveness and responsiveness in student learning. However, it is worth
noting that the teachers in my study taught non-English major EFL learners who had low
levels of English proficiency, which may have inhibited the teachers from full enactment
of SCA. Another possible reason for this hybrid approach is cultural issues, as briefly
discussed on section 6.3.1. Pham (2016) suggests that change should be seen as a cultural
continuity or blending between existing beliefs, knowledge and approaches and new ones.
Overall, the findings of this study illustrate the complication of the relationship between
teacher learning, teachers’ changes in cognition, and teachers’ practices. Unlike the
interventionist approach to teacher development, which positions teacher development as
a way to change teachers’ practices or to achieve predetermined policy mandates or
institutional aims (Gurney et al., 2014), meaningful and effective learning adopting a
bottom up and practice-based approach requires teachers’ active engagement in critical
inquiry into and reflection on their practice. As mentioned in section 3.4.1, there is an
interdependence between teacher professional learning, professional identities and
agency (Eteläpelto et al., 2014; Gurney et al., 2014). Teacher professional learning
impacts teachers’ identities (Eteläpelto et al., 2014) as “learning or acquiring professional
expertise is conceived as a process of identity formation within practical communities”
(Eteläpelto & Collin, 2004). As teachers become more aware of their professional
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identities, they are more likely to have an increased sense of agency, and this, in turn, will
influence their decision making (Beauchamp & Thomas, 2009; H. B. Nguyen, 2014).
When teachers act as agentic, critical and reflective practitioners, they are more active
and engaged in meaningful professional learning, rather than making attempts focused on
“the surface of ... change implementation” (L. H. N. Tran et al., 2018, p. 13).
It has been argued that continuous teacher learning needs to provide opportunities for
systematic and intentional reflection on teachers’ practice (Poekert, 2011; Schön, 1992);
for collegial interaction with their colleagues (Desimone, 2009; Hoffman-Kipp et al.,
2003; Wilson & Berne, 1999); for constructing meaningful local and practical knowledge
for teaching (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999); and for using contextually responsive work
experience (Gurney et al., 2014). In this way, teacher learning may foster practice-
oriented outcomes such as self-awareness, lifelong learning and professional growth
(Gurney, 2015). Also, professional growth and sustaining change must be seen as part of
the learning process, in which teachers’ pedagogical practices “need to be continually
renegotiated within specific contexts” (Clarke, 2009, p. 194). For this to occur, continued
follow-up and support for teacher learning and teachers’ identities as agentic, critical and
reflective practitioners are essential (Evans, 2019; Gurney et al., 2014; Guskey, 2002).
Towards an inquiry approach to teacher professional learning
Drawing on the review of the literature and the findings of this study, a proposed
framework for teacher professional learning was developed (see Figure 6.1).
Teacher learning needs to be studied holistically by linking teachers as learners, learning
activities or approaches, and the context in which learning occurs (Boud & Hager, 2012).
Also, teacher learning has to be located in the practices of teachers (Boud & Hager, 2012;
Mason, 2007) and with collective participation (Borko, 2004; Putnam & Borko, 2000).
Teacher learning, applying an inquiry approach, is a complex, interconnected, multi-
dimensional process. First, teacher learning is based on inquiry-oriented and practice-
based learning (Stoll et al., 2006). Teachers learn when they have opportunities to
examine and reflect on their practical experience (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999). The
framework suggests that teachers learn through experience and through considered and
deliberate reflection about and inquiry into that experience. This is a process of active
engagement with experience (enactment) and reflection. In this process, knowledge
construction (thought) and knowledge application (action/enactment) are linked
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(Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999). When teachers can provide a descriptive and critical
account of what they do in the classroom, they are likely to question and potentially adopt
a critical distance to their own habitual behaviours (MacBeath, 2013a).
This learning process of inquiry is mediated by personal, contextual, and socio-cultural

factors. Personal influence includes teachers’ learning needs, motivation, preferences,
their agency, their existing knowledge, initial beliefs and prior experience. Contextual
factors include students’ characteristics, and the characteristics of the institution where
they are employed. Wider social and cultural factors are also supporters or inhibitors of
teacher learning, especially in relation to collective learning when teachers engage in,
become members of, and interact with each other in social learning settings.
PERSONAL INFLUENCES
Enactment
New learning
Reflection
CONTEXTUAL INFLUENCES
SOCIAL INFLUENCES
Cognition
Enactment
Teacher growth
(Individuals and members in learning communities)
Individual Collegial
 
CULTURAL INFLUENCES
Figure 6.1 Recommended framework for teacher professional learning

An inquiry process of teacher learning should create opportunities for both individual and
collective learning, because they are interrelated (Eteläpelto & Collin, 2004; Sfard, 1998).
Learning conceptualised at an individual level reflects teachers’ recognition, realisation
or awareness of something as a different way or ‘better way’ of ‘doing’ (Evans, 2019).
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At this level, individual teachers may perceive and interpret new learning differently
because of the diverse influences mentioned above. At a collective level, the framework
suggests that teachers learn through social interaction. This perspective on learning
reflects its social and distributed nature and shifts the emphasis away from the mind of
an individual toward socially constructed learning (Webster-Wright, 2009). Participating
in collective learning gives teachers opportunities to share their instructional problems
and seek possible solutions together. Collective reflection prepares teachers to critique
their own lessons, evaluate effectiveness and share future intentions. While examining
new learning in connection with the classroom context and their enactment, teachers have
opportunities to reconsider their beliefs and practices (Guskey, 2002). Furthermore, new
knowledge can be created (Loughran, 2010; Meijs et al., 2016), existing understandings
can be enhanced (Simoncini et al., 2014), and beliefs can be negotiated when teachers
experience different perspectives (Meijs et al., 2016). All of these contribute to the
process of learning and professional growth.
This proposed framework of teacher professional learning resulted from this study is not
merely a theoretical exercise; it serves as a constructive process to aid understanding and
guide creative action in teacher learning (Webster-Wright, 2009). The framework
provides insights into the complexity and multidimensionality of the teacher learning
process. It is therefore strategically important for supporting teacher learning initiatives.
This recommended framework may provide policy makers, teachers’ professional
learning and development planners and EFL teachers with good insights into new ways
of undertaking and supporting meaningful and ongoing professional learning located in
practice.
Contributions and implications of the present study
This section discusses the contributions and implications of this study to academic
research. These include theoretical, methodological and practical elements developed
during the course of the study.
Theory
This study took careful consideration of social, cultural and policy contexts, and the
outcomes provide a significant contribution to our understanding of the ways in which
Vietnamese EFL teachers may learn and benefit from innovative professional learning
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approaches. From constructivist and situative perspectives, teacher learning needs to
allow teachers to engage in “self-directed, collaborative, inquiry-based learning that is
directly relevant to teachers’ classroom lives” (Johnson, 2006, p. 243). This kind of
learning has been confirmed to be beneficial to teachers’ professional growth in various
contexts (Deni & Malakolunthu, 2013; Doig & Groves, 2011; Harris & Jones, 2010;
Tsukui & Saito, 2018). However, this approach has only recently arrived in Vietnam and
ambivalent outcomes had been reported in a few studies in the Vietnamese context, as
explored in section 3.4.7 (Saito et al., 2008; Vo & Nguyen, 2010). The outcomes of this
study clearly support a bottom-up process of teacher learning embodying both individual
and collective learning opportunities. This approach is different from the transmission,
deliver-and-apply model and the cascade model of teacher professional development that
teachers generally, and Vietnamese EFL teachers particularly, have conventionally been
familiar with, as discussed in Chapter One, section 1.3. It was apparent from this study
that the teachers were active constructors of knowledge and their process of knowledge
construction was inquiry-embedded, situated and socially constructed through individual
and collective reflection on their practices and social interaction with others. They
developed knowledge of SCA, translated new learning into practice, reflected on their
practical enactment in connection with their existing beliefs and knowledge, analysed and
evaluated the strengths and shortcomings of their teaching, and participated in critical
reflective dialogues with other teachers. The results of the study support the idea that
teachers (and EFL teachers in particular) can continue to learn and grow in their daily
teaching practice while taking into account the expectations of institutional, social and
policy contexts. This balance between accountability and agency is not only a challenge
in teacher learning but also important in other aspects of professional life (Webster-
Wright, 2009).
This study will also be beneficial in finding ways to support teachers’ engagement in
critical inquiry and reflective practice, which help them gain insights into their learning
and the beliefs and assumptions they hold about their practices. As explored in Chapter
Three, section 3.4.6, teachers’ critical inquiry and reflective practice have the potential
not only to facilitate transformative learning of teachers (Poekert, 2011) and improve
teaching, learning and organisational cultures (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999), but also to
influence positive social change and improvement (Webster-Wright, 2009).
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Engaging in collective reflection in group discussions suggests an important form of
collective or community-based professional learning. Reflective practices among
teachers could be carried out through collegial professional dialogues, writing
collaborative teaching journals, engaging in participatory lesson study, or doing action
research, as explored in Chapter Three, section 3.4.6. Such reflective practices would
encourage teachers to challenge their own cognition in order to restructure and manoeuvre
their praxis (Sarfraz, 2019). Indeed, collective professional learning should be
encouraged and supported and is worthy of further investigation.
The suggested framework for teacher professional learning developed in this study can
act as a theoretical model for teachers to gain more insights into practice-based learning,
about their active and agentic roles in their professional learning throughout their career,
and the complex and interrelated factors connecting their cognition, practice, and contexts
in their learning process. Understanding the complexity and multidimensionality of this
holistic process provides different perspectives on the nature of in-service teacher
learning.
Finally, the findings in this study shed new light on the traditional binary assumption of
effective teaching and learning between teacher-centred and student-centred approaches,
or Confucian and Western teaching philosophies. Teachers’ ideal teaching practices are
sometimes superseded by pragmatic concerns about how they may best help students
learn. This implies a paradigm of principled pragmatism, in which the relationship
between theory and practices, ideas and actualisation can only be realised in practical
applications informed by teachers’ experience and cultural and contextual factors.
Undertaking a hybrid approach with a re-orientation towards a ‘learning-centred’ focus
for teaching and learning should be taken into consideration to achieve effectiveness and
responsiveness because the tension of practical realities and theoretical complexities
tends to collapse the binary rationales.
Methodology
This study has contributed to the research methodology relating to teacher professional
learning in two areas – research methodology and multi-method analysis. The study used
a unique combination of data collection methods in association with the inquiries as tools
and SCA as content for learning. This served as a scaffolding framework to bridge the
theory-practice divide and mirrored teachers-as-learners. With a logical and efficient use
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of research methodology and analytical approaches, as discussed in detail in Chapter
Four, the study gained in-depth insights and nuanced understandings of how the process
of self-directed, inquiry-based and collective learning occurs and supports teachers.
The combination involved a questionnaire to obtain teachers’ initial perceptions and

understanding of SCA. The structure of critical reflection cycles, including the debriefs
after observations, inquiry reflective questions as a preparation for the teachers before
group discussions, individual reflection prior to collective reflection, and a recapturing
interview reflecting on the entire learning experience, provided the teachers with
opportunities for in-depth reflection and building on their construction of knowledge
through cycles of engagement. Furthermore, the combination of interviewing, observing
and debriefing captured genuine learning, thinking and actions, and allowed the teachers
to negotiate differences between their espoused beliefs and their enacted ones. This
complementary approach of data collection instruments suits and reflects the complex
and multi-dimensional nature of the research focus.
Data analysis in this study adopted a qualitative inductive approach, except for the
questionnaire in Phase 1. The collected data were analysed using multiple strategies that
suited my purposes. The strategies included descriptive statistical analysis for
questionnaire data to explore overall beliefs; thematic analysis for observation and debrief
data to examine changes in cognition and behaviours; and vignette analysis for group
discussions and interview data to ensure both individual and social contexts were
examined. In analysis at the group level, attention was paid to group interactions, such as
levels of agreement, consensus, conflict, negotiation, and changes in opinion, collegial
sharing of experiences, and collective understandings of shared problems and solutions
to the problems (Bazeley, 2013; Boeije, 2010; Wilkinson, 1998). In analysis at the
individual level, the responses and behaviours of separate participants were examined in
relation to contextual factors and personal factors such as prior experience and existing
knowledge. The analysis of data in this study indicates the strength of multiple analytical
strategies in interpreting meaning from the data. The approaches may be useful to other
researchers in capturing a holistic and comprehensive understanding of researched
phenomena. Finally, the combination of manual coding with the use of software packages
can be seen as double loops of coding, which could be helpful for novice researchers or
doctoral candidates when they engage deeply with their data.
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Practice
As discussed in Chapter Two, section 2.6, the impact of current policy context on teacher
professional learning and development is significant. Teachers in general, and the
participating teachers in this study in particular, continue to work in institutions in which
good teaching is defined in terms of standardised tests and standardised benchmarking.
The politics of accountability result in attempts to regulate practice and maintain
standards through professional learning and development, and are likely to increase,
placing serious pressure on teachers, policy makers and authority. Therefore, learning
activities and professional development are attached to measurable outcomes. For
example, in the case of Vietnam, MOET has mandated the standardised benchmarking of
language proficiency framework (CEFR and VSTEP) as a way to distinguish qualified
teachers from unqualified ones (see Chapter Two, sections 2.6 and 2.7). However, while
the short-term impact (achieving required levels of proficiency in this context) may be
relatively easy to measure (Richards, 2008), the “measurement of activities and outcomes
does not necessarily equate with learning” (Webster-Wright, 2009, p. 727). Critically,
Evans (2019) argues that assumptions that teacher professional learning results in evident
outcomes represents over-simplistic reasoning that fails to incorporate consideration of
the complexity and the multidimensionality of professional learning and development.
Professional learning involves meaning-making (as discussed in Chapter Three, sections
3.4.5 and 3.4.6). From an instrumental perspective, an effective intervention in
professional learning is always amenable to measurement, forming a secure relationship
between the intervention and its outcomes (Biesta, 2007). This study focused on the
process of the teachers’ learning and provided evidence about how the teachers
constructed knowledge within the opportunities and constraints prevailing in Vietnam,
which stimulated teachers’ continuous learning and fostered their long-term growth. If
the agentic roles of teachers in shaping their learning are taken seriously, a support
framework at government or institution level needs to account for this learning process
while working within the contextual constraints of the Vietnamese education system. It
is hoped that the research may inform policy and practice regarding teacher professional
learning and potentially narrow the gaps between research, policy and practice (Biesta,
2007).
Implications for the design and delivery of teacher professional learning practice are also
provided. As mentioned in section 6.4.4, successful adoption of educational innovation
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and effective teacher learning cannot be taken for granted. The reasons include the
amount of risk involved, the communicability of the innovation, compatibility with
existing practices, the number of stakeholders involved, the perceived benefits of
innovation, and the organisational, political, social and cultural context (Richards, 2008).
This study suggests that teachers play a key role in translating and participating in
educational innovations and in their own learning. Therefore, consideration of teachers’
needs, existing beliefs, knowledge, skills and agency and inclusion of teachers in forming
educational policies are of great importance. This proposal is echoed in the critical
assessment on English language policies in Vietnam by Bui and Nguyen (2016). They
argue that understanding teacher agency, local needs, practices, struggles, and resources
can help to construct sustainable practice and generate effective language policy for both
teachers and students. Collective learning is difficult to sustain (Beck & Kosnik, 2014);
hence, teacher learning practice must be carefully planned, designed, monitored, and
supported (Richards & Farrell, 2005). Without the necessary supports, collegiality in
professional communities can be contrived (Beck & Kosnik, 2014; Lieberman & Pointer
Mace, 2010). Policy may help by developing norms and cultures of collegiality, openness
and trust within the institution, creating opportunities for teachers to participate in
professional dialogues or peer-based or group-based learning, and providing meaningful
recognition and rewards for success.
The study makes a unique contribution to the SCA literature by offering new insights into
how SCA may be negotiated through teacher inquiry in an EFL tertiary context in
Vietnam or similar contexts. It provides suggestions to teachers and educators who wish
to employ SCA, with consideration of students’ characteristics, physical classroom
environments, institutional policies, and wider socio-cultural factors. Enactment of
innovative teaching approaches in a new system should not be duplicated without
consideration of factors such as physical classroom environment, student characteristics,
students’ needs and motivation, institutional policies, and socio-cultural supports as well
as inhibitors. To address these factors, bridging and scaffolding measures may be helpful
for students; for example, the potential use of a hybrid approach in this study. Also,
besides language knowledge and skills, it would be helpful to introduce learning skills to
support students’ independent learning. In response to curriculum and instruction
innovation goals set by the government’s education initiatives and institutions’ practical
standards, the enactment of SCA in EFL classes will not be possible if the following
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practical implications are not considered. The first is that both teachers and students need
support to move beyond their current teaching and learning practices in English language
education. The second is that assessments should be adjusted to reflect the change in
student-centred orientation and achieve validity in assessments – i.e., whether they
measure what they are supposed to measure in terms of student achievement. Finally,
flexible curricula and materials may free teachers from textbook coverage requirements;
ultimately, teachers could be empowered to facilitate student-centred instruction and take
a trial-and-error approach to their classroom practice.
Limitations
Despite the study being thoroughly designed, analysed and reported, there are potential
limitations associated with this research project.
The first limitation of the study is the small number of participants. The purpose of the
study, however, was to gain a holistic understanding of the complex and multidimensional
process of teacher learning in this particular group of six Vietnamese EFL tertiary
teachers. The use of rich data from multiple sources (section 4.4.4) and the fact that
previous studies have also involved a similar number of participants (section 4.4.1)
attempted to counteract this limitation. Although the sample was not representative of
Vietnamese university teachers of English more broadly, the attributes of the teacher
learning community found in this study may be useful as indicators for identifying
different categories of professional learning communities in other contexts.
The second limitation is that the study involves only teachers. While it was not within the
scope of the study, different perspectives could have been captured if students,
institutional authorities or policy makers had been involved in this project. Students’ data
and any consequent changes relating to their learning, as well as perspectives from other
stakeholders, would be informative for institutions, leaders, and planners and designers
of teacher learning practice.
Another limitation relates to the self-designed questionnaire at Phase 1 of the study. There
may be many different explanations for the divergent views obtained, which cannot be
captured on a Likert scale like this. It may have been useful to have an area in the
questionnaire where the teachers could have explained their responses if they felt this was
necessary. Alternatively, different data collection instruments such as focus group
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interviews or participatory professional workshops prior to Phase 2 of the research project
could have been considered. Such opportunities may have provided more comprehensive
understanding of teachers’ initial perceptions of SCA and may have assisted in the
identification of SCA topics and activities relevant to these EFL teachers’ context. In
addition, when designing the questionnaire, I was thinking about a specific group of EFL
teachers in this particular context of ELT in Vietnam. Within a qualitative research
design, interpretive paradigm, and constructivist and situative theoretical lenses of
learning, the questionnaire findings in this study are not expected to be replicated with
the same results.
Finally, it may be questioned whether this study was considered as an intervention due to
the nature of the inquiry approach. The approach used had elements of action research,
focusing on enactment and reflection, which were shaped and informed by the teacher
inquiry process. In this process, teachers were active agents in generating practical
knowledge, which upheld their systematic and intentional reflection on their own
practice. This reflective process also offered the teachers an opportunity to articulate their
understandings and beliefs. However, unlike action research, this study did not either
investigate one practical problem in the teachers’ instruction or report transformation in
the teachers’ beliefs and practices as a consequence or outcome of learning, but rather
aimed to examine the complex and multidimensional learning process of the teachers. In
this process, teachers' change and growth in relation to SCA were observed and reported
as part of the ‘becoming’ or ‘being aware’ of the learning process.
Recommendations for future research
The findings of this study suggest a number of opportunities for future research with
regard to teacher professional learning process and the adoption of SCA in English
language teaching.
In order to broaden understandings of how teachers grow in their profession, the research
questions could be investigated with other groups of EFL teachers in similar Asian
contexts or elsewhere. One of the key findings in this study was that teachers learn by
inquiring into, reflecting on, and critiquing their experiences of classroom practice, and
interacting with each other in a learning community, which was mediated by the context.
Whether teachers from other contexts would share similar or different processes of how
they learn, particularly in other learning environments with different student
213
characteristics, subject content, classroom and institutional contexts, and socio-cultural
contexts, would be of interest.
There is a need for future research to engage with other stakeholders such as students,
institutional authorities, and policy makers. Such studies may investigate teacher learning
from students’ perspectives and the consequent impacts of teacher learning on student
learning. Furthermore, future research on teacher learning with the involvement of
institutional authorities, policy makers, and teacher professional learning and
development planners would be informative to these stakeholders. Such information may
reinforce important messages regarding teacher learning practices to higher authorities
and policy makers and may broaden the ways in which teacher learning is supported.
Findings regarding teacher change and growth as part of engagement in the learning
process would also be valuable in longitudinal studies. Such studies would provide
important data regarding how teachers sustain their professional learning and how
resilient the changes would be. Such an investigation with other long-term learning
measures, incorporating information technology, would provide teachers with virtual
learning communities, enabling life-long professional learning.
Finally, the focus of current support for teacher development and the implicit assumptions
about professional learning and development with a focus on change in either cognition
or practice tend to overlook the implications of context and teachers’ ontology and agency
in their learning. Further use of the teacher learning framework recommended in this
study would also be of help in the examination of teachers’ agentic roles and of the crucial
factors involved in the process of how teachers learn and grow throughout their career.
Final reflective thoughts
Follow effective action with quiet reflection.

From the quiet reflection will come even more effective action.
(Peter Drucker, cited in Gregersen & MacIntyre, 2017, p. 33)
At the start of this research project, my knowledge base was that I knew about theories of
linguistic knowledge and language skills but it was an idiosyncratic struggle for me to
learn how to teach effectively. From my experience, I believed that reflection on and
inquiry into lived practices could lead to learning and transformation of classroom
practices. My aim was to examine how the process of inquiry in practice, focusing on
214
cycles of reflection and co-construction of knowledge, shaped teacher learning. The study
used student-centred approaches as content for the teachers to engage in the inquiries.
The study investigated how the teachers translated their new learning about SCA into
practice via the process of enactment and reflection and explored the complexity and
multidimensionality of this learning experience. The findings indicated that teachers
learned from reflecting on their practice and having reflective dialogues when interacting
with each other in the group. This process highlighted how teachers made sense of new
learning, co-constructed and used knowledge that informed their practice.
From my experience as an EFL teacher, given limited accessibility to and opportunities

for professional learning and development, I learned how to teach not from systematic
connections between theory and practice, but from enquiring into and reflecting on my
own classroom experiences, adapting to suit my students, and constructing my own theory
of practice. The praxis of reflection and action helped capture how theory and practice
inform one another and how practice and contexts influence one another. Together with
my own experience, from the research findings, I truly believe teachers learn to grow in
their teaching career by reflecting on and enquiring into their instructional practice and
collegially interacting with others in learning communities or groups. To me, a reflective
and enquiring teacher is an effective and transformative teacher.
Regarding my own professional learning during this research project, interacting with
other experienced researchers such as my supervisors and other researchers in the area
and participating in a learning community with my peers contributed to inspiration,
enlightenment and growth for research. After the honeymoon phase, I fell into a stage of
uncertainty when there was so much to learn. There was so much I wanted to include in
my study that I sometimes got side-tracked. I assumed that if something did not fit, my
supervisors would give warning signs. Following this phase, I reached a stage of
independent judgement. This meant when I wanted to include a new idea or concept in
my thesis, I critically thought and reflected on whether that idea was relevant to my study
and fit the scope of the study. To me, that represented rational capacity development and
professional growth. Growth was perceived when I had a clear idea of my goals; I knew
what I was doing; I made steady progress every day; I felt positive about it day-to-day; I
made my judgement and decisions; and I realised what could be done differently next
time or what would be alternatives if I conducted the study again. My research experience
215
in this study developed self-reflection, self-doubt, critical and analytical thinking, and
self-regulation skills.
The opportunity to interact with the participating teachers in this study gave me a growing
sense of collaboration and group interaction. Cultural assumptions about a lack of
working-in-group skills might be proved tenuous when wider factors are not considered.
Interacting with the teachers during my fieldwork showed their strong desire for new
knowledge, their passion for enhanced teaching practice, and their agentic position in
undertaking professional learning. We have formed strong professional relationships and
support and I believe they will flourish in the future. All of these made my years of study
nourishing and fulfilling. Through the experience, both the participants and I have
evolved personally and professionally.
Writing this thesis has been a rewarding learning journey for me. It has enhanced my
theoretical knowledge of teacher professional learning, teacher cognition, English
language teaching, qualitative research, and much more. This thesis marks the end of a
journey and, I believe, it opens another one for me – a journey involving a lot more to
explore and learn, and a journey of professional growth.
As my final note, this thesis looks like nothing more than a thick book, like many others.
It does not purport to provide a definite answer to contemporary dilemmas of teacher
professional learning and development; rather it provides a comprehensive picture of
teacher professional learning in Vietnam and it starts a conversation about how teacher
inquiry could shape teacher learning from a bottom-up approach to widen our
understanding of EFL teachers’ professional learning and development in the context of
educational changes in Vietnam. It argues that understanding practice-based professional
learning can be a starting point for an ongoing professional learning approach, rather than
looking at instrumental values of professional learning and development. In a bottom-up
approach, it is important for teachers to develop an understanding of their own processes
of learning, in order to take increased responsibility for their own learning. This calls for
two strategic developments in relation to teacher professional learning and development.
First, it calls for teachers to develop their own skills, capacities and agency in directing
their professional learning. Second, it calls for leaders to develop an understanding of the
pedagogy and strategic planning of teacher professional learning and development, and
to empower and support teachers in undertaking their professional learning.
216
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APPENDICES
Appendix A: Inquiry framework
245
Appendix B: Copy of Inquiry 1
INQUIRY 1
CREATING OPPORTUNITIES FOR LANGUAGE OUTPUT
OVERVIEW
In Vietnamese language classrooms it has been observed that teachers do a lot of talking,
and students have few opportunities to speak. This means that few students have the
opportunity to use English in the classroom because of large class sizes, limited in-class
time, and overloaded instructional content (Butler, 2011; Q. T. Nguyen, 2013; Nguyen,
Fehring, & Warren, 2015).
Why is it important for students to have opportunities to use English? Students need to
use English in the classroom to interact with the teachers and with other students, to
negotiate meaning and to complete learning activities (Richards & Lockhart, 1994). This
results in success in classroom language learning because students have “sufficient
opportunities to participate in discourse directed at the exchange of information” (Ellis,
2008, p. 825). Practice using English in the classroom will progressively enable students
to achieve proficiency in English communication.
What are some ways of putting this into practice?
You could:
• reduce your TTT (Teacher Talking Time) in the classroom, by giving simple and
clear instructions, by asking students to show by means of speaking that they
understood the task instructions, and also by asking other students to answer a
student’s question;
• increase STT (Student Talking Time) by asking other students to answer a
student’s question, by showing pictures related to the topic of the class and
eliciting students’ participation;
• avoid yes/no questions, and prefer those questions that make students speak in
order to make themselves clear;
• encourage students so that they feel confident to talk. The content and fluency are
more crucial than minor pronunciation and grammatical mistakes;
246
• be encouraging and constructive in the way of correcting students’ mistakes.
Implicit feedback to let their speech flow, for example providing a recast or
making a clarification request. (Vaz, 2013)
TRY THINGS OUT
These are things that teachers may find useful to try out in the class.
1. Plan to ask at least 10 questions of students in your class.
2. At two points in the lesson, ask the students to summarize the main points of
what you have just said. Ask all students to make notes, and ask some students
to share with the class.
3. Ask students to think about at least one question that they want to ask you
about the lesson content. Nominate at least 5 students to ask their question
about the lesson content. Ask other students to answer these 5 questions.
Please add any of your own suggestions:
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……
REFLECTION
1. Which of these activities did you try out in your class? How did you find them?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
2. How do any of these activities relate to what you have tried before? Which one(s) did
you find most useful in your class?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
3. What (factors) helped you to put these activities into practice?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
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4. What activities did not work in your class? What challenges did you encounter? What
solutions did you find to cope with these challenges in the application of these activities
next time?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
5. What are other ways you can create opportunities for students to speak in your class?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
6. How successful do you think you were in providing students with more opportunities
for language output? On what basis do you make that judgement?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
248
Appendix C: Copy of ethical approval
249
Appendix D: Copy of information letter
Project: Professional Learning in a Vietnamese University Language Teaching

Context: An Inquiry-Driven Approach
[Date]
Dear ….
My name is Phan Canh Minh Thy and I am a PhD student of the Faculty of Education of
the University of Waikato in Hamilton, New Zealand. I wish to carry out a research
project in classrooms of Faculty of Foreign Languages, [name of the university], as part
of my doctoral degree. I would be grateful for your permission and support.
The title of my thesis is Professional Learning in a Vietnamese University Language

Teaching Context: An Inquiry-Driven Approach. The thesis will investigate how
professional learning is developed and sustained by applying an inquiry-based approach
in a focus group of teachers as well as to argue that collegial professional learning can
serve as a referent for promoting teachers’ professional learning.
My data collection methods may include some of all of the following: questionnaires,
observations, interviews, group discussions, research blog entries. I intent to invite
several of my teaching colleagues at the Faculty of Foreign Languages, [name of the
university] to collaborate, reflect and share their teaching practices.
The time framework of the project would cover six months of my field visit in Vietnam,
involving me being in the teachers’ classrooms and with the teacher focus group for one
class session observation each week, one-hour focus group meeting and interview every
fortnight and one inquiry response every fortnight, over a period of three to five months,
which depends on the university semester schedule. Some 10 minute-debriefs may occur
after classroom observations to clarify with teachers. From September 2016 to December
2016, data collection will be carried out online at the researcher’s distance. Inquiries will
be shared among this focus group of teachers as blog entries. An initial questionnaire will
be sent to teachers to understand teachers’ initial beliefs and conceptions of their teaching
approach.
All data will be kept in a secure location and anonymity and confidentiality of all
participants will be protected as much as possible. The data will be transcribed, coded
and analysed by me but I will ask for permission to share my data with my two supervisors
250
and a team of lecturers and postgraduate students. The findings will be published in a
doctoral thesis and possible future publications as well as being presented at conferences.
If you allow me to conduct this research in the Faculty of Foreign Languages, [name of
the university], I would like to ask your permission to send information letters to the
teachers who will be participating.
I would be very grateful if you would allow me access to undertake the study at the
university context. If you wish to discuss any issues please contact me or my supervisors
through the following email or the telephone numbers.
Kind regards,
Phan Canh Minh Thy, PhD candidate
Contact details
Phan Canh Minh Thy, PhD student
Phone: (+64) 22 309 5533/(+84)913 188 918
E-mail: cmtp1@students.waikato.ac.nz
Contact detail of my chief supervisor:
Associate Professor Margaret Franken
Phone: (+64) 7 838 4500 ext 6360
E-mail: franken@waikato.ac.nz
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Appendix E: Copy of consent form
Project: Professional Learning in a Vietnamese University Language Teaching

NOTE: This consent form will remain with the researcher for their records.
 I agree to take part in this doctoral research project. I have had the project explained
to me, and I have read the cover letter, which I keep for my records.
 I understand that agreeing to take part means that I give consent to have my teaching
practices observed, interviewed, and inquired through the use of questionnaires,
observations, interviews, video/audio recordings, inquiry responding, and inquiry
blogging.
 I understand that my participation is voluntary, that I can choose not to participate in

part or the entire project and withdraw at any stage of the project.
 I understand that the data from this research will be used in a doctoral thesis,
conference presentations and possible future publications.
 I understand that the data will be kept in a secure location and anonymity and
confidentiality of all participants will be protected as much as possible.
Signature: ____________________________________________________________
Date:______________________________________________
Please feel free to contact me if any questions arise, either in person from 15 February
2016 or through email or telephone as listed below.
Phan Canh Minh Thy, PhD candidate
cmtp1@students.waikato.ac.nz
Tel : 0064 22 309 5533 / 0084 913 188 918
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Appendix F: Copy of questionnaire
Project title: Professional Learning in a Vietnamese University Language Teaching

Dear Participant Teachers,
Thank you very much for your participation in this study. This questionnaire is a part of
my PhD research project. I am interested in finding out about your ideas about language
teaching approaches. This will provide some preliminary information for Phase 2 of my
study. Completing the questionnaire will signify your consent. Even though you use your
name here, when writing up my thesis, I will use pseudonyms to prevent your
identification. If you have any questions regarding the research, please feel free to contact
me at cmtp1@students.waikato.ac.nz.
PART A: GENERAL INFORMATION
ANSWERS
1. What is your name? ……………………………………………
2. What is your gender? ☐ Male ☐ Female
3. How long have you been teaching English? ☐ 1-5 years
☐ 6-10 years
☐ 11-15 years
☐ 16+ years
4. What highest qualification do you hold? ☐ BA
☐ MA/MEd
☐ PhD/EdD
5. Which English language group do you teach? ☐ Linguistics and Skills
☐ ESP
☐ General English
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PART B: CLASSROOM GENERAL INFORMATION
6. What is the average number of students in your ☐ under 30 students

classes?
☐ 31 – 40 students
☐ 41+ students
7. Which year do you mainly teach? ☐ first year students
☐ second year students
☐ third year students
☐ last year students
8. How often do you do the following activities in your

classes?
Rarely A few Once or Every

or times/semester twice/month class
never
(a) Have students work in pairs or small ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

groups
(b) Have class discussions ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
(c) Get students to ask questions in class ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
(d) Ask students to monitor and assess their ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

own spoken and written English
(e) Get students to think about or set learning ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

goals before the lessons starts
(f) Get students to work on individual tasks ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

or projects in class which they then share
with others
(g) Ask students to summarise or reflect ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

what they have learned after each lesson and
then share their summary with the class
(h) Other activities (please specify)
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PART C: TEACHERS’ BELIEFS ON LANGUAGE TEACHING APPROACHES
This part aims to understand your thoughts about language teaching approaches using
Likert scale from 1 to 5. Please select the scale point as follows:
1- Strongly disagree
2- Disagree
3- Neutral
4- Agree
5- Strongly agree
strongly strongly
disagree agree
9. It is important for teachers to use as much English as 1 ☐ 2 ☐ 3 ☐ 4 ☐ 5 ☐

possible even if students don’t understand everything
they say.
10. I would use more of a communicative approach if I 1 ☐ 2 ☐ 3 ☐ 4 ☐ 5 ☐

had smaller classes.
11. Teachers should manage the learning process as they 1 ☐ 2 ☐ 3 ☐ 4 ☐ 5 ☐

know best how students learn.
12. One of the teacher’s major roles is to provide an 1 ☐ 2 ☐ 3 ☐ 4 ☐ 5 ☐

English language model.
13. It is the responsibility of teachers to determine the 1 ☐ 2 ☐ 3 ☐ 4 ☐ 5 ☐

objectives of the lesson.
14. The best way for learners to correct their errors and 1 ☐ 2 ☐ 3 ☐ 4 ☐ 5 ☐
improve their language is to have teachers provide an
explanation of the errors.
15. Teachers should design and incorporate new learning 1 ☐ 2 ☐ 3 ☐ 4 ☐ 5 ☐

activities to suit their students’ proficiency levels and
learning styles.
255
16. Students would participate more if they had more of a 1 ☐ 2 ☐ 3 ☐ 4 ☐ 5 ☐
say in class.
17. It is important for students to reflect on their learning 1 ☐ 2 ☐ 3 ☐ 4 ☐ 5 ☐

and engage in self-assessment.
18. Teachers cannot do a good job unless students are 1 ☐ 2 ☐ 3 ☐ 4 ☐ 5 ☐

engaged in learning.
19. It is necessary for teachers to incorporate new 1 ☐ 2 ☐ 3 ☐ 4 ☐ 5 ☐

activities to complement the topics covered in the
textbook.
20. Activities in the textbook should be strictly followed. 1☐ 2☐ 3☐ 4☐ 5☐
21. Teachers should change the teaching methods and 1 ☐ 2 ☐ 3 ☐ 4 ☐ 5 ☐

activities when they see that students are not engaged.
22. Communicative tasks can undermine a teacher’s 1 ☐ 2 ☐ 3 ☐ 4 ☐ 5 ☐

discipline.
23. Memorising rules will help students learn English 1 ☐ 2 ☐ 3 ☐ 4 ☐ 5 ☐

better.
24. It is important for students to use language more even 1 ☐ 2 ☐ 3 ☐ 4 ☐ 5 ☐

though they may have errors in their spoken language.
25. Student interaction is beneficial for low proficiency 1 ☐ 2 ☐ 3 ☐ 4 ☐ 5 ☐

students because they learn from each other.
26. English teaching should exploit things that students 1 ☐ 2 ☐ 3 ☐ 4 ☐ 5 ☐

like to use, e.g. technology.
27. Students should be encouraged to learn as much 1 ☐ 2 ☐ 3 ☐ 4 ☐ 5 ☐

English as they can outside the classroom.
28. Exposure to English is an important way to learn. 1☐ 2☐ 3☐ 4☐ 5☐
PART D: OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS
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29. How would you describe your role as an English teacher?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………...………………………………………………………
30. How would you define a student’s role in their learning process?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
---//---
Thank you for taking the time and effort to complete this questionnaire.
257
Appendix G: Sample of observational protocol
Project title: Professional Learning in a Vietnamese University Language

Teaching Context: An Inquiry-Driven Approach
Teacher :…………………………………………..
Course :…………………………………………...
Lesson :……………………………………………
Lesson objectives:………………………………………..
Length of observation:……………………………………
Observation aims: What are the opportunities for students to produce language
output? What supports and hinders teachers in creating the opportunities for students?
Descriptive notes Reflective notes
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Appendix H: Sample of observational notes
LANH’S OBSERVATION 1
Class: English for Tourism 1 – first year students (25 present)
Lesson: Tour operators
Lesson objectives/topics: package tours, roles of tour operators, inclusive tours,

designing a tour, introducing a well-known interesting destination.
Observation aims:
• What are the opportunities for students to produce the language output?
• What supports and hinders the teacher in creating the opportunities for students?
Warm up: (30 minutes)
At the beginning of each class, the teacher requires students to prepare a presentation, a
game, a quiz to present in front of the class.
The teacher explained the activity: “Everyone needs to be quiet. Listen to your friends.
You have five minutes to show the video clip. After that, you need to explain the main
ideas of the clip and explain key vocabulary and structures in Vietnamese so that your
friends can understand.”
This time group 3 showed a YouTube clip introducing Niagara fall in English. After that
the teacher asked the group to translate main content of the video into Vietnamese.
The teacher asked the group if they understood the video [it was in English and quite
difficult]. They said they didn’t.
Another group presented about Hidden Beach in Mexico. Students presented in English.
The presentation slides included:
• Geographic features
• History
• Transportation to get there
• What to do and see there
The last slide of the presentation had a list of new words. The teacher suggested that other
students should write down the vocabulary and learn at home.
259
The teacher pronounced these words, explained in English, and got the class to repeat
these words in the list.
Next class, two other groups would have to present about package tours/city tours.
Lesson: Reading Comprehension - An Inclusive Tour
The teacher read and translated the instruction in the book: “Look at the map. Look at the
tour and connect the tour with the cities. Work in pairs”
The teacher asked one student to read and translate the first statement introducing the
tour.
Students were given five minutes to read the text and do the matching activity and answer
the questions in the book. [students worked in pairs but mainly used Vietnamese to talk
to each other and the activity didn’t require a lot of communication and interaction]
The teacher called on one student to read the question in English, translated the question
into Vietnamese, and then answered the question in English.
Students were given a few more minutes to read the passage because they couldn’t give
answers to the next three questions.
After students’ giving the answers to the questions, the teacher translated the reading
passage [which contained the answer] in Vietnamese and gave students feedback
[whether it was correct or incorrect] on their answers.
After finishing the activity, the teacher gave the class two minutes to ask questions, which
could be about content of the reading or vocabulary. Students of each table as a group had
to have one question. [the instruction might be vague and students would need more
support/input from the teacher and students might wonder why they had to do this and
whether they would have to ask in English or Vietnamese]
Timed up and each table had to ask questions. One student wondered if they would have
to ask in English. [She looked a bit confused as she didn’t know what to ask.] The teacher
explained she could ask whatever she could think of.
She wanted to ask the meaning of one new word in the text but was unable to use the
structure “what does…..mean?”. Also, the student was unable to pronounce out loud the
word as she didn’t know how to pronounce it. Finally, the student said in Vietnamese
260
“đoạn 2 dòng 4” [paragraph number 2, line number 4]. The teacher explained the meaning
of the word “defensive structure” in Vietnamese “cấu trúc bảo vệ”.
Other groups asked the same type of question – vocabulary question. They wanted to
know the meaning of “residence, former, similar, architecture, a beautiful baroque palace,
medieval”. The teacher explained the meaning of the words in Vietnamese.
The teacher made students to repeat these words after him to practice pronunciation of
the words.
Then the class had a break.
261
Appendix I: Sample of discussion prompts
Project title: Professional Learning in a Vietnamese University Language Teaching

Date :……………………………………
Time :……………………………………
Place : ……………………………………
Facilitator: ……………………………………
Participants:
- Present : ……………………………………
- Absent : ……………………………………
Focus of the discussion:
- review unresolved issues of last discussion
- discuss the topic of the week
- raise the topic of the next discussion
GROUP DISCUSSION 2
Some questions I would like to explore in depth for two inquiries 2 and 3:
INQUIRY 2: CREATING OPPORTUNITIES FOR STUDENT

INTERACTION
1. Could you please describe how each of these activities was applied in your
class (if any)?
2. In your reflection, it appeared that some of these activities did not work well
in your class. Could you please share the reasons for this ineffectiveness?
What would you do differently to bring better outcomes of these activities
in the class?
3. What are other activities that you often do in your class to foster student
interaction?
262
4. Do you think the activities you applied have helped students not only to
complete the tasks, but also to foster interaction and negotiation of
meaning? On what basic do you make that judgment?
INQUIRY 3: SUPPORTING STUDENT THINKING BEYOND

LANGUAGE REPITITION AND INFORMATION RECALL
1. Could you please explain how these activities were carried out in your class
(if any)?
2. Some activities were not very successfully applied according to your
reflection. Could you please tell the reasons and what made you think that
they were not successful? What would you do differently next time and
why?
3. Are there other ways to foster students’ thinking beyond language repetition
and information recall?
4. Do you often ask students to look at scripts while listening? How is it
beneficial for students when looking at the scripts? What do you think about
students’ scripted and unscripted speaking?
5. Please have a look at the two scripts of the listening tasks below. What do
you think about these two scripts? How different are they? What are the
approaches that the teacher uses in these two scripts? What are the pros and
cons of each approach? What would you do differently and why?
SCRIPT 1
Teacher: We are going to watch a video about a Thanksgiving holiday celebration

in the United States. What do you think people will be talking about at such a
party? (Students answer.) Have you ever been to a U.S. Thanksgiving meal?
(Students answer.) What is it like? (Students answer.) How about your country?
Do you have something like that? A day of giving thanks? Is it different than in
the United States? (Students answer.)
Teacher: OK, very good. Now, here are some words that we’ve learned. (Points
students to a vocabulary box on a worksheet) You have to group them according
to three categories. (Gives students time to finish) What do you have under
263
beverages? (Students answer.) How about food? (Students answer.) What did you
put into greetings? (Students answer.) What other U.S. traditions do you know of?
(Students answer.) What could you add to each category? (Students answer.)
Teacher: Let’s watch the video now. As you listen to the conversation, try to find
answers to the questions on your handout. Let’s read the questions together to
make sure we understand them. (Students read and discuss questions.) OK, let’s
watch it.
After watching
Teacher: What did you choose for the first question? Does everybody agree? What
do you have, Fahd? What else do you have here? Oh . . . I think he said, delicious.
Let’s listen to this piece again. (Students again watch the segment they did not
understand.) Did you hear that? (Students nod.) OK, question number two.
(Students answer.) Right. How about number three? (Students answer.) Nobody
got that? Let me go back there. (Plays the segment again) Did you get it? (Students
shake their heads.) She says, the last harvest. OK. Number four. Why was he late?
Tagrid, what’s your answer? (Student answers.) Romina, what do you have?
(Student answers.) Good job, everyone! We are going to watch it again. This time
we’ll focus on expressions they use at the table. Look at exercise number two on
your handout. As you listen, circle the expressions they use. Did you find the
exercise? (Students nod.) Any questions? (Students say no.) Are you ready?
After second viewing
Teacher: So, what can you say to invite everybody to have a seat at the table?
(Students answer.) What else can you say? (Students answer.) PeiChan? (Student
answers.) Good! What does Shelly say to get the gravy? (Students answer.) How
about drinks? How do you ask for a drink? (Students answer.) And if you don’t
want it? (Students answer.) All right. What did the hostess say to offer food?
(Students answer.) Yes. And how did the guests thank her? (Students answer.)
Very good! You got it!
264
Teacher: Now that you’ve learned the phrases, let’s role-play. Imagine that there
is a Thanksgiving dinner, and you are invited. Two students will be the hosts, the
others will be the guests. Try to use the expressions we’ve learned. I’ll put them
on the board. (Students work in groups.)
SCRIPT 2
Teacher: We are going to *listen to a 2-minute-long conversation about getting

around the city. Before you begin, you are asked to *listen to sentences giving and
asking for directions from the conversation and repeat them, paying attention to
the intonation, meaning, and grammatical structure of each phrase (Students listen
and answer). Then you do *a fill-in-the-blank exercise, choosing an appropriate
form of the verb (Students answer). You *listen to a short monologue and trace the
speaker’s route on the map (Play the audio and Students answer). You practice
*asking and answering questions about different locations on the map (Students
work in pairs). You have *a class discussion about getting to campus by using
different kinds of transportation (Students discuss in the class).
Teacher: Next, you listen to the conversation several times. You start by *listening
to the first 15 seconds of the recording to make predictions about the topic and the
setting of the conversation (Play the audio again and Students answer); you will
*check their predictions after listening. You will complete other while-listening
tasks include *summarizing the conversation, *answering comprehension
questions, *ordering the possible routes mentioned by the speakers, *listening for
the bus numbers, and *a cloze exercise (Play the audio several times and Students
answer). After listening, you *discuss your predictions, *practice saying numbers,
*act out situations asking for and giving directions, and *write a story based on a
picture which clearly involves finding one’s way in the city (Students work in
groups).
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Appendix J: Prompt questions in interviews
Purpose: To collect data about the teachers’ perceptions of their role as a teacher, how
the teachers learned and grew professionally in the inquiry process, and supporting as
well as hindering factors the process of learning and of the enactment of SCA. The
interview questions also explored their preferences, views of and future pedagogical
intentions as well as desired support for their professional learning and development.
1. How do you define your role as a teacher in the class? How is it different from
what you perceived before you participated in this study?
2. What did you do to facilitate students’ learning and incorporate classroom
activities in your classes during the semester? To what extent did you create
student-centred opportunities in your lessons during the semester?
3. What are the key factors or principles based on which you design your lessons?
How are these similar to or different from what you did in previous semesters?
4. What were the challenges as well as supporters when you took a more student-
centred approach in your classes?
5. How did the questions in the inquiries and in the group discussions support your
thinking?
6. How important was that when you thought about or reflected on what happened
or was carried out in your classes?
7. How did you find the opportunity of joining the group discussions with other
teachers in this study?
8. What do you usually do if have issues or difficulties in your teaching?
9. Could you share some of your teaching plans for the next semester?
10. For the professional learning and development of teachers in your context to work
and sustain, what should be taken into account?
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Appendix K: Example of attitudes, attributes and identity table
Factors Uni A teachers Insider/Outsider Uni B teachers Insider/Outsider

identifies
Lanh/Manh/Tien Uy/Nhi/Trinh
for
exploration
Gender
Age
Family
background
Professional
class
Status in org
Type of
qualification
Motivation to
teaching
Prior
learning
experiences
PD
experiences
Familiar
approaches
to teaching
and learning
Roles of
teacher
Roles of
learner
Attitudes to
collaborative
learning
267
Appendix L: List of a teacher’s role and a student’s role
A teacher’s role
Nouns and verbs Phrases
(number of Initial phrases Representative

occurrences) equivalents
• facilitator (10) A person who perform as a language model

• organiser (6) model and provide instructions on how instructor
• helper (5) to approach and get things comfortable
• guide (4) learning the language.
• friend (3)
I find that at this level my role is primarily helper
• instructor (3)
to encourage and help them gain
• participant (3)
confidence and not to be afraid to try and
• observer (3) fail - as many times as it takes.
• model (3)
• supporter (2) My role with mostly first year students is helper
• consultant (2) mainly to focus on getting students to feel

comfortable speaking out loud and
• controller (2)
learning new vocabulary and using it.
• tutor (2)
• assessor (2) In my class, I always try to facilitate the facilitator
• evaluator (2) process of learning of my students. model
• counselor (1) Sometimes, I am a model for them and
friend
• consolidator (1) other times, I am their friends.
• knowledge provider
However, there are times I must behave manager
(1)
like a "traditional" teacher to maintain monitor
• manager (1)
class management or require my
• planner (1)
students to complete certain tasks.
• teacher (1)
• coordinator (1) a facilitator: to orient students how to do facilitator
• mentor (1) in class discussions, or group discussions;
268
• monitor (2) or give some explanations in the lesson (if
• leader (1) needed).
• learning enabler (1)
an observer: to lead students to follow the leader
• coach (1)
topics and their tasks; to evaluate their evaluator
• prompter (1)
ability of cooperating in working team and
• designer (1) helper
solving problems; to help students find
• educational designer
their strength and give them a chance to learning enabler
(1)
prove themselves.
An instructor, who teaches knowledge to instructor/teacher

students.
A coach, who monitors students' coach

progress, help them with project works monitor/helper
and assesses their abilities.
assessor
A facilitator, who uses different of facilitator

methods and techniques to motivate
students to study.
a prompter, who encourages students to prompter

participate and makes suggestions about
how students may proceed in an activity.
the organiser, who designs activities and organiser/

gives instructions on what they are going designer/facilitator
to do.
as an organiser standing at the front of the organiser

class, dictating everything that happens controller
and being the focus of attention.
I share with my students the basic guide

knowledge and they can develop and
improve themselves from that.
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I observe their learning process and point observer
out what they need.
I should be a leader to guide them to the guide

lessons step by step.
I may become their classmate to study classmate/friend

with them. Low-proficiency students
have a tendency to quit very easily when
they cannot catch up the lessons, so to
study with them may be a good way to
make them more patient with my lessons.
I think the most important role is that you educational

have to design interesting activities to designer
attract students and make them speak.
A student’s role
Phrases
Nouns and verbs
Initial phrases Representative
(number of occurrences)
equivalents
• self-directed learner Core factors whose main jobs are to knowledge

(7) absorb the knowledge and to practice absorber
• participant (7) with questions to instructors yet easily
• self-assessor (2) distracted and bored.
• performer (2)
Overall, the student is absolutely self-directed
• coordinator (1)
responsible for their own learning. The learner
• task master (1)
best teacher will even fail miserably if
• independent learner (1)
the student does not take the effort and
• active learner (1) engage him or herself in the learning
• autonomous learner (1) process to grow and develop.
270
• creative learner (1) They themselves are the most decisive self-directed
• friend (1) factor in their learning process. Teachers learner
• activator (1) can support, help and instruct them but
• problem-solver (1) they must carry out the learning
• team member (1) themselves.
• collaborator (1)
Students should be responsible for self-directed
• coordinator (1)
planning, monitoring and assessing learner
• knowledge manager
their learning process with their teachers'
(1)
support.
• knowledge constructor
(1) Students are active to perceive knowledge
• knowledge sponge (1) knowledge through group or class constructor
• knowledge seeker (1) discussions, presentations and debates. self-assessor
• knowledge absorber Students are able to learn from their
participant
(1) peers' correction, discussion, etc. and
• facilitator (1) they have a chance to be creative
• implementer (1) members in their group to show their
• self-monitor (1) ideas.
• self-motivator (1)
The students role is to act like a sponge knowledge sponge
• negotiator (1)
and soak up everything of value they
• practicer (1)
can from their teachers, textbooks and
experience.
They have to find knowledge/ skills (in knowledge seeker

general) by themselves. They should autonomous learner
develop their autonomy/ self-study skills.
self-
They also should monitor, evaluate and
monitor/evaluator
adjust/modify their learning process
Students have to do all tasks in class task performer

individually or in group on "learner-
centred" teaching.
271
In my opinion, students are "gift- self-directed
opener". Teachers give them gifts which learner
are new basic knowledge and students
should open them themselves. When
their basis is solid, they can go ahead to
advanced level by self-study. If they
refused the gifts, no one can help them.
Overall, students should be responsible
for their learning.
They have to try their best in learning self-motivator

and be eager to talk.
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English Language Teaching Vol. 3, No. 2; June 2010
Use of Vietnamese in English Language Teaching in Vietnam:

Attitudes of Vietnamese University Teachers
Kieu Hang Kim Anh
College of Finance and Customs
B2/1A 385 Street, Tang Nhon Phu A Ward, District 9, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
E-mail: kieuhangkimanh@yahoo.com.vn
Abstract
Drawing upon the literature on the history of the language teaching methods focusing on the use of L1 in L2
teaching, the debate surrounding the role of L1 in the L2 classroom in general and in the English classroom in
particular and recent studies of the issue, this article presents at its core a study that investigated the attitudes of
Vietnamese university teachers toward the use of Vietnamese in English Language Teaching (ELT) in the context
of Vietnam. A total of 12 teachers from three universities in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam participated in the study.
The data was collected via questionnaire and semi-structured interview. The findings support the judicious use of
Vietnamese in some situations in ELT. The results also highlight that the use of Vietnamese is not the same in all
ELT classrooms. Instead, it should be adapted to suit the context of a specific classroom.
Keywords: Teacher attitudes, L1, L2, Vietnamese (language), English Language Teaching
1. Introduction
At the Sixth National Congress of the Vietnamese Communist Party organized in 1986, Vietnam adopted a
socialist-oriented market economy under the State management. Since then, the economic relations between
Vietnam and other countries in the region and in the world have ceaselessly expanded. Vietnam joined the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), participated in the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA),
implemented the Vietnam-US Bilateral Trade Agreement, and recently has become the 150th member of the
World Trade Organization (WTO). Accordingly, more and more investors, most of whom require English as a
means of communication, have poured capital into the country. As a result of this international integration, the
demand for a skilled labor force having good command of English has become increased and consequently,
English has been the foreign language of first choice in the country. However, the communicative competence in
English of Vietnamese workforce has not met the requirements of the employers. A large number of fresh
university graduates have not been employed by foreign enterprises because of their poor English listening and
speaking skills (Ha, 2007, p. 9).
Several studies conducted with the aim of improving the quality of teaching and learning English in Vietnam
show that “traditional pedagogy, emphasizing the acquisition of grammar and vocabulary rather than
communicative competence” (Pham, 2005, para. 2) is one of the causes of the problem. Since the early 1990s,
therefore, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has quickly become popular in Vietnam (Pham, 2005, para.
2). In accordance with the popularity of CLT in the country, it seems that the only use of English in ELT is
widely supported. However, the use of Vietnamese in the process of teaching English is common in Vietnam
(Nguyen, 2006, para. 1). These have led to controversial opinions among Vietnamese teachers on the use of
Vietnamese in ELT (Nguyen, 2006, para. 1), such as: whether Vietnamese should or should not be used in ELT
and whether the use of Vietnamese has positive or negative effects on the learning of English. This paper
especially discusses the attitudes of Vietnamese university teachers toward the use of Vietnamese in ELT in the
context of Vietnam with a view to disclose future perspectives for studies of this issue in the country.
2. History of language teaching methods focusing on L1 use in L2 teaching
A brief review of the literature related to language teaching methods shows that “the role of L1 in L2 teaching”
is “one of the most long-standing controversies in the history of language pedagogy” (Stern, 1992, p. 279). The
following glimpse in the historical sequence of the most-recognized language teaching methods will highlight
periodic changes in the role of L1 in L2 teaching.
The Grammar Translation Method derived from “the teaching of the classical languages, Latin and Greek” over
centuries (Larsen-Freeman, 1986, p. 4) is the first one to be considered here. In the early years of the nineteenth
century in Western countries, the Grammar Translation Method dominated the L2 classroom. During this period,
L2 was taught through grammar illustration, bilingual vocabulary lists and translation exercises. This method
emphasizes on the literary language since its fundamental goal is to help learners be able to read literature
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English Language Teaching www.ccsenet.org/elt
written in L2, not to provide them with the ability to communicate verbally in L2. According to this method, L1
is freely used as “a reference system” in the process of L2 acquisition (Stern, 1983, p. 455).
In the late of the nineteenth century, the Western world experienced a big change in the need of learning L2 as
commercial contact and travel between European nations increased more and more. People tended to learn L2
with the aim of communicating, not reading literature written in L2 as before. This led to the emergence of the
Direct Method, which pays its whole attention to the spoken language. The Direct Method is based on the belief
that L2 learning should be an imitation of L1 learning. In this light, learners should be immersed in L2 through
the use of L2 “as a means of instruction and communication in the language classroom”, and through “the
avoidance of the use of L1 and of translation as a technique” (Stern, 1983, p. 456). After its highest popularity
during the period from the late nineteenth century to the first quarter of the twentieth century, the Direct Method
began to decline because, as Brown (1994, p. 56) points out, "(it) did not take well in public education where the
constraints of budget, classroom size, time, and teacher background made such a method difficult to use."
However, the method has laid foundation upon which many of the later methods and approaches expanded and
developed. Among them are the Audiolingual Method and Communicative Approach.
The Audiolingual Method, the origin of which is found in the Army Method developed in response to the need
for Americans to learn the languages of their allies and enemies alike during World War II, aims at helping
learners “to be able to use the target language communicatively” (Larsen-Freeman, 1986, p. 43). Like the Direct
Method, the Audiolingual Method focuses on the spoken language and forbids translation at early level and the
use of the students’ native language in the classroom (Finocchiaro & Brumfit, 1983, cited in Ellis, 2003, p. 84).
Meanwhile in the Communicative Approach, which has attracted most attention from the language teaching
profession during the past five decades, the restricted use of native language is allowed where feasible and
translation may be used when learners find it essential or helpful (Finocchiaro & Brumfit, 1983, cited in Ellis,
2003, pp. 84-85).
Recently, there has been an increasing attention to the merits of the L1 use in the language classroom among the
language teaching profession. Several studies related to the role of L1 in the teaching of L2 have been carried out
around the world in order to develop post-communicative methods which consider L1 as a classroom resource.
The Functional-Translation Method by Robert Weschler, which combines “the best of traditional “grammar
translation” with the best of modern “direct, communicative” methods”, can be taken as an example (Weschler,
1997, para. 3).
3. Debate surrounding the role of L1 in the L2 classroom
3.1 Support for the monolingual approach
The support for the monolingual approach in the literature is organized around three fundamental principles.
The first principle is based on the rationale that from childhood, human beings are exposed to the surrounding
sound environment. We listen, imitate and respond to what we hear around us and then we succeed in mastering
our L1. As a result, the proponents of the monolingual approach, who believe that L2 learning follows a process
similar to L1 learning, claim that exposure is vital in the learning of L2 (Cook, 2001, p. 406). In other words,
learners of L2 should be exposed to an L2 environment as much as possible. Krashen, a pivotal advocate of the
only-L2 use in the classroom and also an expert in the field of linguistics, continues this idea, stating that
“comprehensible input is the only causative variable in second language acquisition” (1986, cited in Brown,
2000, p. 280). He means that “success in a foreign language can be attributed to input alone” (Brown, 2000, p.
280).
Regarding the second principle, the supporters of the monolingual approach indicate that the main impediment to
L2 learning is the interference from L1 knowledge (Cook, 2001, p. 407). Krashen, (1981, p. 64) in his influential
“Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning”, suggests that L1 is a source of errors in
learners’ L2 performance. Based on research findings, he reports that “a high amount of first language influence”
is found in “situations … where translation exercises are frequent” (Krashen, 1981, p. 66).
As for the third principle, it is believed that the use of only L2 for all interactions in the L2 classroom can
proclaim the significance of L2 in satisfying learners’ communicative needs (Littlewood, 1981, cited in Cook,
2001, p. 409) and depict the usage of the target language (Pachler & Field, 2001, cited in Miles, 2004, p. 8).
In addition to the above fundamental principles, the monolingual approach believes that “the teacher who is a
native speaker is the best embodiment of the target and norm for learners” (Phillipson, 1992, p. 194). This belief
is based on the assumption that native L2 speakers possess “greater facility in demonstrating fluent,
idiomatically appropriate language, in appreciating the cultural connotations of the language, and in being the
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final arbiter of the acceptability of any given samples of the language”, which seem to make them “intrinsically
better qualified than the non-native” (Phillipson, 1992, p. 194). This native speaker principle is quite popular in
several countries including Vietnam. One can easily realize the strong preference of Vietnamese learners of
English for native speakers of English through the advertisements put by foreign language centers in Tuoi Tre
Newspaper- one of the most popular and prestigious newspapers in Vietnam. For example, Europe-USA
International English School (EUIES) – an English language school in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam - advertised
in Tuoi Tre Newspaper dated January 11, 2010 that “in EUIES, you will learn English speaking and listening
skills with 100% native teachers of English”.
3.2 Support for the bilingual approach
The proponents of the bilingual approach have focused their efforts on three points to discredit the monolingual
approach.
According to Phillipson (1992, p. 191), the biggest problem of the monolingual approach is that “it is
impractical”. There is the fact that non-native speakers account for the vast majority of teachers of English across
the world (Hawks, 2001, cited in Miles, 2004, p. 9). These teachers’ English is usually not good enough to carry
out the English-only teaching in the classroom; thus, the insistence on the monolingual approach may result in
their reduced ability to communicate and consequently their reduced teaching performance (Miles, 2004, p. 9).
Another reason for the monolingual approach’s impracticality is that the exclusion of L1 in lower-level
monolingual classes is practically impossible (Nunan & Lamb, 1996, cited in Vaezi & Mirzaei, 2007, para. 7). As
a result, the English-only teaching in the classroom may create “the alienation of learners from the learning
process” (Pachler & Field, 2001, cited in Miles, 2004, p. 14).
The monolingual approach also receives criticism regarding its claim that maximum exposure to L2 leads to the
success of L2 learning. According to Phillipson (1992, p. 211) this is not the case as “…there is no correlation
between quantity of L2 input, in an environment where the learners are exposed to L2 in the community, and the
academic success”. He cites Cummins (1984), as stating that “a maximum exposure assumption is fallacy”
(Phillipson, 1992, p. 211). He further points out that although maximizing L2 input is important, other factors
such as the quality of teaching materials, teachers and methods of teaching are of more significance (Phillipson,
1992, p. 210).
Concerning the belief that native teachers are the best teachers, Cook (1999, p. 186) stated that the characteristics
which native speakers are usually said to possess are “not a necessary part of the definition of native speaker”.
Phillipson (1992, p. 194) shares the same idea, saying that all of these characteristics such as fluency and
appropriate use of language can be achieved in the process of training. He goes further in arguing that non-native
teachers seem to be better than native ones as they themselves have experienced the process of learning L2,
acquiring insight into the need of their learners, which is a valuable resource for their teaching (Phillipson, 1992,
p. 195).
In this light, Phillipson (1992, p. 195) suggests that the ideal teacher is the person who “has near-native speaker
proficiency in the foreign language, and comes from the same linguistic and cultural background as the
learners”.
Apart from discrediting the monolingual approach, the advocates of the bilingual approach indicate the benefits
of using L1 in L2 teaching.
Based on the belief that L1 is part of adult learners’ experience which they bring into the classroom, Corder
(1992, cited in Ellis, 2003, p. 94) states that:
Second language learners not only already possess a language system which is potentially available as a factor in
the acquisition of the second language, but equally importantly they already know something of what a language
is for, what its communicative functions and potentials are.
He proposes that L1 can help learners “in the process of discovery and creation”; thus “the effect of the mother
tongue on learning L2” is “facilitatory” (Corder, 1992, cited in Ellis, 2003, p. 94).
Atkinson (1987, p. 242), in his discussion about general advantages of L1 use, claims that to let learners use their
L1 is “a humanistic approach” which allows them to “say what they really want to say sometimes”. He also
indicates that the use of L1 can be very effective in terms of the amount of time spent explaining (Atkinson,
1987, p. 242).
4. Studies exploring L1 use in L2 teaching
Several studies have been carried out across the world during the past three decades with the aim of
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demonstrating the positive role of L1 in L2 teaching, finding out teachers and learners’ attitudes toward this issue
and identifying specific situations in which L1 should be used in the L2 classroom.
4.1 Studies aiming at demonstrating the positive role of L1 in L2 teaching
Miles (2004, p. 15) carried out two experiments at the University of Kent, England in the attempt to substantiate
that the use of L1 in the classroom not only does not hinder the learning of L2 but also can facilitate the
development of L2. In the first experiment, three low-level classes were compared. One class did not use L1,
another did use it (in this class, the teacher could not speak Japanese; however, Japanese used by the students
was allowed to an extent) and the third did utilize it (in this class, the teacher could speak Japanese and use it
periodically). In the second experiment, the attention was paid to one class. Four lessons were taught to this class,
two using L1 and two not using L1. All the participants who were male of the age between 18 and 19 enrolled at
a university in Tokyo, Japan, but spent their first year studying English in England, regardless of their majors
(English or a different subject). Japanese was their L1, and most of them had learnt English for 6 years at
high-school. Generally, the findings from the two experiments were supportive of the use of L1 in the classroom
(Miles, 2004, pp. 36-37).
More recently, Vaezi and Mirzaei (2007, para. 22) conducted a study in order to answer the following question:
“Does the use of translation from L1 to L2 have any effect on the improvement of Iranian EFL learners'
linguistic accuracy—focus on form?”
To achieve the aim of this study, 155 participants (70 male and 85 female) Iranian pre-intermediate learners of
English as a Foreign Language (EFL) between the age of 13 to 24 studying in several language centers in Iran
were given a pre-test, aiming at identifying the participants who were not familiar with the four chosen structures
of the study namely “Passive voice, Indirect reported speech, Conditional type 2, and Wish+ simple past” (Vaezi
& Mirzaei, 2007, para. 27). Based on the results of the pre-test, 72 participants were selected and were divided
into two groups: the experimental and comparison groups. The experimental group was asked to translate Persian
sentences into English using the structures that they have been taught meanwhile the other group was requested
to do grammar exercises in the course book. Then both groups were given a post-test. The results of the post-test
showed that “the experimental group outperformed the comparison group in terms of accuracy” (Vaezi &
Mirzaei, 2007, para. 3); this supported Atkinson's (1987, p. 244) statements:
An exercise involving translation into the target language of a paragraph or set of sentences which highlight the
recently taught language item can provide useful reinforcement of structural, conceptual and sociolinguistic
differences between the native and target languages. This activity is not, of course, communicative, but its aim is
to improve accuracy.
The study also concluded that “mother tongue, if used purposefully and systematically, can have a constructive
role in teaching other languages” (Vaezi & Mirzaei, 2007, para. 42).
4.2 Studies focusing on teachers and learners’ attitudes toward L1 use in L2 teaching and specific situations in
which L1 should be used in the L2 classroom:
In several other studies conducted by the supporters of the bilingual approach, the focus tends to be on teachers
and learners’ attitudes toward the use of L1 in L2 teaching and specific situations in which L1 should be used in
the L2 classroom. Teachers and learners’ favorable views of the place of L1 in the English classroom can be
found in a research on the use of Spanish in English classes at the University of Puerto Rico, Bayamon Campus,
Puerto Rico. Participants including teachers (n =19) and students (the number of the student participants was not
mentioned in the study) were asked to fill out a questionnaire about their attitudes toward the use of Spanish in
the English classroom. Schweers (1999, para. 5), the author of the research, also recorded a 35-minute sample
from three classes at the beginning, middle, and end of the first semester of the 1997–1998 academic year in
order to see how frequently and in what situations these teachers used Spanish in their classes. According to the
study, the majority of the respondents supported the use of L1 in ELT and would like L1 to be used in English
classes “sometimes”. Regarding the reasons for their preference for the use of Spanish in the classroom, the
respondents answered that it could aid comprehension and make students feel more comfortable, less tense and
less lost. The research also listed possible applications of L1 in the classroom such as explaining difficult
concepts, checking comprehension, defining new vocabulary items, joking around with students and testing.
Based on the study’s findings, Schweers (1999, paras. 25-26) argued that
... a second language can be learned through raising awareness to the similarities and differences between the L1
and the L2.
Additionally, bringing Spanish into the English classes has made learning English appear to be less of a threat to
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their vernacular. They learn first hand that the two languages can coexist. Finally, … using Spanish has led to
positive attitudes toward the process of learning English and better yet, encourage students to learn more
English.
Inspired by Schweers’s research, Tang (2002, para. 9) carried out a similar study in the Chinese context. Results
obtained from the questionnaires filled out by the participants of the study (100 first-year English-majored
university students and 20 teachers), interviews and classroom observations shared many similarities with
Schweers’s study in the context of Puerto Rico. There existed certain differences in the occasions when L1
should be used and the reasons for the use of L1 in the classroom. Tang’s study suggested two more reasons for
the use of Chinese in the English classroom, namely “it is more effective” and “it is less time-consuming”. The
study concluded that
The research seems to show that limited and judicious use of the mother tongue in the English classroom does
not reduce students’ exposure to English, but rather can assist in the teaching and learning processes. This is not
to overstate the role of the L1 or advocate greater use of L1 in the EFL classroom, but rather to clarify some
misconceptions that have troubled foreign language teachers for years, such as whether they should use the
mother tongue when there is a need for it and whether the often-mentioned principle of no native language in the
classroom is justifiable.
(Tang, 2002, para. 33)
Other researchers, Nguyen (1999, p. 40) and Zacharias (2003, p. 74) reported their studies on the use of L1 in L2
teaching and concluded that most of the respondents held supportive views on the role of L1 in the English
classroom. Zacharias (2003, p. 74) further pointed out the possible uses of L1 in the process of teaching L2
including explaining the meaning of new words and grammatical points, giving instructions, checking learners’
understanding and giving feedback to individual learners.
5. The study
5.1Participants
A total of twelve Vietnamese teachers of English (10 females and 2 males) from three universities in Ho Chi
Minh City, Vietnam responded to the questionnaire designed for the study. The percentage of the teachers with a
bachelor degree was little higher than that of those with a master’s degree. The teachers differed considerably
with respect to the age and the year(s) of teaching experience. They aged between 26 and 47 while their teaching
experience ranged from 3 to 22 years. Of the twelve respondents to the questionnaires, only 4 teachers allowed
interview. The interviewed teachers were given pseudonyms – Vinh (the only male), Nhung, Dao and Lan.
5.2 Instruments
The current study made use of two data collection instruments, including:
-a questionnaire (Appendix 1) developed to elicit the teacher respondents’ attitudes toward the use of Vietnamese
in ELT in Vietnam;
-a semi-structured interview (Appendix 2) employed to cross-check the questionnaire data as well as to collect
detailed explanations for the teacher respondents’ attitudes related to the topic of the present study
5.2.1 Questionnaire
As part of the preparation for the questionnaire, take-noted interviews related to the topic of the study with 3
university teachers of English were conducted. The pilot questionnaire developed from the questionnaires
designed by Schweers (1999), sources reviewed in Sections 4 and the information drawn from the preliminary
interviews as well was tested with 3 other university teachers of English. Some minor changes in both wording
and format resulted in the official questionnaire which was framed in Vietnamese to ensure that the data to be
collected would be valid. The questionnaire consisted of two parts. The first is about the participants’ own
background and the second deals with the respondents’ attitudes toward the use of Vietnamese in ELT in the
context of Vietnam.
5.2.2 Interview
A semi-structured interview was conducted in Vietnamese with each of the four teachers. Each interview lasted
between 10 minutes and 15 minutes. They were based on the following key questions:
1). Should teachers use Vietnamese in ELT in Vietnam?
2). If not, why should not teachers use Vietnamese in ELT?
123
3). If yes, in what situations teachers should use Vietnamese in ELT?

4). Why should teachers use Vietnamese in these situations?
5). How often should teachers use Vietnamese in ELT?
Besides the above questions, examples or follow-up questions were included in the interview schedule to
encourage interviewees to give more detailed information.
5.2.3 Procedures
The data collection procedures involved the following steps:
-A total of 15 copies of the questionnaire were distributed to teachers from the three universities and 12 copies
were returned.
-After the questionnaires were returned, four interviews were conducted separately with the permission of the
four teachers. During these interviews, written notes were allowed by the teacher participants.
The results highlight the following points
Vietnamese is useful in some situations
All of the participants advocated the use of Vietnamese in ELT. According to them, Vietnamese was a part of the
teaching method and could play a positive role in the classroom. This is similar to the standpoint of Atkinson
(1987), who believes in the great potential of L1 “as a classroom resource” (Atkinson, 1987, p. 241).
The findings suggest a lot of situations in which Vietnamese should be used in ELT. Among them, ‘explaining
grammatical points’ (75%), ‘explaining new words’ (67%) and ‘checking for understanding (67%)’ were the
three most popular situations. However, these situations should not be fixed. Instead, they could be changed
according to ‘the context of a specific class’ as the following comment made by Lan:
Based on the context of a specific class, the teacher can decide which situations Vietnamese should be used in.
For example, in the elementary English class, I may explain grammar and new words in Vietnamese; however, in
the class with a higher English level, I may first do these things in English. If the students look puzzled, I will
use Vietnamese to reinterpret my English explanations. If the students understand with my explanations in
English, I will continue the lesson without using Vietnamese.
Regarding to the reasons for using Vietnamese, the findings indicate that ‘helping students understand complex
grammatical points better’ (75%), ‘helping students understand difficult new words more clearly’ (67%) and
‘making sure that students understand the lessons’ (50%) were the three reasons which the teacher participants
chose with the highest frequency. The interviewed teachers continued their ideas stated in the questionnaire,
giving more detailed information about their choices:
Explaining the meanings of terminologies and difficult words in English only is a time-consuming but
ineffective work. In this case, giving a Vietnamese equivalent can help students understand more clearly. My
students are also asked to do Vietnamese-English-Vietnamese translation exercises and tests because I think this
can improve the students’ translation skills that they will need for their future jobs. (Vinh)
Using Vietnamese in explaining terminologies and abstract words and complex grammatical points is extremely
effective. Students will understand better and more clearly what they are being taught. Moreover, students’
understanding of the lessons is very important; therefore I frequently use Vietnamese to check for my students’
understanding. I like joking with my students and I think students may enjoy a joke told in Vietnamese more.
This will create a less-stressed learning environment and so help them learn better. (Nhung)
Vietnamese is really useful in explaining technical terms and complex grammar structures because in these cases,
if we use only English, it is very easy to make the students feel confused or misunderstand. Sometimes we
should use Vietnamese in checking for comprehension and giving feedback to make sure that the students
understand the lesson and help them see their strong and weak points clearly. I also discuss classroom methods in
Vietnamese because this will help us and our students better cooperate in the future. (Dao)
In the elementary English class, Vietnamese can make new words and grammatical points easier to understand.
In the class with a higher English level, I only use Vietnamese in case my students are confused with my English
explanations in order to help them understand more clearly. In addition, the teacher should use Vietnamese to
give instructions about the activities that are performed for the first time. I do not want the activities to be
stopped because the students do not know what to do next. It is very important to me that the students understand
what they have been taught and see clearly their errors, so Vietnamese should also be used in checking for
understanding and giving feedback. (Lan)
124
Vietnamese should not be overused

The majority of the teachers (67%) agreed that teachers just should use Vietnamese ‘sometimes’. In other words,
most of the respondents supported the limited use of L1, not the overuse of L1. This was consistent with the
view made by Ellis (1984, cited in Mattioli, 2004), claiming that too much L1 use should be avoided because it
could “deprive the learners of valuable input in the L2” (para.15).
The present study goes further in providing the following suggestions for the judicious use of Vietnamese in
ELT:
We can adjust the amount of Vietnamese to students’ levels of English, types of lessons and types of English we
are teaching. (Vinh)
The higher students’ level of English is, the less Vietnamese should be used. (Nhung)
The frequency of teachers’ use of Vietnamese depends on a lot of things such as students’ levels of English, aims
of the lesson and duration of the class. In Vietnam, the English levels of the students in the same class are not the
same; therefore using some Vietnamese in ELT is useful for the weaker students. If there is plenty of work that
has to be finished in a short-time class, I may use Vietnamese more than usual. (Lan)
The amount of Vietnamese used by teachers should vary by students’ levels of English. (Dao)
These comments implies that according to the teacher participants, the judicious use of L1 by teachers could not
be the same universally because it was influenced by specific factors in specific English classrooms as they listed
above. This was in line with the claim made by Edstrom (2006) that “judicious L1 use will likely look different
in different classrooms” (p. 289).
6. Conclusions and implications
Joining the debate surrounding the use of L1 in L2 teaching in general and in ELT in particular, this article
highlights that once Vietnamese (L1) is not overused and its use is adapted to the context of each class, it (L1)
could be seen as an efficient tool in the ELT classroom. The outcome of the present study also presents the
possible useful role of Vietnamese in several situations such as explaining new words, especially terminologies
and abstract words, in ELT in Vietnam. As a result, there is a need to conduct experimental studies in order to
evaluate the actual role of Vietnamese in these situations, which is likely to make an important contribution to
the development of a systematic way of using Vietnamese to the end of effective English language teaching and
learning.
References
Atkinson, D. (1987). The mother tongue in the classroom: A neglected source? ELT Journal, 41(4), 241-247.
Brown, H.D. (1994). Principles of language learning and teaching (3rd ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall Regents.
Brown, H.D. (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching (4th ed.). San Francisco: Longman.
Cook, V. (1999). Going beyond the native speaker in language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 33(2), 185-209.
Cook, V. (2001). Using the first language in the classroom. The Canadian Modern Language Review/La Revue
Canadienne des Langues Vivantes, 57(3), 402-423.
Edstrom, A. (2006). L1 use in the L2 classroom: One teacher’s self-evaluation. The Canadian Modern Language
Review/ La Revue Canadienne des Langues Vivantes, 63(2), 275-292.
Ellis, E.M. (2003). Bilingualism among Teachers of English as a Second Language: A study of second language
learning experience as a contributor to the professional knowledge and beliefs of teachers of ESL to adults
(Doctoral thesis, Griffith University, 2003). Retrieved from
http://www4.gu.edu.au:8080/adt-root/public/adt-QGU20040618.172404/index.html.
Ha Thi, T.D. (2007). Nang cao hieu qua giang day tieng Anh o bac dai hoc nhin tu goc do giao vien chu nhiem.
In P.A.Vu Thi, et al. (Eds.), Giang day tieng Anh bac dai hoc tai Viet Nam: Van de va giai phap (pp. 9-17). Ho
Chi Minh City: Nha xuat ban Dai hoc Quoc gia TP Ho Chi Minh.
Krashen, S. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. Oxford: Pergamon.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (1986). Techniques and principles in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Mattioli, G. (2004 ). On native language intrusions and making do with words: Linguistically homogeneous
classrooms and native language use. English Teaching Forum, 42(4). Retrieved November 6, 2007 from
http://exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/vol42/no4/p20.htm.
125
Miles, R. (2004). Evaluating the use of L1 in the English language classroom (Master thesis, University of
Birmingham, 2004). Retrieved from www.cels.bham.ac.uk/resources/essays/Milesdiss.pdf.
Nguyen Thi, N.Q. (2006). Using Vietnamese: The assistance or interference in the teaching-learning process in
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Nguyen, X.Q. (1999). The role of the Vietnamese language in the English teaching and learning in Vietnam.
Unpublished master thesis, Hanoi University of Foreign Studies & Ho Chi Minh City University of Social
Sciences and Humanities, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.
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Teaching Forum, 43(4). Retrieved February 3, 2008, from
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Phillipson, R. (1992). Linguistic imperialism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Schweers, W. Jr. (1999). Using L1 in the L2 classroom. English Teaching Forum, 37(2). Retrieved November 22,
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Stern, H.H. (1983). Fundamental concepts of language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Stern, H.H. (1992). Issues and options in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Tang, J. (2002). Using L1 in the English classroom. English Teaching Forum, 40(1). Retrieved November 22,
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Vaezi, S., & Mirzaei, M. (2007, September). The effect of using translation from L1 to L2 as a teaching
technique on the improvement of EFL learners’ linguistic accuracy – focus on form. Humanising Language
Teaching, 9(5). Retrieved February 20, 2008 from http://www.hltmag.co.uk/Sep07/mart03.htm.
Weschler, R. (1997). Uses of Japanese (L1) in the English Classroom: Introducing the Functional-Translation
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from http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/thesis.php.
APPENDIX 1: QUESTIONNAIRE
Section A:
1. University where you are teaching: …………………………………………
2. Sex:
Male ………….
Female ………….
3. Age:
………… years old
4. Number of years of teaching English:
…………year(s)
5. Highest academic degree:
Bachelor’s degree ……….. Doctorate degree ………..
Master’s degree ……….. Other; please specify ……………………
Section B:
1. Should teachers use Vietnamese in teaching English?
a. Yes ……… b. No ………
2. If “No”, give the reasons:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
126
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. If “Yes”
3.1. Teachers should use Vietnamese when
Please circle one number on the scale
1= very rarely
2= rarely
3= sometimes
4= frequently
5= very frequently
a. explaining new words 1 2 3 4 5
b. explaining grammatical points 1 2 3 4 5
c. giving instructions about activities 1 2 3 4 5
d. checking for understanding 1 2 3 4 5
e. giving feed-back to individuals 1 2 3 4 5
f. joking with students 1 2 3 4 5
g. discussing classroom methods 1 2 3 4 5
h. testing (e.g., doing translation tests) 1 2 3 4 5
i. others, please specify
……………………………………………… 1 2 3 4 5
……………………………………………… 1 2 3 4 5
……………………………………………… 1 2 3 4 5
3.2. Teachers should use Vietnamese when

a. explaining new words because.…………………………………
b. explaining grammatical points because..…………………………….......
c. giving instructions about activities because.…………………………………
d. checking for understanding because.…………………………………
e. giving feed-back to individuals because.…………………………………
f. joking with students because.…………………………………
g. discussing classroom methods because.…………………………………
h. testing (e.g., doing translation tests) because...…………………………………
i. others, please specify
……………………………………… because.…………………………………..
……………………………………... because.………………………………......
……………………………………... because.………………………………......
3.3.Teachers should use Vietnamese in teaching English (Please circle the answer)
a. very rarely b. rarely c. sometimes d. frequently e. very frequently
**** Are you willing to participate in a 15-minute oral interview? If so, please write down your name, telephone
number and e-mail address:
………………………………………………………………………………………
Your answers will remain confidential and will be used for research purposes only.
127
Thank you.
APPENDIX 2: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
Interviewee: ……………………… Intended duration: …………..mins
University: ………………………. Interview began: ………………….
Date: ………………………. Interview finished: ………………..
Location: ………………………. Actual duration: ……………..mins
1. Should teachers use Vietnamese in ELT in Vietnam?
2. If not, why should not teachers use Vietnamese in ELT?
3. If yes, in what situations teachers should use Vietnamese in ELT?
(Prompts: explaining new words/explaining grammatical points/giving instructions…)
(Prompts: in what situations it is especially advisable for teachers to use Vietnamese?)
4. Why should teachers use Vietnamese in these situations?
(Prompts: help students understand better/save time…)
5. How often should teachers use Vietnamese in ELT?
(Prompts: rarely/sometimes/frequently…)
128
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Editorʼs Note
Supporting the Success of English Language Learners in the Asian Region
Richmond Stroupe 161
Research
Negotiating “Third Spaces”:
EAP Apprenticeship, Academic Writing, and Chinese Students
Josephine Mirador 169
Student Perceptions of Metacognitive Strategy Use in Lecture Listening Comprehension

Suzanah Selamat and Gurnam Kaur Sidhu 185
EFL Learners’ Reading Strategy Use in Relation to Reading Anxiety

Hsin-Yi Lien 199
Teaching Practice
Guidance for Learners’ Improvement of Speaking Skills
Doan Linh Chi 213
Implications for Effective Ways of Conducting and Assessing Presentations in EFL Classes
Etsuko Shimo 227
Facilitating Interaction in East Asian EFL Classrooms:

Increasing Students’ Willingness to Communicate
Scott Aubrey 237
Impact of an Out-of-class Activity

on Students’ English Awareness, Vocabulary, and Autonomy
Siao-cing Guo 246
Do Context-Rich Lessons Improve Learners’ Listening Comprehension Performance?

Nick Morley 257
About Language Education in Asia

Background Information 268
Editorial Board 268
Disclaimer 271
Notes to Prospective Contributors 271
Copyright and Permission to Reprint 272
Table of Contents - Page 160

Language Education in Asia, Volume 2, Issue 2, 2011
Editorʼs Note
Supporting the Success

of English Language Learners
in the Asian Region 1
Richmond Stroupe, Editor-in-Chief

Soka University, Japan
Internationalization, globalization, and regionalization are increasingly promoting the

importance and popularity of English language teaching and learning in Asia. While
controversies and debates remain concerning level appropriacy, access, local contextual
influences, teacher qualifications, status compared to local languages, and identity (Bray,
2000; Hallak, 2000; Kirkparick, 2010; Phillipson, 1992, 2001; Rahman, 2009), the influence of
English is growing, and is predicted to continue to grow in the coming decades (Graddol,
1997, 2006; Nunan, 2003; Phillipson, 2001; Stroupe, 2010). Politically, a number of countries
and regional blocs have made moves that have influenced the importance of English in the
region, most notably the adoption by the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) of
English as the working language of the organization (Kirkpatrick, 2011) and the entry of China
into the World Trade Organization (WTO) (Nunan, 2003). In addition, in 2004 and 2005, the
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) organization made a move to focus on developing
the English (and Mandarin) language skills in the region through the Strategic Plan for English
and Other Languages to further advance economic development (Asia-Pacific Economic
Cooperation, 2005).
In response to these trends, countries in the Asian region have implemented educational
policies that are refocusing efforts on English language instruction, often beginning instruction
at increasingly lower grades, increasing the total number of years of English requirements
within a curriculum, and / or increasing the number of hours required within a particular grade
level (Gorsuch, 2000; Graddol, 1997, 2006; Hashimoto, 2011; Kirkpatrick, 2010; 2011;
Nishino, 2008; Nunan, 2003). As a result, local teachers, often with limited resources and / or
insufficient institutional or professional support (Hull, 2011; Nguyen & To, 2011; Nishino,
2008; Nunan, 2003; Stewart, 2009) are faced with new challenges in providing English
language learning experiences which offer students the support, opportunities for success, and
resulting proficiency levels necessary for professional or academic achievement beyond their
school experience.
In many cases, global trends and government initiatives have resulted in increased emphasis
on accountability as well. In the United States, new accountability procedures are being
imposed through educational policies such as No Child Left Behind and the implementation of
the Common Core Standards (Echevarria, 2006; National Council of Teachers of English, 2008;
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Language Education in Asia, 2011, 2(2), 161-168. http://dx.doi.org/10.5746/LEiA/11/V2/I2/A00/Stroupe
Stroupe - Page 161

Editor’s Note
Saunders, 2009). Australian institutions ensure the quality of domestic and offshore ELT
programs through the implementation of the Standards and Criteria for ELT Centres in Australia
(National ELT Accreditation Scheme [NEAS], 2008). In other cases, already existing
international models such as the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages:
Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR) (Council of Europe, 2011) are being adopted or
adapted in other countries to ensure the quality of education in general and language
education in particular (Council of Europe, 2001; Graddol, 2006; Kuhlman, Tafani, Delija, &
Diaz-Maggioli, 2010).
Countries around the Pacific Rim are also meeting the challenges presented by increasingly
diverse student populations. In the United States, the expanding immigrant student population
is placing new demands on teachers and the educational system as a whole, while at the same
time, specific challenges faced by the increasing number of international students attending
domestic universities have been considered (Galloway & Jenkins, 2005). Likewise, Australian
universities are also striving to meet the unique needs of their growing international student
population (Dooley, 2004; Ramburuth & McCormick, 2001).
As countries in the Asian region expand their English language education programs (Nunan,
2003), educators and researchers in the Asian region and beyond are investigating and
experimenting with creative methodologies, approaches, and materials in order to better
support the English language learning of their students (Stroupe, 2010; Yashima & Zenuk-
Nishide, 2008). Emphasis has been placed on utilizing students’ cultural backgrounds and L1
effectively in conjunction with English (Samimy & Kobayashi, 2004) and increasing students’
motivation (Hamada, 2011). Consideration has also been placed on better understanding
students’ communication styles as they relate to English language learning (Takanashi, 2004).
Developing culturally sensitive and useful materials, both authentic and professionally
published, has also been a point of investigation (Chea & Klein, 2011; Hamada, 2011;
McPherson, 2005; Vijayaratnam, 2008). Nevertheless, in many contexts in Asia, particularly in
Japan (Gorsuch, 2000; Samimy & Kobayashi, 2004), China (Deng & Carless, 2010), and South
Korea (Hwang, 2003), primarily form-focused, high-stakes university entrance exams continue
to significantly impact the methodology, content, and focus of secondary English language
instruction.
As instruction employing a communicative approach becomes more widespread (Nunan,

2003), based on changing national policies in the region (Butler & Iino, 2005; Graddol, 1997,
2006; Kirkpatrick, 2010, 2011; Nishino, 2008), teachers in Asia continue to aim to provide
their students opportunities to successfully use English in the classroom. In Hong Kong, Wong
(2009) has investigated effective methods of developing skills necessary in seminar classes,
while Kobayashi (2001) has reported on Japanese students’ positive view of communicating in
English as an international language. Also in Japan, Yashima and Zenuk-Nishide (2008) have
examined how an “imagined international community” (p. 569) can be effectively used to
prepare students to study abroad. In Taiwan, Lu and Kuo (2011) have considered how
teachers’ perceptions affect connected speech instruction.
Likewise, other skill areas have received attention. Vocabulary development has been
emphasized as a method to support and improve the reading skills of learners in Thailand
(Suppasetseree & Saitakham, 2008), while Nation (2011) suggests successful vocabulary
teaching activities that can be applied across the region. Developing specific reading strategies
is the focus of Subbiah and Ismail’s (2009) investigation in Malaysia, and teaching literature in
Stroupe - Page 162

!
Cambodia has been considered by Narith and Mab (2006). Additionally in Cambodia,
effective feedback on writing has been investigated (Sou, 2010), while Matsuda (2011) has
considered how globalization is influencing the teaching of writing.
Coupled with communicative opportunities and language skill development, teachers in the
region are increasingly focusing on study skills and strategies, oftentimes adapting them to the
local context. Ehrman, Leaver, and Oxford (2003) have provided an overview of learning
styles and learning strategies, while Oanh (2006) has considered contextualized student
autonomy and independent learning in Vietnam, and Yang (1998) has examined issues related
to learner autonomy in Taiwan. Atkinson (1997) has explored the cultural appropriacy of
teaching critical thinking skills in the Japanese context; Stroupe (2006) has argued that critical
thinking skills should be scaffolded and taught as other skills are throughout language
instruction. Such research indicates that many teachers in the region see that supporting
students includes skills beyond grammatical or linguistic understanding and communicative
competence.
Teachers themselves continue to be the focus of much academic investigation in the region,
with particular emphasis on native language and educational background. Increasingly,
English language instruction is more often successfully provided by non-native English (NNS)
speaking teachers to NNS students who will be communicating with NNS counterparts in the
region (Graddol, 1997, 2006; Liu, 2011). Teacher education programs continue to consider
the skills teachers will need to prepare the next generation of graduates, including pedagogical
content knowledge (Gopinathan, 1999), and more recently, technology (Hallak, 2000). Yet
concerns remain regarding whether teachers in the region are supported sufficiently to be fully
prepared for the demands of the future (Nishino, 2008; Vilches, 2005).
The connection between school and “the world of work” continues to be important as teachers
in Asia prepare their students with the skills necessary to be successful in an increasingly
global business sector. Testing preparation remains important through the tertiary level, as
companies continue to recruit freshman employees who have achieved high test scores, most
notably in TOEFL, TOEIC (Butler & Iino, 2005; Kirkpatrick, 2007; Stewart, 2009; Yoshida,
2003), and IELTS, for academic and professional purposes (Merrifield, 2011; O’Loughlin, 2008;
Read & Wette, 2009). Yet, increasingly, due to pressures from the business community, solely
relying on test scores is often insufficient: employers are now seeking graduates who can
demonstrate international communicative competence and are focusing on intelligibility rather
than British or American standards, as much communication in English in the Asian region is
between non-native speakers rather than between non-native and native speakers of English
(Graddol, 2006; Kirkpatrick, 2011; Matsuda, 2011; Stroupe, 2010). Proficiency in English
continues to lead to economic opportunities, exemplified by call centers in the Philippines
(Friginal, 2007), India (Graddol, 2006; Warschauer, 2000), and Pakistan (Rahman, 2009).
In the current issue of Language Education in Asia, authors continue to contribute to the
discussion of these topics related to successfully supporting Asian English language learners.
Researchers have investigated ways in which to improve the language teaching and learning
provided to learners in the region. Mirador considers writing in her research article. When
examining students’ understanding of the purposes of academic writing in western cultures,
she also identifies the most common writing errors in this genre with her Chinese students in
extension campuses of Western institutions in China. Her results indicate that students most
often emphasized skills-based issues related to improvement and overall essay organization
rather than higher order aspects of their reasoning through the writing process.
Stroupe - Page 163

Editor’s Note
The additional research papers in the current volume focus on strategy use. Selamat and Sidhu
consider metacognitive strategy use in lecture style courses in a technical university in
Malaysia. Their research indicates that employing explicit metacognitive strategy instruction
can result in more effective listening skills for students. Additionally, reading strategies provide
the focus for Lien’s research in Taiwan. In her study, students’ level of reading anxiety was
shown to be negatively correlated with their employment of reading strategies. Based on her
findings, recommendations for lessening anxiety and improving reading strategies are
suggested.
Developing linguistic and learning skills are emphasized in papers related to more practical
issues in the classroom. Doan considers the importance of practice when improving students’
speaking skills in Vietnam. She emphasizes the role of the teacher is providing specialized
activities and guidance to students to result in more effective practice. A more specific class
activity, the presentation, is the focus of Shimo’s paper. In the context of Japan, she explains a
step-by-step procedure that, through providing time for reflection and understanding, allows
students to deliver more effective presentations. Also in Japan, Aubrey addresses a common
problem teachers face in the communicative classroom: hesitancy on the part of students to
communicate. He addresses the willingness to communicate by focusing on specific variables,
i.e., group dynamics, relevant topics, and level of anxiety, which can be manipulated to
successfully create a classroom atmosphere in which students will be more forthcoming during
their communicative activities.
Also related to classroom instruction are two papers on the context of the classroom, one
emphasizing the use of input from outside the classroom, and the other focusing on improving
listening skills in activities in the classroom. Guo helps students realize that there is extensive
English use in their environment outside of the classroom, even in a non-English dominant
country such as Taiwan. As they analyzed the accuracy of English examples they found, the
students gained a heightened awareness of the proliferation of English in their daily lives.
Morley also discusses how he utilized video clips and images in order to provide a more
contextualized basis when working with listening activities. When evaluated, learners
indicated that they not only preferred activities that were context-rich, but also performed
better on associated listening assessments.
It is with great appreciation that I thank all those who have contributed to the current issue of
Language Education in Asia, including all the teachers and researchers represented in this
publication, and all those in the region who continually reflect on their experiences and are
determined to improve not only their effectiveness in the classroom, but their students’
understanding and achievement as well. Special appreciation is reserved for the publication’s
Advisory and Editorial Board members, Assistant Editors, Mr. Chea Kagnarith and Ms. Deborah
Harrop, and most importantly, the Assistant Editor-in-Chief, Ms. Kelly Kimura, without whose
support and dedication this publication would not be possible.
It is hoped that the addition of the articles in the current issue of Language Education in Asia to
the scholarly work dedicated to improving the understanding and delivery of English language
instruction in the Asian region will provide further insight into the unique context in which we
teach. Through sharing our experiences and insights, we are able to support each other as
educators and researchers; in addition, we enhance our own professional development and the
skills and expertise we utilize in our classrooms, which have a direct impact on the success of
our students.
Stroupe - Page 164

!
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Stroupe - Page 168

Research
Negotiating “Third Spaces”:

EAP Apprenticeship, Academic Writing,
and Chinese Students 1
Josephine F. Mirador
Woosong University, South Korea
Abstract
The aims of this exploratory research on the academic writing apprenticeship of
Chinese students are four-fold: (1) to determine what students thought were the
purposes of academic writing, (2) to find out if students were adopting the
preferred organisational patterns in writing argumentative essays, (3) to identify
what their most common errors were when writing for academic purposes, and
(4) to determine teacher perceptions of the academic writing program. The
researcher surveyed 47 Chinese students, analysed the organisation of 31
sample essays, conducted an error analysis of 120 paragraphs, and interviewed
10 EAP writing teachers. Findings revealed that students generally associated
academic writing with skills-based improvement rather than development of
higher order skills as criticality; students acculturated to the preferred ways of
organising essays; lexis posed the most serious issue for student writing; and
teachers interviewed generally raised concerns about the effectiveness and
direction of the writing program.
One major consequence of globalisation is the increase in the number of extension campuses
of western universities in different parts of the world. In this paper, an extension campus refers
to an institution that operates as a branch of a university that is based in the west. Asia, in
particular, has seen the growth of universities catering to the English language needs of
students who would rather be educated on local shores, but within a generally western
university model. This has been the case in China.
Most extension campuses of western institutions of higher education offer degree programs
featuring a final year of study in the main institution after two or three years of study in China.
Studying in an institution following a Western model may pose challenges to students used to
the local system of education. Challenges range from adapting to new ways of doing things to
acculturating to new conventions and meeting the expectations of western education
predominantly taught by an international faculty, most of whom are native English-speaking, if
not educated in western countries.

Language Education in Asia, 2011, 2(2), 169-184. http://dx.doi.org/10.5746/LEiA/11/V2/I2/A01/Mirador
Mirador - Page 169

Research
One of the biggest challenges for Chinese students taking EAP writing in their first year lies in
the level and kind of writing expected in the university. Candlin & Hyland (1999, p. 11)
describe writing as a “site of struggle and change.” What may make writing difficult is the
process of adapting, fitting in, and accommodating another system quite different to what one
brings into the field. Angelova and Riazantseva (1999) noted that there are problems that make
writing for academic purposes in one’s non-native language an extremely cognitive and
socially demanding task. Such problems may be attitudinal, cognitive (adapting to rhetorical
styles, expressing opinions, register, and the writing process), or social (e.g., reaction to
feedback and how to interact with professors). What may make writing “a site of change” may
have been expressed by Shen (1989, p. 46): “Looking back, I realize that the process of
learning to write in English is, in fact, a process of creating and defining a new identity, and
balancing it with the old identity . . . ”
As a subdiscipline, academic writing could not be more complex for students going through
this process of transition to a target academic culture. “Academic writing . . . involves
familiarity with writing conventions of the university culture and disciplinary subcultures in
which the second or foreign language learner participates” (Schneider & Fujishima, 1995, as
cited in Xing, Wang, & Spencer, 2008, p. 71). For Chinese students, a study by Su and Norton
(2008) noted that students found linguistic challenges and strategies for writing to be the most
difficult hurdle. One possible linguistic challenge is effective vocabulary for academic use.
Indeed, Santos (1988, as cited in Xing, Wang, & Spencer, 2008) found that lexis is what non-
native users of English find the most problematic in writing. Jordan (1997, as cited in Xing,
Wang, & Spencer, 2008) also noted that students find vocabulary the most challenging.
According to Edwards and Ran (2006, p. 10), “some [students] say that they simply do not have
sufficient command of English to explain what an author says in their own words.”
This paper explores the academic writing experience of Chinese students in China who were
registered in the foundation programs of the extension campuses of two western institutions.
The research was guided by the following questions:
• What do the students think is the purpose of writing academic essays?

• What patterns do students follow in organising an argumentative essay?
• Which language forms do they have the most difficulty with in academic writing?
• How do the teachers feel about the academic writing course they were teaching in
terms of how this met expectations in higher education overseas?
Conceptual Background
The main concepts that influenced the researcher’s perceptions of what was occurring in the
contexts being investigated were the idea of apprenticeship via EAP writing and the notion of
third spacing.
How is EAP a form of apprenticeship? Firstly, EAP acculturates students to conventions in

writing held and practiced in the target academic culture. This is especially the case with
Chinese students; many had not written an academic paper prior to their foundation year. The
conventions of writing an academic paper are a big jump for students who may have only been
exposed to English instruction involving exercises limited to grammar. Secondly, the issue of
gaining access into the writing conventions of the target academic culture becomes in itself a
process of initiation and apprenticeship into another culture and exposes students to other
ways of making knowledge in the classroom that may not have been known to the students,
including conscious processes (building autonomous skills) or classroom practices (cooperative
Mirador - Page 170

interaction and collaborative work). In this process of apprenticeship, teachers become the
transmitters of a target system of conventions that students need to learn. A community where
the practice of knowledge transmission is centered on the notion of facilitators or adept
practitioners (teachers) and recipients (students) is eventually constructed, similar to Lave and
Wenger’s (1991) concept of communities of practice. However, should knowledge be only
transmitted? Can knowledge be negotiated along this process of apprenticeship?
The other idea that anchors this paper is “third space,” used here to refer to the transitional
space that students enter as they negotiate expectations in the target discourse/s (see Figure 1).
It is that space where students merge where they are coming from with what is expected of
them in terms of writing conventions. It is where they assess the value of their experience and
their big and small cultures in relation to the apprenticeship they have experienced in the
target academic culture. Holliday’s (1999) notion of big culture (ethnic / national) and small
cultures (any cohesive social grouping, e.g., youth culture or classroom culture) triggers ideas
about the frames that Chinese students bring to their academic writing classes and how these
merge or contrast with the generally western orientation of EAP programs. A student’s big and
small cultures may consist of national, youth, classroom, and writing cultures. In contrast, the
target EAP cultures are professional-academic, the university culture, the university’s national
culture, and the western EAP culture. In the research context, the target EAP culture has been
known to emphasise critical reading, argumentative skills, critical analysis, and problem
solving.
1st Space 2nd Space
Student’s
Target
background !"#$$
EAP
(big & small) %&'()$$
culture
cultures (big &
small)
Figure 1. Cultures interacting when students engage in a “third space.”
Essentially, third space, as used in this paper, represents the hybrid space where students
merge their big and small cultures with the target culture, which in this case is the EAP writing
culture. It may be important to point out here that Bhabha first used the term third space in
line with his idea of liminal negotiation of cultural difference (Graves, n.d.); however, it is not
the purpose of this paper to discuss third space, as used here, and its similarities or differences
to Bhabha’s use of the term.
Mirador - Page 171

Research
Methodology
Research Contexts
The two research contexts (Institutions A and B, located in different parts of China) had been
running EAP writing programs for undergraduate Chinese students for no more than five years
at the time the research was conducted. The aims of the writing programs were somewhat
similar: to instruct students on the use of academic language needed for Year 2 and beyond,
develop student skills in organising essays and arranging evidence to support ideas, develop
their criticality, build their skills in autonomy, and develop their voice and stance in writing.
Participants and Procedure

There were four phases involved in this exploratory research.
Phase 1: Exploratory Survey. An initial survey of 47 first-year Chinese students about their
experiences to date (most had finished one semester and were beginning their second) was
conducted in Institution A, where the research was started. All participants were in their first
year of a foundation program for a degree and came from three groups or classes. The purpose
of the initial survey was to find out what students thought about joining an EAP program in
academic writing in a western university. As shown in the Results section, two questions were
of specific importance: 1) what students consider as the purpose of a researched essay, and 2)
what students consider as the purpose of essay writing.
Phase 2: Analysis of Organisational Patterns. To find out whether or not students were
becoming “acculturated” to the preferred organisational patterns in academic writing, the next
step was to determine how they were arranging information in their essays. Phase 2 is the
qualitative part of the research where sample sets of writing, comprising 31 essays, were
chosen from two student groups in Institution A. The two groups were chosen because one
was perceived as strong, and the other weak. The objective for the choice of groups was to see
if both groups, regardless of perceived writing abilities, were grasping the concept of organising
academic essays. Both groups were asked to write an argumentative essay, as this type of
essay was a common academic task expected from students. Both writing sets were collected
towards the end of the semester. Both groups were taught by the same instructor. As the
outputs were end-of-term work, these had gone through re-drafts at least once.
Phase 3: Error Analysis. As there were evident concerns on form and accuracy reflecting on
the written outputs of the students previously taught, it was decided that the research should
determine what language-related issues were contributing to student challenges in writing. As
the researcher eventually moved to teach at Institution B, Phase 3 was conducted for both
Institutions A and B in that it might be interesting to compare the language issues for students
in both institutions. An error analysis on student-written samples was done for two groups (a
total of 30 students) from Institutions A and B. The corpus consisted of 120 paragraphs (60
from each institution) of eight types. For Institution A, the paragraphs consisted of a summary,
comparison and contrast, analysis, and introduction. For Institution B, the paragraphs included
non-linear description, process and procedure, introduction, and argumentation. Each
paragraph ranged from 120 to 160 words. In addition, to see how errors occurred in a longer
text, an error analysis was also done on one full essay written by each group (30 in total). The
essays of both groups were argumentative in nature. All texts were practice sets and formed
parts of class requirements. The essays and paragraphs were read by one rater, the specific
lines where the mistakes registered were coded, and the mistakes were tallied as they occurred
in columns representing the categories identified (Tables 1 and 2).
Mirador - Page 172

Phase 4: Teacher Perceptions. In the last phase, interviews were conducted with 10 EAP
teachers from Institution B to obtain teacher perceptions of how the writing program was
fulfilling its objectives. As the researcher had already moved to this institution when the
research progressed, access to teachers became possible only for Institution B. At the time of
the interviews, the teachers were either currently teaching academic writing or had taught it
the previous semester. Except for one, the teachers interviewed were native speakers of
English. The questionnaire used is provided in Appendix A.
Results and Discussion

Phase 1: Exploratory Survey
The responses to the writing-related items in the exploratory survey are shown in Figures 2 and
3. Multiple responses were allowed for both questions. A summary of the results is given
below.
Question 1: What do you think is the purpose of research essays?
16
14
Number of Respondents
12
10
Figure 2. What students consider to be the purpose of researched essays. n = 47
As shown above, the development of writing ability was seen to be the main reason for writing
essays. Students also chose knowledge acquisition and improving research skills as the next
top reasons. However, of the 47 respondents, few chose the development of critical thinking.
This begs the question of whether or not they value this skill or lack awareness that it is valued,
and whether it is not explicitly taught. It is expected that part of the process of learning how to
write in a particular genre (in this case, academic writing) is learning to examine one’s ideas.
Mirador - Page 173

Research
Question 2: What do you think is the purpose of essay writing?

#!"
'&"
'%"
Number of Respondents
'$"
'#"
'!"
&"
%"
$"
#"
!"
Improve Academic Prepare for Research Learn Show or Other
English writing future skills knowledge examine
studies knowledge
Figure 3. What students consider to be the purpose of essay writing. n = 47
The majority of respondents considered the purpose of essay writing to be to improve their
skills in academic writing, improve their English in general, and prepare them for future
studies, while only a few respondents mentioned the acquisition of knowledge. This may be
explained by the focus on process in an EAP course. As shown below, there seems to be less
concern about content. Respondents wrote:
The content may not be the most important. The process when we are writing
may be more important. (Respondent 1)
To practice what I have learnt. Not only theory but also practice. (Respondent
2)
Since we have a lot of time to prepare for research papers, the purpose should
be checking whether we can do enough academic reading and collecting, re-
organising information. (Respondent 3)
It seems from the responses that student concerns about the purposes of writing essays are
more immediate and local, and focus on the development of skills. Such concerns contrast
with higher learning objectives such as knowledge acquisition or developing criticality in
thinking. In addition, the responses for both questions indicate the small culture orientation
that students were bringing into their university-level academic writing program. In this case,
what seems to operate as a small culture is the “classroom culture” that students were bringing
from high school. This classroom culture tends to value the immediate relevance and
applicability of skills being learned.
Mirador - Page 174

Phase 2: Analysis of Organisational Patterns

The analysis of 31 argumentative essays revealed that students had clearly developed an
awareness of an “EAP” way to structure information in their essays by the end of term. In
writing argumentative essays, they adopted one of two options in organising information: the
top-down (thesis-driven) organisation of information, or a more open structure that does not
state a clear thesis at the beginning of the essay, but initially provides a balanced discussion of
two points of an argument and ends with a conclusion that indicates some kind of a decision.
Examples of these patterns are given in Appendix B.
For Group 1, eight students adopted a top-down structure, seven followed an open structure,
and only one wrote an essay that seemed to show no evident structure at all. For Group 2, five
students adopted a top-down structure, while the remaining 10 adopted an open structure for
their essays. Results from both groups indicate that students were definitely becoming
acculturated to preferred patterns of organising writing in an argumentative essay. In this
sense, it can be said that the instruction provided was working and acculturating students to
the conventionalised writing expected in the academic context.
In response to a question on what students find easiest to do in EAP writing, one respondent
wrote:
Maybe it’s . . . like the outline or the organisation of the whole article . . . The
structure, several patterns already designed . . . it’s easy . . . We don’t have to
think of new patterns ourselves. (Respondent 4)
While what was said indicates evidence of student “acculturative” ability to the organisational
patterns normally modeled in texts, certainly creating a mind-set among students that fixes
organising writing in specific patterns goes against fostering critical thinking. In this sense,
therefore, it would seem that there is a need to build awareness among students that rhetorical
patterns produce some kind of guide for novice writers. However, it is building among
students the thinking that other possibilities may exist in organising information that may need
emphasising.
As regards to building cohesion in writing, a growing consciousness was noted on student use
of transitional devices to link ideas in their essays. However, a consistent trend was that while
students developed an awareness of their use, some were not using them appropriately. Thus,
it seems that while students tended to understand some form of academic languaging,
connected ideas were not always the end product of their choices. It is crucial to have
students think more about this aspect of academic writing, as outputs can read like a collage of
disconnected ideas, but have superficial links to give a semblance of cohesion.
The following are examples of the qualitative notes on the analysis of the organisation in
student essays.
Mirador - Page 175

Research
Group 1 (end of first term)

Adopts a structure but there was no indication of an argument.
A structure was adopted but does not necessarily indicate viewpoint.
Open structure. No clear position taken. No conclusion adopted.
Good flow but lacked discussion of actual position taken.
Lack of support for lead sentences (top-down structure).
Most of presented information was off. Unsupported argument.
Top-down structure followed.
Position taken right at the beginning. Conclusion confirms this.
Discussed two sides of the issue, providing a longer discussion to the position
taken.
Group 2 (Semester 2)
Argument not initially clear. Attempted to cite specific examples.
“Open” starter (no particular argument set forth). Next paragraph fails to
establish connection.
Purpose statement signals a more open stance but succeeding paragraphs
clearly indicate the writer’s position.
Open argument at the beginning yet follows through with more directed
discussion in the body, which supports a viewpoint.
Use of signposts can be improved. Not necessarily unpacking the argument.
Top down. 5-paragraph essay. Inappropriate use of cohesive devices.
Very clear organisation. Enough details discussed. Inappropriate use of
transitions.
Disconnected ideas though some examples are relevant. Inappropriate use of
transitions.
Conclusion does not give the impression that the essay is ending.
Already made the transition to the writing culture expected.
Very clear thesis statement. Clearly supported points. A structure was
followed.
Again, it is evident from the qualitative notes that the concept of structuring information in
essays is something that students have learnt. However, the adoption of a structure did not
always necessarily lead to a sound argument. Content and relevance of information remain
key elements in the development of an argument.
Phase 3: Error Analysis

Interestingly, an error analysis conducted on 120 paragraphs of variable rhetorical devices
written by students from the two institutions showed that students in both groups encountered
similar problems. The top four language-related problems were the same in terms of ranking,
with lexis proving to be the most cumbersome, regardless of the type of rhetorical device.
While this may not be surprising, one may note that students wrote different text types, two of
which, Process / Procedure and Non-prose Description, are somewhat technical in orientation.
What had been shown by the error analysis is that regardless of the type of writing, students
made the same type of errors. This may mean that instead of focusing instruction on the use of
Mirador - Page 176

specialised vocabulary or constructions common in a specific text type, direct intervention on

these identified errors may be more helpful for students to improve their writing.
The distribution of errors across 120 paragraphs is noteworthy. Tables 1 and 2 show lexis-
related errors occurred almost twice as often as those of the second-ranking verb errors for both
groups from the two institutions. While the top four most recurrent problems were the same in
ranking for the groups in the two institutions, there were slight differences in the extent to
which they occurred in student writing. Institution A students had twice as many sentence
construction issues than Institution B students and had more form-based mistakes. Both
groups, however, had committed the same number of mistakes in subject-verb agreement.
Overall, the results point to the consistency of discrete form-based type local errors in written
outputs of students. Similar academic writing programs would do well to provide some kind of
form-focused instruction on these items, which tend to hamper student efforts at producing
more effective written work. Tables 1 and 2 show how consistent the errors are, indicating the
level of attention and treatment that they require.
Table 1
Institution A Error Analysis (Summary, Comparison and Contrast, Introduction, Analysis)
Top Problems Identified Frequency of Occurrence
Lexis-Related (Word Choice / Word Form) 232
Verb Tense / Aspect 131
Sentence Construction Issues 107
Agreement (Subject-Verb) 63
Table 2
Institution B Error Analysis (Argument, Non-Prose, Process and Procedure, Introduction)
Top Problems Identified Frequency of Occurrence
Lexis-Related (Word Choice / Word Form) 204
Verb Tense / Aspect 106
Sentence Construction Issues 69
Agreement (Subject-Verb) 63
Additionally, results indicate that as mistakes in basic sentence structures are consistent, there
is a strong need to address and strengthen students’ general English language competence. At
the very basic level, this requires re-teaching students the use and function of specific words
(including their forms and parts). A question that arises is how can an EAP apprenticeship run
smoothly if a student’s writing ability does not meet the basic requirements of the program? Of
course, there is an understanding that the admission process for both institutions only allows
those students who have achieved a certain level of competence via a standard English
language testing scheme for international students. Still, simultaneous support or extra help
has to be provided to students who, hampered by languaging issues, are unable to navigate
their apprenticeship smoothly. In one of the research contexts, this support was available, so
the expectation was that just before the students were mainstreamed into university work in
their final years, they would be given much more exposure, practice, training, and orientation
into the kind of writing expected in a western institution of higher education. However, the
other research context lacked this kind of crucial support.
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Phase 4: Teacher Perceptions

The ten teachers interviewed for this phase of the research were from Institution B. They
seemed to believe that the EAP writing program in Institution B may be too advanced for the
level of the students, bringing into question how best to support students in developing their
general English language competence. The other factors noted can be considered behavioural
or attitudinal, which connects with the notion of “small cultures” that students may be taking
with them into the classroom. The teachers interviewed thus noted:
They’re not used to writing in the way they are expected to do. (Teacher 1)
The work is trying to get students to construct research papers in a logical

manner, but unfortunately you are putting a kind of [western] approach on a
completely different kind of thinking. The way of thinking is flowery, ’round
and ’round the subject without getting to the point. (Teacher 2)
What we do here, I think it is a kind of indoctrination into the western culture.

People say that we’re culturally insensitive, but if you study in another country,
you have to understand the country’s culture. (Teacher 3)
The teachers pointed to significant factors that influence the apprenticeship process of Chinese
students in academic writing courses. The main factor is the big and small cultures that may
be involved as students make the transition to the culture of writing expected in a western
university. Teachers recognised the complexity of the issue of getting the students into the EAP
academic writing culture. There did indeed exist expectations of the group (native-English
speaking teachers and academics mostly from one country) who were themselves proceeding
from their own cultural frames in assessing student performance in academic writing. Worth
mentioning is the academic subculture that places emphasis on critical reflection
(interpretation, making connections, and evaluation).
Other important themes that emerged from the interviews involved teacher perceptions of what
EAP teaching entails, perceptions of students’ main issues in writing, and avenues the teachers
felt the program should take. Teachers believed that EAP essentially involves teaching students
how to write “formulaic” essay types. However, they believed that student competence level is
not up to par and there is a need for more work on general English. As regards perceived
major problems in writing, some teachers thought achieving an academic style was a problem;
others felt that it was accuracy. Hence, the teachers interviewed felt that that there is a need to
go back to the basics. They also felt it is important to build student confidence and provide
more positive reinforcement. As it was observed that students have a very systematic way of
doing things once they grasp the idea of what they are supposed to do, nurturing this potential
among students will likely be in their favour.
Teachers commented on the culture of writing expected in the university:
Mirador - Page 178

We have redrafting here right. Often the redrafting is making the connections.
They’re not really reflecting. They’re not really engaged in a way of thinking at
all. When they go to the university, they get the huge shock or fail because
they don’t get that. The redrafting and all the artificial stuff we do here, I think
that’s the biggest problem . . . I was talking to my students about science
reports. I was making the connection between scientific writing and academic
writing generally . . . Why write that in your science reports. What do you
write in the introduction and then in the end, what do you do . . . because that’s
what you do in the science report? (Teacher 4)
There’s a massive lack of transference of skills . . . EAP is teaching quite

formulaic essay types, and they do do lots of it in language analysis, but in
terms of their whole approach in learning English, I think EAP is quite particular
. . . Here we’re almost teaching them how to learn something because it’s a
foundation and bridging year. It’s like . . . we’re like taking them away from
their high school learning. (Teacher 5)
The issues pointed out by the teachers are certainly significant. Firstly, the “culture of writing”
itself may run in total opposition to ways of thinking that students bring to their writing
activities. The lack of transference of skills or application of knowledge to writing involved in
content courses, for one, may imply a heavy compartmentalisation of the teaching of skills that
leads to student inability to process connections or transferability. In addition, perceptions of
“artificiality” of how things were being done indicate a need to re-evaluate how current
programs may be made more relevant to respond to the writing needs of Chinese students.
Conclusion
In sum, this exploratory research has found the following. In Phase 1, Chinese students in the
research contexts generally believe that the main purpose behind essay writing is immediate
improvement of skills and relevance and use to their academic studies. From the findings in
Phase 2, it is evident that Chinese students are able to structure or organise their essays in
academically acceptable ways when given some form of instruction or modeling. However,
whether or not they are able to take this awareness to approaching the writing of unfamiliar
texts is not clear, most probably because of the compartmentalised approach to the teaching of
skills. As found in Phase 3, Chinese students’ issues in writing are essentially consistent, with
lexis occupying a prominent position. This finding implies that universities expecting students
to function effectively in their studies (including content courses) must provide focused
intervention through provision of support from writing centers, or specialised tutorial help. It
would seem that there is a need to strengthen the general English language skills base of
students if they are expected to succeed in academic writing programs and take on broad skills
from here to apply to writing required in content courses. There is some question about
whether to focus vocabulary input on general categories or a specialised academic vocabulary
on specific disciplinary content which students have the possibility of recycling. Finally, based
on teacher perceptions presented in Phase 4, it is strongly recommended that EAP writing
programs in extension campuses responding to the perceived writing needs of Chinese students
work on increasing teacher awareness of the subcultural transitions expected from students.
A limitation encountered in this research was that the data were mostly what was available
during specific periods as the research progressed. The progression of research was
simultaneous with site transfers for the researcher and accounted for why some data were
collected only in one institution, rather than perhaps ideally both institutions. However, as the
Mirador - Page 179

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goal was not to compare the two research contexts, the data collected and analysed for both
appear to have served their purposes in their exploratory value. It is thus fair to say that the
initial findings here need verification across case studies that would entail following through
with particular students beyond their first year of apprenticeship.
Author Note
Josephine F. Mirador, Graduate School Department of TESOL-MALL, Woosong University,
South Korea.
This article was based on two paper presentations at the 7th Annual CamTESOL Conference
(February, 2011) in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, and the Halliday Centre for Intelligent
Applications of Language Studies Conference (December, 2007) at the City University of Hong
Kong. Thanks to Mark Morgan who worked with me in the initial project that set forth the
ideas in this paper and for providing part of the preliminary data used in this research.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Josephine Mirador, TESOL-

MALL, Woosong University, 196-5 Jayang Dong, Dong-gu, Daejeon, South Korea. E-mail:
drjmirador@wsu.ac.kr
Mirador - Page 180

References
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four international students learning to write the U.S. way. Written Communication,
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Candlin, C., & Hyland, K. (1999). Writing: Texts, processes and practices. London, England:
Longman.
Edwards, V., & Ran, A. (2006). Meeting the needs of Chinese students in British higher
education. Retrieved from http://reading.academia.edu/VivEdwards/Papers/100025/
Meeting_the_needs_of_Chinese_students_in_British_Higher_Education
Graves, B. (n.d.). Homi K. Bhabha: The liminal negotiation of cultural difference. Retrieved
from http://www.postcolonialweb.org/poldiscourse/bhabha/bhabha2.html
Holliday, A. (1999). Small cultures. Applied Linguistics, 20(2), 237-264.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/applin/20.2.237!
Hyland, K., & Hamp-Lyons, L. (2002). EAP: Issues and directions. Journal of English for
Academic Purposes, 1(1), 1-12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1475-1585(02)00002-4
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge,
England: Cambridge University Press.
Shen, F. (1989). The classroom and the wider culture: Identity as a key to learning English
composition. College Composition and Communication, 40(4), 459-466.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/358245
Su, F., & Norton, B. (2008, June). ‘The first time I was given a lengthy written assignment I felt
terrified’: The challenges Chinese students face in their academic writing. Paper
presented at the 2008 PAR Symposium, Liverpool Hope University, Liverpool, England.
Available online at http://www.hope.ac.uk/learningandteaching/downloads/
PAR%20presentations/2008/Chinese_students_academic_writing.pdf
Xing, M., Wang, J., & Spencer, K. (2008). Raising students’ awareness of cross-cultural
contrastive rhetoric in English writing via an e-learning course. Language Learning and
Technology, 12(2), 71-93. Available online at http://llt.msu.edu/vol12num2/xingetal.pdf
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Appendix A
Interview Questionnaire Used with EAP Teachers of Academic Writing
1. How long have you been teaching EAP and in which contexts?
2. Are there any clear differences teaching EAP to Chinese students compared to other
contexts you have taught?
3. What do you see as the emphasis of the writing program that you are currently teaching?
4. What do you see as strengths of Chinese learners of EAP writing? What about main
weaknesses?
5. Which aspects in EAP writing programs do you feel Chinese students can engage with
effectively? Which aspects can they not?
6. Which specific skills in writing do Chinese students need to function effectively in the
context of the main campus in the west?
7. What do you see as the main cause of students’ failure to engage effectively in EAP writing
practices? (And potentially, with the discourse expected the western higher education
institute they will spend their last one to two years?)
8. What is the chance that students’ perceived weaknesses may be “subcultural” in nature
rather than “learning-based”? Or can the two be distinguished?
9. How do you see the current writing program you teach as addressing the needs of your
Chinese students? And in preparing students for writing requirements in the western
university they are eventually headed to?
10. If you were to design an EAP writing program for Chinese students to prepare them for a
western university’s type of writing, which areas would you emphasise, and why?
11. As an EAP teacher, do you see your role as initiating students into a set of practices /
conventions in writing? Or as someone who acculturates students into a specific “culture of
writing” as that required in the western university which this institute has proceeded from?
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Appendix B
Samples of Student Written Outputs and Preferred Organisation Patterns
Excerpt 1
Top-down structure with no clear argument taken, yet has a clearly stated purpose statement.
The information was based on a source text.
It is generally believed that war is caused by the negative aspects of human nature, such as
selfishness, possessiveness, irrationality and aggressiveness... Fortunately, it is a relatively
peaceful era now although some small regional conflicts wars still exist. The terrible and dark
world war times have taught human beings a lesson that wars could truly do great harm to
people. There’s still many argue that with technology developing, modern wars are the most
danger to humans. However, the harmfulness of modern wars can’t be denied. This essay will
mainly discuss the causes, effects of modern wars and ways to prevent it from happening and
characteristics as well, which are all used to support the statement above.
Modern wars have been mainly civil wars that are usually caused by three reasons. First, ethnic
groups that are fighting for more autonomy or for a state of their own; second, groups trying to
get control of a state, and third, the so called ‘failed states, where the central government has
collapsed or is extremely weak and fighting is occurring over political and economic ‘spoils.’
Modern wars are so called not only for they happen in modern times but also for the
characteristic that distinguishes them from traditional wars. These two characteristics directly
lead to the effects of modern wars. Firstly, modern war often lead to more civilians killed than
soldiers. Also, the destruction of the land by the fighting is often immense so that when the
fighting finally ends, civilians return to an ecologically damaged land.
Technology used to greatly increase the destructive capacity of weapons is another

characteristic of modern wars. Additionally technology has also been used to increase the
weapons’ accuracy, penetration ability… All these factors contribute greatly to the harmfulness
of wars to human beings and all the living things on this planet.
However, although the destruction of modern wars is obvious and severe as illustrated above,
we should still hold the confidence that we can control and prevent it from happening.
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Excerpt 2
Adopts a structure that identifies a clear argument from the start.
Peace has been the theme of world since the end of WWII. As the countries all around the
world have a reach a same agreement that the harm that modern war will bring to mankind is
unanticipated. The tragedy of WWI and WWII showed us, war can only brings us deaths and
lose, it is meaningless for one to persue it. This essay wil highlight the deepest danger of
modern war may bring to mankind, alonging with some analysis hereby.
The higher technology is applied to the arms, the more dangerous modern war will be. When
the newclear weapons were first invented, it is never regarded to be the ultimate development
subject, but it comes out to be the killer of numb. The deadly explosion in Hiroshima and
Nagasaki killed tons of people of Japan in 1945. Although it accelerate the end of WWII, but
the demage to mankind is cruel. .. then a characteristic of modern war is clear to be seen: more
civilians are killed than soldiers. The refugees in war have to face the explosions and deaths…
War kills people of innocent. This shall be counted in the dangerous sides of modern war.
Except for the deaths, another characteristic of modern war is the use of technology which
increases the destructive capacity of weapons, just like some examples in the first part of this
essay have mentioned. Thus a bigger amount of citizens will be killed in modern war..a public
concern has existed that the possibility of nuclear war seems to be increased, as the world is
still devoting to the stockpile of nuclear weapons.
To sum up, it is clear that the final victims of war is human beings ourselves. There is no need
to hurt ones own by wasting time and money on the harmful toys. War is the last and worst
choice that mankind should avoid.
Mirador - Page 184

Student Perceptions of Metacognitive Strategy

Use in Lecture Listening Comprehension 1
Suzanah Selamat
Islamic Science University, Malaysia
Gurnam Kaur Sidhu

Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia
Abstract
Listening to lectures is difficult, especially for students who have just entered
university. It is even more daunting for ESL students attending lectures
delivered in English. Various literatures have highlighted the importance of
explicit training to improve students’ academic listening skills (O’Malley &
Chamot, 1990; Oxford, 1996; Swan, 2011). This paper explores ESL students’
perceptions towards a Metacognitive Strategy Instruction (MetSI) programme to
improve their lecture listening comprehension abilities. The study involved 34
first-year students from the Faculty of Education in a public university in
Malaysia. Instrumentation for the study involved the use of a questionnaire and
semi-structured interviews. Data revealed that the students perceived the MetSI
training as helpful in improving their lecture listening skills and in enabling
them to be more effective in extracting information from lectures. Findings
from the study suggest the need for students to play a more active role in
overcoming their listening difficulties.
In recent years, there has been increasing interest and research on the need for effective
listening skills and strategies for ESL university students studying in English-medium institutions
(Hyon, 1997). This is because English has become a major language in tertiary education and
the language of university lectures (Long & Richards, 1994). Many tertiary institutions in
Malaysia use English as the medium of instruction in recognition to the fact that English has
become the lingua franca of the borderless community.
Researchers point out that listening to lectures is a major part of university study (Benson, 1994;
Morell, 2004; Richards, 1983) and this is highlighted by Benson (1994) who describes the
lecture as “the central ritual” (p.181) of university culture. A study by Ferris & Tagg (1995,
cited in Hyon, 1997) demonstrated that the lecture is the most common mode of instruction at
over 230 university and college faculties. Hence, effective listening comprehension skills are
essential for students’ academic success (Benson, 1994; Dunkel, 1991; Flowerdew, 1994;
Vandergrift, 2004). However, during lectures in English, ESL students are faced with greater
difficulties than native speakers because ESL students have to comprehend subject matter
delivered in English as well as contend with other obstacles that a lecture could create, such as
Language Education in Asia, 2011, 2(2), 185-198. http://dx.doi.org/10.5746/LEiA/11/V2/I2/A02/Selamat_Sidhu
Selamat and Sidhu - Page 185

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understanding the lecturer’s accent, and speed of delivery. ESL students also have to contend
with the difficulty of listening and taking notes at the same time, as well as processing visual
aids such as presentation slides or textbooks. This leads to comprehension difficulties when
ESL students listen to academic lectures.
Mendelsohn (2002) argues that many ESL students’ listening skills are not developed enough to
enable them to effectively extract content information from university lectures. In fact,
lecturers often assume that students develop their listening skills through “osmosis and without
help” (Mendelsohn, 1984, as cited in Oxford, 1993, p. 205). This corroborates the findings of
a study analysing problems faced by undergraduate students in Malaysia by Aziz & Ismail
(2005): ESL students lack the necessary skills to learn through lectures given in English. Experts
believe that one of the ways to develop students’ listening skills is through extensive training
(O’Malley & Chamot, 1990; Oxford, 1996; Swan, 2011).
Although listening has been taught in many language programmes, experts still believe that
much research needs to be done to enable a more effective classroom teaching of the skill
(Anderson & Lynch, 1988; Buck, 1995; Goh, 2000; Mendelsohn, 1998; Vandergrift, 2004).
New approaches to teaching listening have emerged in recent years due to developments in
the field of cognitive psychology (Flowerdew & Miller, 2005; Goh, 2008; Lynch, 1998; Macaro,
Graham, & Vanderplank, 2007; Rubin, 1994). Within this field, the metacognitive approach
has become a more popular research topic (Chamot, 1995; Goh, 2008; Mendelsohn, 1995,
1998; Vandergrift, 2004). One of the metacognitive approaches is training learners to apply
effective strategies to cope with the demands of listening (Mendelsohn, 1998).
Evidence from research on reading and writing highlights the fact that metacognitive strategies
assist students in managing their learning more effectively. They are able to maximise the
information received to improve their performance of required tasks. Wenden (1998) argues
that learners who use their metacognitive abilities seem to have the following advantages:
1. They are more strategic learners.

2. Their rate of progress in learning as well as the quality and speed of their
cognitive engagement is faster.
3. They are confident in their abilities to learn.
4. They do not hesitate to obtain help from peers, teachers, or family when
needed.
5. They provide accurate assessments of why they are successful learners.
6. They think clearly about inaccuracies when failure occurs during an
activity.
7. Their tactics match the learning task and adjustments are made to reflect
changing circumstances.
8. They perceive themselves as continual learners and can successfully cope
with new situations.
(adapted from Wenden, 1998)
In his study, Vandergrift (2004) employed a technique called metacognitive sequence to

facilitate his subjects’ use of metacognitive strategies during listening. The results of the study
show that these processes benefit the subjects through raising their awareness of the use of

strategy and providing a kind of scaffolding as the subjects go through listening tasks.
Vandergrift’s study seems to advocate the use of these strategies to improve learners’
comprehension as well as to motivate them to learn.
The present study examines beginning university students’ perceptions towards a

Metacognitive Strategy Instruction (MetSI) programme and its effects on their lecture listening
comprehension.
Methodology
Data for the study were obtained from a questionnaire and semi-structured interviews with the
subjects. The subjects were 34 first-semester students undertaking a Bachelor of Education
(B.Ed) at a public Malaysian university. They were from non-English speaking backgrounds
and English was a second or foreign language to them. Prior to entering university, most of
their communications in English was limited to English lessons in their schools only. First-year
students were chosen because they face greater challenges in understanding lectures as most
schools in Malaysia still adopt the traditional teacher-centred learning style and are exam-
oriented in nature. In general, the subjects found listening comprehension in an academic
English environment rather challenging.
The subjects were 22 females and 11 males in their 20s and one female student who was 42
years old. All the students in this study had enrolled in courses in the Faculty of Education.
Ten (29.4%) students were enrolled in the B.Ed in Chemistry course while another ten (29.4%)
were from the B.Ed TESL programme. Nine (26.5%) students were enrolled in the B.Ed in
Physics programme and five (14.7%) students were in the B.Ed in Biology programme.
Instruments
Questionnaire. Prior to the 10-week Metacognitive Strategy Instruction (MetSI) programme,
the students were asked to answer a questionnaire on metacognitive lecture listening strategies.
The questionnaire was adapted from the Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire
(MALQ) by Vandergrift, Goh, Mareschal, and Tafaghodtari (2006). The MALQ has been used
in other research as a tool to raise students’ awareness of listening processes and to increase
the self-regulated use of comprehension strategies (Co!kun, 2010). The questionnaire items are
related to five metacognitive factors associated with listening strategies; however, for this study,
only four items are discussed: (a) the subjects’ personal knowledge on listening, (b) planning-
evaluation metacognitive strategies, (c) directed attention strategies, and (d) problem-solving
strategies. The questionnaire responses were analysed according to these factors using
frequency counts.
Semi-structured interview. At the end of the 10-week strategy training, ten out of the 34
students were randomly selected and interviewed about their experiences in learning the new
strategies. In particular, the semi-structured interviews were conducted to gain insights into
their perceptions regarding the MetSI training that they had undergone (see Appendix A).
Treatment
Metacognitive Strategy Training Instruction (MetSI) is a 10-week intensive metacognitive
listening strategy module aimed at improving students’ lecture listening skills and
metacognitive strategies. Each lesson consisted of listening tasks where students listened to
numerous listening texts, followed by comprehension activities. Each teaching module
presented was divided into specific underlying strategies that students would have

Research
opportunities to discuss and practice. The following were some of the metacognitive strategies
taught during the MetSI programme:
- summarising
- comprehension monitoring
- planning
- task knowledge
- self and peer evaluation
- directed attention
- problem identification
Integrated within these strategies were activities including lecture wrap-ups, KWL charts
(adapted from Ogle, 1986; see Appendix B), metacognitive listening sequence (adapted from
Vandergrift, 2003; see Appendix C), and self-questioning strategies.
The lessons included three principal stages: pre-listening, listening, and post-listening. In the
pre-listening stage, students were provided with pre-listening questions for discussion. The
pre-listening activities included revision and presentation of language items as well as planning
and preparation for the activity to be undertaken in the next stage. At the listening stage,
students did activities or tasks aimed at practicing the strategies and developing skills. Each
lesson consisted of a quick review, including a dialogue or other types of audio exercises.
When introducing a new strategy, the instructor included demonstrations and examples so that
students would view the strategy in action. The instructor also asked questions. Finally, at the
post-listening stage, students were given tasks for strategy practice. They had further practice
to consolidate, extend, and review the strategies, either in a different context or to produce an
outcome such as completing worksheets or a summary.
At each stage, prompting, questioning, and modelling techniques and strategies were
consistently employed by the instructor to increase students’ awareness. This was done to
demonstrate, discuss learning, and help students to reflect on what they had done, how they
did it, and how well they had performed. This is in accordance with Wenden’s (1985)
suggestion that instructors need to expand their role by taking on a guiding, questioning role
which involves informing students about language learning, what they are doing, and how they
are going to do it.
Results
The questionnaire items were analysed according to metacognitive factors that are related to
listening strategies suggested by Vandergrift et al. (2006), as previously mentioned.
Personal Knowledge
Wenden (1991, cited in Vandergrift, 2002) states that one type of metacognitive knowledge is
personal knowledge, which refers to knowledge of the cognitive and affective factors that
facilitate learning and what learners know about themselves as learners.
Pre-treatment questionnaire. Analysis of the questionnaire revealed that 47% of the students
found listening to be the most difficult language skill compared to reading, writing, and
speaking. A majority of the subjects (65%) also viewed listening as challenging.

These findings were further elaborated on by respondents during the interview sessions. The
interviews, however, revealed that some students found speaking more difficult than listening
because they felt that they were being judged whenever they spoke in English. On the other
hand, due to the receptive nature of the listening process, the students did not feel that they
were being judged by their listening abilities:
Speaking is most difficult because sometimes when we speak in English, we

think in English right, to come up with the words in English is quite difficult.
(S5)
Post-treatment interviews. Interviews also revealed that many students did not feel that
listening skills in English were important for them to excel in schools as their English teachers
often emphasised reading comprehension skills in the classrooms.
In my school, teachers always stressed on reading - not so much listening.

They just did drilling in class . . . until we had to do MUET [Malaysian
University Entrance Test], then we did listening. They also focussed on
grammar, no listening . . . (S1)
I’ve never learned how to listen. In schools, the teachers didn’t teach us
listening [skills]. (S3)
However, the interviews also revealed that the subjects’ perceptions changed when they
entered university, as they were faced with difficulties in understanding lectures delivered in
English.
. . . in class, my friends and I were left behind because it was hard for us to
understand and it was also hard for the lecturers to finish the syllabus . . . The
lecturers needed to clarify everything to make us understand, so we had a
difficult time [completing the syllabus]. (S1)
I found it so difficult because I didn’t practice listening English with my friend

[in school] . . . I think we should include it [teach listening] in school because it
helps a lot . . . because in Malaysia they [schools] don’t teach listening . . . I
think it is important because it is one of the skills to help learning in the
university. (S3)
The above findings corroborate other research findings that language learners do not view
strategies as important in listening skills and most language learners lack awareness that these
strategies could positively affect their listening processes (Cohen & Allison, 2000; Co!kun,
2010; Oxford, 1990; Vandergrift et al., 2006).
The findings of the interviews revealed that the students viewed the MetSI training as helpful in
improving their lecture listening skills.
Yes, I feel the training is good for me because now I can understand the
lecturers better. (S3)
The training was good for me because now I feel more confident now. (S7)

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I wish I had learned the strategies in school . . . (S2)
All ten students interviewed felt that the training had helped them to extract information from
lectures more effectively.
When I use the KWL sheet, I find it easier to understand the lecture. It’s also
easy to note down the important point. (S1)
Now I use the summarising technique so I know the important point of the
lectures . . . (S6)
Planning-Evaluation Metacognitive Strategies

Research has shown the benefits of preparing and reviewing topics learned in a lecture.
Studies by Rost (1994) and Dunkel & Davis (1994) demonstrate that prior knowledge could
assist students in understanding their lessons more effectively. Similarly, a study by Flowerdew
& Miller (1992) demonstrates that students with background knowledge of the lecture topic
were able to relate more effectively to the lecture content.
Pre-treatment questionnaire and post-treatment interview. Analysis of the questionnaire

responses showed that in terms of planning and evaluation strategies, the students did not fully
utilise these strategies to assist in their lecture comprehension.
According to the results, only 55% of the students planned ahead on how they were going to
listen to a lecture. The post-treatment interviews corroborated this finding, as students
commented prior to attending the MetSI programme that they were not aware of the
importance of preparing for lectures. Many students also reported that they did not know and
had never been taught how to prepare for lectures. In addition, the post-treatment interviews
also revealed that before the training, students did not feel that they needed to read lecture
notes or the textbook in preparation for a lecture.
I’d just go into the lecture room . . . (S3)
I didn’t prepare anything; I just go [to a lecture]. (S5)
Sometimes, I “googled” [the topic] before the lecture, but only sometimes . . .
(S1)
Findings from the post-treatment interviews show that after attending the MetSI programme, the
students were able to plan their lecture listening.
Before I go to lectures, I fill the first column of the KWL sheet . . . [the KWL
sheet] is helpful because I can guess what the lecturer is going to talk about
and it’s easier for me [to understand the lecture] if I know what the lecturer
is going to talk . . . (S1)
Results from the questionnaire also showed that 59% of the students claimed that after listening
to a lecture, they reflected on how they had listened, and how they might listen differently next
time. However, only 44% of the subjects said that they periodically asked themselves if they
were satisfied with their level of comprehension throughout the lecture.

Interviews with the subjects of their experiences prior to the training concurred with the above
findings:
. . . I didn’t think (about) how I had done [in a lecture]. (S2)
. . . I asked my friends if I didn’t understand, sometimes I asked the lecturer but

after [the lecture was over]. (S6)
I asked my friend after class if I didn’t understand, but I didn’t like to stop the
lecture. But most of the time I forgot to ask my friend [after the lecture] . . .
Sometimes, we needed to go to the next lecture. (S1)
The reason why, prior to the training, students did not reflect or check their comprehension
could be because they were unaware of these strategies. However, the interviews showed that
the MetSI training had a positive effect in developing the students’ self and peer reflections.
Sometimes, at the end of the lectures, I asked the lecturers if the points were
correct . . . before [the training], I didn’t dare ask the lecturers. (S6)
After the lecture, I can exchange my KWL sheet with my friends and I will write
down points that I’ve missed . . . (S2)
Directed Attention Strategies

Students’ ability to direct their attention to a subject matter is an essential strategy to enable
comprehension, especially during long lectures. This is supported by Kaplan & Berman (2010)
who point out that both our “executive functioning” and self-regulation are important factors
that enable us to consciously control our attention.
Pre-treatment questionnaire. Analysis of the questionnaire demonstrates that the students

were able to utilise this strategy. However, the strategies were limited to forcing themselves to
focus. When faced with the problem of understanding a lecture, the majority of the students
(80%) would simply focus harder on the text. On top of this, the majority of the students (79%)
said that they did not give up and stop listening when faced with comprehension difficulties
during lectures. Meanwhile, when the students lost concentration during lectures, the majority
(73%) stated that they recovered their concentration right away.
Post-treatment interviews. In the interviews, the students reported that before they attended
the MetSI programme, they found maintaining concentration and remaining focused to be the
most difficult obstacles to overcome when they listened to lectures delivered in English.
I always daydream during lectures, especially if it was boring or I couldn’t hear

the lecturer. (S2)
Concentrating was difficult . . . maybe I just daydreamt when I didn’t

understand . . . (S3)
However, all ten students pointed out that the MetSI training had enabled them to be more
focused during lectures and this had also helped them in maintaining their concentration.

Research
Before [the training] I just sit in the lectures . . . now, I can concentrate better
because I use the questioning strategy . . . the KWL sheet is also good [in
maintaining concentration]. (S8)
I don’t fall asleep in lectures now because I will take down notes using the KWL
[sheet] or I use the questioning strategy . . . (S2)
Problem-Solving Strategies
Problem solving is a method of enquiry. It is an important approach to find solutions to a
problem. To assist students in becoming effective language learners, it is essential that their
problem-solving abilities are enhanced. Although they were not aware of using problem-
solving strategies, analysis of the questionnaire responses revealed that, prior to the treatment,
the students did utilise problem-solving strategies in overcoming comprehension difficulties as
they listened to lectures in English.
Pre-treatment questionnaire. The most used problem-solving strategy was using words that
the students knew to guess the meaning of unknown words (85%). Students also utilised their
previous experience and knowledge to help them understand lectures (83%) and used the
general idea of the text to help them guess the meaning of words that they did not understand
(79%).
To assist with lecture comprehension, students also utilised other problem-solving strategies
such as comparing what they understood with what they knew about the topic (79%) and
thinking about what they had learned before to check that they had guessed the meaning of a
word correctly (74%). However, the questionnaire findings also reveal that only a small
majority of the students (58%) adjusted their interpretation when they realised that they had
guessed incorrectly.
Post-treatment interviews. The interviews revealed that one of the positive effects of the MetSI
training was that it provided the students with more problem-solving options when they were
faced with comprehension difficulties during lectures.
When I don’t know the word the lecturer said, I try to think what the topic is
about. (S1)
If the lecturer says something I don’t know, I try to guess the meaning from what
he said before. Sometimes I can understand it [when I use this strategy]. (S4)
Discussion and Conclusion

Listening is a demanding task and it is even more difficult to listen in a second language.
Therefore, explicit strategy training such as the MetSI would assist ESL university students in
developing their listening skills and improving their lecture-listening comprehension. Findings
from the study show that prior to the strategy training, students faced difficulties in
understanding university lectures delivered in English. They also faced challenges in
maintaining concentration during lectures. In addition, there was a lack of awareness of
strategies to improve their comprehension and strategies that could be utilised to help them
extract information from lectures more effectively.
The problem was perhaps due to the fact that Malaysian schools do not explicitly teach
students strategies on how to listen to long lectures. Hence, the people involved (lecturers,

researchers, curriculum and material developers) should provide support for second language
learners to facilitate the task of listening to lectures in English.
ESL professionals have an important role in assisting university students attending lectures in
their second or foreign language. As these students face difficulties comprehending lectures in
English, pre-sessional training or an in-session programme should be provided to the students.
The training should prepare students with the language and listening skills that are required for
students to effectively comprehend lectures. The training programme should emphasise
exposing students to metacognitive strategies to maximise lecture comprehension.
Finally, more research needs to be conducted on the effects of metacognitive strategy training
on students’ lecture listening comprehension. It is hoped that through increasing students’
metacognitive awareness, they will be able to play a more active role in overcoming their
listening difficulties, rather than accepting that the difficulties are unavoidable.
Author Note
Suzanah Selamat, Faculty of Major Languages, Islamic Science University, Malaysia; Gurnam
Kaur Sidhu, Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Suzanah Selamat, Faculty of

Education, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Seksyen 17, 41000 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia. E-
mail: suzanah@usim.edu.my

Research
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Appendix A
Post-Treatment Interview
Student Name: _____________________________________

B.Ed Programme: ___________________________________
Warm-up
- Greet the student and ask permission to tape the conversation.
- Explain the reason for the interview: to know the student’s opinion about the MetSI
programme.
Questions
1. How would you describe the level of your understanding of lectures before the MetSI
programme? Were the lectures difficult / easy? Why? How would you describe the level
of your understanding of lectures after the MetSI programme?
2. Before the programme, when you were listening to a lecture, what factors influenced your
understanding?
3. Why do you think they influenced your understanding?
4. Now, after the programme, what factors influence your understanding?
5. What did you usually do to understand lectures before, during, and after listening to
lectures before attending the MetSI programme? Since completing the MetSI programme,
what do you usually do?
6. Describe your MetSI training experience.
What changes did you experience through attending the MetSI programme?
Which strategies did you like / dislike? Why?
7. Do you think the programme was beneficial to you?
Why / why not?
Appendix B
KWL Chart
K W L
What I KNOW What I WANT to know What I LEARNED
(adapted from Ogle, 1986)

Research
Appendix C
Metacognitive Listening Sequence
Instructorʼs Guide
1. Prior to the first listening, ask students to state what their goals are.
2. Put students in pairs.
3. Ask them to discuss what they know about the topic and predict the information and words
that they might hear.
4. Ask students to predict problems they might encounter and think how they would
overcome these problems.
5. Let students listen to the text and tell them to underline words that they predicted correctly
while listening. Also ask them to jot down new words or information as they listen.
6. Ask students to compare what they have understood so far and describe strategies that they
have used to help them with their understanding.
7. Tell students to note down problems or disagreements that they have with their partners.
8. Demonstrate (through thinking aloud) how to listen selectively to the problematic parts of
the listening text.
9. Play the text again. As students listen again to the text, ask them to make notes on any new
information they hear.
10. Finally, discuss findings with the whole class.
(adapted from Vandergrift, 2003)

EFL Learnersʼ Reading Strategy Use in

Relation to Reading Anxiety 1
Hsin-Yi Lien
Ming Chuan University, Taiwan
Abstract
The study investigated EFL learners’ reading strategies use in relation to reading
anxiety and gender after their participation in extensive reading as a
supplemental course requirement. One hundred and eight EFL college
freshmen completed a questionnaire, a survey of Foreign Language Reading
Anxiety Scale (FLRAS), and a modified Survey of Reading Strategies (SORS) after
eighteen weeks of participation in extensive reading. The results indicate a
negative correlation between reading anxiety and reading strategies. It was also
found that EFL learners with low anxiety levels tended to use general reading
strategies such as guessing, while EFL learners with high anxiety levels
employed basic support mechanisms, such as translation, to help themselves
understand texts. Some reading strategies were more used by high-anxiety level
readers than low-anxiety level readers. Additionally, females tended to be
slightly more anxious than males in reading.
Language anxiety, a complex psychological construct, is regarded as an affective variable in

the language learning process. Research on language anxiety has examined the possible
relationship between anxiety and performance, and its interference in language competence
(Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope, 1986; MacIntyre & Gardner, 1989; Sellers, 2000). The majority of
studies have centered on the influence of language anxiety on listening or speaking in language
classroom (Horwitz et al., 1986; Phillips, 1992; Price, 1991; Young, 1991). However, anxiety
also can be a crucial filter for foreign language (FL) learners as they attempt to comprehend
reading or listening passages. The literature on foreign language reading suggests that affective
variables such as anxiety could be contributing factors in reading performance (Mohd. Zin &
Rafik-Galea, 2010; Saito, Horwitz, & Garza, 1999; Sellers, 2000). In a preliminary study, Saito
et al. (1999) indicated that foreign language reading anxiety is distinct from general foreign
language anxiety and concluded that learners’ levels of reading anxiety were correlated with
their reading performance.
Another important variable associated with reading performance is EFL learners’ use of reading
strategies. The relationship between reading strategy use and reading comprehension has been
of interest to researchers, since the efficient use of reading strategies benefits learners’ reading
comprehension to some degree (Al-Nujaidi, 2003; Brantmeier, 2000; Lee, 2007; Wu, 2005).
Reading strategies, as Brantmeier (2002) indicated, are “the comprehension processes that
readers use in order to make sense of what they read” (p. 1); they are characterized as

Language Education in Asia, 2011, 2(2), 199-212. http://dx.doi.org/10.5746/LEiA/11/V2/I2/A03/Lien
Lien - Page 199

Research
approaches, actions, and procedures used to improve reading comprehension. Since reading
anxiety and reading strategies are two important influences on reading comprehension, the
present study aims to investigate EFL learners’ use of reading strategies and gender differences
in relation to their reading anxiety levels.
Literature Review
Foreign Language Reading Anxiety
Horwitz et al. (1986) defined foreign language anxiety as “a distinct complex of self-
perceptions, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors related to classroom language learning arising
from the uniqueness of the language learning process” (p. 128). Foreign language anxiety
negatively affects learner confidence and self-esteem (Horwitz et al., 1986). More anxious
learners may not recall material learned before (Horwitz et al., 1986; Sellers, 2000) and
compared to learners who are less anxious, may be less active in class (Ely, 1986; Horwitz et
al., 1986).
Researchers of language anxiety have investigated the possible relationship between reading
anxiety and language proficiency to identify whether reading anxiety might predict language
performance and reading comprehension (Saito, et al., 1999; Sas, 2002). In other words,
learners with higher anxiety levels might comprehend reading texts more poorly.
A study by Ipek (2004) revealed that reading anxiety levels varied in conjunction with language
proficiency. Learners at the advanced level seem to be less anxious compared with beginner
and intermediate level students (Elkhafaifi, 2005; Liu, 2006)
Foreign language scholars have also recognized that anxiety in foreign language learning can
facilitate as well as debilitate. An appropriate level of anxiety leads to better learner
achievements because learners do not want to harm their self-esteem. However, the majority
of studies have shown that foreign language anxiety indeed has a negative influence on the
learning process and performance (Horwitz et al., 1986; MacIntyre & Gardner, 1989; Sellers,
2000; Young, 1991).
Reading Strategies
Learners who are incapable of effectively comprehending reading texts may experience great
frustration and may not have motivation for further learning. Thus, researchers study the use of
reading strategies to reduce reading anxiety and to enhance reading performance.
Reading strategies are techniques or conscious actions taken to improve understanding and
solve difficulties encountered in reading. Reading strategies include reading aloud,
paraphrasing, guessing, re-reading the text, visualizing the information, asking oneself
questions, translating, and using a dictionary. The successful use of reading strategies benefits
learners’ reading comprehension (Huang, Chern, & Lin, 2009). Additionally, several studies
have shown reading strategy use is also positively correlated with reading comprehension (Al-
Nujaidi, 2003; Darabie, 2000; Song, 1999).
Moreover, diverse variables related to EFL learners’ reading strategy use, such as gender,
proficiency levels, personality, and language context, are of interest to researchers. Campbell
(1999) explored language anxiety in relation to gender in the four skills and found that from
two weeks before the study treatment to two weeks after, the percentage of women with
reading anxiety fell by 7%, while the percentage of men experiencing anxiety rose around 9%.!!
Mangubhai (1990) examined reading strategy use in relation to English proficiency and found
Lien - Page 200

learners at a higher proficiency level tended to apply background knowledge to understand the
text, but learners at a lower proficiency level seldom used any effective reading strategies to
solve the difficulties encountered. Studies conducted by Al-Nujaidi (2003) and Wu (2005)
showed that learners with higher reading proficiency levels employed reading strategies more
frequently than those with lower proficiency levels.
Another affective variable, reading anxiety, has also been researched in relation to reading
strategies.!!Oh (1990) indicated EFL readers use different reading strategies under the influence
of anxiety. Sellers (2000) also found that learners with a high anxiety level use translation
strategies directly while low-anxiety learners read the text more holistically and use more
reading strategies.
Since a limited number of studies have investigated EFL learners at various levels of FL reading
anxiety with respect to reading strategies and gender, the study proposes the following research
questions:
1. Does EFL learners’ reading anxiety vary in relation to reading strategies?

2. Do FL reading anxiety levels and reading strategies vary with respect to gender?
Research Method
Participants
One hundred and eight EFL freshmen (22 males and 86 females) participated in the study for
eighteen weeks. They were enrolled in the Applied English Department as English majors at a
university in northern Taiwan. The majority of the participants had studied English for at least
nine years, and their English proficiency level was at the intermediate level. The participants
were taking basic courses, such as reading, writing, and grammar. In the reading course,
intensive reading activities to improve reading comprehension, reading strategies, and reading
speed were employed in class. In addition, extensive reading was required; students had to
read as many books in English as possible outside the classroom. They chose from graded
readers, authentic fiction, or other types of authentic materials, submitted a written report for
each book finished to provide evidence of reading and reading comprehension, and kept a
reading log.
Instruments
The present study employed three instruments: a questionnaire, the Foreign Language Reading
Anxiety Scale (FLRAS) and the Survey of Reading Strategies (SORS). The questionnaire was
administered to investigate the background and reading habits of the participants. The second
instrument, the 20-item FLRAS, designed by Saito et al. (1999), was used to investigate the
participants’ reading anxiety (see Appendix A). SORS, designed by Sheorey and Mokhtari
(2001), was modified to investigate the participants’ extensive reading strategies use after
participating in the extensive reading program as a supplemental requirement in the reading
class and was additionally adapted to measure metacognitive reading strategies (see Appendix
B). It includes three subcategories: Global Reading Strategies (GLOB), Problem Solving
Strategies (PROB), and Support Strategies (SUP). Global Reading Strategies allow readers to
intentionally monitor or manage their reading. Problem Solving Strategies help readers to
directly solve reading difficulties. Support Strategies are basic mechanisms to enhance reading
comprehension.
Lien - Page 201

Research
The FLRAS items are rated by a five-point Likert scale, ranging from five points (strongly agree)
to one point (strongly disagree), except for the scoring of positive items (i.e., Items 12, 13, 14,
and 18), rated from one point (strongly agree) to five points (strongly disagree). The theoretical
range of the total score is 20 to 100. High scores on FLRAS indicate a high reading anxiety
level. Additionally, the 30-item SORS has a five-point Likert scale, ranging from one point (I
never or almost never do this) to five points (I always or almost always do this). The range of
scores is from 30 to 150. The higher scores refer to the more frequent use of reading strategies.
In the present study, to eliminate the possible language barrier, the Chinese versions of FLRAS
and SORS were employed and the internal reliability with an internal consistency coefficient
was .798 and .876 (Cronbach’s alpha, N = 108), respectively.
Procedure
The participants were asked to complete the questionnaire, FLRAS, and SORS after the
eighteen-week reading course.
Results
Research Question 1: Does EFL learnersʼ reading anxiety vary in relation to reading
strategies?
The FLRAS scores were significantly and negatively correlated with the SORS scores, r(106) = -
.268, p < .01. The FLRAS scores were also correlated with the SORS subcategories, Global
Reading Strategies [r(106) = -.401, p < .01] and Problem Solving Strategies [r(106) = -.238, p <
.01], respectively, but were weakly correlated with Support Strategies [r(106) = .020, p < .01].
The descriptive statistics of FLRAS and SORS showed that the mean score of the FLRAS was
60.57 (SD = 7.49) while the mean score of SORS was 99.33 (SD =13.60). Among the three
SORS subcategories, the mean of every item in Problem Solving Strategies was slightly higher
than the mean of the other two subcategories. The participants used Problem Solving
Strategies more frequently and Support Strategies the least frequently.
Table 1 displayed three strategies used most and least frequently by the participants. The
results showed that the participants used fundamental reading strategies such as trying to get
back on track when losing concentration and using tables, figures, pictures and context clues
to help them to understand reading texts. However, they seldom used more advanced reading
strategies, such as critically analyzing and evaluating information, asking themselves questions,
or taking notes.
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics of Most and Least Used Reading Strategies
Category Strategy Min Max Mean
Most PROB2 Try to get back on track when losing concentration 1 5 3.94
GLOB7 Use tables, figures, and pictures 1 5 3.92
GLOB8 Use context clues 1 5 3.85
Least GLOB10 Critically analyze and evaluate the information 1 4 2.29
SUP7 Ask myself questions 1 5 2.35
SUP1 Take notes 1 5 2.46
To further compare the participants’ differences in using reading strategies, the participants
were divided into three anxiety groups (high, medium, and low) according to standard
Lien - Page 202

deviation. The participants with a mean above one standard deviation comprised the high-
anxiety group; those with a mean below one standard deviation were in the low-anxiety group.
The remaining participants were placed into the medium-anxiety group. Seventeen
participants belonged to the low-anxiety group, 70 were in the medium-anxiety group, and 21
were in the high-anxiety group. Table 2 shows that the high-anxiety group employed Support
Strategies more often, the medium-anxiety group used Problem Solving Strategies more often,
and the low-anxiety group adopted Global Reading Strategies more often. The participants in
the low-anxiety group tended to use general strategies to intentionally monitor or manage their
reading, while the high-anxiety group seemed to employ reading techniques such as taking
notes, reading aloud, and circling information.
Table 2
Reading Strategy Use by Category for Different Anxiety Levels
Anxiety Group Category N Min Max Mean
Low SORS 17 75 133 100.58
GLOB 17 32 61 45.00
SUP 17 17 36 26.82
PROB 17 21 36 28.76
Medium SORS 70 71 136 100.48
GLOB 70 29 57 43.40
SUP 70 17 43 27.70
PROB 70 20 38 29.38
High SORS 21 73 115 94.47
GLOB 21 30 51 39.33
SUP 21 21 36 28.23
PROB 21 17 37 26.90
The reading strategies used most and least by the three anxiety groups are displayed in Table 3.
The low-anxiety group used context clues (GLOB8) the most and took notes (SUP1) the least,
while the medium-anxiety group tried to get back on track when losing concentration (PROB2)
the most and critically analyzed and evaluated the information (GLOB10) the least. On the
other hand, the high-anxiety group translated from English into their native language (SUP8)
the most and critically analyzed and evaluated the information (GLOB10) the least. It is
surprising to find that the three anxiety groups all seldom took notes (SUP1), asked themselves
questions (SUP7), or critically analyzed and evaluated information (GLOB10). The low-anxiety
and medium-anxiety groups both used context clues (GLOB8) more often and the high-anxiety
group used the translation strategy (SUP8) the most.
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Research
Table 3
Reading Strategies Used Most and Least by Anxiety Level
Anxiety
Category Most and Least Used Strategies Mean SD
Group
Low GLOB8 Use context clues 4.05 .55
GLOB2 Use background knowledge 3.94 .74
PROB8 Guess the meaning of unknown word 3.94 .74
SUP1 Take notes 2.29 1.21
SUP7 Ask myself questions 2.41 1.12
GLOB4 Think about if the content fits my reading purpose 2.70 .91
GLOB10 Critically analyze and evaluate the information 2.70 1.04
Medium PROB2 Try to get back on track when losing concentration 4.01 .80
GLOB7 Use tables, figures, and pictures 4.00 .79
GLOB8 Use context clues 3.91 .86
GLOB10 Critically analyze and evaluate the information 2.25 .86
SUP7 Ask myself questions 2.35 .99
SUP1 Take notes 2.48 .94
High SUP8 Translate from English into my native language 3.76 .88
PROB2 Try to get back on track when losing concentration 3.76 .94
GLOB7 Use tables, figures, and pictures 3.76 1.04
GLOB10 Critically analyze and evaluate the information 2.09 .83
SUP7 Ask myself questions 2.28 1.00
SUP1 Take notes 2.52 1.12
Research Question 2: Do FL reading anxiety levels and reading strategies vary with
respect to gender?
An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare the FLRAS and SORS scores of
males and females. The results showed there was no significant difference for males (M =
59.54, SD = 7.53) and females [M = 60.83, SD = 7.51; t(106) = -.719, p = .474] in the FLRAS
scores. There was also no significant difference for males (M=59.54, SD=7.53) and females [M
= 102.68, SD = 13.64; t(106) = -.719, p = .474] in the SORS scores. However, males seemed
to be less anxious than females and tended to use more reading strategies than females.
Twenty-three percent of the males belonged to the low-anxiety group while only 14% of the
females did. The percentages of males and females in the high-anxiety group were close, at
18% and 20%, respectively. As Table 4 shows, males tended to use Global Reading Strategies
more frequently to monitor or manage their reading; females tended to use Problem Solving
Strategies the most. Both males and females used tables, figures, and pictures to help their
understanding more often, but seldom used the strategies of asking themselves questions,
taking notes, and critically analyzing and evaluating information.
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Table 4
Reading Strategies Used Most and Least by Gender
Sex Category Strategy N Min Max Mean
Male GLOB7 Use tables, figures, and pictures 22 3 5 4.18
GLOB2 Use background knowledge 22 2 5 4.00
GLOB8 Use context clues 22 2 5 4.00
SUP7 Ask myself questions 22 1 4 2.40
SUP1 Take notes 22 1 5 2.54
GLOB10 Critically analyze and evaluate
22 1 4 2.63
information
Female PROB2 Try to get back on track when losing
86 1 5 4.01
concentration
SUP4 Use a dictionary 86 1 5 3.82
GLOB7 Use tables, figures, and pictures 86 1 5 3.86
GLOB10 Critically analyze and evaluate
86 1 4 2.20
information
SUP7 Ask myself questions 86 1 5 2.33
SUP1 Take notes 86 1 5 2.44
Discussion
Language anxiety is regarded as a key factor in reading comprehension. The present study
analyzes EFL learners’ reading strategy use in relation to reading anxiety level and gender
differences after their participation in extensive reading as a supplementary requirement in
reading class. The results showed that the FLRAS scores were negatively correlated with the
SORS scores; the participants with more reading anxiety used fewer reading strategies, as
expected. Among the three subcategories of SORS, FLRAS was correlated with Global Reading
Strategies and Problem Solving Strategies, respectively, but was weakly correlated with Support
Strategies. This might suggest that less anxious readers use more Global Reading Strategies to
intentionally monitor or manage their own reading than more anxious readers, and that most
readers, anxious or not, still employ Support Strategies, basic support mechanisms to help them
understand texts. Consequently, EFL teachers may need to pay more attention to training
learners in Global Reading Strategies to enable learners to consciously monitor their own
learning, with the aim of reducing their reading anxiety.
Comparing the mean score of 52.9 (SD = 9.4) of the American students in the Saito et al.
(1999) study to the mean of 60.57 (SD = 7.49) of the Chinese EFL learners in the present study,
the Chinese EFL learners seemed to have more reading anxiety. The results are similar to the
findings in previous studies (Huang, 2001; Shi & Liu, 2006). While analyzing the participants’
use of the three reading strategy categories, it was found that the participants used Problem
Solving Strategies the most frequently and Support Strategies the least frequently. This is
similar to the conclusion drawn by Mo’nos (2005) and Wu (2005) that EFL college students
majoring in English preferred to use Problem Solving Strategies the most and then Global
Reading Strategies and Support Strategies the least. This might imply that EFL readers often
encounter reading problems, so they are used to applying reading strategies such as trying to
get back on track when losing concentration, but they seldom use reading strategies such as
asking themselves questions or taking notes to support their reading. These two least-used
reading strategies are important and helpful for readers to check their understanding of texts.
Thus, EFL teachers might need to involve more Global Reading and Support Strategies in their
reading classes to enable readers to reduce their reading anxiety and improve their reading
performance and language proficiency.
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Research
Reading strategy use by EFL learners at different anxiety levels is explored in this study. The
results show that the high-anxiety group employed Support Strategies more often than the other
groups, while the medium-anxiety group was more likely to use Problem Solving Strategies and
the low-anxiety group more frequently used Global Reading Strategies. This might indicate
that EFL learners in the low-anxiety group were confident and tended to use Global Reading
Strategies such as guessing, referring to their background knowledge, or using tables or pictures
to enable them to monitor or manage their reading. However, the participants in the high-
anxiety group seemed to employ Support Strategies such as translation, paraphrasing, or using
a dictionary to help themselves understand the text. High-anxiety readers usually are less
confident in enjoying the content of reading texts. While they are reading, they might just
want to know the meanings of unfamiliar words and sentences. Ensuring understanding of the
meanings of words or sentences will ease their anxiety and let them feel secure in reading.
However, Global Reading Strategies might be more effective in reducing learners’ anxiety,
because readers will be more confident and relaxed when they are able to understand the
whole picture a reading text represents by guessing or using their background knowledge.
Therefore, teachers might introduce holistic reading strategies to build students’ reading
confidence.
Gender differences in reading anxiety and reading strategies are discussed in this study.
Females seemed to be more anxious than males, and males used more reading strategies than
females. The first finding is similar to the findings that females are more anxious than males
(Abu-Rabia, 2004; Matsuda & Gobel, 2004). The second finding, that males tended to use
more reading strategies, is different from the findings in Green and Oxford’s (1995) study.
They pointed out that female foreign language learners seemed to use more learning strategies
than male foreign language learners. However, their study was concerned with learning
strategies and the finding in the present study is related to reading strategies, which are just a
part of learning strategies. Additionally, in the present study, in regard to the use of the three
subcategories of reading strategies, males employed Global Reading Strategies more frequently
while females used Problem Solving Strategies more. Males may be more aware of their
reading process and self-monitor their reading strategies, but females focus more on the
strategies which help them to solve reading problems. The results also showed that both males
and females often used tables, figures, and pictures to help their understanding, but seldom ask
themselves questions, take notes, or critically analyze and evaluate information. These least-
used strategies are considered to be significant and more advanced strategies that enable
learners to examine and check their own reading. Thus, EFL reading instruction may try to
focus more on self-evaluating reading strategies and give different reading strategy training
based on learners’ gender.
Conclusion
To conclude, foreign language reading anxiety indeed is negatively correlated with reading
strategy use, and gender influences participants’ reading anxiety and reading strategy use. !In
addition, the reading strategies employed by EFL learners at a high anxiety level were different
from those at a low anxiety level, and females tended to be more anxious than males.! The
three anxiety groups seldom take notes, ask themselves questions, or critically analyze and
evaluate information. Based on these findings, it seems essential for EFL teachers to teach
more top-down reading strategies such as critically analyzing the texts, guessing the meaning
of unknown words, using context clues, background knowledge, taking notes and asking
oneself questions. These reading strategies will strengthen learners’ confidence and provide
them with a more holistic picture of each reading text. Although dictionary use or translation
might help learners immediately solve reading problems, learners might rely on these strategies
Lien - Page 206

too much to benefit from or enjoy reading. Teachers should pay attention to reading strategies,
which are important and essential for learners, and train their students to use these strategies
more often.
From the findings of this study and examination of the different possibilities arising from
various studies, room seems to exist for a thorough examination of reading strategies and
reading anxiety. Further research needs to be conducted to evaluate the influence of reading
strategies on foreign language reading self-efficacy and proficiency. In addition, many
fundamental questions concerning foreign language reading anxiety, such as the source of
foreign language reading anxiety and the relation between background variables, need further
research.
Author Note
Hsin-Yi Lien, Department of Applied English, Ming Chuan University, Taiwan
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Hsin-Yi Lien, Department of

Applied English, Ming Chuan University, Taoyuan: 5 De Ming Road, Gui Shan District,
Taoyuan County 333, Taiwan. E-mail: Maggielien61@hotmail.com
Lien - Page 207

Research
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Research
Appendix A
Foreign Language Reading Anxiety Scale
(Saito, Horwitz, & Garza, 1999)
Directions: Statements 1 through 20 refer to how you feel about reading English while you are
doing extensive reading. For each statement, please indicate whether you (1) strongly agree,
(2) agree, (3) neither agree nor disagree, (4) disagree, or (5) strongly disagree by marking the
appropriate number on the line following each statement. Please give your first reaction to
each statement and mark an answer for each statement.
SA = Strongly Agree, A = Agree, N = Neutral, D = Disagree, SD = Strongly Disagree
SA A N D SD
1 I get upset when I’m not sure whether I understand what I am 1 2 3 4 5
reading in English.
2 When reading English, I often understand the words but still 1 2 3 4 5
can’t quite understand what the author is saying.
3 When I’m reading English, I get so confused I can’t remember 1 2 3 4 5
what I’m reading
4 I feel intimidated whenever I see a whole page of English in 1 2 3 4 5
front of me.
5 I am nervous when I am reading a passage in English when I 1 2 3 4 5
am not familiar with the topic.
6 I get upset whenever I encounter unknown grammar when 1 2 3 4 5
reading English.
7 When reading English, I get nervous and confused when I 1 2 3 4 5
don’t understand every word.
8 It bothers me to encounter words I can’t pronounce while 1 2 3 4 5
reading English.
9 I usually end up translating word by word when I’m reading 1 2 3 4 5
English.
10 By the time you get past the funny letters and symbols in 1 2 3 4 5
English, it’s hard to remember what you’re reading about.
11 I am worried about all the new symbols you [I] have to learn 1 2 3 4 5
in order to read English.
12 I enjoy reading English. 1 2 3 4 5
13 I feel confident when I am reading in English. 1 2 3 4 5
14 Once you get used to it, reading English is not so difficult. 1 2 3 4 5
15 The hardest part of learning English is learning to read. 1 2 3 4 5
16 I would be happy just to learn to speak English rather than 1 2 3 4 5
having to learn to read as well.
17 I don’t mind reading to myself, but I feel very uncomfortable 1 2 3 4 5
when I have to read English aloud.
18 I am satisfied with the level of reading ability in English that I 1 2 3 4 5
have achieved so far.
19 English culture and ideas seem very foreign to me 1 2 3 4 5
20 You have to know so much about English history and culture 1 2 3 4 5
in order to read English.
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Appendix B
Survey of Reading Strategies
(Adapted from Sheorey & Mokhtari, 2001)
After reading each statement, circle the number (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) which applies to you while you
are reading different texts.
‘1’ means that “I never or almost never do this.”
‘2’ means that “I do this only occasionally.”
‘3’ means that “I sometimes do this.”
‘4’ means that “I usually do this.”
‘5’ means that “I always or almost always do this.”
Category Statement Never---Always

GLOB11. I have a purpose in mind when I read. 1 2 3 4 5
SUP1 2. I take notes while reading to help me understand what I read. 1 2 3 4 5
GLOB23. I think about what I know to help me understand what I read. 1 2 3 4 5
GLOB34. I take an overall view of the text to see what it is about before 1 2 3 4 5
reading it.
SUP2 5. When text becomes difficult, I read aloud to help me understand 1 2 3 4 5
what I read.
GLOB4
6. I think about whether the content of the text fits my reading 1 2 3 4 5
purpose.
PROB17. I read slowly and carefully to make sure I understand what I am 1 2 3 4 5
reading.
GLOB5
8. I review the text first by noting its characteristics like length and 1 2 3 4 5
organization.
PROB29. I try to get back on track when I lose concentration. 1 2 3 4 5
SUP3 10. I underline or circle information in the text to help me remember 1 2 3 4 5
it.
PROB311. I adjust my reading speed according to what I am reading. 1 2 3 4 5
GLOB612. When reading, I decide what to read closely and what to ignore. 1 2 3 4 5
SUP4 13. I use reference materials (e.g. a dictionary) to help me understand 1 2 3 4 5
what I read.
PROB414. When text becomes difficult, I pay closer attention to what I am 1 2 3 4 5
reading.
GLOB7
15. I use tables, figures, and pictures in text to increase my 1 2 3 4 5
understanding.
PROB516. I stop from time to time and think about what I am reading. 1 2 3 4 5
GLOB817. I use context clues to help me better understand what I am 1 2 3 4 5
reading.
SUP5 18. I paraphrase (restate ideas in my own words) to better understand
what I read. 1 2 3 4 5
PROB619. I try to picture or visualize information to help remember what I 1 2 3 4 5
read.
GLOB9
20. I use typographical features like bold face and italics to identify 1 2 3 4 5
key information.
GLOB10
21. I critically analyze and evaluate the information presented in the 1 2 3 4 5
text.
!
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Research
Category Statement Never---Always

SUP6 22. I go back and forth in the text to find relationships among ideas in 1 2 3 4 5
it.
GLOB11
23. I check my understanding when I come across new information. 1 2 3 4 5
GLOB12
24. I try to guess what the content of the text is about when I read. 1 2 3 4 5
PROB725. When text becomes difficult, I re-read it to increase my 1 2 3 4 5
understanding.
SUP7 26. I ask myself questions I like to have answered in the text. 1 2 3 4 5
GLOB13
27. I check to see if my guesses about the text are right or wrong. 1 2 3 4 5
PROB828. When I read, I guess the meaning of unknown words or phrases. 1 2 3 4 5
SUP8 29. When reading, I translate from English into my native language. 1 2 3 4 5
SUP9 30. When reading, I think about information in both English and my 1 2 3 4 5
mother tongue.
Lien - Page 212

Teaching Practice
Guidance for Learnersʼ Improvement

of Speaking Skills 1
Doan Linh Chi

Nha Trang Teachers Training College, Vietnam
Abstract
Practice is considered an important part of language learning. Students are
always encouraged to practice as much and as often as possible. However,
some students do not know how to practice well and feel disappointed as
practice does not always help them make much progress in their studies. Thus,
as teachers, we should give them guidance on effective practice. This paper
reports what and how guidance for practice should be provided for effective
improvement of students’ speaking skills. Encouraging preliminary results show
that a set of appropriate activities to practice speaking and good management of
group work can enhance students’ speaking skills and increase their autonomy.
Practice is a language learning strategy that learners use to enhance their learning. Learners
who want to make progress in their study often spend as much time as possible practicing the
skills which need improvement. However, for many English majors at Nha Trang Teachers
Training College, much practice does not equate to success.
According to Renandya (2010), only perfect practice makes perfect. This implies that students
might not be practicing well. What should teachers do to help students practice well? What
guidance is needed? In this paper, the author would like to offer some guidance to enhance
students’ practice of speaking skills. The main reason why speaking was chosen is
. . . of all the four skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing), speaking
seems intuitively the most important: people who know the language are
referred to as “speakers” of that language, as if speaking included all other kinds
of knowing; and many if not most foreign language learners are primarily
interested in learning to speak. (Ur, 1996, p. 120)
The guidance was a lesson from a small-scale project applied to first and second-year students
at Nha Trang Teachers Training College in the academic years 2009-2010 and 2010-2011.
Language Education in Asia, 2011, 2(2), 213-226. http://dx.doi.org/10.5746/LEiA/11/V2/I2/A04/Doan
Doan - Page 213

Teaching Practice
Theoretical Background
Teachersʼ Roles
The main goal of teaching speaking is communicative efficiency. Teaching speaking means
helping learners develop their ability to interact successfully in the target language. To do so,
one must have communicative competence. Richards, Platt, and Weber (as cited in Nunan,
1999, p. 226) defined the characteristics of communicative competence as:
. . . (a) knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary of the language; (b)

knowledge of rules of speaking (e.g., knowing how to begin and end
conversations, knowing what topics can be talked about in different types of
speech events, knowing which address forms should be used with different
persons one speaks to and in different situations); (c) knowing how to use and
respond to different types of speech acts such as requests, apologies, thanks,
and invitations; (d) knowing how to use language appropriately. (p. 226)
Thus, to help students enhance their speaking skills, the teacher must help students improve
their grammar, enrich their vocabulary, and manage interactions in terms of who says what, to
whom, when, and about what.
Byrne (1987) stated that developing students’ ability to interact successfully in the target
language is a gradual process that begins with letting them imitate a model or respond to cues.
Therefore, the same type of speaking activity might be practiced several times during the skill
acquisition process; however, the task requirements should be of increasing levels of difficulty.
Why Group Work?

Many language classes are big, with students of differing abilities. This is a real obstacle for
teachers striving to help students improve their speaking skills. In this case, group work has
proved to be an effective way to solve the problem as “. . . group work allows all students to
practise language and to actively participate” (Baker & Westrup, 2000, p. 131). Group work is
highly recommended by many experts as a useful technique to get students involved in
classroom activities, increase student talking time, and reduce teacher talking time (Brumfit,
1984; Harmer, 1991; Nation, 1989; Petty, 1993). More than a simple classroom technique, “it
has been considered one of the major changes to the dynamics of the classroom interaction
brought by student-centered teaching” (Nunan & Lamb, as cited in Le, 2010, p. 2). The
benefits of group work are recognized not only by language teachers and experts, but also by
language students: “. . . I began to see the benefits of participating in group work. I could
improve my communication skills in the target language, develop my skills in cooperating with
group members, and learn new ideas from others” (Qiangba, 2005, p. 48).
Popular Speaking Activities

Kayi (2006) studied popular speaking activities and analyzed their advantages. She
recommends the following activities:
Discussions Brainstorming Reporting

Role-play Storytelling Playing Cards
Simulations Interviews Picture Narrating
Information Gap Story Completion Picture Describing
Find the Difference
Doan - Page 214

In the three volumes of Communication Games by Hadfield (1996a, 1996b, 1996c), a variety
of communicative games and speaking activities provide not only “concentrated practice as a
traditional drill,” but also “opportunit[ies] for real communication, albeit within artificially
defined limits” (1996a, p. iii). In addition to the games and activities recommended by Kayi
and Hadfield, language teachers can easily access the rich source of communicative games
and speaking activities on the Internet. Whatever the games and activities are named and
however they are done, they serve to enhance learners’ oral fluency. The teacher’s task here is
to try to utilize games and activities in such a way that each is exploited to the fullest. To
achieve this, flexibility in using games and activities is vital.
Project Background
The researcher was responsible for teaching speaking and listening skills to 32 first-year college
students in the academic year of 2008-2009. For many of them, communicating in a foreign
language was unfamiliar. Whenever they wanted to speak, they wrote the sentence they
wanted to say and then read it.
A variety of speaking activities was used and group work was applied. However, less progress
in oral communication was made than had been expected. There were two kinds of students
who were unsuccessful in terms of ability to communicate in English in classroom practice:
those who spoke naturally and with fluency usually made a lot of grammar and pronunciation
mistakes, and those who made fewer grammar and pronunciation mistakes were not fluent and
their speech did not sound natural. Moreover, turn-taking was a problem when students
conducted conversations. Those who started a conversation by asking questions would
continue doing so to the end of the conversation and those who answered questions did not
ask questions. Informal talks conducted with the students revealed the causes of unsuccessful
communication were phonological problems, lack of vocabulary, insufficient practice of
grammatical and functional structures, and the habit of translating everything from English into
the mother tongue and vice-versa when communicating in English.
To help students become better at speaking means to help them gain communicative
competence and reduce the number of mistakes they make. In this particular case, the focus
was to help students improve their pronunciation, enrich their vocabulary, frequently practice
grammatical and functional patterns, and form the habit of thinking in English. To provide
guidance for practice, the teacher had to find a way to help students enhance their speaking
skills. As a result, in the academic year 2009-2010, a two-year project to help students
improve their speaking skills began with 28 first-year students.
The Project
The project was divided into two phases: guided practice for first-year students, and less-
guided practice for second-year students. The teacher had to direct students’ practice, evaluate
their abilities, form and reform groups, identify common mistakes students made, choose or
design speaking activities and communicative games, collect frequent feedback from students,
and make timely adjustments as needed. The students had to identify their own problems, set
their goals for practice, and work in groups.
Setting Goals to Enhance Speaking Skills

In the first class session, an overall guidance for students to enhance their own speaking skills
was given. A list of common speaking problems was provided. The students were asked to
tick their problems and write suggestions (see Appendix A). All 28 students indicated that they
Doan - Page 215

Teaching Practice
had problems with the first five items: being unable to remember words or phrases, making
grammar mistakes when speaking, making pronunciation errors, thinking in Vietnamese and
then translating into English, and being unable to express their ideas well. The students were
able to give suggestions on the first three problems; however, they could not suggest solutions
for the last two. These two problems are, in fact, closely related to each other. Once students
are able to think in English, they will have no difficulty expressing their ideas. Thus, helping
students form the habit of thinking in English has primary importance.
The students were given a worksheet to set their own weekly goals (see Appendix B). In the
first column, they wrote what they wanted to learn by heart or practice more. In the second
column, they noted mistakes they wanted to correct. The mistakes were pointed out by the
teacher, by their classmates, or recognized by themselves. The students’ goals were different,
depending on individual needs. Setting small goals helped the students move step-by-step
towards general improvement in speaking and helped strengthen their self-confidence. In a
sense, setting goals can be considered to be planning one’s practice. This was done
throughout the academic year.
Thus, identifying problems and giving suggestions helped the students know exactly what they
had to handle when practicing speaking. Having set the goals, the students would pay
attention to areas that they wanted to improve. Students were asked to practice as often as
possible with their classmates and students from neighboring and upper classes on the
following principles: from simple to complicated, less to more, prepared to unprepared speech,
and inside to outside class.
Assigning Groups to Enhance Speaking Skills

Organizing group work. To make practice effective, student collaboration is important. Good
collaboration partly depends on the way students are arranged in groups. Dominance by
more-able students and passiveness by less-able students as well as increases in the gap
between more-able and less-able students should be avoided. Groups should encourage equal
participation, help less-able students be self-confident, motivate the more-able students, and
make all students be responsible for what they are doing.
Group formation was only done after the first four weeks of study and was based on the
teacher’s observations. The observations helped in evaluating students’ abilities and in
knowing, to some extent, students’ personalities and relationships. The 28 students had
different levels of language proficiency. All were friendly and helpful, and got along well with
each other. They were numbered according to their ability from the most able (Student 1) to
the least able (Student 28) and placed into seven groups (Table 1).
To avoid dominance by the more-able students, each student in Column A of Table 1 was the
group leader and had to manage and help all the members in the group. This may seem as if
there was too much work for the group leaders and no chance for them to speak when they
worked with less-able students. In fact, they were able to practice speaking English as the
other group members did. They shared their ideas with their group and helped less-able
students express their ideas. It was important that the group leaders were aware of giving
speaking opportunities to all group members.
In the first round of group work, real communication could not be achieved. This round was
like the preparation of “ingredients” for a real conversation later (“real conversation” here is
confined to classroom practice).
Doan - Page 216

Table 1
Group Assignments
Group A B C D
Rose S1 S8 S21 S28
Daisy S2 S9 S20 S27
Sunflower S3 S10 S19 S26
Daffodil S4 S11 S18 S25
Carnation S5 S12 S17 S24
Lily S6 S13 S16 S23
Tulip S7 S14 S15 S22
(S = Student)
To maintain the interest of more-able students as well as to create more chances for less-able
students to practice, there was a second round of the group speaking activity. Groups were
reformed. All students in Column A of Table 1 worked together, as did the students in
Columns B, C, and D. The new groups had no leaders. The emphasis was on fluency and
naturalness of speech. The less-able students, with the “prepared ingredients,” were able to
manage the practice themselves, so they gained confidence.
Language teachers usually have problems arranging students in groups: “. . . the biggest
problem is one of selection of group members” (Harmer, 1991, p. 246). Should students work
in groups with members of differing language abilities or should they work in groups with
members of similar abilities? The practice in this study demonstrated that mixed-ability groups
helped less-able students improve and gain more confidence and raised the more-able
students’ responsibilities (in a sense, more-able students shared the teacher’s work in class).
However, the success of the mixed-ability groups could only be achieved because the more-
able students were clear about their role from the beginning of the course and were willing to
help their peers. Groups of similar language abilities motivated the more-able students; the
less-able students were successful in such groups only when they had guided practice
beforehand.
When working in groups with speaking activities in which monologues were preferable
(storytelling, picture narrating, reporting, picture describing), the students were encouraged to
recognize their classmates’ mistakes (see Appendix C) without giving any comments or
corrections until their friends finished their talks. The group leaders recorded all the mistakes
recognized by the group and reported them to the teacher. The teacher circulated to give help
while the students were working. With speaking activities in which conversations took place,
there was no emphasis on recognizing and correcting classmates’ mistakes as this might
interrupt the flow of conversation.
Being able to identify errors had an advantage: the students could reduce their own mistakes.
The students were given the list of "often-made" mistakes and asked to pay attention to
avoiding them whenever they practiced speaking. A question might be raised: if students tried
to be conscious of avoiding errors when speaking, could they have real communication? The
reality was that they could not at first; however, at the end of the first year, the students were
making fewer mistakes when they spoke and they were improving at communicating with
structures they had learnt.
Doan - Page 217

Teaching Practice
One problem language teachers may worry about when managing group work is the students’
use of their mother tongue. This could not be totally avoided; nevertheless, the teacher was
able to reduce mother tongue usage by giving clear instructions for the tasks and “jumping in”
in time to help the students.
Selecting speaking activities. Activities and role-plays from course books and the Internet
were used. Appropriateness to the students’ level of speaking was always taken into
consideration. For first-year students, the activities involved repetition / imitation, whereas the
activities for second-year students required more creativity on their part.
Many activities were used for both first-year and second-year students (see Appendix D);
however, the levels of difficulty and the requirements were different (see Figure 1 and Table 2).
&"
First-year students
Number of Requirements
%" Second-year students
$"
A. Verb tense
B. Verb form
#" C. Pronunciation
D. Intonation
E. Linking sounds
!" F. Speech
A B C D E F
Requirement Categories
Figure 1. The requirement categories for the same type of speaking activity for first-year students in
their first term and for second-year students in their fourth term in the project. The number of
requirements gradually increased from the first to the fourth term.
Doan - Page 218

Table 2
st nd
Interview Activity Requirements for 1 and 2 Year Students
First-Year Students Second-Year Students
Term 1 Term 4
Activity: Interview your friend about his / her Activity: Interview your friend about his / her
last holiday. learning English.
Requirements: Requirements:
A. Correct verb tense A. Correct verb tenses
1. Simple past 1. Simple past
2. Simple present
3. Present perfect
4. Present continuous
B. Correct verb form B. Correct verb forms
1. Simple past 1. Simple past
2. Simple present
3. Present perfect
4. Present continuous
C. Correct pronunciation C. Correct pronunciation
1. Simple past of regular verbs 1. Simple past of regular verbs
2. Simple past of irregular verbs 2. Simple past / past participle of
irregular verbs
D. Correct intonation D. Correct intonation
1. Yes / No questions 1. Yes / No questions
2. Wh- questions 2. Wh- questions
3. Choice questions
E. Linking sounds
F. Speech F. Speech
1. Good turn-taking 1. Good turn-taking
2. Smooth speech
To make improvements in using grammatical and functional patterns, frequent out-of-class

practice was encouraged. As homework to practice learnt structures, the students
brainstormed ten questions per week on topics suggested by the teacher and the students. The
topics were simple (e.g., family, job, hobbies) in their first year and more complicated (e.g.,
campus life, environmental problems, poverty) in their second year. The teacher collected and
corrected the questions. This gave the teacher an opportunity to see what mistakes were
common, and what remedy could be applied. With the teacher’s comments, the students
themselves were gradually able to learn how to generate questions and avoid making mistakes.
More importantly, the students saw the teacher’s effort in helping them to enhance their
speaking skills. In return, they studied harder.
After receiving feedback from the teacher, the students were asked to memorize their questions
and to practice asking and answering questions with as many students as possible, whenever
and wherever they could. Once a month, the teacher randomly selected a prepared topic, and
the students practiced asking and answering questions on the topic in class.
Doan - Page 219

Teaching Practice
This activity was a simple drill, but it helped students to eradicate the habit of thinking of
questions and answers in Vietnamese and then translating them into English when
communicating. The more often the questions and answers were practiced, the more deeply
they became rooted in the students’ minds. Moreover, this activity helped the students to
organize their ideas as they were required to put the questions in a logical order.
Although the activity was beneficial, there were some shortcomings. First, it required much
preparation time for the teacher. Second, it was possible for students to copy questions from
their classmates. Despite these shortcomings, the students’ improvement in speaking could be
seen clearly after they finished their first year (see Appendix E).
Conclusion
The project is still in progress. However, positive feedback from the students and the progress
the students have made show that the project is fruitful. To help students practice speaking
well, the following points should be considered:
- Guidance for students’ speaking practice should be given at the beginning of the course as
this will help students save time in finding ways to improve their speaking skills.
- Speaking activities should be appropriate to the students’ ability.
- Speaking activities should involve and motivate the students.
- For less-able students, more attention should be paid to correct repetition than to
performance skills.
- For more-able students, the proportion of repetition and performance skills should be
considered carefully as this influences their motivation in learning speaking.
- Good management of group work helps to achieve the active and equal participation of all
students and will help to increase the effectiveness of speaking activities.
Language teachers, like ship captains, should guide their students to the harbor of success.
When practice is well planned and combined with hard work and commitment on both sides,
students’ speaking skills will be improved.
Author Note
Doan Linh Chi, Department of Foreign Languages, Nha Trang Teachers Training College, Nha
Trang, Vietnam
I would like to thank the students of English for Primary School K.35 at Nha Trang Teachers
Training College; Ms. Tran Dang Khanh Linh, Head of the English Section; Kathy Hong Oanh
Nguyen, Fulbright English Teaching Assistant and CamTESOL co-presenter; and the 2011
CamTESOL Program Committee for selecting this paper for the Presenter Grant.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Doan Linh Chi, Department of
Foreign Languages, Nha Trang Teachers Training College, 01 Nguyen Chanh Street, Nha Trang
City, Khanh Hoa, Vietnam. E-mail: linhchi.doan@gmail.com
Doan - Page 220

References
Baker, J., & Westrup, H. (2000). The English language teacher’s handbook: How to teach large
classes with few resources. London, England: VSO/Continuum.
Brumfit, C. (1984). Communicative methodology in language teaching: The roles of fluency
and accuracy. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Byrne, D. (1987). Techniques for classroom interaction. Singapore: Longman.
Hadfield, J. (1996a). Advanced communication games. Harlow, England: Addison-Wesley
Longman.
Hadfield, J. (1996b). Elementary communication games. Harlow, England: Addison-Wesley
Longman.
Hadfield, J. (1996c). Intermediate communication games. Harlow, England: Addison-Wesley
Longman.
Harmer, J. (1991). The practice of English language teaching. New York, NY: Longman.
Kayi, H. (2006). Teaching speaking: Activities to promote speaking in a second language. The
Internet TESL Journal, 7(11). Retrieved from http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Kayi-Teaching
Speaking.html
Le, T. B. T. (2010, September). An action research on the application of cooperative learning to
teaching speaking. Paper presented at the International Conference on TESOL, Ho Chi
Minh City, Vietnam.
Nation, P. (1989). Group work and language learning. English Teaching Forum, 27(2), 20-24.
Nunan, D. (1999). Second language teaching and learning. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.
Petty, G. (1993). Teaching today. Cheltenham, England: Stanley Thornes.
Qiangba, Y. (2005). What I have learned from group work. Teacher’s Edition, 19.
Renandya, W. (2010, September). Does practice make perfect? Featured speaker at the
International Conference on TESOL, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.
Ur, P. (1996). A course in language teaching: Practice and theory. Cambridge, England:
Doan - Page 221

Teaching Practice
Appendix A
Speaking Problems and Suggestions
List of Common Speaking Problems

Directions: Please tick the problem(s) you have when learning speaking and write your
suggestion(s) next to the problem(s).
My Problems My Suggestions
1. I can’t remember words / phrases. !
2. I usually make grammar mistakes when I speak. !

3. I usually make pronunciation mistakes when I
!
speak.
4. I think in Vietnamese and then I translate into
!
English.
5. I don’t know how to express my ideas well. !
6. I feel shy when I have to speak. !
7. I am afraid of making mistakes when I speak. !
Table A
Studentsʼ Common Speaking Problems and Their Suggestions
Problems Suggestions
Learn them by heart and use them more
Can’t remember words / phrases
often.
Do more grammar exercises. Practice
Make grammar mistakes
grammar structures more in speech.
Read aloud the words until you get the
Make pronunciation mistakes
correct pronunciation.
Think in Vietnamese and then translate into
No suggestions
English
Don’t know how to express ideas well No suggestions
Note: There is no ranking of the studentsʼ problems in Table A. All the students ticked the first five
common speaking problems list. They were not asked to number the items from the most to the least
problematic.
Doan - Page 222

Appendix B
Weekly Student Goals
Week 3 (Unit 2, Conversation 1: Tell me about your family)
Student A
Things I Want to
Things I Want to Correct
Learn by Heart / Practice More
Vocabulary: cousin, nephew, niece, Plural ending: twins, brothers, sisters
musician, look alike, married, single, sister-
in-law, brother-in-law, aunt, uncle Consonant clusters: youngest, oldest
Functional structures and expressions Linking sound: I have two brothers and one
- Tell me about your family. sister.
- Do you have any brothers or sisters?
- Have you got any brothers or sisters? 3rd person singular ending: My brother lives
- I have three brothers but no sisters. in Nha Trang. He works as a hotel
- No, I’m an only child. receptionist.
- We’re twins.
- How old is your brother?
- We’re the same age.
- He’s the same age as me.
- Is your brother single / married?
- Does your brother have any children?
- You look too young to be an aunt.
- He works as a waiter.
Student B
Things I Want to
Vocabulary: look alike, sister-in-law, Consonant clusters: youngest, oldest
brother-in-law
Linking sound: I have two brothers and one
Functional structures and expressions sister.
- No, I’m an only child.
- We’re twins. 3rd person singular ending: My sister works
- We’re the same age. for a foreign company. She lives in Ho Chi
- He’s the same age as me. Minh City with her family. She is married
- You look too young to be an aunt. and has two children. Her husband works as
- My brothers and my sisters are all younger / a pilot. He flies to Ha Noi twice a week.
older than me.
- He works as a chef.
Doan - Page 223

Teaching Practice
Student C
Things I Want to
Vocabulary: look alike Linking sound: I have two brothers and one
sister.
Functional structures and expressions
- No, I’m an only child. Unnatural speech - hesitation
- We’re twins.
- We’re the same age.
- He’s the same age as me.
- You look too young to be an aunt.
Doan - Page 224

Appendix C
Common Student Mistakes
Grammar Mistakes Pronunciation Mistakes

- incorrect verb tense forms / incorrect - missing the ending sounds in plural nouns
- use of tenses (e.g., oranges = orange, apples = apple)
- incorrect use of prepositions - missing third-person singular ending of the
- missing prepositions verb in the simple present tense (e.g., likes
- incorrect use of articles = like, watches = watch)
- missing ending sound of regular verbs in
the simple past tense or in the past
participle form (e.g., stopped = stop,
stayed = stay)
- missing certain sounds in final clusters
(e.g., film: /film/ = /fim/, text: /tekst/ = /tek/)
- inserting a vowel sound into a consonant
cluster (e.g., /spi:k/ = /s…pi:k/)
- adding hissing sound/s/ to all the words
(e.g., I go to school = I/s/go/s/to/s/
school/s/)
- no linking sounds
- incorrect intonation
Note. The functional patterns presented in the speaking course book cover the grammar points listed
in the table.
Appendix D
Activities for the First and Second-Year Students
Activities for First-Year Students Activities for Second-Year Students
Brainstorming
Information Gap
Storytelling
Story Completion
Reporting
Interviews
Picture Narrating
Role-Play
Talks on Topics
Playing Cards Discussions

Find the Difference Stage Plays
Picture Describing Simulations
Doan - Page 225

Teaching Practice
Appendix E
st nd
Results of the 1 and 2 End-of-Term Speaking Exams (First Year)
Figure E. In the first term the number of students receiving marks of 5 and 6 in speaking test
exceeded the number of students receiving marks of 7, 8 and 9. In the second term the result was
opposite. At the college, in the studentsʼ study records, decimal numbers were rounded up or down to
the nearest whole numbers.
The examiners of the speaking test were the teachers of speaking; one was the researcher, and
the other one was chosen at random. These teachers supervised and were interviewers in both
the first and second term tests.
The speaking task had two parts: role-plays (8 marks) and interviews (2 marks). In role-plays
based on learnt structures and topics, each pair of students was asked to sit separately. They
had three minutes to read the requirements on the cards for preparation, and then they were
asked to perform their conversations in pairs. The students’ role-plays were assessed on the
following criteria: ideas and length (2 marks), accuracy (1 mark each for pronunciation,
intonation, grammar, and learnt structures) and fluency and manner of speaking (1 mark each
for turn-taking and natural / fluent speech). In interviews, the examiners asked each student
two questions (1 mark for each answer) related to learnt topics. These questions were not
related to the topic of the presented role-play; for example, if Students A and B had to perform
a role-play in a restaurant, then the questions for them would be about their future plans or
intentions. The students had no time to prepare. The answers were assessed on (a) ideas
(0.25), (b) language patterns (0.25), (c) pronunciation (0.25), and (d) quick answer (0.25). In
cases where the questions had to be repeated, no mark was given for (d). There was no second
repetition of the questions.
Doan - Page 226

Implications for Effective Ways

of Conducting and Assessing Presentations
in EFL Classes 1
Etsuko Shimo
Kinki University, Japan
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to explore more effective ways of conducting and
assessing presentations in English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) classes. To this
aim, the author discusses student reactions to presentation assignments as well
as the results of comparisons between the teacher and student evaluations of
the presentations in English classes at a Japanese university. The students
practiced presentations repeatedly with different partners (i.e., simultaneous
presentations) before making presentations in front of the whole class at the
final stage. This paper suggests that providing step-by-step procedures in
presentation assignments is as important as having students experience various
presentation styles. Additionally, allowing students ample reflection time and
dialogues with the teacher and among themselves may help students
understand the objectives of the small steps in the assignments and the intended
purpose of the assessment criteria.
Many current university students in Japan have had very few opportunities to make
presentations in English prior to entering university. Many of them may have not even had
very many chances to speak English in class at all (Apple, 2011). Since the so-called “period
for integrated studies” started to be implemented in the school curriculum in 2000 (Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology [MEXT], 1999), students have been
encouraged to do problem-solving activities, including research and presentation tasks, in
Japanese. Information technology education is now part of the school curriculum (MEXT,
1999), and more and more students have had experience in creating PowerPoint slideshows
before they enter university. However, it still seems to be the case in many secondary school
English classes that students remain passive and listen to the teacher’s explanation with few
opportunities to speak in English with others (Nishino, 2009).
For these Japanese university students who have a limited experience of using English in
meaningful and authentic situations such as presentations, it is important to have a step-by-step
method of teaching presentations in English classes. Thus, in the author’s classes, students
made presentations repeatedly in different small groups (i.e., simultaneous presentations)
before they presented in front of the whole class.
Language Education in Asia, 2011, 2(2), 227-236. http://dx.doi.org/10.5746/LEiA/11/V2/I2/A05/Shimo
Shimo - Page 227

Teaching Practice
This paper investigates students’ perceptions of the presentation assignment, as well as the
teacher and student evaluations of the presentations. This discussion is expected to lead to
suggestions for more effective ways of conducting and assessing presentations.
Literature Review
Simultaneous Presentations
The “simultaneous presentation” technique is similar to “speed dating” (Brown & Diem, 2009;
Martinez, 2008). Martinez (2008) explained that in speed dating, ten or more men and women
participate and have a chance to talk to each other one-on-one for five minutes each.
Likewise, in simultaneous presentations, students make presentations repeatedly with different
partners.
The simultaneous presentation is actually a frequently-used technique in Cooperative Learning

(CL) classrooms (Jacobs, Power, & Loh, 2002). Two of the CL principles are “simultaneous
interaction” and “equal participation,” which means that all students ideally participate in the
task at the same time and to the same degree of engagement (Jacobs et al., 2002). When
students make presentations simultaneously in pairs, one makes a presentation, one listens to
the presentation, and then they switch roles; this technique can create an optimum situation for
simultaneous interaction and equal participation. The listening student is the only person in
the audience and is inclined to listen attentively in order to give feedback to the presenter at
the end. The presenter is likely to be more serious in front of an attentive audience. In short,
the simultaneous presentation can work as an effective CL technique.
Furthermore, the simultaneous presentation is useful in increasing speaking practices and

reducing performance anxiety (Brown & Diem, 2009; Martinez, 2008). In the author’s classes,
students’ limited experience of speaking practice and performance anxiety were the teacher’s
major concerns. Limited experience was suspected to be part of the cause of second language
(L2) anxiety for the students, and it was theorized that repeated practice could help build
confidence. When learners repeatedly experience situations that make them anxious speaking
in the L2, they are conditioned to feel anxious whenever they speak in the L2 (MacIntyre &
Gardner, 1989). In order to avoid such conditioning, it is helpful to provide a less threatening
learning environment (Brown & Diem, 2009; Horwitz & Young, 1991; Martinez, 2008; Young,
1999).
Assessment Method
A major concern for assessment of simultaneous presentations is that the teacher often cannot
watch presentations in person. For example, in the author’s classes, there were 15 pairs in one
class making presentations simultaneously. If the teacher had wanted to observe every
student’s presentation, students would have had to repeat their presentations 15 times. Such
repetition may not be impossible, but does not seem to be realistic, effective, or motivational.
If students made improvements over the 15 performances, then they could benefit from this
repetitive experience. However, in this case, students whose presentations were evaluated
later would have an advantage, which would not be fair to the other students.
To solve this problem, peer assessment was used by Brown and Diem (2009). Peer assessment
is often said to have a problem in its reliability. For example, Cheng and Warren (2005) found
that students’ peer assessments did not always coincide with the teacher assessment and
suggested that practice might have helped students to improve their peer assessment
techniques.
Shimo - Page 228

Regardless of assessment methods, it is important to inform students of what elements

constitute a satisfactory achievement of the assignment in order for them to achieve a
successful result in the assignment and gain the most knowledge and skills from the learning
experience. In a study with business undergraduate students, Rust, Price, and O’Donovan
(2003) reported that when students attended an assessment workshop in which they marked
sample assignments, discussed the sample assignments in groups, and listened to a tutor’s
explanation about assessment criteria, they achieved significantly better results in their course.
Moreover, research has been conducted on student viewpoints about assessment criteria (e.g.,
Orsmond, Merry, & Reiling, 2000; Otoshi & Heffernen, 2008). Otoshi and Heffernen (2008)
concurred with Orsmond et al. (2000) on the importance of involving students in creating
assessment criteria for more effective learning, but at the same time, cautioned that teachers
have to be careful about adopting student-derived assessment criteria.
In a study with university biology majors, Orsmond et al. (2000) claimed that learning
outcomes may differ when assessment criteria are prepared by a teacher and when created by
students; the purposes of the activity might be different in the two situations. The researchers
also reported that students tried harder to understand what each of the teacher-prepared
criterion meant compared to the student-derived ones. In addition, discussion between the
course assessor and students, as well as among students, is important (see also Rust et al.,
2003). It is important for teachers to provide criteria that help students develop the skills that
they should be developing, and to discuss the criteria with the students or let the students
discuss the criteria among themselves to help them understand what each criterion means.
In the author’s classes, teacher evaluation was mainly used for course grades, while students’
self- and peer assessment was mainly for the purpose of raising their awareness about the
assessment criteria, i.e., the important elements for successful presentations. Peer assessment
activities were also expected to help students in the audience pay close attention to the
presentations. The teacher was concerned that students had not had enough training in
assessment; therefore, since students’ self- and peer assessment might lack in reliability, the
portion of self-assessments was minimized and peer assessments were not used for course
grading. The assessment criteria were prepared by the teacher and presented to the students
with written and oral explanations. (See the Presentation Assessment Method section for more
details of how presentation assessment was implemented in the author’s classes.)
The Study
Data Collection
The research data was collected from two groups: Class A and Class B taking a course titled
“English Seminar.” Students took English Seminar 1 in the first semester (spring) and English
Seminar 2 in the second semester (fall) with the same teacher and were given similar
presentation assignments in both semesters. A questionnaire in the students’ mother language,
Japanese, was administered at the end of each semester to collect their reactions to the
presentation assignments. Responses were collected from 49 students in the spring semester
and 47 students in the fall. The data from the spring semester was discussed in Shimo (2010);
this paper will focus on the data from the fall semester survey (see appendix). In addition, the
students’ self-evaluations and the teacher’s evaluations in the fall semester will be compared.
Shimo - Page 229

Teaching Practice
Students and Their Learning Context

The English proficiency levels of students in
English Seminar Classes A and B ranged from
higher intermediate to advanced (Figure 1).
There were 15 psychology and 14
environmental studies majors, for a total of 29
students in Class A, and 30 socio-mass media
majors in Class B. All students in both classes
were native speakers of Japanese.
The goal of the English Seminar course was to

promote basic comprehensive English abilities. Figure 1. Studentsʼ proficiency levels in Class A and
The class met twice a week for ninety minutes Class B. Created based on a resource provided by
the English Language Proficiency Assessment [Eigo
each session, once in a traditional classroom Unyo Noryoku Hyoka Kyokai].
with audio equipment at the teacher’s desk, and
once in a computer room. Students did various
activities, including writing essays and reading passages using a textbook that had 20 chapters
about social issues. Presentation assignments accounted for 15% of the course grade in both
semesters, with the remaining 85% comprising quizzes, exams, essays, and many other in-class
and out-of-class assignments.
Presentation Requirements and Performance

For the presentation assignments, students were required to: (a) make either a newsletter (one
B4 size page or more) or a PowerPoint presentation (five slides or more), (b) choose a chapter
from the textbook for their presentation, (c) include a summary of the chapter and additional
information that they searched for and collected, and (d) make a three- to five-minute
presentation. Students made their presentations in a computer classroom.
Students simultaneously performed

presentations in pairs several times in
the same class meeting. First, one
student in a pair became a presenter
(Student A) and the other a listener in
the audience (Student B), and then they
exchanged roles. Student A then
moved to a different seat and repeated
this process with a new partner (Figure
2). In these pair presentations, students
recorded their presentations using
recording software. At the end of their
final presentation day, they chose their
best performance and turned in the
electronic file to the teacher along with Figure 2. Pair presentation method (Shimo, 2010)
a hard copy of their presentation
materials.
In the spring semester, students had seven pair presentations, including three in rehearsal and
four in the final stage; they presented to seven partners. In the fall semester, all students were
required to present in front of the whole class after four pair presentations, two in rehearsal and
two “final.” The teacher used the term final for the last two pair presentations before the
Shimo - Page 230

whole-class presentations to encourage the students to make improvements from rehearsal to

the final stage (Table 1).
Table 1
Presentation Steps Taken in the Spring and Fall Semesters
Step Activity Spring Semester Fall Semester
1 Presentation guidelines Mid June End of September
provided for students
2 Pair presentations in 1st week of July: 2nd to last week of October:
rehearsal three times in different pairs two times in different pairs
3 Final pair presentations 2nd week of July: Last week of October:
four times in different pairs two times in different pairs
4 Presentations in front of ------ November to December:
class a few students per class over
several weeks
Presentation Assessment Method

In the fall semester, four criteria were set and announced to the students along with the
presentation guidelines: content (5 points), comprehensibility (5 points), time length (5 points),
and improvement (5 points). The first three were adopted from the spring-semester
presentation assignments. For each criterion, a brief explanation was given to students:
• Content: Is the presentation interesting and informative?

• Comprehensibility: Is the presentation easy to follow and understand?
• Time length: Is the presentation time sufficient?
(Less than two minutes = 1 point, two minutes = 3 points, three to five minutes = 5 points)
• Improvement: How did you improve your presentation after rehearsal?
Students were asked to evaluate their own and their classmates’ presentations each time so that
both presenters and audience would focus more on these assessment criteria.
In the fall semester, the teacher evaluated the students’ performance in the final pair
presentations using the first three criteria in the same way as in the spring: by listening to the
students’ recorded presentations, which were submitted as an electronic audio file, while
referring to their hard copies of presentation materials (15 points in total). The students’ self-
evaluations about improvement from rehearsal to final pair presentations (5 points) were also
added when calculating course grades. The total of 20 points in the steps of pair presentations
accounted for 5% of the course grade, and so students’ self-evaluation points were eventually
reduced to 1.25% of the entire course grade. The teacher also directly evaluated students’ very
final presentations in front of the whole class, using the first three criteria (15 points), and this
evaluation accounted for 10% of the course grade. Thus, the presentation assignments as a
whole accounted for 15% of the entire course grade.
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Teaching Practice
Data and Discussion

Student Reactions to Presentation Methods
Students generally agreed that rehearsing pair
presentations twice was useful for their learning, but
fewer students agreed about the two final pair
presentations (Figures 3 and 4). Many of the student
comments revealed that they appreciated these
steps, similar to Shimo (2010), because they were
able to practice more, receive feedback, and check
where to improve in a relaxed atmosphere in a
small group. On the other hand, a few students
stated that presenting to one person is so different
from presenting to the whole class that it did not
help them get ready for the final stage. Figure 3. Rehearsal in two pairs: useful for learning?
n = 47.
Next, more students -14 students compared to nine
and six in the previous stages respectively - agreed
or strongly agreed that the whole-class presentation
was useful (Figures 3, 4, and 5). There was also
slightly more variety in responses (Figure 5).
Students who responded positively often
commented that it was a good learning experience,
or that they were able to learn from other
classmates’ presentations. For negative responses,
two said that they ended up simply repeating what
they did previously, and two pointed out that there
was overlapping in the choice of topics and
therefore there were repeat performances of similar Figure 4. “Final” in two pairs: useful for learning?
presentations. n = 47.
Finally, ten students wrote suggestions about how

presentation assignments can be designed. Three
students commented that part of the pair
presentations were not necessary. Perhaps some
students needed more guided reflection time so they
could make improvements between the repeat
performances in order to better comprehend how
they could benefit from this experience. Four
commented on the whole-class presentation: one
said it was very good, two said it was not necessary
for everyone to do it, and one said it would have
Figure 5. In front of the whole class: useful
been better to do it in a traditional classroom.
for learning? n = 47.
Various student preferences and motivation levels
for learning seem to have been reflected in these different responses. The other three
comments were: “[It is good to] have presenters answer a certain number of questions in
English,” “I wanted to do a group presentation,” and “If we do it, we should assign chapters to
individual students [rather than having students choose a chapter from the textbook].
Otherwise we end up collecting similar information about the same chapters and [the
presentations] become boring.” The last comment coincides with the above comments about
Shimo - Page 232

similar presentations; these comments imply that presentation topic options have to be
carefully prepared.
Student and Teacher Assessment

Comparisons between students’ self-evaluations and the teacher’s evaluations in the final pair
presentations revealed interesting findings (Table 2). First, the students’ self-evaluations were
severer than the teacher’s. This tendency was observed in the spring semester, as well (Shimo,
2010). Second, correlation of the teacher’s and students’ self-evaluation in comprehensibility
was very weak (r = .16), while that of content was relatively strong (r = .56). This implies that
the students’ and teacher’s interpretations or understanding of comprehensibility may have
been very different. It is possible that students’ different confidence levels had a stronger effect
on their self-evaluations of comprehensibility compared to those of content. Less confident
students may have evaluated their performances more severely even though the performances
were more comprehensible than they thought they were. Likewise, Cheng and Warren (2005)
reported that students felt less comfortable in their peer assessment activities assessing their
peers’ language proficiency levels, compared to other non-language related criteria. The
researchers attributed this to the students’ lack of knowledge about what constituted high and
low language proficiency and to their lack of confidence in their own language proficiency. In
the current study, the teacher did not evaluate each student’s presentation during the actual
performance, but by listening to the recorded presentations while referring to a hard copy of
the presentation materials; this may also have contributed to the gap.
Table 2
Comparison between Teacher Evaluation and Student Self-Evaluation of Pair Presentations
Content (5 points) Comprehensibility (5 points)
Evaluation
Teacher Students Teacher Students
Mean Score 3.68 3.21 3.52 3.02
Pearson’s Correlation r = .56 r = .16
Conclusion
Findings in this study have useful implications. First, most students in the study favored
simultaneous pair presentations, finding this method helpful for their learning. Students were
able to practice more and receive ample feedback in a less threatening atmosphere. However,
some students found some repetition boring or unnecessary. To address this, teachers should
help students understand the objectives of each step so that students can make the most of the
assignment. Teachers should not only explain the purpose, but also offer ample time for
reflection (Shimo, 2010).
The problem of some students finding repeat performances rather useless can be partially
ascribed to the restricted choice of presentation topics. The students in this study were told to
choose a chapter from their textbook, which meant there were only about ten topics to choose
from each semester. Some topics were more popular than others, leading to overlapping
information in presentations. The overlapping was even more obvious when all presentations
were shared in front of the class.
Next, while step-by-step teaching is necessary, students should eventually be exposed to

different presentation styles, through which they can learn different strategies and skills. The
various responses to the whole-class presentations implied that more motivated or confident
students were willing to try various styles of presentations. When designing classroom
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Teaching Practice
assignments, teachers should consider students’ different preferences such as group

presentations as well as various future needs. Some students may not like speaking in front of a
large audience, but may want to practice it, and some may realize its value only after they
have the opportunity.
Finally, this study, as well as Shimo (2010), suggested that there may have been a discrepancy
between student and teacher interpretations of assessment criteria. To reduce the impact of
potentially low reliability in students’ self- and peer assessments in the final course grade of the
author’s classes, the self-evaluation portion was minimized and peer evaluation was not
included. This reliability issue should be investigated further in future studies. A small
suggestion for now is that in addition to the teacher simply explaining criteria to the students,
dialogues between the teacher and students, and between students, will be helpful (Orsmond
et al., 2000; Rust et al., 2003). When students understand what constitutes a successful result,
they can make the most of the learning situation.
Author Note
Etsuko Shimo, Faculty of Applied Sociology, Kinki University, Osaka, Japan.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Etsuko Shimo, Faculty of

Applied Sociology, Kinki University, Kowakae 3-4-1, Higashi Osaka City, Osaka, 557-8502,
Japan. Phone: 81-6-6721-2332 (main). E-mail: shimo@socio.kindai.ac.jp
Shimo - Page 234

References
Apple, M. (2011). The big five personality traits and foreign language speaking confidence
among Japanese EFL students (Doctoral dissertation). Available from Proquest
Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 3457819)
Brown, I., & Diem, R. (2009). Oral presentations reinvigorated: An alternative way to conduct
and assess student presentations. Studies in Language and Cultures, 24, 79-91.
Cheng, W., & Warren, M. (2005). Peer assessment of language proficiency. Language Testing
22(1), 93-121. http://dx.doi.org/10.1191/0265532205lt298oa
Horwitz, E. K., & Young, D. J. (1991). Language anxiety: From theory and research to
classroom implications. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Jacobs, G. M., Power, M. A., & Loh, W. I. (2002). The teacher’s sourcebook for cooperative
learning: Practical techniques, basic principles, and frequently asked questions. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
MacIntyre, P. D., & Gardner, R. C. (1989). Anxiety and second-language learning: Toward a
theoretical clarification. Language Learning, 39(2), 251-275.
Martinez, G. (2008). Oral presentations in the ESL classroom using a technique similar to speed
dating. The Internet TESL Journal, 14(1). Retrieved from
http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Martinez-OralPresentations.html
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (MEXT). (1999). Shin gakushu
shido yoryo [New courses of study]. Retrieved from
http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/shuppan/sonota/990301.htm
Nishino, T. (2009). Communicative language teaching in Japanese high schools: Teachers’
beliefs and classroom practices (Doctoral dissertation). Available from Proquest
Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 3371994)
Orsmond, P., Merry, S., & Reiling, K. (2000). The use of student derived marking criteria in
peer and self-assessment. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 25(1), 23-38.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02602930050025006
Otoshi, J., & Heffernen, N. (2008). Factors predicting effective oral presentations in EFL
classrooms. The Asian EFL Journal, 10(1), 65-78.
Rust, C., Price, M., & O’Donovan, B. (2003). Improving students’ learning by developing their
understanding of assessment criteria and processes. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher
Education, 28(2), 147-164. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02602930301671
Shimo, E. (2010). Eigo kyoshitsu ni okeru sho guruupu de no happyo no katsuyo [Small-group
presentation activities in English classes], Bulletin of Department of General Education,
Kinki University, 1(1), 133-149.
Young, D. J. (Ed.). (1999). Affect in foreign language and second language learning: A practical
guide to creating a low-anxiety classroom atmosphere. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
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Teaching Practice
Appendix
Questionnaire about Individual Presentations (Fall Semester)*
* This questionnaire was originally written in Japanese and was translated by the author for this paper.
1) In the fall semester, the presentation assignments included the following steps. Do you
think each step was helpful for your learning?
i. Presentations to two different partners in rehearsal
ii. Presentations to two different partners in the “final” stage
iii. Presentation in front of the whole class
1: I strongly disagree. 2: I somewhat disagree. 3: I disagree.

4: I agree. 5: I somewhat agree. 6: I strongly agree.
Do you think each step was helpful for your learning? Circle the appropriate number and
write reasons for your response.
i. Presentations to two different partners in rehearsal 1 2 3 4 5 6

Reasons for your response _____________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
ii. Presentations to two different partners in the “final” stage 1 2 3 4 5 6
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
iii. Presentation in front of the whole class 1 2 3 4 5 6
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2) What did you learn from the presentation assignments?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3) What did you find difficult in the presentations?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4) Write any opinions or suggestions you have about ways of conducting presentations.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Shimo - Page 236

Facilitating Interaction
in East Asian EFL Classrooms:
Increasing Studentsʼ
Willingness to Communicate 1
1
Scott Aubrey
Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University, Japan
Abstract
Research has pointed to specific classroom conditions that increase EFL
students’ willingness to communicate in English (WTC); these include group
cohesiveness, topic relevancy, and anxiety. Additionally, certain language-
learning attitudes, such as international posture and student acceptance of
communicative language teaching (CLT), have been shown to affect a student’s
WTC. This paper will explain how, by paying close consideration to these
variables, teachers in East Asian classrooms can promote their students’ WTC
and improve spoken interaction among their students.
Having deep linguistic knowledge is no longer a sufficient goal for EFL students; students must
strive for communicative competence in English as well. Because of this, it is imperative that
teachers not just provide opportunities for students to practice language skills in a
communicative way – they must also instill in students certain attributes that are conducive for
creating a communicative environment. Thus, one primary goal of language teachers should
be to increase their students’ willingness to communicate in English (WTC).
Key Concepts for Discussing Communicative Classrooms in the East Asian Context
Willingness to communicate in English. WTC, a fairly recent development in L2 instruction
theory, has been described as the probability that one will engage in communication when one
is free to do so (McCroskey & Baer, 1985). For a teacher to teach English communication
skills, students must possess a high WTC to be ready to participate in activities focusing on
“unpredictable” uses of language forms (Littlewood, 2007, p. 247). WTC in a first language is
mainly attributed to personality factors; however, WTC in L2 is considerably more
complicated. MacIntyre, Clément, Dörnyei, & Noels (1998) suggested a heuristic model that
accounts for L2 WTC behavior and proposed the following as possible influences: situated
antecedents, motivational propensities, affective-cognitive context, and social and individual
context. Research has indicated that many other situation-specific elements partially account
for L2 WTC as well; some include group cohesiveness, anxiety, and topic relevancy, all of
which could be important factors when teachers attempt to construct an ideal classroom
environment (Aubrey, 2010; Cao & Philp, 2006; De Saint Léger & Storch, 2009). By giving
careful consideration to influences on WTC, teachers can manipulate classroom conditions
and tap into students’ latent WTC to optimize student interaction.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Language Education in Asia, 2011, 2(2), 237-245. http://dx.doi.org/10.5746/LEiA/11/V2/I2/A06/Aubrey!
Aubrey - Page 237

Teaching Practice
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). In contrast to other language teaching approaches,

CLT emphasizes the importance of using an L2 for meaningful communication. CLT includes a
spectrum of activities which are based on “interaction between learners” rather than
individualistic approaches to learning (Richards, 2006, p. 2). Specific methodological
proposals, such as task-based teaching, have been gaining popularity. The intended outcome
of these methodologies is meaningful student-student interaction, which research has shown
creates learning opportunities and facilitates the second language acquisition process (Long,
1983; Pica, 1992). However, for CLT to be effectively implemented, students need to have
WTC.
International posture. International posture, an attitudinal construct suggested by Yashima

(2002), may be a specific factor influencing WTC among East Asian students. Yashima
described international posture as a positive orientation toward the international community,
or an “interest in foreign or international affairs, willingness to go overseas to stay or work,
readiness to interact with intercultural partners, and, one hopes, openness or a non-
ethnocentric attitude toward different cultures” (p. 57). Students who have a more positive
orientation toward the international world are more likely to be motivated to use English inside
and outside of class. Yashima concluded that “the path from international posture to WTC,
although not strong, was significant” (2002, p. 62). Results from a study by Aubrey (2010) also
indicated that “students who had an interest in international affairs and intercultural
communication tended to participate more in class” (p. 47).
East Asian students’ acceptance of CLT. In addition to international posture, the degree to
which methodologies associated with CLT are accepted by students is a particularly sensitive
variable for EFL students in East Asia. According to Wen and Clement (2003), the Chinese
educational culture changes the linguistic, communicative, and social variables that affect
students’ WTC in a Chinese setting. They argue that feelings of “belongingness,” “oneness,”
and “we-ness,” characteristic of in-group members, are essential for successful interaction in
the classroom (p. 26). In East Asia, CLT is sometimes considered to diverge from traditional
teacher-centered approaches that focus on transmitting information from teacher to student.
Audiolingualism, grammar-translation, and situational language teaching are some of the most
common methods used in China and Japan (Watkins, 2005). Researchers have argued that
CLT may pose a conflict between western educational values and East Asian traditional
education (Cortazzi & Jin, 1996; Hu, 2005) and that the view of language learning as a process
rather than learned content causes considerable difficulties (Samimy & Kobayashi, 2004).
However, arguments have been made to the contrary. According to Littlewood (2000), Asian
students want to “explore knowledge themselves . . . together with their fellow students” (p.
34). Additionally, Aubrey (2010) found that it was not enough for teachers to simply expose
students to a communicative learning environment; students needed to exhibit a higher
acceptance of CLT in order to be willing to speak in class. In regard to teaching practices for
East Asian EFL students, Aubrey (2010) also suggested that “for teachers who want more
interaction in their classroom, an attitude shift must take place on the part of students towards a
more positive view of CLT and a more “internationally oriented” approach to learning English”
(p. 47).
Ways to Increase Student Interaction

In the following sections, simple suggestions on how to increase interaction in the classroom
will be summarized. They are based on classroom implications of past WTC research and are
particularly important for teachers seeking ways to manage larger classrooms. Coleman (1989)
suggested that the barrier that larger classes have on participation could be overcome by a
Aubrey - Page 238

!
classroom approach that encourages interaction. Aubrey (2010) found empirical evidence to
suggest that interaction in larger classes can be increased substantially by focusing on ways to
facilitate student-student as opposed to teacher-student interaction. Group cohesiveness,
communication anxiety, topic relevancy, acceptance of CLT, and international posture are all
factors that can be easily manipulated by teachers to increase students’ WTC and student-
student interaction.
Group cohesiveness. Peer-group cohesiveness may be a unique situation-specific factor

influencing East Asian students’ WTC in class (Aubrey, 2010; Kim, 2010; Wen & Clement,
2003). To cultivate cohesiveness, a strong sense of trust between students must be established,
to the extent one might find in a family. Some key aspects of attaining this trust are outlined
below.
Using positive traits of students. Like a member of a family, a student in a cohesive classroom
must learn to value working with their group members more than working individually.
Students must come to understand their classmates’ positive traits, what they can contribute,
and how their individual characteristics can benefit the collective effort. Teachers can promote
this process by using some of these simple techniques:
1. Have students explicitly interview each other: “What are your strengths and weaknesses?”
“What makes you unique?” “How are you different from others?” etc.
2. Hold elections where students can vote on leadership positions before group tasks are
carried out.
3. After the completion of classroom language tasks, such as presentations or groups projects,
give students a small amount of time to reflect on how each student contributed and in what
aspect each student excelled. This reflection time could take the form of a small group
discussion or a written peer evaluation.
4. Keep records of feedback on individual students. If students are comfortable with each
other, ask permission from students to display their positive feedback on a wall chart for all
students to view. Use this to inform your choice of classroom seating, pairing students, or
group project membership.
Facilitating an awareness of individual positive traits acts as a validation process, whereby each
student’s being part of the “in group” (i.e., class membership) is justified.
Personalizing student connections. Some students may be shy and might not put themselves
in a position to get to know every student in the class; therefore, the teacher may want to
facilitate connectedness among class members in the ways listed below:
1. Enable student-student networking by compiling a list of student email addresses and

handing them out to all students in class. Students could voluntarily submit their emails to
the class list if the teacher foresees student privacy problems.
2. Have students organize birthday events, off-campus meetings, or holiday celebrations.
3. Have students rely on each other for task and course information. For example, the teacher
could email homework to only half the class; the other half would have to contact their
peers in order to obtain the required homework instructions.
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Teaching Practice
Making student networking a key component of every class will increase group cohesiveness
and improve students’ WTC.
Communication anxiety. L2 anxiety often stems from a fear of exposure or risk of being judged
by peers who may notice imperfections (Aubrey, 2010; De Saint Léger & Storch, 2009; Donato
& McCormick, 1994; Young, 1990). To lower anxiety and increase students’ WTC, teachers
may want to limit the amount of forced exposure imparted on a student. Decreasing students’
perceived imperfections in language production will most likely increase their WTC. To
increase a student’s confidence in this way, it is necessary for teachers to adjust their approach
in eliciting student participation, as the following suggestions propose:
1. Allow plenty of time for students to prepare an answer. It is tempting to single out students
by name and elicit spontaneous responses to questions, but this can be a stressful
experience for students.
2. Write questions on the board and divide students into groups to discuss possible answers
among themselves. Without forcing students to expose their answers to the whole class, the
teacher can walk around, listen to discussions, give positive feedback, and encourage group
members to share good answers with the class.
By following these techniques, teachers are both encouraging students to voluntarily

participate and eliciting valuable student-student interaction. This results in richer, more
accurate student responses.
Topic relevancy. Making the lesson topic interesting and personally relevant to students has
been shown to enhance students’ WTC (Aubrey, 2010). Students who do not have an interest
in the lesson content may not participate. Even if the required curriculum is rigid, there are at
least two approaches to increasing topic relevance that can be used to build WTC.
Knowledge of student interests. Knowing the interests of students can be a powerful teaching
tool. It makes lessons interesting and can harness a student’s latent WTC. Below are some
suggestions for achieving this:
1. Administer a short questionnaire that surveys students’ hobbies, dreams, goals, and general
interests.
2. Adjust how lessons are presented based on this knowledge. Use language in the context of
students’ interests and prepare debates, tasks, or other activities that will elicit WTC based
on topic interest.
3. Incorporate topics into lessons with the purpose of making English immediately useful for
students and eliminate, when possible, irrelevant topics. For example, activities could be
based on popular American TV shows or movies.
Students are more likely to participate freely in English if they are absorbed in the content.
Giving students some content control. For teachers who have a degree of control over the
content of their courses, and to aid the transition to a more learner-centered classroom, having
students choose what and how they learn can maximize lesson relevancy. Some possible
strategies follow:
Aubrey - Page 240

!
1. Preview textbook chapters or the course curriculum. Have students vote on which parts to
omit or include.
2. Give students a choice. Make lists of writing topics, speaking tasks, and authentic listening
or readings. Have students choose which they find most stimulating.
3. Be flexible with the skills taught in class. Obtain input from students on how much time
should be spent on writing, listening, speaking, or reading.
4. Assign a class leadership position to a different student each week. The student leader can
be responsible for making day-to-day content decisions along with the teacher.
Relinquishing complete control may not be wise. Many students may be unaware of what they
need to learn, so asking “What do you want to learn today?” may not be a suitable approach.
However, by giving students choices, teachers remain in control while letting students begin to
more confidently exercise their right to choose what they learn.
Acceptance of CLT. Task-based teaching and other popular pedagogical proposals that fall
under the umbrella of CLT are useful in that they promote classroom interaction. However,
interaction can only happen if students consider this learning environment beneficial. Past
research (Aubrey, 2010; Littlewood, 2000) has indicated that Asian students respond positively
to CLT under certain conditions. Of particular interest to teachers is the finding that having a
more “positive attitude towards CLT is essential for producing an ideal classroom situation”
(Aubrey, 2010, p. 42).
“Selling” CLT. To give students a positive orientation toward the CLT approach, teachers need
to try to “sell” their CLT methodology to students from the first day of class. Just as language-
learning researchers need to provide evidence to teachers of how language is acquired (in the
form of peer-reviewed journal articles), teachers should articulate their approach in the
classroom and show how it is beneficial. Some possible approaches follow:
1. Explicitly communicate to students what CLT is and how it will be used in the classroom.
2. Give examples of CLT-type tasks and activities that will be used in the course.
3. Explain why CLT is being used. Highlight potential benefits.
4. Use simple empirical or anecdotal evidence to support the choice of CLT. For example,
show students results of action research or case studies that illustrate how former students
showed a positive attitude toward this teaching approach and, as a result, improved their
language skills.
5. Emphasize that for CLT to work, there needs to be voluntary student participation.
Teachers can facilitate an attitude change towards a more positive acceptance of CLT by
making it clear that participation is a proven path to language learning success and that this is
most easily achieved through communicative activities that involve other students.
Instilling an international posture. MacIntyre (2007) states that “the major motivation to learn
another language is to develop a communicative relationship with people from another
cultural group” (p. 569). Evidence has clearly been provided to support this claim, particularly
results which suggest a significant positive correlation between international posture and WTC
(Aubrey, 2010; Yashima, 2002, 2004). If students who are more internationally oriented are
Aubrey - Page 241

Teaching Practice
more willing to interact in class using English, then international posture is clearly something
EFL teachers need to instill in their students. Some possible approaches follow.
Making use of international students. To interest students in the world of English, one
suggestion is to make use of international students at the same institution. The Contact
Hypothesis states that there is reduced prejudice and hostility when two segregated groups
come into contact with each other (Pettigrew, 2007). In other words, EFL students will take on
a more positive attitude toward the international community if they come into regular contact
with international students. Teachers can facilitate this by using the techniques below:
1. Have international English-speaking students speak to the class about their home culture.
2. Have students find and interview international students outside of class and use their
interview data in class projects.
3. Make use of virtual international communities. Social networking sites, such as Facebook,
can provide virtual intercultural interaction, which is especially useful if the local
international-student community is limited.
Meaningful exposure to international students is a valuable way of connecting English to the

world outside of students’ immediate non-English speaking community.
Instilling global awareness. “A global cultural awareness is the missing link connecting basic
English competence and fluent intercultural communication” (Aubrey, 2009, p. 130). Teachers
can adjust teaching practices in the following ways with the goal of instilling in their students a
global awareness:
1. Implicitly incorporate culture into the classroom by carefully selecting texts written by
authors from a variety of English-speaking cultures. Moreover, these reading texts can be
used by the teacher as segues into critical reading exercises focusing on learning and
understanding different cultures.
2. Dispel cultural stereotypes. Nowlan (2009) suggests “having students develop a list of
stereotypes one group of people may have of another, then having students identify
exceptions and falsehoods of each stereotype” (p. 150).
3. Explicitly incorporate culture by including topics such as nonverbal communication,
individualism / collectivism, and high / popular culture into the course.
4. Use current international events as a focus of discussion in class. Political or human-interest
news stories can be used in class with other materials or on their own.
Raising the global cultural awareness of students can lead to an increase in international
posture, which in turn, may ignite a motivation to speak English.
Conclusion
Kang (2005, p. 291) points out that teachers should “provide the factors facilitating WTC as
much as possible, instead of focusing on one factor at the expense of other facilitating factors.”
In response to this, this paper has made some suggestions on how to capitalize on some of the
most pertinent factors leading to classroom interaction. To conclude, traits of a high-WTC
student will be summarized.
Aubrey - Page 242

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According to past research and in line with the teaching suggestions above, to be a meaningful
participant in a large EFL classroom, a student must: (1) be ready to interact with other
students, because it is believed that individual linguistic knowledge can be shared and
collectivistic knowledge will be increased by doing so; (2) have low anxiety when interacting
with peers, either because there is a high level of trust between all students or because the
teacher rarely puts the student in a vulnerable position where mistakes are being exposed; (3)
find the lesson topic personally relevant and tasks engaging; (4) understand the teacher’s
classroom philosophy and believe that the ensuing methodology is ultimately beneficial for
language learning; and (5) have an interest in international people, travel, and issues, along
with a desire to be an active member of the global community. By being mindful of the
teaching practices outlined in this paper, teachers can realistically and practically cultivate the
above attributes in their students.
Author Note
Scott Aubrey, Center for Language Education, Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University, Japan.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Scott Aubrey. Email:

scaubrey@apu.ac.jp
Aubrey - Page 243

Teaching Practice
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Teaching Practice
Impact of an Out-of-class Activity

on Studentsʼ English Awareness,
Vocabulary, and Autonomy 1
Siao-cing Guo
National Taipei College of Business, Taiwan
Abstract
Students in non-English speaking countries may be under the impression that
they lack access to an authentic English environment. Outside the classroom,
most students are immersed in a first-language environment with limited
exposure to English. Out-of-class activities can be devised to show students
that they are surrounded by English if they make a little effort to pay attention to
the language as it is used in their daily lives. In this study, students were asked
to observe and take notes on written English on display. In class, students
discussed and analyzed the correctness and appropriateness of the English
usage they had observed. A quantitative methodology was adopted to
investigate the scale of students’ language awareness before and after the
activity. The results showed that this activity expanded students’ awareness of
the English language available to them outside the classroom and added to the
degree of students’ autonomy in learning.
The context in which learning takes place makes a vital contribution to the success of learning;
this is true in particular for language acquisition. Countries in which English is not a primary
language often lack an authentic English environment. In such countries, in-class instruction
may be the only contact students have with English. Once students leave the classroom, they
are totally immersed in their own first-language environment, which seems to offer little
exposure to English materials and few chances to see or use English in real settings. Because
sole reliance on classroom instruction is far from sufficient for EFL learners to practice the
target language (Xiao & Luo, 2009), more effort needs to be made to increase opportunities for
these students to encounter English.
Recent reports indicate that for past three years, the English proficiency of students in Taiwan
has continued to fall behind that of students in neighboring countries (Educational Testing
Service, 2010; Hsieh & Chu, 2006). To address that problem in an immediate way, this author
suggests that teachers and students make better use of the authentic English resources that exist
at the neighborhood level. These readily available resources could serve as an impetus for
language growth. For that purpose, the author created the English Detective Activity. The
challenge offered by the activity was to make students aware of the presence of English in their
immediate environment and its usefulness in improving their mastery of that language.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Language Education in Asia, 2011, 2(2), 246-256. http://dx.doi.org/10.5746/LEiA/11/V2/I2/A07/Guo!
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This paper describes the out-of-class activity, as it has been incorporated in a study intended to
demonstrate its beneficial effects.
Literature Review
Research on Out-of-Class Learning
Most English classroom instruction and activities in Taiwan adopt textbooks or pre-selected
materials. While these materials provide valuable information to learners, students seem to
have little interest in them. Textbooks often fail to achieve a meaningful level of involvement
on the part of the learners; learning need not be confined to the classroom with set textbooks
and practice (Griffiths & Keohane, 2000). Students need to develop the ability to acquire
information that is available both inside and outside the classroom context (Field, 2007). In-
school learning tends to be symbol-based, while out-of-school learning is more directly
connected to events and objects in the physical worlds, with the result that learning well in
schools is not sufficient preparation for functioning well outside of school (Resnick, 1987).
Hyland agrees: “[Language learning] can take place at any time and in any place, including the
home and the community” (2004, p. 180). In a study by Nunan (1989), a majority of students
found classroom instruction itself to be insufficient for the development of English competence;
on the other hand, engagement in outside classroom learning enhanced their language
development, demonstrating the need to incorporate activities outside the classroom for greater
learning success.
Correlations are found between out-of-class experiences and educational gains among
university students; these gains include complexity of cognition such as critical thinking and
intellectual flexibility, growth in knowledge acquisition and application, humanitarianism,
interpersonal and intrapersonal competence, and practical competence (Kuh, Douglas, Lund,
& Ramin-Gyurnek, 1994). Out-of-class activities can also foster language acquisition among
EFL learners. Hyland (2004) noted significant out-of-class learning of English based on a study
with 208 student teachers and 20 primary teachers in Hong Kong. Successful language
learners were found to engage in various English activities outside the classroom. The
immense benefits of out-of-class activities should lead institutions to use available resources to
create opportunities inside and outside of school to accelerate students’ learning.
Benefits of Out-of-Class Projects

Out-of-class project work addresses multiple needs and interests of students and creates a
variety of authentic English language inputs (Bas, 2008; Hillyard, Reppen, & Vasquez, 2007).
Project Work (Fried-Booth, 2002) presents various project activities on different scales. Some
can be carried out within one class period; some require weeks. The adoption of project work
“[encourages] students to move out of the classroom and into the world” and “helps to bridge
the gap between language study and language use” (2002, p. 7). Project-based learning allows
teachers and students to move beyond the limitations of a traditional English curriculum (Foss,
Carney, McDonald, & Rooks, 2007). Engaging students in out-of-class projects offers the
significant benefit of expanding the student learning environment. Realizing that their normal
surroundings and activities offer meaningful opportunities to learn English is likely to spark
interest and increase motivation to learn. Out-of-class activities are also linked with real life
applications; this connection is key to fostering more authentic language usage and autonomy
(Pearson, 2004).
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Teaching Practice
Fostering Learner Autonomy

Learner autonomy was first defined as “the ability to take charge of one’s learning” (Holec,
1981, cited by Hui, 2010). According to Dam (1995), autonomous learners choose their own
goals, time, materials, methods, and tasks, implement their choices, and then evaluate their
actions. In an examination of the concept, Little (2007) revealed that the term derives from
learner-centered theories within constructivist epistemologies; it is also referred to as
“independent learning.” He further specified (2009) that autonomous learners take the
initiative in carrying out actions. As a result, they feel more competent in the things they do.
Furthermore, this form of learning enhances learner maturity because it develops critical
reflection, decision making, and independent action.
According to the above definitions, autonomous learning does not merely require conscious
moves, but also metacognitive strategies such as planning, organizing, and reflecting on
language learning. Some researchers speak of learning autonomy as a complex process that
also involves affective and social factors such as learners’ attitudes toward the target language
and learning (Thanasoulas, 2000) and may even include a political aspect in that it allows
students to take greater control of their lives and added freedom of choice (Reinders, 2010).
Difficulties in Out-of-Class Activities

Many college students in Taiwan demonstrate low motivation in school learning and are not
likely to seek out learning on their own (Guo, 2011), but Little (2009) emphasized that if
learners become more autonomous in language learning, their language use will escalate. If
students are not motivated and do not take the initiative for self-learning, the teacher can
facilitate the learning process by setting up a task with directions that will enable them to attain
learning goals. In activity-based learning, the roles and responsibilities of the teacher and
students are different from traditional instruction-based learning (Mathews-Aydinli, 2007). The
teacher will act as a coach or a facilitator rather than an information deliverer, and students
have to take a more active role when they cannot turn to immediate aid from the teacher.
However, the teacher is not free of responsibility while students are engaged in out-of-class
work. Instead, the teacher needs to provide students with assistance in acquiring the necessary
materials and approaches to accomplish the task goal. This kind of learner-centered learning
may be easier in theory than in practice.
EFL teachers often doubt the feasibility of out-of- class activities. Little (2009) attributed these
concerns to three problems: (1) a lack of an adequate English environment, (2) a lack of know-
how for carrying out the task, and (3) the rigidity of the established curriculum, schedule,
textbook, or exams. A shift of responsibility toward learners and an adoption of new classroom
practices require changes in teachers’ perspectives and commitment (Thanasoulas, 2000). The
easily implemented out-of-class activity described in this study does not interfere with regular
teaching. In the following sections, the author describes the design and implementation of the
activity as well as its impact on students’ language awareness through a quantitative
methodology.
Origin of Activity
The idea for the English Detective Activity emerged as an expansion of the Passport Activity
previously devised by the author. The Passport Activity encouraged students to visit sites both
on and off campus where English was used. Some of the sites were preselected, and some
were selected by the students. Students asked the site supervisors for a signature to confirm
their findings. The activity was successful in significantly increasing students’ awareness of
English expressions used in locations around them.
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English Detective Activity
Following the Passport Activity, the author created the more intensive English Detective
Activity, which requires students to collect examples and then evaluate language usage in real-
life settings.
At the beginning of the semester, the author outlined the purpose of the activity to the students
and provided guidelines. Students were to take on the role of English detectives, inspecting
English usage in real-life contexts. They were required to go outside the classroom in search of
objects and places where English words were used. They were informed that they would
actually see English signs or words on the street or on products they used every day if they paid
attention. To motivate them to participate, students were told they could choose the times and
places they preferred and make the event a social excursion with friends so as to create an
adventure in language. Students were instructed to take notes on the English expressions and
the translations they observed. It was recommended that when possible they photograph the
English text as evidence to use in their written report.
Guidelines for the English Detective Activity:

a) Students could work individually, in pairs, or in small groups. Pairs or groups would have
to collect more language data.
b) Students could visit places on campus and other places of their choice to find English
words and expressions. Students were to write down English words or phrases and / or
their translation if the meaning or usage was ambiguous or incorrect. Students could also
note interesting expressions for self-learning or to share with the class.
c) Students visiting businesses or agencies outside of school should explain the purpose of
the activity to the staff there to prevent misunderstandings caused by the students copying
down information or taking photos.
d) Each student needed to collect at least ten English words / phrases / expressions; however,
the more, the better.
e) After collecting the language data, students were to examine the usage and analyze
possible errors. Students could help each other with error analysis.
f) Students were to compile the language data and create an analysis report. The written
report would then be emailed to the teacher by the given deadline.
In the study, students analyzed the English examples for errors in spelling, grammar (tense,
word form), mechanics, and syntax. Prior to the activity, an analysis of sample data had been
presented so that students understood what was expected of them. The students submitted a
written report and the author compiled the student data to present in class. The whole class
then discussed the correctness and appropriateness of the usage and translation of the
examples. In terms of the presentation format, teachers who use this project can have students
present the information either orally or in writing. The author has tried both approaches,
which were equally effective.
Teachers can modify this kind of out-of-class activity based on the level of their students.
Advanced students can be required to correct the problems they perceive. For lower-level
students, it is advisable to limit the activity to collecting English vocabulary and usage because
of the students’ limitations in language analysis. Teachers can modify the activity to work on
idioms, word collocations, syntax, or semantics.
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Teaching Practice
Methodology
The present study intended to investigate the effect of the out-of-class English Detective Activity
on students’ language awareness in an EFL learning environment. It incorporates students’
voices, because students’ feedback is perceived as an important source in determining how an
activity or a program is to be run (Hsieh & Chu, 2006). The study considered the following
questions:
1. To what degree did students pay attention to English signs and usage outside of class in real
life?
2. Did students’ awareness of English used in their living environment outside of class
increase after the English Detective Activity?
3. Did students’ self-perceived language ability increase after the English Detective Activity?
Instruments
In-class surveys can serve as a base for instruction decisions and provide feedback to teachers
for improvement (Davies, 2006). In order to investigate the degree of students’ language
awareness before and after the English Detective Activity, a twelve-item questionnaire was
administered both before and after the activity. Seven questions probed the degree to which
students paid attention to English used in real-life settings, and five questions examined
students’ attitudes toward language awareness and instruction, including practical usages.
Participants and Procedures

A total of ninety English major students in fourth-year study at a five-year junior college in
northern Taiwan participated in this study in 2010. The students were the equivalent of
freshmen at a general university. The five-year junior college system offers studies with a
practical focus on professional skills. To enter this system, students must graduate from junior
high school and pass a national entrance exam (Ministry of Education, 2010).
At the beginning of the semester, the author assigned the English Detective Activity and
administered the pre-activity questionnaire. Students then had about three months to complete
the project by visiting places on and off campus to gather vocabulary, interesting expressions,
and translations in real settings. Three months later, the post-activity questionnaire was given,
with 88 returned. The final notes on language data were also collected.
The questionnaire was checked by two English teachers for face validity. The Cronbach’s
alpha coefficient was 0.89, which showed that the items on the questionnaire had a high
internal reliability consistency. A paired samples t-test was computed to determine the
statistical significance before and after the experiment.
Results and Discussion

Studentsʼ Attention to English Signs and Usage Outside of Class
The study results showed that prior to the activity, students paid very little attention to the
English used in their daily lives. When asked about the English signs and usage on campus, the
majority, 53.3% of students, rarely or never paid attention to them, 34.4% sometimes did, and
only 12.2% often did. As for English on products they used daily, 45.6% rarely or never paid
attention and 40% sometimes did, while only 14.4% did so often or very often. With
restaurant menus, however, the percentages were reversed; 35.5% of students paid attention to
the English usage on menus, 44.4% sometimes, and only 20% rarely or never.
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Studentsʼ Awareness of English in Their Living Environment After the Activity
After the activity, the level of students’ attention changed dramatically in regard to awareness
of English usage on campus, on daily products that they used, on street signs, on store
merchandise, and on restaurant menus. The survey results before and after the experiment
showed a statistical significance (.000) in the above-mentioned areas (see Table 1). Regarding
students’ attention to the translations of English expressions used in real settings, the results still
illustrated a significant difference (.010) prior to and following the activity.
Table 1
Results of the Paired Sample t-test on Studentsʼ Language Awareness Pre- and Post-Activity
Means Means Sig.
Std. Dev. T
Pre-test Post-test (2- tailed)
Daily products 2.66 3.53 0.98 -8.08 .000
School signs 2.48 3.41 0.90 -9.63 .000
Street signs 2.70 3.67 1.00 -8.76 .000
Store signs 2.64 3.61 1.00 -8.82 .000
Store items 2.44 3.47 0.95 -9.65 .000
Restaurants 3.16 3.74 0.96 -5.58 .000
Translation 2.80 3.11 1.10 -2.60 .010
Note. N = 88.
p < .05.
Studentsʼ Self-Perceived Language Ability After the Activity

In response to the self-rated items on language gain in vocabulary, translation skills, and
overall language ability, many students strongly agreed that the English Detective Activity could
increase their vocabulary size. They also believed that the activity improved their general
English ability and translation skills (see Table 2).
Table 2
Results of the Paired Sample t-test on Studentsʼ Self-Rated Skills Pre- and Post-Activity
Means Means Sig.
Std. Dev. T
Vocabulary 3.47 3.67 0.71 -2.69 0.01
General ability 3.45 3.63 0.73 -5.00 0.01
Translation 3.26 3.47 0.71 -2.60 0.03
Note. N = 88.
p < .05.
As for whether school courses included practical English usage, the mean was not as high (see
Table 3). According to the survey results, students thought that teachers should teach more
practical English usage in class. While teachers may be required to adhere to a class syllabus
and materials that are both limited and rigid, they could find ways to incorporate more
authentic materials into their classroom teaching and create a learning environment that
cultivates autonomous learning.
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Teaching Practice
Table 3
Results of the Paired Sample t-test on Studentsʼ Opinions Pre- and Post-Activity
Means Means Sig.
Std. Dev. T
Practical usage
included in 3.30 3.41 0.80 -1.30 0.19
instruction
Need for
incorporating
4.07 4.05 0.54 0.39 0.67
practical English
usage
Note. N = 88.
p < .05.
Difficulties for the Activity

Although this study exhibited positive results, some problems emerged. The purpose of the
activity is to increase students’ awareness of and contact with English; it is not meant to
encourage competition. The author first assigned the activity as a co-curricular activity for
extra credit. Although provided with incentives such as extra credit and prizes, students
showed very little motivation to do the activity because it was not part of the formal
curriculum. As a result, the activity was changed to a course requirement. Constant reminders
and a collection of drafts midway through the project were necessary to assure that students
remained on task. Moreover, with this activity, it is possible that some students might attempt
to benefit from the effort of others without taking their own notes and it might be difficult for
teachers to verify the authenticity of students’ data. As in the completed study, indications are
that most students will be honest and do their own work. Teachers could show or post
students’ findings to honor their work so that students feel their effort is worthwhile. Students’
commitment to outside classroom work varies (Gibbs, 1999; Pearson, 2004), but those with a
low level of commitment should not deter teachers from creating learning tasks outside of
class. For students who are more teacher-dependent and are used to being spoon-fed
information, more encouragement and impetus may be necessary for them to embark on a
language quest.
Conclusion
The out-of-class activity is intended to help students realize that although they are not in an
English-speaking environment, they are still surrounded by English. The present study
demonstrates that this activity encourages students to expand their language experience to
outside the classroom by making them aware of existing and available English language
opportunities in their surroundings. Instead of presenting only formulaic English in textbooks,
an out-of-class activity can increase students’ exposure to English in existing and familiar
contexts. In addition to providing authentic language exposure, the English Detective Activity
can draw students into a discussion of the appropriateness of language usage and translation.
Their conscious attention to English usage in the real world can also increase students’
language ability and, in particular, improve their vocabulary.
This study shows the potential value of incorporating out-of-class activities for enriched
learning outside of school and for autonomous learning. Non-English speaking countries such
as China, Japan, and Vietnam are witnessing an increasing need for international
communication and collaboration and have recognized the impact of English as a universal
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be more incorporation of English in the environment. However, it cannot be assumed that
students will automatically absorb the English displayed in their environment. Institutions need
to “[transcend] the artificial boundaries of in-class and out-of-class learning experiences” and
provide ample opportunities for learning outside of classrooms (Kuh, Douglas, Lund, & Ramin-
Gyurnek, 1994). Thus, it is worthwhile for educators in similar EFL environments to implement
this purposeful out-of-class activity as a means of promoting English language awareness and
enhancing the learning of English in their local contexts.
Author Note
Siao-cing Guo, Department of Applied Foreign Languages, National Taipei College of Business.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Siao-cing Guo, Department of

Applied Foreign Languages, National Taipei College of Business, No. 321, Sec. 1, Jinan Road,
Zhongzheng District, Taipei City 100, Taiwan (R. O. C.). E-mail: ching.chu@gmail.com
Guo - Page 253

Teaching Practice
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Mathews-Aydinli, J. (2007, April). Problem-based learning and adult English language learners.
CAELA Brief, 1- 7. Available at http://www.cal.org/caela/esl_resources/briefs/Problem-
based.pdf
Ministry of Education. (2010). An education overview. Retrieved from
http://english.moe.gov.tw/ct.asp?xItem=4133&CtNode=2003&mp=2
Nunan, D. (1989). Understanding language classrooms. New York, NY: Prentice Hall.
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Pearson, N. (2004). The idiosyncrasies of out-of-class language learning: A study of mainland
Chinese students studying English at tertiary level in New Zealand. Proceedings of the
Independent Learning Conference, 2003. Available from
www.independentlearning.org/ila03/ila03_pearson.pdf
Reinders, H. (2010). Towards a classroom pedagogy for learner autonomy: A framework of
independent language learning skills. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 35(5),
40-55.
Resnick, L. (1987). The 1987 presidential address: Learning in school and out. Educational
Researcher, 16(9), 13-20. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1175725
Thanasoulas, D. (2000). What is learner autonomy and how can it be fostered? The Internet
Journal, 6(11). Retrieved from http://iteslj.org/Articles/Thanasoulas-Autonomy.html
Ton, H., & Pham, H. H. (2010). Vietnamese teachers’ and students’ perceptions of global
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http://dx.doi.org/10.5746/LEiA/10/V1/A05/Ton_Pham
Torikai, K. (2005). The challenge of language and communication in twenty-first century Japan.
Japanese Studies, 25(3), 249-256. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10371390500342733
Xiao, L., & Luo, M. (2009). English co-curricular activities: A gateway to developing
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pdf
Yoshikawa, H. (2005). Recognition of world Englishes: Changes in Chukyo University students’
attitudes. World Englishes, 24(3), 351-360. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0083-
2919.2005.00416.x
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Teaching Practice
Appendix
Studentsʼ Language Data Samples
LADIE’S SHOSE !LADIES’ SHOES PROFSSIONAL!PROFESSIONAL

PRESCRIPTIPN!PRESCRIPTION
FIRE CHICKEN !FRIED CHICKEN EASY TO ASSEMBLY!

EASY TO ASSEMBLE
What woman want ! Record image to win to ask to smile !

What women want Smile, you are on camera
Guo - Page 256

Do Context-Rich Lessons Improve Learnersʼ

Listening Comprehension Performance? 1
Nick Morley
Astana, Kazakhstan
Abstract
This action research project explores whether context-rich lessons produce
better listening comprehension results than context-poor lessons. Video clips
and professional quality images improved contextual support to scaffold
listening comprehension. Listening segments were adapted from a podcasting
site. Fifteen upper intermediate Asian learners participated by completing a
pre-study listening skills questionnaire and participating in two context-rich and
two context-poor lessons featuring listening texts and comprehension gap-fills.
Post-listening questionnaires provided learners’ evaluations of their listening
experience. A post-project questionnaire surveyed impressions of the two
lesson types. Outcomes from context-rich lessons were compared with context-
poor lessons by correlating learners’ post-listening questionnaires with listening
comprehension scores to assess whether their reflections matched performance.
Results showed listening comprehension scores were higher for context-rich
lessons and that learners preferred this approach.
The Research Aims

The project aimed to explore practical values of richly contextualised lesson resources and
whether they improved listening comprehension. An additional consideration was how the
learners responded to context-rich materials.
Why the Problem is Important

From a pedagogical perspective it would be helpful to clarify effects of context-rich lead in
segments to listening comprehension, the perceptions of learners and the potential trade-off in
lesson preparation time and effective teaching. Providing appropriate scaffolding and engaging
materials are included under effective teaching.
The Context
The participants were a group of fifteen upper intermediate students, two Korean and thirteen
Thai nationals aged between fourteen and fifteen. Their course book was adequate, but
grammar based and not particularly engaging. Learners were surveyed for a range of topics
they would be interested in studying in English, incorporating language points from their
course book. Making listening challenging and enjoyable has been problematic, which led to
using web-based materials from video broadcasting sites (e.g., http://www.youtube.com),
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Language Education in Asia, 2011, 2(2), 257-267. http://dx.doi.org/10.5746/LEiA/11/V2/I2/A08/Morley!
Morley - Page 257

Teaching Practice
podcasting sites (e.g., http://www.breakingnewsenglish.com), and stock photography sites (e.g.,

http://www.corbisimages.com).
Literature Relating to Context

Support for Enhancing Contextual Richness
Brown (1986) argued that materials writers and teachers mistakenly assume when learners of
English experience difficulties with listening input these difficulties arise from language deficits
which “. . . would arise even if he or she were presented with the same material in the mother
tongue” (p. 284). It is the presentation of material that concerns this project. In lessons for
listening texts, spending an initial period on pre-listening activities relating to context and
emphasising the relationship between noticing language and its subsequent emergence in
speech facilitates noticing. If supported by familiar or well-contextualised materials, cognitive
processing loads placed on learners are reduced (Richards, 2005, p. 87).
Context is central to cognitive processing and activating schemata (background knowledge).

Anderson and Lynch (1988) proposed a psychological model of listeners as limited processors
with finite input processing capacities. With this model highlighting listener limitations,
implications for establishing a supportive pre-listening context are clear. More cognitive
capacity being used for interpreting context means less capacity remains available for noticing
language. This aspect of noticing is relevant as learners are increasingly asked to notice
language in natural texts rather than explicitly focusing on language points. To address this,
Cameron (2001) suggested using familiar stories that provide context and reduce processing
demands as familiarity with plot and characters enables learners to spend more time on
noticing aspects of language.
Therefore, enhanced context may help learners achieve more, which supports Bruner’s
concept of scaffolding. Apart from facilitating noticing language, spending an appropriate time
establishing context helps students listen more naturally. Underwood’s (1989) position on
teaching without establishing context is that going directly into a listening text deprives learners
of opportunities to use their natural listening skills, as listeners ordinarily match what they hear
with their prior experiences or expectations.
Participants in this project are learning English through a variety of topics and specific cultural
settings, such as “Festivals” which includes bull running in Spain. These Asian learners have
no prior experience of this aspect of festivals. This type of contextual culture gap is an ongoing
issue in Asia as learners predominantly use Eurocentric course materials. This view is
supported by Anderson and Lynch (1988), who state that it is often not linguistic ability holding
learners back, but lack of prior experience or contextual knowledge. Rost (1994) further
supports allocating time to context building; this is especially relevant to young learners and
cross-cultural factors. In regard to bridging inferences, the author suggests that listeners usually
rely on experience of similar circumstances to guide them and tend to assume that any missing
information will closely resemble the normal state of affairs. As this tendency is based on life
experience, young learners are disadvantaged due to having less broad life experiences to
support making bridging inferences and are likely to benefit from contextual support.
Arguments Challenging the Use of Contextual Support

Evidence relating to enhancing context is not all supportive. When discussing the effects of
supportive visuals in language testing, Grinther (2002) questions whether positive effects on
performance are related to language proficiency. Proficiency is relevant because the most
noticeable improvements have occurred with lower level learners. This difference in
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performance between learner levels suggests other cognitive factors are involved when
additional contextual support is introduced. For example, individuals who are not skilled at
generating mental images will benefit more from visual aids. However, those well versed in
this skill tend to show signs of reduced listening performance, which could be due to visual
interference. The author also suggests learners with low levels of spatial ability find holding
and processing images in memory problematic. Therefore, this strategy might be best applied
with individual learners who have lower spatial abilities and are experiencing difficulties.
Additional processing load could be created unintentionally by presenting text and images
together. Combining text and images can cause this additional workload, because attention
then has to be split between the two modalities. Subsequently, images with accompanying
visual presentation of a text can overload visual attention and impair performance. An
example would be reading the news captions on CNN while trying to listen to the newsreader.
Methodology
Data collection was undertaken by administering questionnaires eliciting learners’ opinions on
their listening skills and delivering four lessons that generated comparative data.
Four Lessons
Lessons 1 and 3 were context-rich, and Lessons 2 and 4 were context-poor. All lessons
featured listening passages from Breaking News English (http://www.breakingnewsenglish.com)
and accompanying comprehension gap-fill exercises. Follow-up questionnaires on the
listening experience were administered immediately after the listening comprehension
exercises. Listening comprehension scores were collated and a post-study questionnaire
administered to explore attitudes to context-rich and context-poor lessons. The lessons appear
in order of presentation.
Lesson 1 - Context-Rich: Cartoons. A forty-minute topic lead-in culminated in the listening

text. Learners brainstormed cartoon characters, discussed cartoons and ideas for using them in
education, viewed celebrities talking about favourite cartoons, and watched a clip of Wallace
& Gromit before moving on to the listening. From this stage, materials were presented
consistently across the lesson series the following stages: presenting the news headline, true or
false prediction about the listening content based on the headline, listening with
accompanying comprehension gap-fill played twice after which learners completed post-
listening questionnaires.
Lesson 2 - Context-Poor: Celebrities. A very brief lead in was used via the headline “Paris
Hilton Returns to Jail” with a short true or false prediction exercise. Learners listened to the
text twice while completing the accompanying comprehension gap-fill. The post listening
questionnaire was completed.
Lesson 3 - Context-Rich: Love. This lesson followed the same outline as context-rich Lesson 1.
Lesson 4 - Context-Poor: Festivals. Lesson 4, on the Carnival in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,

followed the same pattern as context-poor Lesson 2. As this was the final lesson in the series,
the post-study questionnaire was given while the experience was still fresh.
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Teaching Practice
Triangulation and Criterion Referencing

The project utilised triangulation, suggested by Cohen, Manion, & Morrison (2000), by
focusing on data from a variety of perspectives, ranging from qualitative evidence from
learners’ ideas about their listening skills, their impressions of how the listening part of the
lesson worked for them, to a post-study questionnaire asking for reflection on the lessons and
materials. Quantitative data was collected from listening comprehension gap-fill scores and
collated to explore differences in performance between context-rich and context-poor lessons.
Criterion referencing was used; referencing focuses on individual learning progress and
improvement (Cohen et al., 2000). Therefore, comparison between participants was not
considered, as the intention was to describe how individual learners responded to controlled
changes in contextual support.
Results
Learnersʼ Perceptions of Listening Abilities
Table 1 below shows the learners’ rating of aspects of listening (1 = strongly disagree, 2 =
disagree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree), with the majority rating
themselves at 3 and above. Importantly for this study, fifty percent selected 4 (agree) on the
item, “If I don’t know about the topic, listening is more difficult.”
Table 1
Pre-Research Listening Skills Survey
Rate 1 Rate 2 Rate 3 Rate 4 Rate 5
Strongly Disagree Neither Agree Strongly
disagree agree nor agree
disagree
1. I am a good listener. 0% 7.70% 61.54% 30.76% 0%
2. I enjoy the listening parts of my
0% 0% 15.38% 61.54% 23.07%
English class.
3. Learning to listen with real life
materials is more important 0% 0% 15.38% 46.15% 38.46%
than using course books.
4. I like to listen to topics I know
0% 0% 15.38% 53.84% 30.76%
about.
5. If I don’t know about a topic, I
0% 15.38% 61.53% 23.07% 0%
like to practice before listening.
6. If I don’t know about the topic,
0% 15.38% 23.07% 53.84% 7.69%
listening is more difficult.
7. I can listen for overall meaning
0% 15.38% 69.23% 15.38% 0%
well.
8. I can listen for detail well. 0% 23.07% 46.15% 30.75% 0%
Note. n = 13
Context-Rich Lessons 1 and 3

The majority found the listening texts easy to understand in both context-rich lessons, with
58.33% and 33.33% rating themselves at 3 (neither agree nor disagree) and 4 (agree),
respectively, for Question 1 in Table 2 below.
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Table 2
Post-Lesson Survey Results for Context-Rich Lesson 1
disagree
1. It was easy to understand the
0% 0% 58.33% 33.33% 8.33%
listening.
2. I felt confident during the
0% 8.33% 75.00% 0% 16.66%
listening.
3. I felt relaxed during the
0% 8.33% 50.00% 25.00% 16.66%
listening.
4. I felt well prepared and ready to
0% 8.33% 50.00% 25.00% 16.66%
listen about the topic.
5. I needed more preparation time
8.33% 8.33% 33.33% 41.46% 8.33%
to listen well.
6. My test score was affected by
how familiar I was with the 0% 16.66% 25.00% 33.33% 25.00%
topic.
Note. n = 12
Context-Poor Lessons 2 and 4

Table 3 below demonstrates differences between context-poor lessons, indicating that learners
felt less confident and relaxed when materials were presented with less contextual support.
This is supported by evidence from Question 6, “My test score was affected by how familiar I
was with the topic.” In Lesson 1, 25% chose 5 (strongly agree); in Lesson 4, this declined to
7.69%.
Table 3
Post-Lesson Survey Results for Context-Poor Lesson 4
disagree
1. It was easy to understand the
0% 30.76% 30.76% 38.46% 0%
listening.
2. I felt confident during the
0% 23.07% 53.84% 23.07% 0%
listening.
3. I felt relaxed during the
0% 23.07% 46.15% 23.07% 7.69%
listening.
4. I felt well prepared and ready to
0% 0% 53.84% 30.76% 15.38%
listen about the topic.
5. I needed more preparation time
0% 15.38% 61.53% 23.07% 0%
to listen well.
6. My test score was affected by
how familiar I was with the 0% 7.69% 53.84% 30.76% 7.69%
topic.
Note. n = 13
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Teaching Practice
Listening Comprehension Scores for Context-Rich and Context-Poor Lessons

Table 4 below demonstrates two trends: context-rich lessons produced higher listening
comprehension scores overall and the performance of high- and low-scoring learners remained
reasonably consistent across the four lessons.
Table 4
Listening Scores Across the Four Lessons
Learner Lesson 1 Lesson 2 Lesson 3 Lesson 4
context-rich context-poor context-rich context-poor
1 Absent 0% 58% 27%

2 47% 14% 33% 27%
3 67% 7% Absent 0%
4 86% 50% Absent 55%
5 71% 0% 75% 9%
6 50% 7% 50% Absent
7 88% 43% 92% 64%
8 29% Absent 42% 27%
9 50% 0% 33% 0%
10 71% 0% 33% Absent
11 71% 14% Absent 18%
12 75% 7% 83% 45%
13 76% 0% 50% Absent
14 Absent 7% 83% 45%
15 Absent 7% Absent 27%
Post-Project Questionnaire: Opinions on Relevance, Value, and Effectiveness

Table 5 shows ratings trending positively towards Responses C and D, indicating learners
found context-rich lessons helpful.
Table 5
Follow-Up Questionnaire: Reflection on the Lessons
1.Teaching with video clips and help with vocabulary was
A) Unhelpful 0%
B) Neutral 15.38%
C) Improved my listening a little 46.15%
D) Improved my listening a lot 38.46%
Note. n = 13
Table 6 below shows this positive trend was further supported by responses to Item 2 as
76.92% considered images and video clips helped listening comprehension.
Table 6
Responses to Item 2
2. Video clips and pictures before listening help me understand True Neutral False
more. 76.92% 23.07% 0%
Note. n = 13
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Table 7 demonstrates that Item 6 indicates learners perceive contextualising materials as
adding value to their course.
Table 7
Responses to Item 6
True Neutral False
6. Using video and pictures adds quality to my English course. 69.23% 30.76% 0%
Note. n = 13
Summary
Overall, results reflected trends indicated by supporting literature as listening comprehension
scores for context-rich lessons were over 50% higher in many cases. Learners also responded
favourably to context-rich materials with 76.92% indicating they thought visual support helped
them understand more and 38.46% stating that visual and vocabulary support improved their
listening a lot.
Analysis and Discussion

Results indicate correlation between context-rich environments and improved listening
comprehension. However, one weakness highlighted by Mayer and Gallini (1990) is that the
effects of multimedia are stronger for subjects without prior knowledge of the topic, but barely
noticeable for those with it, indicating a project design weakness. Apart from that factor which
may have influenced the degree of change in listening comprehension, the crucial point; is that
Asian learners often have very different cultural experiences and expectations which are not
well represented by globally published materials. This would be even more relevant for
younger learners with less life experience to draw on and potentially makes them ideal
beneficiaries for multi-media contextual support. Therefore, while the Upper Intermediate
group showed listening comprehension improvements relating to context-rich lessons, a lower
level group may have demonstrated more significant changes, as Grinther (2002) suggests
lower proficiency groups gain more benefits from context-rich environments.
Considering whether preparation time spent on collecting materials to enhance contextual

support is well spent; learners responded positively towards context-rich lesson contents.
While this is an affective factor, (relating to emotion and motivation) its value as a learning-
support tool should not be underestimated, as engaging motivating lessons foster a positive
attitude towards learning which can carry forward to future lessons. Again, younger learners,
who rely more on environmental context and learn best from their immediate surroundings
might benefit more than older groups who are more comfortable with abstract concepts.
Conclusions
Learners’ listening performance definitely improved during context-rich lessons, confirming
evidence from supporting literature. Learners expressed a preference for this type of lesson;
therefore, for pedagogical and affective reasons, additional time sourcing materials to provide
additional context is time well spent.
However, the evidence supporting analysis should not be taken at face value, as texts were not
graded for difficulty. On reflection, context-poor lessons required learners to process more
difficult phrases and collocations. Rost (1994) discusses degrees of difficulty relating to input
and complexity of information. Context-poor texts would be rated as high difficulty because
they lack repetition or redundancy and are informationally dense, as news items tend to be.
Morley - Page 263

Teaching Practice
The project would have more credibility if it had incorporated Grinther’s (2002) suggestion that
lower proficiency levels benefit more from contextual support. This aspect needs addressing
through comparative studies with upper intermediate and elementary-level learners.
Recommendations
This study involved higher-level learners, but the methods have since been used with
elementary-level groups. The only noticeable difference was the need to allow additional
processing time for elementary-level learners to formulate and discuss their ideas in English as
they have fewer linguistic resources to draw on. In terms of benefit, the visual input and
contextual examples are likely to provide a significant amount of non-verbal support, although
further study is needed to fully evaluate this. The author’s preference would be to increase the
amount of contextual support for lower-level groups.
As discussed earlier, a large body of evidence supports allocating significant amounts of time to
pre-listening activities, whatever the learners’ level, to activate pre-existing knowledge and
create expectations or predictions of what they are likely to hear. In this way, listening-text
topics are able to fit into existing cognitive maps, which supports processing and decoding.
Therefore, time spent preparing learners to listen is repaid by an improved listening
comprehension experience.
Author Note
Nick Morley, freelance teacher and trainer.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Nick Morley. E-mail:

xyiq@yahoo.com. Skype ID: nick.morley111
Morley - Page 264

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References
Anderson, A., & Lynch, T. (1988). Listening. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Brown, G. (1986). Investigating listening in context. Applied Linguistics, 7(3), 285-302.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/applin/7.3.284
Cameron, L. (2001). Teaching English to young learners. Cambridge, England: Cambridge
University Press.
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morisson, K. (2000). Research methods in education. London,
England: Routledge Falmer.
Grinther, A. (2002). Context and content visuals and performance on listening comprehension
stimuli. Language Testing, 19, 133-166. http://dx.doi.org/10.1191/0265532202lt225oa
Mayer, R. E., & Gallini, J. K. (1990). When is an illustration worth a thousand words? Journal of
Educational Psychology, 82(4), 715-726. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.82.4.715
Richards, J. C. (2005). Second thoughts on teaching listening. RELC Journal, 36(1), 85-92.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0033688205053484
Rost, M. (1994). Introducing listening. London, England: Penguin.
Underwood, M. (1989). Teaching listening. Harlow, England: Longman.
Morley - Page 265

Teaching Practice
Appendix 1
A Practical Example
The following example demonstrates that globally published or Eurocentric course materials
are not always contextually relevant for Asian learners because the materials may not reflect
their interests or life experiences. It is still possible to adapt how listening is approached and
ultimately use these materials effectively. This can be achieved by considering how the
materials might be presented in the light of present knowledge, contextualised through the use
of video or images and adapted to local settings.
The course materials, which were produced in Europe, featured a listening on the topic
“Festivals” with bull running in Pamplona, Spain as the listening text. The learners had no
prior knowledge of this event, so it was presented in the following way: learners brainstormed
and pooled their existing vocabulary relating to festivals by using the prompts, “When you
think of Songkran (Thai New Year) and Seol-nal (Korean Lunar New Year), what do you think
of, how do you feel, and what do you do?” The learners then added these ideas as well as
vocabulary to mind-maps. Having activated learners’ schemata (existing background
knowledge and expectations relating to the topic of festivals), the next step involved watching a
YouTube video of the Pamplona Bull Run while underlining any relevant ideas or vocabulary
from their mind-maps. Learners then worked in pairs to discuss differences between their local
festivals and bull running before sharing their ideas with a wider audience. At this point,
additional language was elicited and provided to support a fuller description of the Spanish
festival, especially regarding the differences in terms of family-centred versus individual risk-
taking activities, types of emotion, and danger. Learners were then more fully prepared to
make the most of the course listening text as the types of event, actions, and narratives would
not be unfamiliar and would allow learners to work with existing expectations about the event,
its cultural relevance, and associated activities.
Morley - Page 266

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Appendix 2
Learnersʼ Views
Post-listening interviews revealed preferences correlating with learners’ listening abilities.

Regarding context-poor Lesson 2, Learner 1, a capable listener, seemed to enjoy the challenge,
whereas Learner 2, who is less skilled, found the lesson difficult.
Researcher: Can you tell me how you found the listening exercise this week,
because there was no video to prepare for it and no vocabulary
exercises to get ready for it?
Learner 1: I think it is a bit hard, but it is not too hard. We should get like this
every week, it’s not too easy.
Learner 2: I think it’s very difficult because I don’t know many words in
vocabulary.
After context-rich Lesson 3, Learner 3 stated that additional contextual support was helpful.
Researcher: What’s the best way to do the listening - with video and activity
before, or go straight to the listening and why?
Learner 3: I think to do some video and to do an activity before is better . . .
So it makes it easier to do another thing.
Learner 2’s comment that the context-poor lesson was difficult because she did not know much
of the vocabulary is significant. This is an area which context-rich materials are able to address
before listening takes place by providing more listening resources.
Morley - Page 267

Background Information
Language Education in Asia is a publication of papers that presents well-researched aspects of
language education and learning, innovative, practical approaches to classroom practice, and
discussion of relevant issues in the field of TESOL in the Asian region. Papers can be submitted
by educators, educational leaders, and researchers; all papers are blind-reviewed by members
of the Editorial Board. Beginning with this 2011 Volume, accepted papers will be published
on a biannual basis in Summer and Winter Issues. Submissions are welcome and will be
considered in an ongoing process throughout the year. Each summer issue will highlight
exceptional papers presented at the annual CamTESOL Conference Series during that
publication year.
The current publication includes papers presented at the 7th CamTESOL Conference held on
26-27 February 2011. Each volume is initially online for public viewing on the CamTESOL
website: http://www.camtesol.org/
Language Education in Asia Editorial Board

In 2011, IDP Education invited a number of eminent ELT professionals, including several
recent CamTESOL plenary speakers, to join an Advisory Board for the Language Education in
Asia publication. The Advisory Board will offer advice as the publication is developed and
expanded.
Advisory Board
Dr Suresh Canagarajah Dr Jodi Crandall Dr Donald Freeman
Pennsylvania State University University of Maryland, University of Michigan
USA Baltimore County USA
USA
Dr Andy Kirkpatrick Dr Ma. Milagros Laurel Dr Jun Liu

Griffith University University of the Philippines Georgia State University
Australia Diliman USA
The Philippines
Dr Alan Maley Dr Suchada Nimmannit Mr Om Soryong

Leeds Metropolitan University Chulalongkorn University Royal University
United Kingdom Thailand of Phnom Penh
Cambodia
Page 268!
Language Education in Asia, Volume 2, Issue 2, 2011!
Editor-in-Chief
Dr Richmond Stroupe
Soka University
Japan
Assistant Editor-in-Chief
Ms Kelly Kimura
Soka University
Japan
Assistant Editors!
Ms Deborah Harrop Mr Chea Kagnarith
Australian Centre for Education Australian Centre for Education
IDP Education Cambodia IDP Education Cambodia
Cambodia Cambodia
Editors
Mr Yohey Arakawa Ms Marion Bagot Ms Brenda Billingsley
Tokyo University TAFE NSW Macquarie University
of Foreign Studies Australia Australia
Japan
Mr Chan Sophal Mr Kevin Cleary Dr Nicholas J. Dimmitt

Royal University of Phnom Penh Tokyo Medical and Dental The Petroleum Institute
Cambodia University United Arab Emirates
Japan
Mr Anthony Fenton Dr Ben Fenton-Smith Ms Louise FitzGerald

University of New England Griffith University Australian Centre for Education
Australia Australia IDP Education Cambodia
Cambodia
Mr Andrew Foley Ms Jill Hadfield Dr Chantarath Hongboontri

Bradford College Unitec Mahidol University
The University of Adelaide New Zealand Thailand
Australia
Dr Jeremy F. Jones Dr Alexander Jun Dr Kenan Kapukaya

University of Canberra Azusa Pacific University Zaman University
Australia USA Cambodia
Dr Dorit Kaufman Mr Chan Narith Keuk Ms Sonthida Keyuravong

Stony Brook University Royal University of Phnom Penh King Mongkut's University
USA Cambodia of Technology Thonburi
Thailand
Page 269!
!
Dr Alan Klein Ms Jill Knight Lic Silvia Laborde
University of British Columbia Education and Training Alianza Pocitos - Punta Carretas
Canada Consultant Uruguay
UK
Dr Leung Yiu-nam Dr John Macalister Dr Lary MacDonald

National Ilan University Victoria University of Wellington Soka University
Taiwan New Zealand Japan
Dr Damien McCoy Mr John Middlecamp Dr Stephen Moore

University of Queensland Educational Consultant Macquarie University
Australia Canada Australia
Dr Jayakaran Mukundan Mr Suriyan Panlay Dr Natasha Qale Pourdana

Universiti Putra Malaysia Thammasat University Islamic Azad University
Malaysia Thailand Iran
Ms Adrienne Radcliffe Dr Watanaporn Ra-ngubtook Dr Mehdi Riazi

Australian Centre for Education English Language Institute Macquarie University
IDP Education Cambodia Office of the Basic Education Australia
Cambodia Commission
Thailand
Dr Wareesiri Singhasiri Ms Alice Svendson Dr Vilma Tafani

King Mongkut's University Jumonji Women’s University “A. Xhuvani” University, Elbasan
of Technology Thonburi Japan Albania
Thailand
Ms Nary Tao Dr Donna Tatsuki Ms Shirley Tatton

Royal University of Phnom Penh Kobe City University Australian Centre for Education,
Cambodia of Foreign Studies Siem Reap
Japan IDP Education Cambodia
Cambodia
Dr Saowaluck Tepsuriwong Mr Tory S. Thorkelson Dr Tan Bee Tin

King Mongkut's University Hanyang University The University of Auckland
of Technology Thonburi Korea New Zealand
Thailand
Dr Carol Waites Dr Mary Shepard Wong Dr Jessica Wu

United Nations Azusa Pacific University The Language Training
Staff Development and USA and Testing Center
Learning Section Taiwan
Switzerland
Dr Shuang Frances Wu
Azusa Pacific University
USA
Page 270!
Language Education in Asia, Volume 2, Issue 2, 2011!
Associate Editors
Mr William Alderton Ms Victoria Cardone Mr Chea Theara
Curtin University Educational and Training Australian Centre for Education
Australia Consultant IDP Education Cambodia
USA Cambodia
Mr Gregory Converse Ms Meena David Mr Dek Sovannthea

Thammasat University Australian Centre for Education Royal University of Phnom Penh
Thailand IDP Education Cambodia Cambodia
Cambodia
Ms C. Martin Ms Boramy Sou

SEA (Sydney English Academy) Royal University of Phnom Penh
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BỘ GIÁO DỤC VÀ ĐÀO TẠO
TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC DÂN LẬP HẢI PHÒNG
-------------------------------
ISO 9001:2015
KHÓA LUẬN TỐT NGHIỆP
NGÀNH: NGÔN NGỮ ANH
Sinh viên : Lương Thị Huyền

Giảng viên hướng dẫn: Th.S Nguyễn Thị Quỳnh Hoa
HẢI PHÒNG - 2019

-----------------------------------
A STUDY ON
HOW TO IMPROVE ENGLISH SPEAKING SKILL FOR THE
FIRST YEAR ENGLISH MAJOR STUDENTS IN HAI PHONG
PRIVATE UNIVERSITY
KHÓA LUẬN TỐT NGHIỆP ĐẠI HỌC HỆ CHÍNH QUY
NGÀNH: NGÔN NGỮ ANH
Sinh viên : Lương Thị Huyền

Giảng viên hướng dẫn: Th.s Nguyễn Thị Quỳnh Hoa
HẢI PHÒNG - 2019

--------------------------------------
NHIỆM VỤ ĐỀ TÀI TỐT NGHIỆP
Sinh viên: Lương Thị Huyền. Mã SV: 1412751113
Lớp: NA1804. Ngành: Ngôn ngữ Anh.
Tên đề tài: A study on how to improve english skill for the first year
English major students in Hai Phong private university.
NHIỆM VỤ ĐỀ TÀI
1. Nội dung và các yêu cầu cần giải quyết trong nhiệm vụ đề tài tốt nghiệp
( về lý luận, thực tiễn, các số liệu cần tính toán và các bản vẽ).
……………………………………………………………………………..
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2. Các số liệu cần thiết để thiết kế, tính toán.

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3. Địa điểm thực tập tốt nghiệp.

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CÁN BỘ HƯỚNG DẪN ĐỀ TÀI TỐT NGHIỆP
Người hướng dẫn thứ nhất:
Họ và tên: Nguyễn Thị Quỳnh Hoa.
Học hàm, học vị: Thạc sĩ.
Cơ quan công tác: Trường Đại học Dân lập Hải Phòng.
Nội dung hướng dẫn: A study on how to improve english speaking skill for
the first year English major students in Hai Phong private university.
Người hướng dẫn thứ hai:
Họ và tên:.............................................................................................
Học hàm, học vị:...................................................................................
Cơ quan công tác:.................................................................................
Nội dung hướng dẫn:............................................................................
Đề tài tốt nghiệp được giao ngày … tháng ….. năm …..
Yêu cầu phải hoàn thành xong trước ngày …. tháng ….. năm ……
Đã nhận nhiệm vụ ĐTTN Đã giao nhiệm vụ ĐTTN
Sinh viên Người hướng dẫn
Lương Thị Huyền Th.s Nguyễn Thị Quỳnh Hoa
Hải Phòng, ngày ...... tháng........năm 20..
Hiệu trưởng
GS.TS.NGƯT Trần Hữu Nghị

CỘNG HÒA XÃ HỘI CHỦ NGHĨA VIỆT NAM
Độc lập - Tự do - Hạnh phúc
PHIẾU NHẬN XÉT CỦA GIẢNG VIÊN HƯỚNG DẪN TỐT NGHIỆP
Họ và tên giảng viên: ...................................................................................................
Đơn vị công tác: ........................................................................ ..........................
Họ và tên sinh viên: .......................................... Chuyên ngành: ...............................
Nội dung hướng dẫn: .......................................................... ........................................
............................................................................................................................
Tinh thần thái độ của sinh viên trong quá trình làm đề tài tốt nghiệp
..............................................................................................................................................
...... ..............................................................................................................................................
...... ..............................................................................................................................................
...... ..............................................................................................................................................
...... ..............................................................................................................................................
...... ..............................................................................................................................................
1. Đánh giá chất lượng của đồ án/khóa luận (so với nội dung yêu cầu đã đề ra trong
nhiệm vụ Đ.T. T.N trên các mặt lý luận, thực tiễn, tính toán số liệu…)
...... ..............................................................................................................................................
...... ..............................................................................................................................................
...... ..............................................................................................................................................
...... ..............................................................................................................................................
...... ..............................................................................................................................................
3. Ý kiến của giảng viên hướng dẫn tốt nghiệp
Được bảo vệ Không được bảo vệ Điểm hướng dẫn
Hải Phòng, ngày … tháng … năm ......

Giảng viên hướng dẫn
(Ký và ghi rõ họ tên)
QC20-B18
CỘNG HÒA XÃ HỘI CHỦ NGHĨA VIỆT NAM
Độc lập - Tự do - Hạnh phúc
PHIẾU NHẬN XÉT CỦA GIẢNG VIÊN CHẤM PHẢN BIỆN
Họ và tên giảng viên: ..............................................................................................
Đơn vị công tác: ........................................................................ .....................
Họ và tên sinh viên: ...................................... Chuyên ngành: ..............................
Đề tài tốt nghiệp: ......................................................................... ....................
1. Phần nhận xét của giáo viên chấm phản biện
...... ..........................................................................................................................................
...... ..........................................................................................................................................
...... ..........................................................................................................................................
...... ..........................................................................................................................................
...... ..........................................................................................................................................
...... ..........................................................................................................................................
...... ..........................................................................................................................................
2. Những mặt còn hạn chế
..........................................................................................................................................
...... ..........................................................................................................................................
...... ..........................................................................................................................................
3. Ý kiến của giảng viênchấm phản biện
Được bảo vệ Không được bảo vệ Điểm hướng dẫn
Hải Phòng, ngày … tháng … năm ......

Giảng viênchấm phản biện
(Ký và ghi rõ họ tên)
QC20-B19
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................ v
PART I: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................ 1
1.Rationale .......................................................................................................... 1
2. Aims of the study and the scope of the study .................................................. 1
3.The scope of the study ...................................................................................... 2
4.Methods of study .............................................................................................. 2
5. Design of the study .......................................................................................... 3
PART II. DEVELOPMENT ............................................................................. 4
CHAPTER I: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ......................................... 4
1.Definition of speaking skill .............................................................................. 4
2.What is speaking skill ....................................................................................... 7
3. Types of speaking ............................................................................................ 8
3.1.Form-focused speaking ................................................................................. 8
3.2 Meaning-focused speaking ............................................................................ 8
3.3.Opportunities to improve fluency .................................................................. 8
4.Relationship between speaking and three other skills ...................................... 9
4.1. Relationship between speaking and listening .............................................. 9
4.2 Relationship between speaking and reading .................................................. 9
5.The purpose of speaking skills ....................................................................... 10
6.Activities to improvestudent’s speaking skill ................................................. 11
6.1Information-gap activities ............................................................................ 11
6.2.Dialogues and role-plays ............................................................................. 11
6.3.Activities using pictures .............................................................................. 12
6.4. Using games ............................................................................................... 13
7. Characteristics of a successful speaking activity ........................................... 14
7.1. Learners talk a lot ....................................................................................... 14
7.2. Participation is even ................................................................................. 14
7.3. Motivation is high ..................................................................................... 14
7.4. Language is of an acceptable level ........................................................... 14
i
CHAPTER 2: METHODLOGY .................................................................... 15
1. The reality of learning and teaching English speaking skill for the first year
English major students at HP ............................................................................ 15
1.1 The teaching staff ........................................................................................ 15
1.2 The student .................................................................................................. 15
1.3 English teaching and learning condition at Hai Phong Private University .. 16
2.The survey questionaires ................................................................................ 17
2.1 The design of the survey questionaires ........................................................ 17
2.2. The data analysis ........................................................................................ 18
2.2.1. The students’ English learning time ........................................................ 18
2.2.2 Which skill is the most difficult................................................................ 19
2.2.3 The students’ attitude toward learning English speaking.......................... 19
2.2.4 The students’ perceived importance of English speaking ......................... 20
2.2.5 The students’ frequency of speaking English in class time ...................... 21
2.2.6 The students’ impression on the English lessons ...................................... 22
2.2.7 The result from students’ opinions on the current teaching method ......... 23
2.2.8 The students’ time to take part in extra-activities ..................................... 25
2.Findings and discussion of findings ............................................................... 25
CHAPTER 3 : SOME SUGGESTED TO IMPROVE ENGLISH
SPEAKING SKILL ......................................................................................... 27
1.Teaching methods to improve speaking skills ................................................ 27
3. The language game ........................................................................................ 34
3.1 Advantages of language games ................................................................... 34
3.3.Work group and pair group ......................................................................... 38
4.Telephone conversations ................................................................................ 38
5. Applicibility of Internet in studying speaking ............................................... 39
6. Picture ...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
7. TV and Video ................................................................................................ 40
8. Speaking English to yourself ......................................................................... 41
ii
9. Take part in English club ............................................................................... 41
10. Watch your favorite English videos ............................................................ 41
11. Watch English movies and TV shows ......................................................... 42
12. Check grammar with online English tests ................................................... 42
13. Read e-books, articles, magazines every day............................................... 42
14. Write an English essay ................................................................................ 42
15. Chat English anywhere ................................................................................ 42
16. Practice reflexes by practice ........................................................................ 43
17. Hang man game ........................................................................................... 46
PART III: CONCLUSION ............................................................................. 49
LIST OF REFERENCES................................................................................ 50
SURVEY QUESTIONAIRE ........................................................................... 51
iii
LIST OF CHARTS
Chart 5 : Students’frequency of speaking English in class time ........................ 22

Chart7 : The students’ opinions on the current teaching method ....................... 24
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In the process of doing the graduation paper, I have received a lot of help,
assistance, guidance, encouragement and idea contribution from my teachers,
family and friends.
My great gratitude goes to my supervisor Nguyen Thi Quynh Hoa (M.A)
for her enthusiastic guidance, very helpful ideas and instructions for the
preparation and her corrections during the completion of this graduation paper.
Secondly, I would like to express my sincere thanks to Ms. Tran Thi
Ngoc Lien (MA), the Dean of Foreign Language Department and all the
teachers at Haiphong Private University for the precious and useful lessons in
my study process that helped me a lot during graduation time.
It woult be a mistake if I didn’t mention the first year English major at
Hai Phong Private University who took part in my survey questionnaire
enthusiastically. Thanks to their participation, I had data survey, analysis and
gave the appropriate solutions.
Last but not least, I would like to give my heartfelt thanks to my family, my
friends who always, encourage and inspirit me to complete this graduation paper.
Hai Phong, February, 2019
Student
Luong Thi Huyen
v
PART I: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale
Nowadays, it can’t bedenied that English is becoming the common tounge
of our global village. Whether you live and work in an English speaking country
or need English for travelling and fun, English is the passport to the success and
a deeper understanding of our quickly changing word. Therefore, learning
English is very important and necessary because mastering English is the best
and the shortest way for us to have a great deal of opportunities to reach the
goals of life. The English learner, from elementary pupils to students, from
workers to government employers study English with the interest and enthusiam.
However, for Vietnamese students, espeacially the 1st year English major
students, they have a lot of dificulties in learning and practising English
speaking skill. They often fall into confusion when speaking English because
lack of knowledge, confidence, and the good learning method as well. Besides,
the learning passive environment with the same and boring lessons without the
interesting extra- activities prevent them from practising and improving English.
That is the main reason why they don’t get the effective result in learning
English, especially the English speaking skill.
Due to the reasons above, I have made a sketry presentation on some
effective method of studying English with the hope that this can help the first
year English major students at Hai Phong Private University will study English
better in the near future. Moreover, one of my suggested method is to study
English speaking through extra- activities. That is the reason why I have decided
to choose the research with the title “ How to improve English speaking skill for
the first year English major students at Hai Phong Private University’’.
2. Aims of the study and the scope of the study
- Aims of the study
My study is about to help the first year English major students at Hai
Phong Private University improve their speaking skill to prepare for them to the
1
basic knowledge of speaking skill with higher requirement for the next graders.
To sumarize the above, my study is aimed at:
- Covering background knowledge of speaking
- Finding out reality of teaching and learning English at HaiPhong Private
University.
- Finding out appropriate techiniques for teaching speaking lessons which
draw students’s attention into the lesson. The students will feel interested,
enjoyable and funny when they come into the speaking lesson. Some good
techniques, especially the extra- activities will be given out inorder to improve
their speaking skill.
It should be noted that this paper shouldn’t be considered exclusive to
English major students at Hai Phong Private university. Infact, the fundamental
concepts and result of this paper can be applied to most English learners.
3.The scope of the study
There are so many different material resources and researchers that
require a lot of time and effect while my personal experien ce is limited.
Therefore, this study can only foucs on study some effective techniques in
studying English speaking skill, especially through the extra- activities for the
first year English major students at Hai Phong Private University.
I hope that this study is a good reference material for the English major
as well as all students who wish to get the higher speaking skill.
4.Methods of study
To finish this study, I myself carry out some following methods.
- Researching on reference books and websites.
- Attending English speaking periods at English non- major classes at Hai
Phong Private University.
- Interviewing and conducting the survey questionaires for the first year
English major students at Hai Phong Private University with a point to find out
their recognizations, attitudes of the matter and the difficulities they encounter
when practising English speaking skill.
2
- Basing on my personal experience from my under graduating time in
the university through speaking skil at class.
5. Design of the study
A table of contents with pages numbers in which they are presented with
help readers have a clear overview of the research proposal. It also helps readers
find the part they need more easily and quickly. The study contains of three
parts:
Part I: The introduction are literature review, aims, scope, methodsand the
design of the study.
Part II: The development are three chapters:
- The first chapter is Literature Review which provides readers the
overview of speaking skill through the extra- activities.
- The second chapter is the Survey Questionaire for the first year English
nonmajor students. This chapter refers to the analysis and the findings obatained
from the survey questionaires and evaluations from students, interviewing
teachers to find out the necessary informations and the discussion of the findings
from the survey.
- The third chapter focuses on suggesting applicable techniques to teach
and practisning English speaking skill fo rthe first year English non- major
students.
Part III is the conlusion which sumarized all the presented informations
3
PART II. DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER I: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Firstly, to master the techniques of studying speaking skill, especially for

the first year English major students of Hai Phong Privste University, it is
imposible not to mention the concept of speaking.
1.Definition of speaking skill
Different people use the term “ speaking” in different ways, which can
cause much confusion. Speaking a foreign language ususally seems much harder
than learning to write and and read, especially to the first year English non-
major students. Often the most important problems peple have with forein
language is that they can not speak their thinkings and their ideas as well. In fact,
it is likea vicious circle: they make mistakes, they become afraid of speaking
and thus they never get the practise which would be able to correct their
mistakes. Most of the beginning learners do not understand axactly “ what is
speaking?”. We only regard speaking sd a simple, easy process that involves
speaking the words, the ideas…by speaking out what they think without the
correct. So, we had better start by making sure that we are thinking about the
same thing when we use this term. As the first step, it would be use ful to
undersytand “what is speaking”. According to the Oxford Pocket dictionary of
Current English 2009 “ Speaking is the action of conveying information or
expressing ones thoughts and feelings in spoken language. And speaking used to
indicate the degree of accuracy intended in a statement or the point of view from
which it is made.”
In the book “ Developing speaking skill” of David Scheter, published on
1999, there is a definition that: “ Speaking is to uuter words or articulate sounds,
as human beings to express thoghts by words, as the organs may be so
obstructed that a man may not be able to speak”. Meanwhile in the book
“ Collins Cobuild English for avanced learner 4th edition, published in 2007
4
definites that “ Speaking is the activitiey of giving speechs and talks, to indicate
the opinion you are giving”.
“ Speaking is also understood is the productive skill in the oral mode. It, like the
oral skills, is more complicated than it seems at first and involves more than just
pronouncing words” ( In the website Lingua Link Library, Version 3.5,
published on CD.ROMby SIL International 1998).
Speaking is an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves
producing and receiving and process information (Brown, 1994; Burns &
Joyce, 1997). Its form and meaning are dependent on the context in which it
occurs, including the participants themselves, their collective experiences, the
physical environment, and the purposes for speaking. It is often spontaneous,
open-ended, and evolving. However, speaking is not always unpredictable.
Language functions (or patterns) that tend to recur in certain discourse
situations (e.g., declining an invitation or requesting time off from work), can
be identified and charted (Burns &Joyce, 1997). For example, when a
salesperson asks "May I help you?" the expected discourse sequence includes
a statement of need, response to the need, offer of appreciation,
acknowledgement of the appreciation, and a leave-taking exchange. Speaking
requires that learners not only know how to produce specific points of
language such as grammar, pronunciation, or vocabulary (linguistic
competence), but also that they understand when, why, and in what ways to
produce language (sociolinguistic competence). Finally, speaking has its own
skills, structures, and conventions different from written language (Burns &
Joyce, 1997; Carter & McCarthy, 1995; Cohen, 1996). A good speaker
synthesizes this array of skills and knowledge to succeed in a given speaking act.
According to Chaney (1998), speaking is the process of making and
sharing meaning by using verbal and non-verbal symbols in different contexts.
Brown (1994) and Burns and Joyce (1997) defined speaking as an interactive
process of making meaning that includes producing, receiving, and processing
information.
5
Bygate (1987) defined speaking as the production of auditory signals to
produce different verbal responses in listeners. It is regarded as combining
sounds systematically to form meaningful sentences. Eckard and Kearny (1981),
Florez (1999), Howarth (2001), and Abd El Fattah Torky (2006) defined
speaking as a two–way process including a true communication of opinions,
information, or emotions. This top-down view regards the spoken texts as the
collaboration between two or more people in the shared time and the shared
context. Whilst Pendidikan Nasional stated, based on Competence Based
Curriculum speaking is one of the four basic competences that the students
should gain well. It has an important role in communication. (Departmen
Pendidikan Nasional, 2004 p.1). In carrying out speaking, students face some
difficulties; one of them is about language its self. In fact, most of students get
difficulties to speak even though they have a lot of vocabularies and have
written them well. The problems are afraid for students to make mistakes. While
Wallace (1978) stated that oral practice (speaking) becomes meaningful to
students when they have to pay attention to what they are saying. Thus, the
students can learn better on how to require the ability to converse or to express
their ideas fluently with precise vocabularies and good or acceptable
pronunciation.
Speaking ability is the students’ ability in expressing their ideas orally,
which is represented by the scores of speaking. Speaking is only an oral trail of
abilities that it got from structure and vocabulary, Freeman (in Risnadedi, 19
2001) stated that speaking ability is more complex and difficult than people
assume, and speaking study like study other cases in study of language,
naturalize many cases to language teachers.
In conclusion,speaking skill is always considered as a domain of language
and linguistic proper. Therefore, Clark and Clark (in Nunan, 1991, p.23) stressed,
“speaking is fundamentally an instrument act”. Speakers talk in order to have
some influences on their listeners. It is the result of teaching learning process.
Students’ skill in conversation is mainly aimed at in terms of teaching speaking
6
skill, it becomes vitally aspect in language teaching and learning success if
language functions as a system for conveying meaning, as Nunan (1991, p.39)
states that the successful in speaking is measured through someone’s ability to
carry out a conversation in the language.
2.What is speaking skill
Speaking is the productive skill in the oral mode. It, like the other skills, is
more complicated than it seems at first and involves more than just
pronouncingwords.
There are three kinds of speaking situations in which we find ourselves:
 Interactive
 Partially interactive
 Non-interactive
Interactive speaking situations include face-to-face conversations and
telephone calls, in which we are alternately listening and speaking, and in which
we have a chance to ask for clarification, repetition, or slower speech from our
conversation partner. Some speaking situations are partially interactive, such as
when giving a speech to a live audience, where the convention is that the
audience does not interrupt the speech. The speaker nevertheless can see the
audience and judge from the expressions on their faces and body language
whether or not he or she is being understood.
Some few speaking situations may be totally non-interactive, such as when
recording a speech for a radio broadcast.
Here are some of the micro-skills involved in speaking. The speaker has to:
 Pronounce the distinctive sounds of a language clearly enough so that
people can distinguish them. This includes making tonal distinctions.
 Use stress and rhythmic patterns, and intonation patterns of the
language clearly enough so that people can understand what is said.
 Use the correct forms of words. This may mean, for example, changes
in the tense, case, or gender.
 Put words together in correct word order.
7
 Use vocabulary appropriately.
 Use the register or language variety that is appropriate to the situation
and the relationship to the conversation partner.
 Make clear to the listener the main sentence constituents, such as
subject, verb, object, by whatever means the language uses.
 Make the main ideas stand out from supporting ideas or information.
 Make the discourse hang together so that people can follow what you
are saying.
3. Types of speaking
In speaking class, according to Burns, A & Joyce, H. (1997), students
must be exposed to three key items:
3.1.Form-focused speaking
Form-focused instruction, that is, attention to details of pronunciation,
grammar, vocabulary, and so forth… When learners begin speaking in another
language, their speaking will need to be based on some form-focused learning.
An effective way to start is to base speaking on some useful, simple memorized
phrases and sentences. These may be greetings, simple personal description, and
simple questions and answers. As their proficiency and experience in the
language develop, most of these sentences and phrases may be re-analyzed and
incorporated into the learners‟ system of knowledge of the language. Language
use based on memorization can be the starting point for more creative use of the
language.
3.2 Meaning-focused speaking
Meaning-focused instruction, that is, opportunities to produce meaningful
spoken messages with real communicative purposes.
In addition to form-focused speaking, language learners should be
exposed to and given chances to practice and use meaning-focused
communication, in which they must both produce and listen to meaningful oral
communication.
3.3.Opportunities to improve fluency
8
Elements of all these above should be presented throughout a speaking
program with emphasis on form-focused instruction at the elementary levels and
as the learners ' progress on meaning-focused instruction at the higher level.
4.Relationship between speaking and three other skills
According to Forseth. R and Carol. H (1994:43), speaking related to the
following skills:
4.1. Relationship between speaking and listening
In learning English as a foreign language, the learner cannot develop
speaking skills unless he develops listening skills; to successful conversation, he
must understand what is said to him. Later on, the ability to understand the
native speaker in direct conversations, on the radio or tape may be very
important for him to further study the language and communicate in it.
Besides, listening to spoken English is an important way of acquiring the
language of “picking up” structures, vocabulary. In the Vietnamese situation
where the learners do not have a chance to hear English spoken around them
every day and cannot acquire it easily the teacher needs to give them as much
opportunity to listen to spoken English on tape as possible.
The speaker usually directs his speech at the listener, taking the listeners
character, intention, attitude, etc into account when speaking and often respond s
directly to her reactions, whether verbal or non-verbal, by changing or adapting
this discourse.
4.2 Relationship between speaking and reading
Like listening, a receptive skill, reading also has some relations with
speaking in term of developing each other. Normally, a speaking lesson begins
by text which students should find some information for their speaking activities.
It may be a paragraph, a magazine, a report, and a book…this show that, reading
supports speaking by providing necessary information. Students must have
enough information, then, they can use it in speaking production. Therefore,
students should be encouraged to read for not only having more information,
9
knowledge but also improving vocabulary.
4.3 Relationship between speaking and writing
The relationship between speaking and writing, firstly, will look at factors
affecting the choice between speaking or writing and how these factors affect
the style and language used. The factors include being face-toface, saving face,
permanence, interactivity in for amativeness, and context dependence in which
both speaking and writing can be located , rather than occurring as polar
opposites. A spoken and written on the same topic will different in language use
relating to grammar, lexis, and style.
5.The purpose of speaking skills
It is hard to describe a thing without speech, if we don’t use language to
express our mean or purpose to do something, it might be distorted or difficult to
get. Thus, speaking is always considered the most crucial action of human being.
There might be no other effective way to communicate than speaking. The four
basic skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing are all connected. It is
essential to be proficient in all of these skills to be a competent communicator.
However, it is worth mentioning that speaking skill tends to help the learners
benefit more with some specific advantages. The ability to express thoughts,
emotions, and so on can provide a learner with these followingadvantages:
Ability to hold the leadership. Business managers, educators, military
leaders, lawyers, and many others leaders need to develop their speaking skills
so that they are capable of mastering public speaking. Speaking clearly and
confidently can help them get the attention of an audience, providing the
precious opportunity for those speakers to transfer their messages and make
them well-known by their speech. Wise and successful speakers are who can
gain and then hold the attentions of their audiences.Also how well-chosen the
speakers select the vocabulary, organized and expressed things can determine
the level of impact made after the speech.
The ability to be outstanding. When it comes to speaking skills, everyone
tends to think of it as a common skill. However, ability to excel and to speak
10
English effectively and confidently is not an ordinary ability. Many people are
extremely afraid of public speaking. As a research shows that more than a half
of all population in the world are terribly afraid of public speaking while others
are not so competent to form thoughts into sentences and make those words
convincing. More notably is that in the world there are not so many talent
speakers but if a speaker whose skills are good and developed with constant
opinions and much effort can stand out.
Ability to be popular. A well-developed speaker can strengthen his
negotiation skills. That speaker can sign many important contracts and bring
about profits not only for his company but also himself. Additionally, his
selfconfidence is improved as well as a growing sense of comfort,which comes
from speaking in front of big group of audiences. The fame for excellent speech
in speaking can accumulate day by day, thereby creating a certain trust of the
speaker. “Speaking skills can enhance one’s personal life; thereby bringing
about the well-rounded growth we should all seek” (Gerald Gillis,2013, p.2).
6.Activities to improvestudent’s speaking skill
In order to encourage students to speak, teachers need to have various
activities. These activities given by Hayriye Kay from web website
http://www.iteslj.org can be a suggestion and applicable in a speaking lesson.
6.1Information-gap activities
One excellent way to make speaking tasks communicative is to use
informationgap activities, in which the students have different information and
they need to obtain from each other in order to finish a task. In this activity,
students are supposed to be work in pair. Information-gap activities serve many
purposes such as solving a problem, or collecting information. Also, each
partner plays an important role because the task can not be completed if the
partner does not provide the information the other needs. These activities are
effective because everybody has chance to talk in the target language.
6.2.Dialogues and role-plays
Two problems with most dialogues are presented in textbooks:
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-The lack of natural intonation: The natural speech of native speakers is
often phrases or sentence fragments full of pauses, false starts, and repetitions.
- The way most dialogues are taught: Teachers ask students to memorize
dialogues by heart.
Two ways to make dialogues more communicative:
*Turning dialogues into role plays: students are asked to work in pair:
they pretend they are acting as someone else. Then teachers ask a few pairs to
perform the dialogue in front of the whole class, speaking in different moods
such as happy, irritated, bored, or in different role relationships such as parents
and a child, husband and wife, two friends, or making the dialogue longer by
adding more lines.
Another point is that teachers should ask students to come to the front of
class before telling them the situation then give them few minutes to think about
that. Thanks to this, students will speak more spontaneously. Factors that affect
the success of role-plays (Ur, 1996:133)
 Teachers enthusiasm;
 Careful instructions;
 Clear situation and roles;
Making sure that the students have the language they will need to carry
out the role-play
* Using cue cards: this way, an information gap is formed because each
student only sees one cue card so he does not know what the other person is
going to say.
6.3.Activities using pictures
Pictures are invaluable in speaking activities. Appropriate pictures
provide cues, prompts, situations and non-verbal aid for communication. There
are many different information-gap activities that can be designed around
pictures.
12
 Kind 1: use two pictures which look identical to each other at first
glance but actually have several differences then teachers ask students to find
the differences.
 Kind 2: give students just one picture and ask them to describe what is
in picture. This activity fosters the creativity and imagination of the learners as
well as their public speaking skill.
 Kind 3: give students some pictures which describe a story but they are
in incorrect order then ask students to reorder them and tell class about given
story.
6.4. Using games
The benefits of using games in speaking lesson can be summed up in 9
points: (www.teachingenglishgames.com )
 Learners are the main factor
 Promote communicative competence
 Create a meaningful context for language use
 Increase learning motivation
 Reduce learning anxiety
 Integrate various linguistic skills
 Encourage creative and spontaneous use of language
 Construct a cooperative learning environment
 Foster participatory attitudes of the students.
Teachers can divide class into small groups or let the whole class play a game.
There are various kinds of game and each kind helps students develop heir skill.
Teachers can choose one suitable with students' ability. Some games: art
master, bingo, cross-word…
It can not be denied that these techniques are so interesting, so if teachers
can apply some of them to make their lesson more attractive, students will
eagerly involve in the lesson.
7. Characteristics of a successful speaking activity
(Extracted from website: www.caslt.org)
13
According to Ur, P. (1996), a successful speaking activity is characterized as
below:
7.1. Learners talk a lot

In a successful speaking activity, the students talk a lot in the foreign
language. One common problem in a speaking activity is that students often
produce one or two simple utterances in the foreign language and spend the rest
of time chatting in their mother tongue. Besides, teachers talk too much of time,
thus taking way valuable practice time from students. Therefore, teachers should
notice to avoid students’ talking in native language and too much teacher’s talk.
As much as possible of the period of time allotted to the activity is in fact
occupied by learner talk.
7.2. Participation is even
Whether the activities take place among the whole class or in small group,
a successful speaking task should encourage speaking from as many different
students as possible. Classroom discussion is not dominated by a minority of
talkative participants: all get a chance to speak, and contributions are fairly
evenly distributed.
7.3. Motivation is high
Learners are eager to speak: because they are interested in the topic and
have something new to say about it or because they want to contribute to
achieving a task objective.
7.4. Language is of an acceptable level
Learners express themselves in utterances that are relevant, easily
comprehensible to each other, and of an acceptable level of language accuracy.
In general, classroom activities play an important role in developing students’
ability to express them. A successful speaking activity is characterized by
students’ talk, high motivation, even participation.
14
CHAPTER 2: METHODLOGY
1. The reality of learning and teaching English speaking skill for the first
year English major students at HP
1.1 The teaching staff
The teaching staff of HPU in general and the Foreign Language
Department in particular have high professional level and high sense of
responsibility. All the lecturers of Foreign Languages Department are not only
well- qualified, responsible but also very enthusiastic. Furthermore, they have
modern professional teaching style, they understand the students and they are
very friendly. Talking to the students and sharing their experience help both
teachers and students understand one another deeply and enhance the quality of
the lectures. One more considerable point is attending of foreign lecturers in
English classes. Students have chance to practice with the native speakers so
that they can speak English well if they know how to take those opportunities.
1.2 The student
A total of 42 students in the class NA2201 who are in the first year of
English Department at HPU are selected for this study. Some of the evidences
are unfortunately showing that many of the students who have just finished high
schools are really passive in their learning process. They appear to be used to
listening to the lectures and writing down what the teachers read aloud or
copying what is written on the board. Particularly, for English majors a big
number of them are really reluctant in their learning English speaking proven by
the fact that they only focus on trying to understand words and grammar
structures in the given text book. Consequently, a number of students cannot
speak English fluently. Therefore, a question raised here is what we should do
now to inspire in students the interests and motivation to improve their English
speaking learning.
15
Follows are the advantages and disadvantages of the first year English majors at
HPU:
- Advantages:
 students can receive constant help and support of the school and the
lecturers in Foreign Language Department.
 They have chance to study in a modern studying environment which
have been equipped with modern facilities.
 They can practice directly with the foreigners in class.
- Disadvantages:
 The students background knowledge is not uneven.
 A big number of students are lisp.
 Students focus too much on grammar and forget the importance of
speaking skill.
 Some of them are so shy and lack of confidence and they try to
avoid speaking in front of the class.
1.3 English teaching and learning condition at Hai Phong Private University
The students' classrooms have been equipped with projectors, camera, air
-conditioners, computers with internet connection and wireless internet
connection. The teachers often use projectors to make English lessons more
interesting and effective.
Besides, the school library is an “electronic library system”, which has
been equipped with many modern high speed computers, over 7000 books, more
than 16000 electronic documents Elib and electronic documents ProQuest. This
is really a big advantage for students learning.
In addition, there are many activities outside classrooms held by teachers
and students for fostering English speaking learning and encouraging students to
express their abilities. These useful activities often attract students to participate
in such as: e.g: English Olympic, Halloween's Day, Christmas's Day,….in which
16
students can both play and exchange knowledge in English so they can learn
more.
Furthermore, students have many opportunities to talk and study with
foreigners who are GAP teachers from different countries like England,
Australia,… This is a good chance for them to improve their English speaking
skill. It can be said that the learning conditions at HPU are good enough and
convenient for students to study English effectively.
2.The survey questionaires
2.1 The design of the survey questionaires
In this study, questionnaires are selected as the important data collection
instrument because it provides the data and information about the improving
English speaking skill of the first year English majors at HPU. Its aim is to do
research on students attitudes and expectations about studying English speaking
skill. The questionnaires including 8 questions as follows:
Question 1 gives information on students English learning time. The
author wants to have further understanding about students bonding time with
English. Basing on this understanding, the author can get right information and
give appropriate method to them.
Question 2 is about which skill is most difficult. It can bring more
information and help everyone to study better.
Question 3 is about the students attitude on learning English speaking
skill. Not every student learns speaking English because of their love to it. By
understanding exactly how they love speaking English the author can have some
more methods to strengthen their passion on studying Englishspeaking.
Question 4 gets information on how students think about the importance
of English speaking. The researcher wants to know about students opinions on
thismatter.
Questions 5 and 6 are about how often they speak English in the class
time and how they think about English speaking lessons. These can bring more
17
specific information and help the author have a better look into students ideas on
English speaking lessons as well as their frequency of speaking English.
The questions 7 and 8 are about the students opinions on the current
teaching method and time to take part in extra- activites requirements and make
them love speaking English more as well as enhance students English speaking
skill.
2.2. The data analysis
2.2.1. The students’ English learning time
A. 0-1 year C. 5-7 years
B. 2- 5 years D. more than 8 years
Chart Title
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0-1 year 2-5 years 5- 8 years more than 8 years
Series 1 Series 2 Series 3
Chart 1 shows that 100% of students responded that they had learnt
English for more than 8 years which is quite a long time for each student and
this is proved that learning English has become a very important task and great
concern of everyone and attracts a great number of students. Moreover, it is a
compulsory subject in most of schools from primary schools to universities as
well. Thus, they are fully aware of the fact that English is really important and
necessary for them.
18
2.2.2 Which skill is the most difficult
A. Reading C. Listening
B. Speaking D. Writing
40
30
20
10
READING SPEAKING LISTENING WRITNG
The chart 2 gives us the answer for the fourth question: “ which skill do
you think is the most difficult?”. It is very surprising to know that 40% students
think Speaking is the most difficult skill. In comparision with the amount in the
chart 1, students have learnt English more than 8 years , but they think Speaking
is also the most difficult. So, why students suppose Speaking is the most
difficult skill? Some interviewed students said to me that: “ There are so many
kinds of speaking which are too difficult for them so they do not know what
should speak and how to practise. Although they can understand the topic of
speaking, sometimes they can not speak our their attitudes as well correctly.
2.2.3 The students’ attitude toward learning English speaking
A. Do not like C. Like very much

B. Normal D. Like
19
Students attitude toward learning
English speaking
19% 22%
Do not like
Normal
19% Like very much

Like
40%
The chart above reveals that 38% of students (19%: Like very much; 19%:
Like) have very good attitude toward learning English speaking. This result is
not surprising and this proved that they are surely aware of how English is
interesting and important to them. However, the number of students who do not
like learning English are still at the high rate because it occupied 22% or we can
say in another way that nearly one fourth of the students do not pay attention to
learning English and there are about 40% of students find learning English
speaking normal. So how to make the leaning process interesting to attract these
students is a concerned problem.
2.2.4 The students’ perceived importance of English speaking
A. Not important C. Important

B. Normal D. Very important
20
Students' improtance of English
speaking
very important
important
normal
Not improtant
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Students' improtance of English speaking
As can be seen from chart 4, the high percentage of the respondents (49%)
considered speaking skill very important to them while 11% stated it was normal.
40% of the respondents mentioned speaking was important. In general, most of
students were aware of the importance of speaking English in their studying.
However, some of them did not admit this. Thus, the teachers role is to find
ways to change the students attitude toward English speaking so they can take
part in the learning in the class more actively
2.2.5 The students’ frequency of speaking English in class time
A. Always C. Sometimes
B. Rarely D. Never
21
55
29
11
ALWAYS RARELY SOMETIMES NEVER
Chart 5 : Students’frequency of speaking English in class time
The frequency of speaking English in class time also shows how much
effort students wanted to master it. Chart 5 represents that only 11% of the
respondents spoke English willingly whereas 55% spoke it rarely and 5% never
spoke except from the teachers requests. Also, 29% of them said that they
sometimes spoke English.
2.2.6 The students’ impression on the English lessons
A. Boring C. Interesting
B. Not very interesting D. Normal
22
The students' impression on the
English lessons
20%
40%
35%
5%
Boring Not very interesting Interesting Normal
Chart 6 reveals that the majority of the students are not interested in
learning speaking in the class. 40% of the students had low interest. Many
students (35%) thought that the classroom activities were very interesting. This
result strengthens the researcher's assumption that a large number of students
felt bored with English lessons because the classroom activities were not very
interesting. These activities did not really raise interest for students. For them,
they learnt English because of the pressure from outside such as requirement of
the teachers and parents, the need for the exam… not because of their
willingness. The low percentage of the respondents (20%) affirmed their interest
while the students with little interest were much higher.
2.2.7 The result from students’ opinions on the current teaching method
A. Do not like C. Hate
B. Normal D. Like
23
49
40
11
D O N OT LIKE HATE LIKE NORMAL
Chart7 : The students’ opinions on the current teaching method

The number of students who do not like the current methods is different.
89% of students think the current methods are not satisfied (49%: Do not like;
40%: Normal). And the number of student agrees with the current methods is
only 11%.
24
2.2.8 The students’ time to take part in extra-activities
A. Usually C. Rarely
B. Sometimes D. Never
The students' time to take part in extra-

activities
0%10%
Usually
35%
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
55%
2. Findings and discussion of findings

The survey is responded by 50 the 1st year english major students of
HPU, which can partially useful to give some suggestions on using some
techniques in studying English speaking skill.
Most of the participants agree that they like learning English and have
been learning English for many years. It means that teachers will have many
advantages in teaching. Moreover, they have a basic background to study
English for specific purpose. Almost them admitted that studying English
speaking skill through the extra- activities help them obtain the knowledge
more rapidly and exciting. Futhermore, demanding about studying English
speaking skill through extra- activities creates a pleasant atmosphere in class
most pupils agreed or strongly agreed with this statement. It is also a good
oportuunity for them to work in group.
25
Just only small of pupils feel excited about the current English teaching
method so that nearly of participants want to have a new creative English
teaching method.
Inconlcusion, teaching English speaking through extra- activities for the
1st year English major students is an effective way. It is an interesting method
that is very helpful for teachers to present speaking skill. Using funny
extractivities in teaching speaking skill is very necessary and building a system
of techniques to teach English skill through extra- activities for the 1st year
English major students is very important.
Basing on surveying the current teaching and learning English in HPU of
the 1st year English major students I have already had some research on their
attitudes toward learning English speaking. During the process of complete this
research paper, I would like to give some useful suggestions to support the 1st
year English major students made progress in learning English vocalbulary with
the hope that this research paper will improve English speaking skill in
particular. Thus, this chapter is the background for me to find out suitable
techniques to make this research paper.
26
CHAPTER 3 : SOME SUGGESTED TO IMPROVE ENGLISH
SPEAKING SKILL
1.Teaching methods to improve speaking skills
Speaking is one of the most important skills ( Listening, Speaking,

Reading, Writing) as everybody knows. In our daily life, we are in need of it in
every corner of living space. Especially, if we are learners, knowing a foreign
language can provide us huge opportunities in business life. As a global
language, English is the most important and valid language in the world, so we
do not only understand, write or read it, but aslo we need to speak it in a fluent
way. In this point, teachers should benefit from some approaches by using their
techniques.
 The focus should be on the meaning not on the form

If you restrict students around forms or tough grammar rules, students can
not speak freely and unfortunately, they start to be anxious about making
mistakes in the time of speaking. I do not mean that grammar is not important,
ignire it. On the contrary, grammar is an essential area of a language, but
initially, you should direct students to move on the function of the language.
 No use of mother tongue
Using L1 in speaking lessions is always an easy thing for learners because
they want to make their coversations in a simple way. Being as a teacher if you
tolerate using L1 in their conversations, you can not impose the sobriety of
language on them ( L1 should be jucious).
 Use authentic topics and materials in your lessons
Real events from students’ life always grasp their attention into lession
and push them to speak. You can provide them an atmosphere from social life
and through this, you can easily involve them in lession by directing them via
role-plays, info-gap and opinion-gap activities.
 Do not force them to speak
27
Nobody wants to do something by forcing of someone. If you want to do
something, you can do the best. On the contrary, you can not be aware of what
you did or are doing. So, should we wait till students are ready? Yes! If he or
she does not want to speak, let them not to speak, but it does not mean that you
ignore them! It means encourge them.
 Use late correction not to put off fluency
Correction is an independent part of teaching because teachers never want
to teach a language or other sciences in a wrong way. We are learners and I
always think like that errors are inevitable during the step of learning.If errors
are correction like IC ( Immediate Correction) and LC ( Late Correction). Firstly,
teachers should use immediate correction for students who are beginners.
Thanks to this, you cause students to learn properly. Second correction type is
LC. Teachers should prefer this kind of correction style for students who can
express themselves freely. Suppose that your students are in a conversation and
you are observing them. Whenever students make mistake while they are
speaking each other, you are interrupting them. In each lesson you act in a
particular manner. After a while, these kinds of behaving of teachers will
definitely make students discouraged for learing. That is why I support LC.
*Techniques for Teaching Conversational English for the Real World
Pour the Conversational English Foundation
In order to teach conversational English effectively, you must first

understand the importance of conversational strategy.
As an ESL teacher, you have a fluent command of English. Therefore,

you may forget the basic strategies of holding a meaningful conversation since it
comes naturally to you. This is a common mistake many ESL teachers make,
often giving a single topic to students and letting them loose to figure out
conversational techniques on their own. In order to avoid common
conversational English missteps, it is essential to present important foundational
28
elements: for example, how to assert opinions, ask questions and use follow-up
questions to keep a discussion moving forward.
Before any conversational lesson, put these efforts into practice as a class.
Here are a few ways you can pour that conversational foundation:
Asking Questions and Asserting Opinions.
Go around the room and ask students what their favorite food is. This will serve
as the introduction to asking questions.
They may say “pizza” or “cheeseburgers.” Now you will use this as the catalyst
for asserting opinions.
For example, one student may say, “Pizza.” You will then respond, “Oh, I like
pizza too. But only cheese pizza, not pepperoni pizza.”
Explain how you asserted your opinion, and then move on to the next student.
After a few repetitions, they will see how asserting an opinion works.
Follow-up Questions
+Once your students have seen how to ask questions and assert their
opinions, you can present follow-up questions.
+Explain how follow-up questions keep a conversation moving forward

and not stalling.
+Going back to the previous example about different kinds of pizza, you
can include a few follow-up questions like, “Do you like pepperoni?” or “Where
is the best pizza place in town?”
+Explain how one simple question pertaining to someone’s favorite food

can be the catalyst for asking and talking about places, other foods and personal
preferences.
29
+Pouring a solid foundation for conversational English strategies will help
build confidence, and it allows your students to see the basic elements of a
discussion.
Once the presentation stage is complete, let students ask you about your
favorite foods following the same foundational format. You can even play a
video to further their comprehension.
Make Fluency a Top Priority
Fluency and student talk time (STT) is vital when teaching conversational
English. However, many teachers get too caught up in teaching and begin
interrupting discussions. Your teacher talk time (TTT) should be low. In fact, it
is recommended that TTT be 15 to 20 percent during conversational lessons.
Another important rule of thumb when teaching conversational English is to
make balanced corrections. Students will inevitably get mixed up, pronounce
words poorly or even struggle with the right word to say. As tough as it may be,
limiting your corrections is essential to your students’ growth.
Here are a few strategies you can use to make fluency a top priority:
Once you have presented the discussion topic or agreed on a topic of

student choice, keep them gabbing for as long as possible. Remember, fight
those teacherly urges to interrupt.
If Student A is struggling with a word or a word’s pronunciation, make a

note and mention it later.
You can also encourage peers to make corrections during pair

conversation. You may just find that students are naturally correcting one
another. This is a large part of conversation between a native speaker and non-
native speaker, like finishing one another’s sentences. It should be encouraged!
Once the conversation dies down, you can then give some helpful
feedback. This is your 15 to 20 percent TTT. Present correct pronunciation and
grammar that was missed in your students’ discussions.
30
Putting STT before TTT is a sure-fire way to promote fluency in
conversation.
Even if a student is looking at you with those puppy dog eyes for help, let
them work it out on their own. This will build comprehension and confidence.
Let Students Guide the Conversation
An essential aspect of any conversational English lesson is teacher

guidance. Otherwise your classroom will spiral into chaos.
However, you can implement guided conversations in such an exciting

way that your students won’t even notice. One way to keep students interested is
to not force them to talk about topics of little to no interest.
Letting your students choose their conversation topic on their own, as a

group or in pairs, is an excellent strategy for keeping discussion lively and
holding their attention. There are a few ways you can do this.
One way is to employ the “What do you like. . .?” discussion opener to
help students discover similar interests. You can also have students write down a
few discussion topics they are interested in discussing and let them work it out
once they are paired up with a conversation partner.
Here’s how you can employ both student-guided strategies:
What do you like. . .?
This student-guided discussion opener is similar to meeting someone for

the first time. In order to keep the interest of your conversation partner, you need
to find a common ground.
For example, have Student A ask Student B the following openers. These
discussion openers will serve as the catalysts for conversation, and your students
will naturally agree on a topic without even noticing it.
“What do you like to do on the weekend?”
31
“What do you like to eat in the morning?”
“What do you like to do on vacation?”
Discussion Topics
+You start by having students write down things they like and do not like.
This strategy also allows students to develop other ESL skills like writing,
reading and grammar. Plus, it gives them a chance to create a sort of cheat sheet,
so they can plan what to say and how to say it.
+Student A may find a topic of interest written by Student B and begin

with discussion openers like, “Why do you like playing the piano?” or “I didn’t
know you were interested in paintball too.”
No matter which conversational English strategy you employ, letting your

students guide the conversation is a win-win. You will find your classroom
ringing with natural conversation filled with tones of excitement.
Get Your Students Moving
How often do you have conversations on the go?
This aspect of discussion is essential for your students to master, because there
are plenty more distractions when moving about. And this fantastic conversation
teaching concept can be added to any discussion lesson.
This little conversation technique will also get your students up and moving,
adding an element of ESL fun that students crave.
Here are a few tips on how to get your students moving and talking:
+First, show your students how to engage in conversation while walking.

Demonstrate little details like showing interest via brief eye contact, as well as
interjecting with check-up words that show interest in their discussion partner,
like “yes,” “really” or even a simple “uh-huh.”
32
+After a few rounds of sample conversation, let your students begin
walking and talking like any native speaker would.
+You can throw in obstacles like a puppy crossing their path, or running
into a friend during the conversation. This will make it a three-person discussion
with introductions and questions to be navigated around.
+Spice this strategy up with as much practical flavor as possible, allowing
your students’ discussions to blossom. What topics might typically be discussed
on a friendly walk? On a run? On a lunch break when you’re walking over to a
restaurant?
Conversational English teaching tips are as plentiful as conversation
lessons.
Combining lessons with great tips in an effective and exciting way for
your students is the recipe for sure-fire ESL classroom success.
Many ESL teachers will develop their own conversation lesson strategies
over time as well. Being organic and staying flexible during a conversation
lesson is an essential part of filling your students with confidence to speak on
any topic.
2. The following 10 tips will help you improve your English speaking skills
and help you feel more confident when talking.
Practicing speaking with others as much as possible. If possible, try to

practice in standard talk situations. Maybe you should join an English club like
In focus's weekly English language club or an organization that will help you
practice speaking English more.
Practicing talking alone. You can practice talking about a specific topic,
or write a question card and practice answering them.
Increasing your vocabulary so you can talk about many different topics.
Trying and learning new words is useful in many contexts. Using a large
dictionary is an effective way to increase your vocabulary.
33
Practicing changing the intonation of the voice. Listen to native speakers
of English and remember how they speak - the intonation of the conversation.
They heard how friendly / unfriendly, bored / interested, kind / cruel. Listen to
how their intonation affects the message they are conveying. Try and change
your intonation when speaking.
Trying and add extra emphasis to the important parts you're talking about.
English is a rhythmic language, which means that in any sentence some words
are emphasized rather than expressing the importance of the message.
Paying attention to the time when you are asked and repeat yourself. This
may indicate a problem with your pronunciation or voice, and let you know
which array needs to be practiced.
To improve your English speaking skills, finding a friend to practice

learning English with. One advice is to find someone with the same ability as
you, but have a different language from you. That way, you will be motivated to
practice in English!.
Training your grammar skills, you record it when you speak and try to
find your grammatical error. Learn based on the mistakes you made and try
again.
Practicing reading aloud clearly. When you read, think about the different
sounds of syllables between words.
Recording as you speak and check your volume and speed. Have you
spoken loud enough? Are you talking too fast? If you speak too quickly others
will have trouble understanding you. Remember to stop when requested.
3. The language game

3.1 Advantages of language games
The language games has a lot of advantages. Beaside the above purose of
using language game, the advantages of language games has also showned that
it can lower students’s anxiety in using the target language, they are also highly
34
motivating and intertaning so that the shy students will get more opportunities to
express their opinion and feeling.
Futher support comes from Zdybiewska ( as citied in Uberman 02) , she
believes that games can be a good way in practising the target language that
being learned by the children, since they are able to provide a model of language
on what the learners will use in the real life. Related to the statement, Kim ( as
citied in Uberman 03) presents six advantages of using the language games in
the classroom, which are:
+) games are motivating and challenging
+) games are a welcome break from the usual routine of the language
class.
+) games help the student to make and sustain the effort of learning.
+) games provode language practise in the various and intergrated
language skills.
+) games encourage students to intercat and communicate to each others.
+) games create a meaningful context for language that is being learned
by the students.
In the same field with Kim, Mei and Yujing ( 2003) also believed that
through playing games, students can learn English as the way children learn and
say their mother language without being awared they are studying.
In conclusion, games are able to help the students use and practise the
target language being learned in a relaxed way. Games are also highly
motivating since they are amusing and interesting. Games also can be used in
giving practise in all language skills and the use to practise many types of
communication which is in line with objectives of the speaking skill.
3.2 Some activities of using language game
The word search game
Through this game, students can enrich their volcabulary then use them to
improve speaking skill. If they have a rich vocalbulary, they will be able to
speak English better, more quickly and exactly.
35
Describing jobs
 Aims: improve the ability of guessing and expressing language in actions.
 Number of players: all the students in the class.
 Time limit: 7-10 minutes.
 How to play:
The teacher divides the class into two teams. Each team selects 5
members to be the representatives. Then the two teams are required to stand on
36
the podium. A small box is available in the teachers hand containing the pieces
of paper written the jobs which are explained in English.
The first representative of team A now draws a piece of paper, read it and
try to ecpress it in action (without any word). All members of team A have to
answer for their representative know what that job is in 30 seconds. Then the
representative will respond to the teacher. The teacher will give final answer to
decide whether it is right or wrong. All members of team B turn to play in the
same way.Each correct answer will get 1 point. After the game finished, the
teacher summarizes points of two teams. And the team which has more points
will be the winner.
For example:
The representative of team A caught up the phrase "A person who always
solves the traffic jams." Then he will describe in action such as moving his
hands as doing guidelines for the pedestrians or whistling to order vehicles to
stop ... In 30 seconds or earlier, other members of the team who are sitting will
discuss whether it is: "Policeman / Policewoman" and say the result to their
representative. The last task is that the representative informs the teacher the
results as follows: "A person who always solves the traffic jams is a policeman /
policewoman". The teacher will decide whether the results are right or wrong
and give students points.
Note:
 Use a little bit sticky in explaining sentence to make it more difficult
for the sitting people to speculate.
 The representative will collect and select results of his teammate to
avoid that the representative says the different result from the crowd's results or
does not describe his actions for the crowd but gives himself answers.
 Encourage discussion but in the shortest time.
 If the information is leaked before and during the game, the
representative has to choose other career.
37
 Absolutely, the representative cannot express in words, sounds. While
this team is describing the action the other team cannot do hinder action,
interfere or say the answer. If the other team still does forbidden actions, the
teacher should take one point of them after 3 times.
 The teacher makes the final decision so the teacher should be flexible in
how to deal with the same answers or close meaning answers
 When Team A responds a wrong answer, the teacher should say:
"Please give a loud applause for winner who answer correctly... one hundred
percentage of billion " or other creations to make joy and surprise for game.
3.3.Work group and pair group
Pair work or group activities are very effective methods. It helps students
feel more confident in communication. Students can talk to their friend about the
given topic in a relaxed manner. And if there are any mistakes, other people
would be willing to comment and correct immediately. Thus students will have
time to prepare for a perfect presentation and avoid making grammatical errors.
Below tips are how to set up group work:
Be sure to fully explain the procedure before splitting the class up.
Always demonstrate either yourself of with the help of a volunteer exactly
what they have to do.
Ask them to tell you what they have to do before they do it (in their
mother tongue if need be) to check their understanding.
Have fill in activities ready for the quick finishers – but be sure that they
have completed the task correctly first and haven‘t just finished early because
they misunderstood what they had to do.
Don‘t forget to have feedback time after pair work so that the learners
don't feel that they have been wasting time. It is important to share their work as
a whole group although this does not have to be systematic.
Set a clear time limit.
4.Telephone conversations
38
Sitting back to back they can practice telephone language with each other
to improve grammar in speaking skill with some simple conversations such as:
A: What is your name?
B: My name is Linda.
A: Where are their books?
B: Their books are on the table.
5. Applicibility of Internet in studying speaking
Nowadays, internet has a great influence on our life. As for the 1st year
English major, Internet can help them study English speaking effectively.
Everytime, students can learn directly through online websites which teach
English, especially speaking skill. It is very convenient for them to study new
word, primunciation, the presentation skill through the interesting topic…This is
a very interesting techniques. Through internet, students can dowload many
documents related to English speaking to improve their speaking skill. Beasides,
Internet includes a huge of English resources. They can learn from English
songs, English music, even English poems like this. It has been found in a
website:www.cycnet.com
In addition, students can learn from the lyric of English songs. Simply,
they loaded song lyrics to their computer and listen to the song, skim the lyric,
then try to repeat by themselves. Or they can study with their friend by asking
some simple structure sentence,find out the especial structure sentence…. For
example, the lyric of the song “ Love story” from this website :
www.lyrics007.com
Sometimes, students can collect some funny English videoclips to have
hoy to study. They will be relaxed and studied very quickly. These funy video
clips have interesting sounds, images and informations. Therefore, students do
not fell boring. On contrary, they are fond of paying attention to these and learn
English speaking naturally. Obiviously, when they study with the interest , their
speaking ability will be improve faster and their vocalbulary will increasen very
fast. Beasides, students use some English news loaded from internet to have
39
more update information about all events happened recently. This will become a
good habit of students in order to accumulate knowledge, and new words. They
have to brainstorm to understand about a certain matter and express their
thoughts according to their opinions.
6. Picture
Almost every day, we can see picture almost everywhere, such as on the ways,
in the streets, at work, at home… They become a very vivid part of life. Picture
with a lot of colors and shapes always capture the attentions of all people.
Sometimes, when looking at picture we can image many interesting things with
the real emotions. This is very important because picture bring enjoys to almost
everyone, especially young people such as students. They are enjoyable; they set
the scene for contexts. And of course, they are one of the most effective and
useful kinds of visual aids in studying English speaking skill. Thus, students can
self-study by collecting pictures to practise every day. Surely, their English
speaking will be widened very effective. The 1 st students are still young,
inquiring, and active but also lack of confidence, vocabulary, and grammar to
speak English. Therefore, the picture’s color must be beautiful bright and
impressive. The image must be meaningfully, easily understood. In fact, using
picture game which can develop the imagination of students. It means when
students look at the picture, they can express the picture in their own thought.
Therefore, students can speak English better, more fluently and natural.
Importantly, colors seem to be the decisive factor leading the success of the
lecture using pictures.
7. TV and Video
TV and video enable you to exploit the visual element that is essential in
face-to-face communication. One way to use the visual dimension of
conversation is to watch TV programmes involving a group of people in
discussion. Look out for things such as the ways in which the speakers indicate
that they want to speak next, or are about to finish what they are saying.
40
Recognising these 'turntaking' signals will help you to participate in English
conversations.
8. Speaking English to yourself
Self-talking is considered as one of the most effective ways that the
researcher has been doing during college time to practice English.As a problem
mentioned above that the number of students in each class are quite crowded so
there might be not enough time to have opportunities to practice their oral skills.
As this result, those students only can practice at home but finding a partner to
practice with is one more issue. In this case, self-talking seems effective and
easy to make. Besides, for some shy or unconfident speakers, this strategy is
absolutely encouraged because when they can motivate themselves to speak
without the fear of making mistake or being 49 shame. Then it might raise their
awareness to learn English constantly and successfully.Interestingly, as a
statistic has shown that 93% professors use self-talk when learning the second
language and this strategy received many positive feedbacks from professors.
The step to practice this method is simple that you can speak anything you like
to yourself freely. When learners practice self-talk it might help them acquire
fluency.
9. Take part in English club
An English Club is a place for language learners to use English in a casual
setting. Practising your skills in the classroom is important, but it is not like real
life. In the classroom, you often focus on one skill and one item (for example:
grammar - future tense). After learning the rules your teacher gives you time to
practise using the item. Will you remember how to use your skills next week, or
next year? In an English Club, you get a chance to practise many different skills
in a setting that is more like real life. Though your English teacher understands
your English, your English Club friends will require you to speak more clearly
and listen more carefully.
10. Watch your favorite English videos
41
Turn on YouTube, and think about what you often see, what I like. Maybe
it is VOA's newsletter, Discovery, etc. The short video of about 3 minutes will
make you learn English easier, and not feel bored.
11. Watch English movies and TV shows
Watching movies and TV shows will help you improve your

speaking and listening skills most effectively. If you are a beginner to
learn English this way, or have Listening skills, you can turn on the
subtitles, watch and read the lines of the actors.
12. Check grammar with online English tests
There is a problem that most self-taught English people have to know

what mistakes they make. So, check your grammar regularly with online tests to
make sure you use English correctly.
13. Read e-books, articles, magazines every day
Reading (Reading) is as important as Listening Skills (Listening) when

learning English. If watching movies, TV shows, etc. helps you improve your
listening skills, reading e-books, articles, magazines has great effect on reading
skills. Read the topics you love, note the words below the vocabulary that you
find confusing, guess the meaning and look up the dictionary. Remember, for
this to be done every day, it will be effective!
14. Write an English essay
Writing an English essay helps you improve your writing skills. You have
to search for topics, choose vocabulary, grammar you will use, gradually will
give you a proactive habit. At first it is possible to write simple topics, and
gradually increase the difficulty, if you can do so, it means that your English
level is getting better!
15. Chat English anywhere
42
English is the international language, so anywhere you can use them. Chat
in English wherever you go, which can be a domestic tourist destination, or
anywhere when you travel ...
16. Practice reflexes by practice
According to many studies, it has been shown that the human brain is very
sensitive to images. Therefore using images is the most effective way to refine
English reflexes.
You can use flashcards with pictures or use popular picture books to
practice. When you look at the image you can turn out in the beginning of the
word, exactly what the image is, you have succeeded.
You think but if you do not practice often, after a while you will forget
gradually. So the best way to reflex English is to practice, practice
communicating with friends, relatives or tell yourself when standing in front of a
mirror.
43
During the communication process, you can ask friends to ask random
topics to challenge the brain's agility. When there is pressure, you will definitely
have much better reflexes in the process of learning to speak English.
The reflex practice by listening to English
Listening to English everyday helps you get used to this sound, your brain
also secretes a special kind of help that helps you to recognize English better.
The best way to reflex is to listen to questions will be very beneficial for you.
44
Practice reflection by conversation
You can create conversations for yourself to refine your reflexes. You can
search on social networks, youtube ... different conversations to listen to. Then
practice them in your head.
The method of training English reflexes
Training your English reflexes to help you communicate more

comfortably and confidently when talking to foreigners. Let's take a look at how
to practice English reflexes below!
Reflexology is one of the important factors that helps the brain to be more
alert when thinking with new languages. This determines your proficiency in
reading, writing, listening, and speaking English. So to improve efficiency, you
should immediately consult how to refine this English,
Learning reflexes by practicing thinking in English
45
Learn how to think your thoughts or feelings in English. Every morning
when you wake up, you only spend about 5-10 minutes thinking about your
whole day plans in English, which helps a lot to train quick reflexes when
communicating.
17. Hang man game
Teacher thinks of a word and writes down dashes which are the series of
letters that make up the word. Student guesses relevant letters, and then
teacher has to fill it on the relevant dash. If they guess wrong word, teacher
may draw parts of a man hang on a gallows. The guess continues until the
word has been found or the hang man drawing has been finished.
46
Example given :
Teacher gives students topic on Hang man. Teacher writes down 7
dashes which represent 7 letters of the word and suggests. Let students guess
the word until they find the word or the drawing it, the hang man is finished.
17. Opposite crossword
47
Teacher distributes worksheets for students to work in pairs. Students
look at the Opposite word in the worksheet and guess appreciate this word,
and then fulfill the entire crossword. Teacher calls students to share their
answer.
48
PART III: CONCLUSION
Speaking is an important skill because communication by itself. It is

often the primary medium for presenting and selling products or ideas.
Therefore, they need to learn and practise English speaking skill whether a
students or a working adult. However, most of their difficulties is they do not
have the good and interesting methods to practise English speaking.
In this graduation paper, I have consulted a lot of English books and
websites to explores whats factors learners of English consider important when
speaking English. An overview of speaking in chapter I gave the audience a
general understanding about definition, purpose, and major types of speaking
and extraactivities. Next, Fifty 1 st year English majr student who get goods
mark in the examinations were surveyed at Hai Phong Private University. A
items questionaires was used to discover their attitudes about speaking lesson
and their hope about the new teaching method in speaking lesson. Descriptive
statistic and principal component ananlysis were done in the chapter II and this
result indicated that the participants consider extra- activities is the interesting
method that help them a lots in learning and improving the speaking skill. Based
on the outcome of the study, this paper futher delineates the pedagogical
implications for studying speaking skill as well as some good techniques in
order to improve speaking skill for the 1st year English major students in the
chapter II. However, because the limitation of time, of knowledge as well as of
experience, mistakes in this paper might be possible to be made. So, I would like
to receive contribution opinions from my teachers anf friends.
Once again, would like to express many of my thanks tomy supervisors
Mrs. Nguyen Thi Quynh Hoa for their whole hearted help in my study and also
to all my teachers, my friends and my family members, who have encouraged
me to accomplish this graduation paper.
49
LIST OF REFERENCES
1. Alexander, L. G ( 1995) For and against. NXBTre

2. Bygate, M ( 2000) Speaking, Oxford University Press.
3. Su, Le Van. English methodology . NXB Van hoa thong tin.
4. David R. (2001) . Teaching English as a foreign laguage.
5. Barry. S ( 1997) . How to teach English. Oxford University Press.
6. Dough. C (1991) . English puzzules 4. Heinemann International a division
of Heynemann Educational books Ltd.
7. Bygate, M. speaking. Oxford University Press 1987.
8. Chan, W. (2006) English fun fun with A B C- uper case activity. EPH
publishing SDN BHD.
9. Chan, W. ( 2006). Think and answer the questions. EPH publishing
SDN BHD. 10.Darkin, J. : Songs and Rhymes”. Longman 1991.
11. Gairns R. and S. Redman ( 1986). Working with words, Cambridge.
Cambridge University Press .
12. Jones, P.W ( 1995) Grammar Games and Activities for teachers.
Penguin group.
13. Let’s learn English 1. (2006) . Education Publishing house Viet Nam.
14. Some principles for Good Practise in teaching and learning 2005.
15. http://www.Eslgold.com
16. http://hocngoaingu.com
17. http://word.englishclub.com
18. www.teftgames.com
19. http://www.playkidgames.com
20. http://teachingenglishgames.com
50
SURVEY QUESTIONAIRE
Question 1:. H'ow long have you been learning English?

A. 0-1 year C. 5-7 years
B. 2- 5 years D. more than 8 years
Question 2 : Which skill is the most difficult for you when studying
English?
A. Reading C. Listening
B. Speaking D. Writing
Question 3: How do you like English?
A. Do not like C. Like very much
B. Normal D. Like
Question 4: What do you think of the important of English speaking?
A. Not important C. Important
B. Normal D. Very important
Question 5: How often do you speak English in class time?
A. Always C. Sometimes
B. Rarely D. Never
Question 6 : What do you think of English lessons?
A. Boring C. Interesting
B. Not very interesting D. Normal
Question 7 : What do you think of the current teaching method?
A. Do not like C. Hate
B. Normal D. Like
Question 8 : How often you do take part in extra-activities?
A. Usually C. Rarely
B. Sometimes D. Never
51
ENGLISH LANGUAGE CURRICULUM REFORM AT THE NATIONAL LEVEL:
A CASE OF INTENTIONS AND REALITIES IN VIETNAM
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
in
Linguistics
by
Thao Thi Vu
August 2020
DECLARATION
I certify that this work contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any
other degree or diploma in my name, in any university or other tertiary institution and, to the
best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously published or written by
another person, except where due reference has been made in the text. In addition, I certify
that no part of this work will, in the future, be used in a submission in my name, for any other
degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution without the prior approval of
the University of Adelaide and where applicable, any partner institution responsible for the
joint-award of this degree.
I give permission for the digital version of my thesis to be made available on the web, via
the University’s digital research repository, the Library Search and also through web search
engines, unless permission has been granted by the University to restrict access for a period
of time.
I acknowledge the support I have received for my research through the provision of an
Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship.
Signed
November 2020
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My heartfelt appreciation goes to my supervisors, Dr John Walsh and Dr William Winser,
for their continuous guidance, insightful comments and support during the past four years.
I am indebted to their scholarship, academic rigour, wisdom, time, passion and
encouragement. I was so fortunate and blessed to have had them as my supervisors. Both
the personal and professional conversations I had with them were valuable, fruitful and were
lifetime lessons both in education and in life. They challenged me to think, write, learn and
develop beyond what I thought I would be able to do. Without their patience, support and
inspiration, my PhD journey would not be as rewarding and fruitful as it has been.
I owe thanks to all of those who participated in this study for their generous sharing, insights
and participation, without which this dissertation would not be accomplished. I cannot
mention their names for ethical reasons, yet I wish to send them my deepest gratitude for
sharing the time with me in those lengthy interviews and classroom observations.
This work would not have been possible without the financial support from the Vietnamese
Government and the University of Adelaide. I am grateful to their generous support during
the past four years, without which this dissertation would not come into being. I would also
like to send my special regards to all the staff at the Linguistics Department, the University
of Adelaide, to Hai Duong Department of Education, local schools and students for their
valuable support at different stages of the study. My sincere gratitude goes to Professor
Hoang Van Van; the conversation with him provided me with insights and inspiration to
conduct this study.
To my friends and colleagues in room 915 Napier Building, thank you for being my friends,
sharing the fun moments with me in our cosy little office and the countless conversations
and ideas for life. I would really miss those days full of laughter, warmth and friendship.
I am indebted to all my colleagues and friends who patiently listened to and provided me
with understanding and encouragement. They made the past years much more enjoyable
and relaxing.
My whole-hearted dedication goes to my beloved families, to my Mum and Dad, whose love
and support have always been with me in whatever I pursue. A special thanks to my
husband, Trung Tam Doan, who always provides me with unending inspiration, who listens
to my problems, cheers me up and encourages me to become a better version of myself.
Thank you for being my caring husband, my life partner and my best friend.
iii
ABSTRACT
Globalisation and the global economy have become bywords in the new millennium. English
has become the lingua franca for increasing international trade and commerce, and the
spread, the reach, the creep of English has been an undeniable aspect of the phenomenon.
As a result, developing countries are under pressure to increase their numbers of competent
English users so as to improve national competitiveness and become participating
members in this commercial world. In response, significant efforts in numerous countries
have been dedicated to large-scale, heavily-invested reform projects aiming to bring about
radical change in English language curricula, materials, and pedagogies. Common to such
reform efforts has been a move towards Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), which
has generally been promoted as the approach to teaching and learning most likely to
produce the communicative English users require for commercial exchange.
Vietnam has recently taken the path of English language reform at the school level with the
Government allocating $US425 million to the initiative. Project 2020 was announced in 2008
with specific English language achievement targets to be met by 2020. As part of the reform,
the curriculum content was provided within a new textbook series and CLT was prescribed
as the pedagogy to deliver the curriculum. Project 2020 has provided the context and data
for this study.
The study focused on the reform at the lower-secondary level (Years 6 – 9) and used a
mixed methods research design to facilitate both quantitative and qualitative data analysis.
The data set comprise an online teacher survey (n=112), the official curriculum mandates
and textbooks, semi-structured interviews with teachers (n=11) and school principals (n=4),
as well as 28 recorded classroom observations in urban and rural schools.
The findings reveal that the intentions of the reform as expressed by MOET and the realities
of classroom implementation are currently at a distance from each other, evident in the
negative attitude of the teachers towards the feasibility of the curriculum goals and their
fragmented understanding of CLT principles and premises. The analysis of classroom
discourse provided evidence that classrooms were largely teacher-dominated, textbook-
based and had minimal student-to-student interactions, all of which were at odds with CLT.
To bridge the gap and deliver the communicative requirements of the nation, the study
argues for an approach to teaching and learning in sympathy with the socio-political and
cultural context in Vietnam, driven by a major focus on teacher professional development.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ..................................................................................................................... II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT....................................................................................................... III
ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................... IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................................... V
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................ IX
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................... X
LIST OF EXTRACTS........................................................................................................... XI
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................... XII
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 1
1.1. Background ........................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Research questions .............................................................................................. 5
1.3. Objectives of the study .......................................................................................... 6
1.4. Significance of the study ....................................................................................... 6
1.5. The structure of the thesis .................................................................................... 7
CHAPTER II: THE CONTEXT OF THE STUDY .................................................................. 9
2.1. Overview of the education system in Vietnam...................................................... 9
2.1.1. History ................................................................................................................... 9
2.1.2. The education system in Vietnam....................................................................... 13
2.1.3. The political-institutional context of education in Vietnam.................................. 13
2.1.4. The socio-cultural context of education in Vietnam ............................................ 15
2.1.5. Educational practices in Vietnam ........................................................................ 17
2.2. English language education in Vietnam ............................................................. 18
2.3. The Foreign Language Project 2020 .................................................................. 21
CHAPTER III: LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................. 27
3.1. Global English ..................................................................................................... 27
3.2. Native Speakers (NS) and Non-native Speakers (NNS) .................................... 29
3.3. The non-native English (NNS) teacher ............................................................... 31
3.4. National English language education policies .................................................... 34
3.4.1. The place of English in national schooling systems ........................................... 34
3.4.2. Current trends in English language education ................................................... 35
3.4.3. National approaches to curriculum reform .......................................................... 36
3.5. English language pedagogy................................................................................ 38
3.5.1. Methods and approaches in language pedagogy .............................................. 39
v
3.5.2. Developments in language pedagogy ................................................................ 40
3.6. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) ........................................................ 43
3.6.1. The background to CLT ...................................................................................... 43
3.6.2. Communicative competence ............................................................................... 46
3.6.3. Core principles of CLT ........................................................................................ 48
3.6.4. The role of grammar............................................................................................ 51
3.6.5. Different manifestations of CLT .......................................................................... 52
3.6.6. The global uptake of CLT in school curricula ..................................................... 53
3.6.7. Issues pertaining to CLT ..................................................................................... 55
CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................................. 60
4.1. Mixed-methods research design ......................................................................... 60
4.2. The present study................................................................................................ 62
4.3. Data collection ..................................................................................................... 64
4.3.1. The official curriculum documentation ................................................................ 65
4.3.2. The curriculum textbooks .................................................................................... 66
4.3.3. Research participants ......................................................................................... 68
4.3.4. The survey........................................................................................................... 69
4.3.5. Classroom observations...................................................................................... 70
4.3.6. Semi-structured interviews .................................................................................. 73
4.4. Data analysis ....................................................................................................... 75
4.4.1. Qualitative content analysis of the curriculum documents and interviews ......... 76
4.4.2. Integrated framework for textbook analysis ........................................................ 79
4.4.3. Resources from Systemic Functional Linguistics for the analysis of teacher
attitude and classroom discourse ....................................................................... 84
4.5. Legitimation of data quality and findings in mixed methods research ............... 97
4.6. Ethical considerations ....................................................................................... 100
4.6.1. Level of risk ....................................................................................................... 100
4.6.2. Confidentiality .................................................................................................... 101
4.6.3. Storage of data .................................................................................................. 101
4.7. Limitations of the study ..................................................................................... 102
CHAPTER V: INTENTIONS OF THE CURRICULUM REFORM.................................... 104
5.1. Statements of aims and objectives ................................................................... 104
5.2. Communicative competence ............................................................................. 106
5.3. CLT as the prescribed pedagogy ...................................................................... 107
5.4. Testing and assessment ................................................................................... 109
5.5. Prerequisites for curriculum implementation .................................................... 111
CHAPTER VI: THE NEW TEXTBOOK SERIES ............................................................. 113
6.1. Textbook publication ......................................................................................... 113
vi
6.1.1. Textbook package ............................................................................................. 113
6.1.2. Published form of the textbook ......................................................................... 114
6.1.3. Subdivision of the textbook ............................................................................... 114
6.2. Textbook design ................................................................................................ 116
6.2.1. Learning objectives ........................................................................................... 116
6.2.2. Principles of sequencing ................................................................................... 119
6.2.3. Types of language practice ............................................................................... 123
6.2.4. The targets within language practice ................................................................ 131
6.2.5. Participation ....................................................................................................... 132
6.2.6. Visual images in Tieng Anh .............................................................................. 133
CHAPTER VII: REALITIES OF THE CURRICULUM REFORM.................................... 143
7.1. Teacher Attitude ................................................................................................ 143
7.1.1. The necessity and feasibility of the new curriculum ......................................... 143
7.1.2. Attitude towards the new curriculum ................................................................. 145
7.2. Teacher understanding of CLT ......................................................................... 157
7.2.1. Teacher conceptualisation of CLT .................................................................... 158
7.2.2. Sources of teacher understanding .................................................................... 162
7.3. Classroom discourse analysis .......................................................................... 164
7.3.1. Class size and arrangement ............................................................................. 165
7.3.2. Pedagogic activities .......................................................................................... 167
7.3.3. Pedagogic relations ........................................................................................... 171
7.3.4. Pedagogic modalities ........................................................................................ 192
CHAPTER VIII: DISCUSSION ......................................................................................... 198
8.1. The intentions of the curriculum reform ............................................................ 199
8.1.1. The top-down model of reform .......................................................................... 200
8.1.2. The socio-political context of reform ................................................................. 203
8.2. The realities of the curriculum reform ............................................................... 204
8.2.1. Teacher attitude towards the curriculum reform ............................................... 205
8.2.2. Teacher understanding of CLT ......................................................................... 207
8.2.3. Professional development and support for teachers ........................................ 209
8.2.4. The realities of the English language classroom .............................................. 211
8.2.5. The textbook in action ....................................................................................... 215
8.3. Constraints to the implementation of the curriculum ........................................ 220
8.3.1. Conceptual constraints...................................................................................... 220
8.3.2. Macro-level constraints ..................................................................................... 222
8.3.3. Classroom-level constraints .............................................................................. 224
8.3.4. The question of ideology ................................................................................... 227
8.3.5. The ‘shadow’ industry ....................................................................................... 229
vii
CHAPTER IX: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .......................................... 231
9.1. Major findings .................................................................................................... 231
9.2. The proficiency targets ...................................................................................... 234
9.3. Structural changes ............................................................................................ 236
9.4. Implications for leadership ................................................................................ 238
9.5. Teacher professional development................................................................... 240
9.5.1. The need to understand the nature of CLT ...................................................... 241
9.5.2. Adapting as opposed to adopting CLT ............................................................. 241
9.6. The need for future research ............................................................................ 248
9.7. Concluding remarks .......................................................................................... 249
LIST OF REFERENCES ................................................................................................... 250
APPENDICES .................................................................................................................... 270
Appendix A. Teacher Survey............................................................................................ 270
Appendix B. Classroom Observation Protocol ................................................................. 277
Appendix C. Interview Protocols ...................................................................................... 281
Appendix D. Ethics Approval ............................................................................................ 284
Appendix E. Consent Form .............................................................................................. 285
Appendix F. Participant Information Sheet ...................................................................... 286
Appendix G. Sample Analysis .......................................................................................... 292
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1. Curriculum allocation for the English language program within Project 2020…...…. 20
Table 2.2. Language Proficiency Framework for Vietnam…………………………………….….……….. 20
Table 2.3. Targeted proficiency level for each level of schooling ……………………………….……... 21
Table 4.1. National English language policy documents at the lower-secondary level…..……. 58
Table 4.2. The units selected for the textbook analysis……………………………….……………………. 59
Table 4.3. Number of districts and schools using the new curriculum in 2017…………………….. 61
Table 4.4 Teacher demographics………………………………………………………………………………... 63
Table 4.5. The selected schools for classroom observations……………………………..………………65
Table 4.6. Interviewed teachers………………………………………………………………………………..……. 66
Table 4.7. Details of the school principals………………………………………………………………..……… 67
Table 4.8. An example of data coding…………………………………………………………..………………... 71
Table 4.9. Materials analysis………………………………………………………………………………………….. 72
Table 4.10. Aspects of classroom discourse analysis…………………………………….………………….. 83
Table 4.11. Types of criteria for trustworthiness………………………………………………………………… 88
Table 4.12. Summary of data and methods of data analyses………………………..……………………. 92
Table 5.1. Lexical search terms and occurrences……………………………………………..……………... 94
Table 5.2. Instructional hours within the new curriculum………………………………..………………… 95
Table 6.1. Development of themes and topics……………………………………………………………….. 106
Table 6.2. Number of texts and text-based activities in the Tieng Anh……………….……………. 115
Table 6.3. Classroom working arrangements………………………………………………………………… 118
Table 6.4. Images included in the Tieng Anh…………………………………………………………………. 119
Table 7.1. Teacher perception of student needs…………………………….……………………………... 129
Table 7.2. The need for the curriculum change……………………………………………………………. 129
Table 7.3. The achievability of the curriculum goals……………………………………….………………. 130
Table 7.4. Attitude types in teacher responses………………………………………………..…………….. 131
Table 7.5. Inscribed and invoked Appraisal instances in teacher responses……..……………... 131
Table 7.6. Example of Appraisal analysis……………………………………………………..……………….. 132
Table 7.7. Teacher understanding of CLT………………………………………………………………………142
Table 7.8. Details of selected lessons............................................................................................ …………..148
Table 7.9. Average size in the observed classrooms. …………………………………………………...…148
Table 7.10. Types of language practice …………………………………………………………………………150
Table 7.11. Number of individual and collaborative activities …………………………………………….151

Table 7.12. Exchange initiations ……………………………………………………………………………………..161
Table 7.13. Classroom talk …………………………………………………………………………………………….161
Table 7.14. Instructional and regulative exchanges ………………………………………………………….162

Table 7.15. Classroom participation ………………………………………………………………………………..165
Table 7.16. The use of English and Vietnamese ……………………………………………………………..170
Table 7.17 Textbook coverage………………………………………………………..……………...……………………173
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1. The research procedure ………………………………………………………………………..……….64
Figure 4.2. Language as a stratified model ………………….………………………………………………...…85
Figure 4.3. Co-tangential contextual circle ……………………..………………………………………………….86

Figure 4.4. The metafunctions ……………………….…………………………………………………………………87
Figure 4.5. Modelling language in context …………………………….…………………………………………..88
Figure 4.6. The subsystems of discourse semantics used for analysis ………….…………………..89
Figure 4.7. Basic system for Appraisal ……………………………………..………..…………………………….90
Figure 4.8. Dimensions of pedagogic register …………………………………………………..…...………….92

Figure 4.9. Pedagogic register in the language-in-context model ………….…………………………….92
Figure 4.10. Classroom participation and educational success ………………………..….………………..97
Figure 6.1. Learning objectives in Unit 2 Tieng Anh 7 ………………………………..……………………..116
Figure 6.2. An extract from the Book Map in Tieng Anh 7 ………………………………………………...117
Figure 6.3. A Closer Look 1, Tieng Anh 8 Unit 2 …………………..………………………………………...121
Figure 6.4. Skills 1, Tieng Anh 8 Unit 1 …………………………..……………………………………………..122
Figure 6.5. Types of learning activity in the Tieng Anh series …………….…………………………….123
Figure 6.6. Examples of mechanical vocabulary exercises ……………………………..………………..124

Figure 6.7. Examples of mechanical vocabulary exercises ……………………………………….……..125
Figure 6.8. Examples of mechanical grammar exercises .……………………………….………………..126
Figure 6.9. Examples of Pronunciation exercises ………………………………………..…………………..127
Figure 6.10. Meaningful practice with a focus on vocabulary and grammar …………………...…….128
Figure 6.11. Write an email, Tieng Anh 9 Unit 1 ……………………………………………..………………..130
Figure 6.12. Role play, Tieng Anh 8 Unit 1 ……………………………………………..………………………..130
Figure 6.13. Discussion, Tieng Anh 8 Unit 2 …………………………………..…………………………………130

Figure 6.14. The focus of language practice …………………………………..…………………………………131
Figure 6.15. A vocabulary exercise, Tieng Anh 6 Unit 1 ……………………….……………………………135
Figure 6.16. Image description task, Tieng Anh 9 Unit 1 ………………….…………………………………135

Figure 6.17. Real-life photographs used for illustration, Tieng Anh 9 Unit 2 ………………………...136
Figure 6.18. Real-life photographs used for illustration, Tieng Anh 8 Unit 3 ………….…………….136
Figure 6.19. Examples of the images used for decorative purposes, Tieng Anh 7 Unit 3 ………137
Figure 6.20. Visual with no connection to the learning task, Tieng Anh 9 Unit 2 ………...…………138
Figure 6.21. A well-labelled photograph, Tieng Anh 8 Unit 3 ………………………………………………139
Figure 6.22. A non-labelled photograph, Tieng Anh 8 Unit 3 ………………………………………………139
Figure 6.23. Examples of images that need better design, Tieng Anh 6 Unit 2 …………………….140
Figure 7.1. Typical classroom settings ……………………………………………………………………………166
Figure 7.2. A reading text, Lesson 4 ……………………………….………………………………………………194
Figure 7.3. A grammar exercise, Lesson 5 ……………………..………………………………………………194
Figure 8.1. Change agent relationships: top-down model …………..……………………………………201
x
LIST OF EXTRACTS
Extract 1 Lesson 3...……………………………………………………………………………..……….……………..163
Extract 2 Lesson 6..……………………………………………………………………..…………….…………………163
Extract 3 Lesson 2……..………………………………………………………….……….…………………..………..165
Extract 4 Lesson 3……..………………………………………………..……………..……………….………………..165
Extract 5 Lesson 1……..…………………………………………………….………..………………….………………166
Extract 6 Lesson 6……..……………………………………………..……………..………………….……………..…167
Extract 7 Lesson 6……..…………………………………………………………..…………………….…………..……

167
Extract 8 Lesson 4……..…………………………………..………………..…………………….………………..……168
Extract 9 Lesson 1……..……………………………………………….……..……………………….…………..……168
Extract 10 Lesson 2……..…………………………………………………..………………………….…………………170
Extract 11 Lesson 5……..………………………………………………....…………………………….…………………

170
Extract 12 Lesson 5……..………………………………………………..……………………………………..…………170
Extract 13 Lesson 2……..…………………………..…………………………….………………………………………171
Extract 14 Lesson 4……..…………………………..………………………………………………..……….………… 173
Extract 15 Lesson 4……..……………………………..……………………………..…….……………………………..174
Extract 16 Lesson 4……..………………………..………………………………….…….……………………………..174
Extract 17 Lesson 1……………………………..……………………………….……….……………………………..…177
Extract 18 Lesson 2……..………………………..………………………………….…….………………………………179
Extract 19 Lesson 2……..…………………………..………………………………..…….………………………….…179
Extract 20 Lesson 3……..………………………..……………………………………….…………………………………… 180
Extract 21 Lesson 2……..………………………..……………………………………….……………………..………………182
Extract 22 Lesson 4……..…………………………..………………………………………………………….…………….… 182
Extract 23 Lesson 1…..……………………………..……………………………………..……………………….………..… 183
Extract 24 Lesson 3…..…………………………..……………………………………………………………………… 183
xi
APEC Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation

ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations
CALL Computer-assisted language learning
CEFR Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning,
Teaching and Assessment
CLT Communicative Language Teaching
DOET Department of Education and Training
EAL English as an Additional Language
EFL English as a Foreign Language
ELT English Language Teaching
ESL English as a Second Language
ICT Information and Communication Technology
L1 First Language
L2 Second Language
MOET The Ministry of Education and Training
NNS Non-native speaker
NS Native speaker
SFL Systemic Functional Linguistics
UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
WTO World Trade Organisation
xii
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background
I was born and went to school in Vietnam. My memories of seven years of English
language study at school are mostly of rote learning and reciting lists of vocabulary,
grammatical rules and sentence structures in mechanical practices entirely
disconnected from authentic contexts of use. The curriculum intention was to
prepare the ‘best’ of English language students to pass the highly competitive
grammar-based written examination for university entry. Our classroom reality was
a grammar-based process of teaching which enabled precisely the kind of learning
suited to the examination requirements. On reflection, I would consider that there
was little difference between the intention of the English language curriculum and
the reality within our classrooms.
I was one of those lucky enough to pass the examination. However, despite having
a repertoire of grammatical and lexical resources, I had little idea of how to draw on
these resources to speak, listen or write in English above the sentence level. I was
unable to relate my passive knowledge of language form to any context in which I
was required to actively negotiate meanings. I could not perform basic
communicative functions, and I lacked productive skills and strategies. In sum, I
lacked any real communicative competence.
Whilst majoring in English at university, I began to understand the function of English

as fundamentally an instrument of communication to achieve various real-life
communicative purposes. I became aware that learning a language meant that I
should be able to do things with the language – as Halliday (1993) proposed,
learning through language as well as learning about language. I have now
graduated through the education system and am professionally involved in English
language education in my home province in the north of Vietnam. As part of my
professional role, I regularly visit schools and classrooms. Twenty years on from my
personal learning experiences, I witness the same and similar classrooms as my
own. I see school students who are ‘structurally competent’ English language
learners, but ‘communicatively incompetent’ in their ability to use the language they
have been learning for years.
1
Whilst there are a range of reasons why students across Vietnam engage in learning
English, the most obvious is that English is now a mandated school subject for
compulsory education, a national response to the perceived global importance of
the language. English has become the undisputed language of science and
technology, and beyond any doubt, the chosen language of international
communication and, thus, the linguistic vehicle for globalisation. Strongly implicated
in capitalist discourses of global economic development, English is widely accepted
as “the way of securing economic advancement, elevated status, prestige and trans-
national mobility” (Singh, Kell, & Pandian, 2002, p. 53). In Vietnam, English has
become increasingly important since the country began to open to the West in the
last decade of the 20th century. The growing status of English as a lingua franca,
coupled with the country’s entry into multiple regional and international
organisations, has created a pressing need for national English competence in
education, employment, tourism and business, not only for communication with
native English speakers but also with many more non-native speakers of English
(G. Simons, 2018). English is seen as an instrumental, pragmatic and commercial
tool for global integration as well as for the enhancement of the country’s
competitiveness in the international economic and political arena (R. Kirkpatrick &
Bui, 2016; H. Nguyen, 2011; N. T. Nguyen, 2017).
In consideration of the clear economic advantage and necessity of English

proficiency for its citizens, as in most Asian countries, the Vietnamese Government
has initiated language policies to enhance the English abilities of its citizens. During
the 1990s, English was adopted as a compulsory school subject, and quickly
became the most dominant foreign language taught and learnt in schools and
tertiary institutions (Le, 2007; X. V. Nguyen, 2002). However, despite this investment
in time and resources for English language education, English teaching and learning
in Vietnamese schools over this period was sustained by traditional textbooks and
traditional teachers, with a belief in grammar and vocabulary as the best way to
prepare students for the unchanging “formal, discrete-point, high-stakes tests and
examinations” (Burns & Knox, 2005, p. 256). As a result, the great majority of
Vietnamese school leavers graduated with limited communicative skills, unable to
use English for communication. I count myself as one of these students. The
teaching and learning of English at that time was no preparation for participation in
the global economy and the perceived benefits it would bring.
2
The demand for improving the standard of English teaching and learning has
become increasingly critical and obvious with the inexorable advance of
globalisation, so that young Vietnamese citizens are now required to be equipped
with English language proficiency for both personal and national participation in the
global economy. It has been widely accepted that without major changes and input
to curriculum and pedagogy, English teaching in Vietnam will fail to effectively serve
the demands being made on it (Hoang, 2011).
In response to the economic imperative and approximately two decades of little

progress towards addressing the issue, the Vietnamese Government launched a
major language initiative in 2008, entitled “Teaching and Learning Foreign
Language Education in the National Education System in the Period 2008-2020”,
which has come to be known as Project 2020. The stated aim is to “renovate the
teaching and learning of foreign languages within the national education system”
(Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung, 2008, p. 1). Project 2020 is a mandated reform
of English language curriculum and pedagogy at the national level. Within the goals
of this ten-year program, school graduates at the end of Year 12 are expected to
reach Proficiency Level B1 adapted from the Common European Framework of
Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching and Assessment – CEFR (Council of
Europe, 2001). At the lower-secondary level, which is the focus of this study, the
curriculum target is Proficiency Level A2.
The reform within Project 2020 is of great significance in Vietnam, as the future
economic wellbeing and success of the nation has been entrusted in no small part
to the English language capabilities of its citizens. These globally participating
citizens of the future are the school children of today and so it is crucial that the
educational reform is successful. However, the challenge is enormous, with
approximately 27,000 primary and secondary schools across the country, more than
60,000 English language teachers, and approximately 16 million students in these
schools (General Statistics Office of Vietnam, 2017). Project 2020 is still relatively
new, and at the time of writing, it is being rolled out in some parts of the country.
It is salient to note that whilst Project 2020 is an innovation in English language

teaching and learning in Vietnam, the notion of English curriculum reform is not a
new phenomenon in countries where English is a second or foreign language,
including near neighbours of Vietnam. Perhaps motivated by the same economic
incentives, several other countries, for example, China, Japan, South Korea,
3
Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan, Turkey and Libya, have each made concerted
renovations and innovations in curriculum and materials development, teacher
training, pedagogy, evaluation and assessment, all with the prime goal of improving
English proficiency across specific populations (Kam, 2002; Nunan, 2003; Spolsky
& Sung, 2015). Consistent across these national curriculum policies has been a
discursive positioning of citizens as proficient English users who contribute
significantly to the country’s competitive edge in the global community. These
countries have had policies of making English available, often as a compulsory
school subject, and have allocated significant budgets for English language
education reform in their schooling systems. Common to such reform efforts has
been a shift towards a Communicative Language Teaching approach (CLT). A
similar pathway has been adopted in Vietnam within Project 2020. This makes
perfect sense given the history of communicative incompetence amongst
Vietnamese students as described above. Within Project 2020, great emphasis has
been placed on enhancing student communicative competence, with new curricula
and a new series of textbooks designed for the three levels of schooling from Year
3 to Year 12, all adhering to the principles of Communicative Language Teaching
(CLT) as part of a learner-centred pedagogy.
Project 2020 comprises a relatively standard scope and sequence of English

language content across the ten-year period. The vehicle for this curriculum content
is a new set of textbooks, Tieng Anh (translated as ‘the English Language’), whilst
the underlying pedagogic principles are based in CLT. All of these elements are part
of what the Government of Vietnam considers curriculum reform, so that curriculum
incorporates the content to be taught and learned, the materials used to achieve
these and also, importantly, the approach to teaching and learning that is prescribed
to achieve these outcomes. In this way, the curriculum reform embraces the content,
the materials and the pedagogy. In different contexts, these terms are used
differently. Elsewhere, pedagogy is used to refer to how the curriculum content is
enacted within classrooms. In this way, pedagogy takes on a distinct and critical
place in the education process, where curriculum may be viewed as the ‘what’ is to
be taught and learned, and pedagogy is seen as how the teaching and learning is
to take place. This distinction is important in this study because the focus here is not
so much on the content of the curriculum; rather, it is on the materials and perhaps
most importantly, on the pedagogy.
4
The core aim of the study has been to look closely at the rollout of the reform to
date. One part of the research has been to describe and analyse what was intended
and initiated by the government agency in Vietnam responsible for policy
development and implementation, that is the Ministry of Education and Training
(MOET). Another part was to analyse and interpret how the reform was perceived,
understood and enacted by practitioners at the local level. The research effort was
to document the intentions of the reform at the policy level and realities of the reform
at the classroom level. The overarching aim was to contribute to the body of
knowledge relating to Project 2020 as an important national step towards
international and global participation.
To inform the factors inherent in the curriculum renewal, the study examines the
intentions of the policymakers for English teaching and learning at the lower-
secondary level, evident in the policy documents published by MOET. This is
supported by a critical analysis of the new curriculum materials, the Tieng Anh
textbook series as the concrete manifestation of the curriculum intentions. This
offers understanding of how CLT is made concrete in language input and classroom
activities as the means of supporting students to achieve the curriculum goals. It is
important to note that the content of the curriculum, its scope, grading and
sequencing in the Tieng Anh textbooks is not central to the research. The key
interest is not so much the ‘what’ of the curriculum, but rather the ‘how’, that is the
CLT approach which is prescribed to deliver the curriculum content. To understand
the realities of practice at the local level, the study explores what teachers know
about the 2020 reform and how they feel about it, based on the view that changes
in teacher attitude and understanding of the curriculum and pedagogy are “the
foundation of achieving lasting reform” (Fullan, 2007, p. 37). Another key focus of
the research is on pedagogy, how teachers go about teaching the curriculum
content. Insights into practices of CLT are informed by an analysis of classroom
discourse drawn from recordings of teachers and students working with the new
curriculum materials. The voices of other stakeholders at the local level are also
sought, including school leaders, as a means to understand a range of perspectives
towards the change, especially the preparations made for the change to occur.
1.2. Research questions
At a broad level, the study aims to contribute to the understanding of the intentions
and realities of English language curriculum renewal within Project 2020 in Vietnam,
5
with a specific focus on lower-secondary education. In particular, the study seeks to
inform the following research questions:
1. What are the intentions of the policymakers for English language teaching
and learning in lower-secondary schools as expressed through official
documentation of the reform?
2. How are these intentions made explicit in the fit-for-purpose textbook series,
Tieng Anh?
3. How are the intentions manifest in the reality of lower-secondary
classrooms?
3.1. How do the teachers evaluate the new curriculum – how do they
appraise it?
3.2. What do the teachers understand of the new curriculum and its
pedagogic underpinnings?
3.3. How do the teachers go about enacting the proposed reforms in their
classrooms?
1.3. Objectives of the study
The study aims to address these questions in the context of different school
environments in one northern province of Vietnam. Accordingly, it:
1. establishes the intentions of policymakers for teaching and learning English

in lower-secondary schools as expressed through the curriculum
documentation;
2. analyses the accompanying textbook series to explore how the curriculum
intentions were made explicit;
3. examines the implementation of the curriculum by analysing and interpreting:
3.1. teacher attitudes towards the reform;
3.2. teacher understandings of the new curriculum and its pedagogic
underpinnings;
3.3. teaching and learning in selected English language classrooms.
The study aims to provide insights into the complicated process of educational
change at a national level and the vantage points of the different participants
involved in such change. It aspires to be of hands-on significance to teachers and
6
students in Vietnam who are directly involved in the process of teaching and learning
English in the classroom. It also wishes to be of significance to the policymakers,
curriculum designers and relevant government authorities in Vietnam who may
potentially use the study to refine practices and processes for the benefit of all
stakeholders. Practical implications in the light of the findings provide a starting point
for considering what worked for teachers in practice as well as for setting new
targets as part of ongoing reform.
Additionally, the findings drawn from this study may be compared to similar English
language curriculum reform contexts, allowing for the transferability of findings to
other settings. The project may be useful as a source of reference for interested
readers who are facing similar issues in the implementation of curriculum renewal,
especially in Asian contexts. It may also serve as a useful source of reference for
those who are interested in processes and practices of educational change,
especially at the level of classroom discourse. .
The study adds to the extensive literature on CLT by offering a systematic review of
the communicative approach from its early days to its current developments and
manifestations. It provides empirical evidence of CLT in English language
classrooms, shedding light on the practicality of CLT at the classroom level in one
particular context. A number of suggestions and recommendations are made with
regard to addressing the gaps between the intentions and the realities of the reform,
in the hope of supporting the achievement of the national goals which are critically
important to the lives of all Vietnamese citizens.
1.5. The structure of the thesis
Chapter II details the context of the study, beginning with a sketch of Vietnam’s
education system, followed by an historical account of English language education
in the country, detailing the current issues and debates about the teaching and
learning of English. Chapter III reviews the literature relevant to the focus of the
study, and the research gap within which this thesis is located. It identifies the
underlying forces behind the policy direction of the Vietnamese Government’s
national plan to develop the English language capacity of its young citizens. This is
followed by a review of the literature on Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
at the heart of the policy, its background, principles, development and contentious
issues based on both theoretical and practical grounds. Chapter IV outlines the
7
research methodology, specifying the design, methods of data collection and
analytical frameworks for the analyses and interpretation of each type of data. The
research findings are presented in the subsequent three chapters, V, VI and VII,
each providing a response to one of the research questions posed above. Chapter
VIII then discusses the meaning, significance and relevance of the research findings
in relation to the literature previously reviewed in Chapter III and the context of the
study. It also specifies the implications both from theoretical and practical vantage
points. Chapter IX provides a summary of the study findings and concluding
remarks. It also includes the limitations of the study and suggestions for further study
into other aspects and issues of the English language educational reform for schools
in Vietnam.
8
CHAPTER II: THE CONTEXT OF THE STUDY
Vietnam is a one-party Communist state of approximately 90 million citizens, a

coastal country in peninsular Southeast Asia bordered by China, Laos and
Cambodia. In the 20th century, Vietnam witnessed seismic structural and political
changes on its way to establishing itself as an independent country, The Socialist
Republic of Vietnam, in 1975. In the 21st century, Vietnam is regarded globally as
an economic success, a country which has emerged from a troubled past to take its
place in the world, albeit within a communist regime. The economic growth has
fuelled significant changes across many sectors of society, with education being
one. This is the political context of the country which in important ways impacts on
the structure and operation of Vietnamese society, labelled in the study as the socio-
political context.
As a way of contextualising the study, a brief overview of Vietnam’s education

system is given, followed by a historical account of English language education in
the country, detailing the current issues and debates about the teaching and
learning of English language in Vietnamese schools. Project 2020, the national
English language reform for school education outlined in Chapter I, and the focus of
the study, is detailed as part of this discussion.
2.1. Overview of the education system in Vietnam
2.1.1. History
Vietnam is a multilingual country with 54 ethnic groups, of which approximately 86%

are Vietnamese, with ethnic minorities comprising the remainder (National Bureau
of Statistics, 2019). Administratively, Vietnam is divided into 63 provinces governed
centrally from Hanoi via provincial capitals. As stipulated in the constitution of the
Socialist Republic of Vietnam, the Vietnamese language is the national language
and is also the lingua franca of the country, used as the medium of instruction in
schools (The National Assembly of Vietnam, 2013).
The historical lineage of officially recorded education in Vietnam stretches back over
a thousand years with major influences on education including Confucianism,
colonialism and the anti-colonial struggle, post-colonial state formation, and most
9
recently, the development of a state-dominated market economy within a Marxist-
Leninist political framework. Changes in Vietnam’s education over time have been
both radical and momentous, responding to and affecting major social, political and
economic change.
Chinese colonisation for almost one thousand years from 111 B.C. to 939 A.D., saw
intellectual activity in Vietnam reflect a blend of Confucianism, Taoism and
Buddhism, which “were intertwined, simplified, and assimilated into Vietnamese
animistic beliefs” (Le, 2011, p. 10). The Chinese influence was manifest in the use
of written Chinese as the language of the state, the development of a Confucian
scholar class, and the establishment of formal examinations for the recruitment and
regulation of dynastic bureaucracies (H. L. Pham & Fry, 2004; Tran, 2004). Although
the majority of Vietnamese people claimed to be Buddhists, they adopted the
hierarchical principle of Confucianism as the moral and social code of conduct.
Vietnamese architecture, arts, aesthetic values, educational philosophies and
practices all adhered to Confucian doctrines. This is the socio-cultural context of
Vietnam. Confucian ideas and institutions promoted and reproduced hierarchies of
power, wealth, of social status and of different roles for men and women in the family
and in society (T. M. P. Nguyen, Jin, & Gross, 2013; Penner & Anh, 1977). Girls and
women were largely excluded from formal education and social roles as they were
mostly expected to learn and perform “certain virtues of feminine behaviour”, such
as cooking and sewing, and submit to male authority (London, 2011, p. 8).
Confucian values had a strong impact on the development of Vietnam’s education
system, the legacies of which remain today. During this period, education was
intended for the elite class, with the result that only a small number of people were
involved in formal studies. Limited access to education among women and the poor,
coupled with the challenge of mastering the Chinese writing system resulted in the
vast majority of Vietnamese people remaining functionally illiterate (Wright, 2002).
French colonisation from the end of the nineteenth century transformed Vietnamese
institutions, including those governing education. The French authorities undertook
a restructuring of the country’s school system by focusing on the acquisition of
French language as part of colonisation. The French-style educational system was
also reserved for an elite and was accessible to only a small cohort, essentially the
children of the French colonists and those Vietnamese who were trained to become
functionaries in the colonial administration system. Girls were allowed to attend
10
schools in which French and a Romanised Vietnamese script, called Quoc Ngu,
were used as the media of instruction. According to Wright (2002, p. 231), 3% of
the population attended school in 1941 colonial Vietnam; most of those enrolled
only for three years, a level that could neither guarantee full literacy in Quoc Ngu
nor competence in French.
The illiteracy rate remained high during the independence struggle against the
French as war placed great limits on opportunities for any quality of education
across all regions of the country. After the declaration of independence in 1945, the
communist-led Government announced a strong commitment to a fully literate
population through compulsory basic schooling at the primary level. In October
1945, President Ho Chi Minh urged the entire population to fight against illiteracy,
based on the philosophy that ‘an ignorant nation is a weak nation’. The Government
officially established free, basic education for the masses, and at the same time, set
up regular night classes for illiterate farmers and urban sailors. Literacy was to be
in the national language – Vietnamese, and Quoc Ngu was used as the official
writing script. In less than a year, it was estimated that more than 2.5 million people
had reached a functional level of literacy (UNESCO & MOET, 2015).
Between 1954 and 1975, American military involvement in the south of Vietnam
began another period of war, resulting in a formally divided Vietnam. During this
period of two Vietnams, the country experienced the formation of two States with
two separate education systems. The education system in the north, administered
by the Communist Party, was inspired by the Soviet model, focusing on the
perceived requirements for the wartime situation and reconstruction. As a result of
the alliance with Russia and its Soviet satellites, Russian became the dominant
foreign language taught and learnt in North Vietnam. In the South, administered by
American-supported goverments, American standards were adopted, focusing on a
broad practical curriculum. English was the popular language of communication
among the Southern Vietnamese elite. However, war and the increasing chaos it
brought gradually eroded the education system before the official collapse of the
South in 1975.
In the post-war period after unification in 1975, a single national education system
was established despite severe financial constraints and foreign trade embargos.
The year 1986, known as Doi Moi (Open Door Policy, or Innovation), marked a
milestone in Vietnam’s transition from a centrally planned socialist economy to an
11
open market economy. Doi Moi was launched as an urgent response to the demise
of the Soviet bloc, and the urgent need to lift the country out of economic malaise,
famine, limited foreign trade and a high illiteracy rate by implementing open-door
policies with other countries (Bui & Nguyen, 2016; N. T. Nguyen, 2017). The policy
entailed economic liberalisation and brought about radical changes in all aspects of
society (X. Nguyen, Roemmele, & Robert, 2013; Q. Truong & Vuong, 2002). In this
context of change, the education system was seen to be failing to keep pace with
the new demands of the labour market. The emphasis in education at the time,
according to T. H. T. Pham (2011) was “to imbue students with nationalism and
human dignity” (p. 215). The curriculum was mainly centred around Confucian
classics, ancient poetry, Vietnamese history and military tactics. Practical sciences
were devalued and ignored, leading to a serious shortage of competent workers
when Vietnam began the process of economic integration and entered regional and
international organisations, such as the Association of South-East Asian Countries
(ASEAN) in 1995, Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) in 1998, and later the
World Trade Organisation (WTO) in 2007. It was estimated that only 15% to 20% of
the labour force had sufficient training and skills to meet the requirements
demanded by this integration (T. H. T. Pham, 2011).
After more than 30 years of reform, Vietnam is now entering a period of rapid social
and economic development with increasing production and a rising standard of
living. Economic growth reached an average annual rate of 6.67% in 2015 and 7.1%
in 2018 (World Bank, 2019). Although still defined as a developing nation, the
country has witnessed remarkable advances in science and technology, along with
an explosion of the market economy. These are the drivers behind the national need
for a more efficient workforce in terms of knowledge and professional skills.
Education, in the context of this radical socio-economic shift, is considered by the
Government as a ‘top national priority’, a ‘national strategy’ for the development of
the nation. Vietnam’s leaders have acknowledged the importance of the knowledge
economy and expressed a strong commitment to providing equitable access to
“education for all”.
Education has been an integral part of Vietnam’s history, and in the context of
contemporary society, it remains central to the national identity and aspirations for
the future of the nation. These hopes for the future sit alongside the fact that values
12
and beliefs from earlier periods are held close in the hearts and minds of the
Vietnamese people.
2.1.2. The education system in Vietnam
The Vietnamese education system is comprised of the three sectors of early

childhood education, basic education and higher education. Early childhood
education includes nursery, kindergarten and pre-school for children under six years
of age. Basic education covers primary education from Years 1-5 for children aged
6-11, lower-secondary education from Years 6-9 for children aged 12-15, and upper-
secondary education from Years 10-12 for students aged 16-18. At the end of upper-
secondary schooling, students undertake a national examination to gain a School
Completion Diploma to enter higher education institutions. At both the lower and
upper-secondary levels, there are ‘Normal’ schools for the majority of students. A
category of ‘Specialised’ schools or ‘Selective’ schools service approximately the
top 5% of students with the highest academic achievement. Because of the
restricted number of places, it is highly competitive to gain entry to these schools,
which is mostly based on academic records and achievement at lower levels. At
Selective upper-secondary schools, more instructional hours are devoted to
specialised subjects, such as maths, physics, English, and literature, while
supplementary materials in addition to mandated textbooks are also used. Students
in these schools are often under pressure to gain and maintain high academic
achievement and class rankings, a result of the expectations of the school, their
teachers and their parents. The outcome of this two-tier organisation is a highly
competitive system, with a strong focus on high stakes examinations at the upper
level. Status and rewards are afforded to the most successful students in the
system, and this creates a ‘backwash’ effect at lower levels, where a culture of
competition and success or failure in examinations is also promoted. As a
consequence of this competitive examination culture, parents and students are
motivated to engage with private tutoring outside of the formal education system
and a ‘shadow’ industry of after-hours and weekend tutoring flourishes.
2.1.3. The political-institutional context of education in Vietnam
The organisational context of education in Vietnam is grounded in two central sets

of interrelated structures: the bureaucratic and the political (D. T. Truong & Hallinger,
2017).
13
The bureaucratic structure of education is embodied in hierarchic lines of authority
and operates at three levels. The Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) serves
as the highest-level administrative agency responsible for national education policy
and the operation of the national system of schools. MOET’s responsibilities include
the drafting of education plans and strategies, the management of human and
financial resources in education, and the formulation of law and policies, which are
to be approved by the National Assembly in accordance with the directives of the
Communist Party of Vietnam. MOET holds centralised power in curriculum
development, determining the goals and content of the national school curricula,
their syllabi and mandated textbooks for national use. It also plays a leading role in
student admission regulations, student assessment policies and the administration
of the national university entrance examination. At the local level, the system is
decentralised with provincial and district levels charged with the implementation and
management of MOET’s policies and resources. Provincial Departments of
Education and Training (DOETs) are responsible for the direct oversight of upper-
secondary education in each province, while the more localised district-level offices
govern kindergarten, primary and lower-secondary schools and report to the
provincial DOET. In this way, the organisation of education across the country is
highly organised in a centralised system in which decisions made within the MOET
bureaucracy are accepted by all levels within the system. In line with the Vietnamese
socio-political system, this is standard and normalised practice for the administration
and management of all national services. From a different vantage point, it would
be described as a ‘top-down’ organisational structure.
Education in Vietnam is also highly politicised. The constitution of the Socialist

Republic of Vietnam grants a leading role to the Communist Party as the sole
representative of the State, people and society (London, 2011; D. T. Truong,
Hallinger, & Sanga, 2016). The role of the Communist Party is formally embedded
in the decision-making structures of the education system. At all levels, the
Communist Party Committee (CPC) is empowered as the supreme political body in
the direction and management of all school practices. Educational administrators
and school principals hold the formal title of “Government Officer”, and are the
Government and CPC representatives at all educational levels (D. T. Truong &
Hallinger, 2017; Q. Truong, 2013). Decision making at all levels of education has,
according to Q. Truong and Vuong (2002), been dominated by “bureaucratic,
familial, conservative and authoritarian styles of management” (p. 45). All workers
14
in the education system, with or without political affiliation, are expected to obey and
implement the policies and directives of the CPC. Other aligned political
organisations, such as the Communist Youth Union and the Labour Union, are
active in all schools and educational institutions.
In an effort to respond to global trends in educational management in recent years,

Vietnam has sought to decentralise governance in education, aiming to increase
“grass-roots democracy and staff participation in school management” (D. T. Truong
& Hallinger, 2017, p. 543). However, a number of studies have concluded that the
bureaucratic and political lines of authority and power in decision making remain
largely unchanged, marking policymaking in educationas clearly controlled from the
centre (London, 2010; D. T. Truong et al., 2016; Q. Truong, 2013).
2.1.4. The socio-cultural context of education in Vietnam
Cultural values are commonly evidenced in the social norms and beliefs about what
is proper, accepted, right and fair by members of a social group or a society
(Hofstede, 1980, 2001). These values are transmitted cross-generationally and
serve as models for desirable behaviour at home, at school and in communities. In
Vietnam, it is true to say that Confucian values have remained pervasive and visible
not only in the conduct of social relations, but also in educational processes and
practices (Borton, 2000; D. T. Truong et al., 2016). These values have shaped the
Vietnamese culture which has been typically characterised as functioning with high
levels of power distance and collectivism (Hallinger, Walker, & Trung, 2015).
The concept of power distance is defined by Hofstede (2001) as “the extent to which
the less powerful members of institutions and organisations within a country expect
and accept that power is distributed unequally” (p. 98). Hofstede developed a power
distance index, within which high power distance led to the expectation that
differences in power were visible and marked in behaviour, and expressed in a
subordinate-superior relationship (Bjørge, 2007; Bochner & Hesketh, 1994).
Vietnam scores highly on this power distance index, a finding which has been
attributed to Confucian teachings about patriarchy, gender, age, social roles and
status, all of which rationalise and legitimise the hierarchic organisation of society
(D. T. Truong et al., 2016). In the family, children are expected to obey their parents.
In school, students are expected to respect and obey their teachers. Old age is a
symbol of wisdom and knowledge rather than frailty. Vietnamese people traditionally
15
value absolute obedience of and respect towards parents, elders, teachers and
managers. As Q. Truong and Vuong (2002) commented, this high power distance
is reflected in clear subordinate-superior relationships at home, at school and in the
workplace. The influence of hierarchy is revealed in how people use language to
enact social relationships and fulfil their roles in the family and in society (Borton,
2000; Jamieson, 1995). A simple example is in the vocative pronouns always used
in Vietnamese to address older people and those of higher social standing, where
the pronouns are used to indicate respect.
In education, the Education Law (National Assembly of Vietnam, 2019) included the
explicit goal “to teach students how to respect, love and show good behaviour
towards grandparents, parents, teachers, and elderly persons; love their brothers,
sisters and friends” (ch. 1, art. 23). This clear statement of Confucian values has
been translated not only into school curricula and materials, but has also determined
the expected roles and relationships of teachers and students in classrooms (Le,
2011; London, 2011). The teacher is viewed as the holder and transmitter of
knowledge, the “primary knower” (Berry, 1981) from a linguistic perspective. The
teacher is also the model of morality, is highly respected by students and parents,
and is accorded high status in the community. This respect for teachers is reflected
in a motto which can be found in every school: “Tiên học lễ hậu học văn”, translated
as “First learn to behave, then learn the knowledge” (Le, 1999). These cultural
values have traditionally been most clearly evident in the teacher-centred pedagogy,
and in the rote learning, recitation and memorisation as the optimal learning
strategies for students which have been the hallmark of Vietnamese classrooms
(Le, 2011; T. H. T. Pham, 2011).
Collectivism has been a prevalent trait of Vietnamese culture throughout its history
and is characterised by an emphasis on harmony, cooperation, unity and conformity
(Hofstede, 1980; Park, Rehg, & Lee, 2005; Ralston, Nguyen, & Napier, 1999). Again
influenced by Confucianism which conceives of an individual as part of a group or
community rather than as a separate or unique being (Yao & Yao, 2000), building
harmony within family and society has been a core value. In a collectivist society,
Vietnamese people strive to demonstrate “a strong sense of familial affiliation and
community spirit” (D. T. Truong & Hallinger, 2017, p. 544). Unlike more
individualistic societies which foster identification and individuation of its citizens,
Vietnamese people tend to discourage conflicts which might threaten group
16
harmony. In the classroom, students are judged to be rude if they interrupt, question,
or challenge their teacher, as this would violate not only the asymmetric teacher-
student relationship but also undermine group harmony.
Collectivism is also reflected in the concept of “losing face”. As noted by Borton

(2000), “loss of face is painful in any society, but unbearable in Vietnam” (p. 24).
From childhood, children are socialised to hold “communal assessment” as the
highest standard (D. T. Truong & Hallinger, 2016, p. 544). Success achieved by an
individual brings honour and pride to the family or the community (V. B. Pham,
1999). Misconduct or failure on the part of an individual is the responsibility not only
of the individual, but also of her/his parents. “Losing face” is clearly reflected in
parents’ expectations of their children to perform well at school, defined most clearly
by high achievement in tests and examinations.
It is important to note that both the political and the cultural contexts and their
interrelationship have an important bearing on this study. The concentration of
political and positional authority reflects the obvious orientation of Vietnamese
education administration towards a top-down, centralised model. The Communist
Party leadership holds absolute power in deliberating strategic issues at the central
and local levels, leaving “little room for bottom-up participation and grass-roots
contributions” (Q. Truong, 2013, p. 4). Within this bureaucratic and political
structure, it is normalised that educational and curriculum reform is to be shaped
from the top. In terms of cultural traditions, Confucian values have shaped and
defined educational processes and practices as well as the desired roles and
relationships which pertain between the teacher and the student in Vietnamese
classrooms.
2.1.5. Educational practices in Vietnam
Education in Vietnam has traditionally been knowledge-centred, where the textbook

as the manifestation of the curriculum and the teacher determine the knowledge to
be acquired (Le, 2011; London, 2010). As noted, the legacies of Confucianism are
still to be found in the high value and respect for education throughout society as
“the significant symbolic capital for social and economic upward mobility” (Le, 2019,
p. 8). Confucian values about education, including the traditional relationship
between teacher and learner, in combination with the collectivist foundations of the
culture, shape the tenor of Vietnamese classrooms. These values are reflected in
17
the asymmetric teacher-student relationship which supports teacher-centred
approaches and a highly structured curriculum. Underpinned by behaviourist
stimulus-response patterns and rote learning, the educational system expects
students to obey their teachers and to work hard at the tasks provided. Little
attention has ever been given to the development of critical thinking which,
according to V. H. Nguyen (2002), “was of no avail in a system based on absolute
respect of books” (p. 293). Moreover, an examination-oriented system with a heavy
emphasis on rote learning and memorisation has normalised passive strategies in
school students (Le, 2011).
A governmental effort to shift from this inherent system of ‘passive knowledge

transmission’ to more active and critical ways of thinking and learning was initiated
in a ten-year master plan for educational development in 2000. In relation to English
language, this was made explicit in the national curriculum reform of 2002
characterised by the promotion of student-centred learning. This curriculum reform
was expected to pave the way for the decline of Confucian philosophical influences
on education. However, the outcomes were modest, primarily because the
traditional teaching and learning culture with its deep-seated values, tried and
trusted for more than a thousand years, was not eroded nor diminished (T. H. T.
Pham, 2011).
One review concluded that typical educational practices in Vietnamese schools

could be characterised as having “top-down inflexible management, ideology-driven
curricula rigidity, teacher-centred teaching, product-oriented assessment, outdated
materials, and limited teaching research” (Le, 2015, p. 183). This was a damning
condemnation of schools. Another, London (2011), argued that whilst rapid
economic growth permitted increases in the scale and scope of formal schooling in
Vietnam, there had been a prevailing sense that the current education system was
inadequate to the country’s need for integration into the globalised world. For years,
there had been debates and anxieties about the education system concerning the
provision of expenditure, accessibility, equity across regions and disadvantaged
groups as well as its overall direction and management.
2.2. English language education in Vietnam
English language education in Vietnam has been inextricably linked to political,

economic and social change. A history of conflict with different enemies left Vietnam
18
having soured relations with the outside world for extended periods of its history. At
the end of the lengthy period of conflict in 1975, the languages of Vietnam’s enemies
disappeared from the school curriculum (Wright, 2002). During the war with
America, English was widely promoted in the south of Vietnam. However, after
unification in 1975, the status of English fell sharply. In line with the prevailing
Marxist-Leninist socialist regime and with aid in education from the Soviet Union,
Russian became the dominant foreign language taught and learnt in the post-war
period, with approximately 70% of school students studying Russian, 20% studying
English, and 10% learning French (Hoang, 2011). At the tertiary level, the number
of Russian majors outnumbered combined enrolments in all other foreign languages
(Do, 2006; Le, 2007).
English began developing in importance following the launch of Doi Moi, the
economic reform policy in 1986. The open-door policy marked a major shift in
political direction from a centrally planned socialist economy towards economic
liberalisation and the encouraging of foreign investment, resulting in a surge in
demand for English proficiency. In the late 1990s, the Government instituted English
as a compulsory foreign language in schools and tertiary institutions. At the
millennium, 98% of school students were learning English as a foreign language
across the system (X. V. Nguyen, 2002), and about 90% of tertiary students,
regardless of their major, chose to study English (Le, 2007). Private English
language centres and schools flourished, and people also began to study English
for professional development and social mobility. Influenced by the market-driven
economy, English has become a gatekeeper for educational, professional and
commercial success, and is “synonymous with economic growth and prosperity” (Le,
2019, p. 8), with the phenomenon described as “English language fever” (Le, 2007,
p. 172)”.
From 1982 to 2002, in the National Curricula for English, the study of the language
was introduced as a compulsory school subject in a three-year curriculum at the
upper-secondary level, and as an option in a seven-year curriculum starting from
the lower-secondary level. The two separate sets of textbooks in both sectors, as
noted by Hoang (2011), were “mainly grammar-based, taking the view that grammar
can be taught systematically as a set of rules to be mastered and transferred by the
learner into proficient language use” (p. 10). Despite the use of two curricula, the
high-stakes national examinations were based entirely on the three-year curriculum.
19
These discrete-point, written examinations were mainly focused on grammar,
vocabulary (lexis) and reading comprehension, which supported a grammar-
translation methodology and a teacher-centred pedagogy. Since oral skills were not
part of these examinations, little attention was given to spoken language and most
students were unable to engage in communicative uses of English, as personally
attested to in the opening paragraphs of this thesis.
Inconsistencies in the English curricula, coupled with a perceived lack of English

competence among students, led to more national curriculum reform in 2002, when
a new English curriculum and series of mandated textbooks were developed and
trialled. Six years later, this national project was completed with the uniform
implementation of the new curriculum in all schools across the country. English was
made compulsory at both lower and upper-secondary levels. A feature of this
curriculum reform was the attempt to make classrooms more communicative and to
encourage a shift away from the traditional grammar-translation method which had
previously prevailed (Le & Barnard, 2009). A new goal for English teaching and
learning was made explicit in the curriculum policy document whereby
“communicative skills are the goal of English teaching at the secondary school while
linguistic knowledge serves as a means to the end” (MOET, 2006, p. 6). Although
promoting the use of English for communication, the curriculum did not explicitly
prescribe any pedagogic approach or specific methodology to achieve the goal.
Nevertheless, the 2006 curriculum is often seen as the first step towards introducing
a communicative approach in Vietnam. This 2006 curriculum is still being used in
schools whilst the new pilot curriculum within Project 2020 is officially rolled out
nationwide.
Before and after the introduction of the 2006 curriculum, there were a number of
studies expressing concerns about the challenges of implementing a
communicative approach in Vietnamese classrooms (Bock, 2000; H. Nguyen &
Nguyen, 2007; H. H. Pham, 2007; Warden & Lin, 2000). A survey by Tomlinson and
Dat (2004) indicated that many teachers expressed their unwillingness to change
their pedagogy, and also doubted the willingness of the students to participate in
communicative activities. Le and Barnard (2009) in an attempt to investigate the
implementation of the 2006 curriculum at the classroom level, conducted a case
study in one high school and found that the expected communicative lessons were
not implemented as outlined in the curriculum. Classroom pedagogies remained
20
“textbook-based, test-oriented, and teacher-fronted” (Le & Barnard, 2009, p. 22).
The grammar-translation method and the presentation-practice-product (PPP)
lesson format still had a clear influence on classroom practice. The paper-and-pencil
format of testing remained largely grammar-based, and the washback effect
demotivated students to become orally active and more competent or confident in
using the spoken language. Large class sizes with mixed levels of proficiency,
under-motivated students, and a lack of qualified teachers presented major
challenges to English teaching and learning in schools (Le, 2007; L. Nguyen, Hamid,
& Renshaw, 2016; H. H. Pham, 2007). The picture becomes gloomier when it is
recognised that the qualities, distribution and accessibility of quality English
education remained uneven across regions and for different sectors of the
population (London, 2011). This was most clearly in evidence for ethnic minority
students, who were encouraged to speak and maintain their own languages, were
not proficient in the national language which was the language of schooling, and
had very little motivation to be proficient in English (Le, 2015; H. Nguyen et al.,
2018).
The stark conclusion was that secondary school and university graduates “got
nowhere in communicative English” (Le, 2007, p. 175). Vietnamese students,
including those who had an extensive repertoire of grammar and lexis, were
communicatively incompetent and unable to use the language in real-life
interactions. With the advances of globalisation, Vietnam increasingly felt the
pressure to enhance English competence across the population so as to “improve
national competitiveness in a rapidly changing global marketplace” (Wedell, 2009,
p. 15). The Government’s response to this pressing demand was to launch another
reform of foreign language education, Project 2020.
2.3. The Foreign Language Project 2020
Project 2020 began in 2008 with the Government’s launch of a national plan for
“Teaching and Learning Foreign Language Education in the National Education
System in the Period 2008-2020”. With a budget of 9,378 billion VND (approximately
426 million USD), this project has been regarded as the most prominent and
ambitious language initiative in Vietnam’s educational history (Le, 2015; Bui &
Nguyen 2016). The project reflected a clear commitment by the Government to lift
English proficiency in the national schooling system. The overall goal of Project
2020 was written as follows:
21
“to renovate the teaching and learning of foreign languages in the national education system,
to implement a new foreign language programme at all educational levels and training
degrees, so that in 2015 there will be obvious progress in qualification and use of foreign
languages of Vietnamese human resources, especially in some prioritised sectors. By 2020,
Vietnamese young people graduating from secondary, vocational schools, colleges and
universities will be able to use a foreign language confidently in their daily life, study and
work in a multicultural and multilingual environment, making foreign languages a competitive
advantage of Vietnamese people to serve the cause of industrialisation and modernisation
of the country”.
(Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung, 2008, Article 1.1, Decision 1400)
Project 2020 was initially a twelve-year project separated into three phases:
Phase 1 (2008 to 2010), prioritised the development of English curriculum

and textbooks for a 10-year period of teaching and learning, along with the
preparation of resources including school facilities and qualified teaching
staff.
Phase 2 (2011 to 2015) focused on piloting the new curriculum in a number
of schools with adequate facilities and qualified teachers. In this phase,
Mathematics was expected to be taught through English in 30% of high
schools in nominated cities.
Phase 3 (2016 to the time of writing) has been devoted to the
institutionalisation of the new curriculum, the prescribed approach to teaching
and learning, and the textbooks in all schools across the country. In line with
the aims of the project, by the year 2020, 100% of students across the
different levels of schooling are to be studying within the new English
program.
The new English program consisted of curricula for three levels of schooling: a
three-year curriculum for the primary level, a four-year curriculum for the lower-
secondary level, and a three-year curriculum for the upper-secondary level. To the
time of writing, each is being trialled where the aim is to gain practical experiences
of its use in the classroom. Once rolled out nationally, the total number of
compulsory teaching hours across the ten years are calculated at 735 hours, as
shown in Table 2.1. This equates to approximately two hours of English every week
across these ten years of schooling.
22
Table 2.1. Curriculum allocation for the English language program within Project 2020
Year of Total
Level of Education Number of Periods Note
Schooling (hours)
3 years x 3 periods (35 mins each)
Primary Years 3-5 184 Compulsory
x 35 weeks
Lower-secondary Years 6-9 315 Compulsory
x 35 weeks
Upper secondary Years 10-12 236 Compulsory
x 35 weeks
350 weeks 735
A six-level Language Proficiency Framework for Vietnam was developed, built on

the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning,
Teaching and Assessment – CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001). This framework
provided a basis for the elaboration of language syllabi, textbooks, and the
measurement and assessment of language proficiency. It consisted of three broad
tiers – basic, intermediate and advanced, divided into six levels equivalent to the six
levels on the CEFR as described in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2. Language Proficiency Framework for Vietnam (MOET, 2014)
Language Proficiency Framework for Vietnam CEFR equivalence
Level 1 A1
Basic User
Level 2 A2
Level 3 B1
Intermediate User
Level 4 B2
Level 5 C1
Advanced User
Level 6 C2
The specific goal set for English language education at each level of schooling was
Level A1 for primary schools, Level A2 for lower-secondary schools, and Level B1
for upper-secondary schools. Accordingly, after ten years of English language
learning, school graduates at the end of Year 12 were expected to be independent,
intermediate users of English capable of achieving Proficiency Level B1, outlined
here in Table 2.3.
23
Table 2.3. Targeted proficiency level for each level of schooling (MOET, 2014)
Targeted
Level of CEFR
level of General description
schooling equivalence
proficiency
Can understand and use familiar everyday expressions
and very basic phrases aimed at the satisfaction of needs
of a concrete type. Can introduce himself/herself and
Primary school
others and can ask and answer questions about personal
Level 1 A1
details such as where he/she lives, people he/she knows
(Year 3-5)
and things he/she has. Can interact in a simple way
provided the other person talks slowly and clearly and is
prepared to help.
Can understand sentences and frequently used
expressions related to areas of most immediate
Lower- relevance (e.g. very basic personal and family
secondary information, shopping, local geography, employment).
school Level 2 A2 Can communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a
simple and direct exchange of information on familiar and
(Year 6-9) routine matters. Can describe in simple terms aspects of
his/her background, immediate environment and matters
in areas of immediate need.
Can understand the main points of clear standard input
on familiar matters regularly encountered in work, school,
Upper-
leisure, etc. Can deal with most situations likely to arise
secondary
whilst travelling in an area where the language is spoken.
school Level 3 B1
Can produce simple connected text on topics which are
familiar or of personal interest. Can describe experiences
(Year 10-12)
and events, dreams, hopes and ambitions and briefly
give reasons and explanations for opinions and plans.
Can understand the main ideas of complex text on both
concrete and abstract topics, including technical
discussions in his/her field of specialisation. Can interact
with a degree of fluency and spontaneity that makes
Level 4 B2 regular interaction with native speakers quite possible
without strain for either party. Can produce clear, detailed
text on a wide range of subjects and explain a viewpoint
on a topical issue giving the advantages and
disadvantages of various options.
Can understand a wide range of demanding, longer texts,
and recognise implicit meaning. Can express him/herself
fluently and spontaneously without much obvious
Level 5 C1 searching for expressions. Can use language flexibly and
effectively for social, academic and professional
purposes. Can produce clear, well-structured, detailed
text on complex subjects, showing controlled use of
24
organisational patterns, connectors and cohesive
devices.
Can understand with ease virtually everything heard or
read. Can summarise information from different spoken
and written sources, reconstructing arguments and
Level 6 C2 accounts in a coherent presentation. Can express
him/herself spontaneously, very fluently and precisely,
differentiating finer shades of meaning even in more
complex situations.
As part of the initiative, more than 60,000 school teachers of English were expected
to be confident, intermediate to advanced level users of English. Level B2 was
required of primary and lower-secondary teachers, while upper-secondary teachers
were expected to operate at Level C1. The importance of these expected levels of
proficiency for teachers lies in the fact that a nationwide review of proficiency levels
amongst teachers in 2011-2012, revealed that 83% of primary school teachers, 87%
of lower-secondary and 92% of upper secondary teachers failed to meet the
required levels of proficiency and were under-qualified to teach the new curricula
(N. H. Nguyen, 2013). In response, in-service teacher training courses and
workshops were organised across the country, aimed at enhancing teacher
capacity. This investment of time, effort and resources into language courses and
training workshops was seen as MOET’s commitment to teacher professional
development in preparation for the implementation of the curriculum reform.
In 2017, the political decision was made to adjust the achievement date for Project
2020, extending the implementation period from 2020 to 2025 (Prime Minister
Nguyen Xuan Phuc, 2017). In the following year 2018, the project title was changed
from Project 2020 to the Project (MOET, 2018a), and a new plan was proposed for
the period 2017-2025 (MOET, 2018b). MOET has planned for the continued
implementation of the pilot English language curricula although no official evaluation
or revision of the curriculum policy has been made publicly available at the time of
writing.
Chapter conclusion
In describing the context in which the study was situated, it has been necessary to
provide an overview of the political, social and cultural backdrop to the education
system in modern-day Vietnam. Vietnam has grasped the critical importance of
engaging in the global marketplace for the economic benefits this can deliver, which
25
in turn can lift the living standards within the country and improve the life chances
of all its citizens. English language is seen to be the vehicle for greater participation
in international business and commerce and this has precipitated reform of English
language curricula and pedagogy in recent years. From 1986 onwards, and with
increasing focus in the new millennium, the Government has aimed to increase the
scale, scope and quality of its English language education. However, some of the
proposed changes, especially in regard to the communicative levels required for
negotiation and meaning-making in the target language, have not met with easy
success. The planned changes have encountered social and cultural beliefs which
did not value highly the kinds of communicative practices required.
Project 2020 (now rebadged as Project 2025 and hereafter in the study referred to
as Project 2025) has been a significant landmark, a direct response to the perceived
low levels of English communicative capacity among young Vietnamese citizens.
Within Project 2025, the Government has mandated curricular and pedagogic
practices to enable the country to take advantage of the economic opportunities it
envisions in global commerce which is conducted via the global lingua franca of
English. The reform is the latest and most significant effort to intervene in the
outcomes of English language education at the school level. Interventions have
been initiated previously but, as noted, these have generally not been successful.
The financial outlay within Project 2025 is an indication that the time for change has
now come, that the economic imperative is too strong to ignore or to allow to bypass
Vietnam.
Chapter III provides a closer examination of the approach to English language

teaching and learning prescribed within Project 2025. This includes a review of
literature related to Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and attendant
matters of curriculum design, curriculum implementation and curriculum
assessment. The chapter also looks more closely at the teachers who have been
charged with the responsibility for delivering the national improvement at the
classroom level.
26
CHAPTER III: LITERATURE REVIEW
The point of departure for the literature review is a conceptualisation of ‘World

Englishes’, which foregrounds the dichotomy of native and non-native speakers of
English, and prefaces a discussion of the non-native-speaker teaching force in
Vietnam which is to implement the Project 2025 curriculum reform. The chapter also
describes English language policy and planning at the national level, including an
overview of major approaches to curriculum reform. This is followed by a review of
the literature on Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), which is at the heart of
the reform, its provenance, principles and development into the global ‘default’
approach to teaching and learning English language, as well as critiques at the
theoretical and practical level.
3.1. Global English
Globalisation as an instrument of capitalism has become integrated into the fabric

of a great number of societies across the world and has played a critical role in
reforming global, political, economic, social and educational agendas (R. Kirkpatrick
& Bui, 2016). Increasing trans-national travel, migration flows and changing
demographic trends have altered global economic, social, cultural and linguistic
landscapes. One clear consequence has been the global spread and influence of
the English language as the international language, the lingua franca which has
oiled the engine of global commerce (Jenkins, 2006; Nunan, 2001, 2003; Samarin,
1987). Support for the comment, “the sun never sets on the English language”
(Fishman, 1992, p. 22) is that it has an official role in over 70 countries and territories
and an estimated two billion people across the world now use or are learning to use
English (Sharifian, 2013). This estimate means that close to 25% of the world’s
population uses or is learning English to communicate with others.
The global spread of English was visually represented by Kachru (1992) as three
concentric circles, labelled as the Inner, Outer and Expanding Circles. The Inner
Circle referred to the original bases of English, including the UK, USA, Canada,
Australia and New Zealand, while the Outer Circle covered the earlier phases of the
spread of English via colonisation and its institutionalisation in non-native contexts,
for example in India and Nigeria. The Expanding Circle included the rest of the world
where English was utilised primarily as a foreign language. English, therefore,
appears in at least three guises: as a native or first language; as a second, very
27
familiar language, or a foreign language; but over and above these three, and with
the vast majority of users, it is the lingua franca for global communication. Whilst a
great deal of criticism has been made of the aggressive expansion of English at the
cost of other languages and cultural identities (Mühlhäusler, 2002; Phillipson, 2013),
it cannot be denied that English now functions as the ‘contact language’ between
those millions, perhaps hundreds of millions of users, who share neither a common
native language nor a common culture, and for whom English is the chosen
language of communication (Firth, 1996; Seidlhofer, 2005).
As global English has expanded, fuelled by the impacts of globalisation and new
technologies, many Outer and Expanding Circle countries have felt the pressure to
increase their numbers of competent English users in order to expand their global
participation. Clearly identifiable as a country in the Expanding Circle, Vietnam has
identified the need for competent English language users to facilitate greater
participation in the global community and to gain benefits from global integration. At
the community level, mastery of English has been strongly linked with better
education, improved employment prospects and socio-economic mobility. The
Vietnamese Government has reified English as “inherently useful and essential” (Le,
2019, p. 9) for socio-economic, technological and cultural exchanges. This
pragmatic motivation, strongly couched in the discourses of economic development
and wellbeing, has witnessed an “economic imperative” (Sayer, 2015, p. 50) to
develop and implement Project 2025.
The globalisation of English and its rapid spread amongst communities of speakers
around the world has resulted in the ‘localisation’ of English and the development of
many dialectal varieties of the language (Sharifian, 2010, 2013) leading to a thriving
field of study devoted to “Word Englishes” (Bolton & Kachru, 2006; Crystal, 1997;
Kachru, 1992; Melchers & Shaw, 2011). As a consequence of its global spread, non-
native speakers of English far outnumber native speakers, which means that the
great majority of interactions in English take place among non-native speakers and
involve no participation of native speakers (Crystal, 2003). From this situation has
emerged a discussion about the ownership of English, whether it belongs to the
native speakers or to anyone who uses it, the status of different varieties of English
as used in global communication, and also the variety of English to be taught and
learned in preparation for increased global participation.
28
3.2. Native Speakers (NS) and Non-native Speakers (NNS)
Issues pertaining to native speakers (NS) and non-native speakers (NNS) have
been a consistent theme running through the discussion of English as a global
lingua franca. Although traditionally considered two different and distinguishable
categories, views about different types of English users have been challenged in
recent years by a growing number of scholars who have questioned the relevance
of this dichotomy. These debates, along with the concept of World Englishes, have
brought with them significant implications for curricula and pedagogies in relation to
teaching and learning English.
One argument relating to the distinction between NS and NNS concerns the
ownership of English. The question is whether English should remain the property
of the NS by virtue of “better proficiency and stronger cultural affiliation” (Medgyes,
2001, p. 431). This, in turn, raises the question of who qualifies as an NS. Among
the criteria for “native speakerhood” (Medgyes, 2001, p. 431), the most often cited
is the birthplace, or geographical location in an Inner Circle country. However,
birthplace does not always determine language identity, for example, in the case of
a child born in England who then moved to Japan at a very young age with her/his
parents. As argued by Kramsch (1997), native speakerhood is neither a privilege of
birth nor education, but rather, “acceptance by the group that created a distinction
between native and non-native speakers” (p. 363). She further argued that NSs do
not always speak standardised, idealised varieties of their language. Native
speakerhood, according to Medgyes (2001), is a blurred concept because it involves
many factors including education, occupation, the environment in which English is
used, cultural affiliation, self-identification and political allegiance. Similarly, Braine
(2013) argued against the notion of the NS on the ground that all the linguistic, social
and economic connotations accompanying it are “troublesome and open to
controversy” (p. xiv).
Given the role of English as a lingua franca and the birth and growth of multiple
Englishes, the concept of a native speaker may appear to be neither important nor
relevant. A lingua franca, by definition, refers to "any lingual medium of
communication between people of different mother tongues" (Samarin, 1987, p.
371). In other words, it is the selected means of communication amongst those from
different first language backgrounds and across lingua-cultural boundaries. By this
29
definition, a lingua franca has no native speakers; it belongs to anyone who speaks
it and is nobody’s mother tongue (Rajagopalan, 2004; Seidlhofer, 2005, 2007).
Whilst these discussions have been of great interest to linguists and demographers,
they also have important implications in the domain of English language teaching,
especially in Expanding Circle countries. Vietnam, seen from this perspective, no
longer needs to prepare students for intelligibility in relation to NSs in the Inner Circle
(Marlina & Giri, 2014; Seidlhofer, 2007; Sharifian, 2013). Rather, what students
need is the ability to achieve and sustain mutual comprehension in global contexts
where English is “entirely and fundamentally an instrument of communication” (Kuo,
2006, p. 215). In a context of World Englishes, it is now important to avoid
assumptions about the need to teach the same language to the same linguistic
standards. The fact is that Received Pronunciation (RP), the prestige British dialect
in the UK and the variety held as the ‘gold standard’ by the NNS world, is spoken
by only 3% of the population in the UK (Jenkins, 2002). There has been a ‘push-
back’ to the unquestioned status of RP as the best spoken variety of English. The
effort has been in effect to ‘move the goal-posts’ of English language teaching in the
NNS world, to become more in tune with the rapidly changing global landscape and
to work on intelligibility and raising consciousness of intercultural understanding in
cross-cultural communication as the most appropriate outcomes.
In the discussion about the status of one or a few specific varieties of English and
the overwhelming proportion of interactions in English proceeding in contexts where
the first language of the participants is not English, then an inevitable question arises
about the usefulness of the terms NS and NNS for global communication in the 21 st
century. Predominantly, English language curricula in the Expanding Circle have
remained tied to Standard British English, or in the case of USA curriculum writers
and publishers, to Standard American English. An NS model, as argued by Kuo
(2006, p. 213), can serve as a “convenient starting point” and it is then the decision
of professionals in each context to decide to what extent they want to approximate
to that model. The image of the NS has continued to function as “the yardstick”
(Rajagopalan, 2004, p. 114) or a base for policy decision-making, authenticity of
materials and learner’s proficiency. A similar view was expressed by Davies (1991)
that in spite of the claim that no proper definition of NS exists, the NS can still serve
as “a fine myth that we may need as a model, a goal, almost an inspiration” (p. 157).
30
This has been the accepted norm in Vietnam, despite the fact that the entire English
language teaching force at the lower-secondary level is NNS.
3.3. The non-native English (NNS) teacher
NNS teachers may be simply defined as the opposite of the NS teacher who speaks
English as a native language. However, given the complexity of the notion of native
speakerhood discussed above, Medgyes (2001) provided a narrower definition of
NNS teacher as applied to those who work in ESL/EFL environments with students
from heterogeneous linguistic backgrounds. To clarify ESL versus EFL, the general
understanding is that English as a Foreign Language (EFL) refers to a context where
the target language is not the lingua franca in the broader community, for example
English teaching and learning in Vietnam. English as a Second Language (ESL)
contexts are those in which the target language is the prevalent language in the
community, for example, migrants learning English in Australia. Accordingly, an
NNS teacher is described as one (Medgyes, 2001, p. 433):
for whom English is a second or foreign language

who works in an ESL/ EFL (EAL) environment
whose students are a monolingual group of learners
who speaks the same native language as her/his students.
Medgyes first opened the door for discussion on NNS issues in challenging the
assumption that that NS and NNS English teachers were “two different species”,
and that an English teacher belonged to “either this or that category” (p. 25). In 1999,
the establishment of a Non-native English Speaker Caucus in the global TESOL
organisation marked a milestone of the NNS teacher movement as a new area of
research. However, as Medgyes’ publications were largely unknown in the USA
where the movement had its origin, it took another decade for more studies to
emerge on this issue. This may have been because the topic is “unusually sensitive”
and “often considered politically incorrect” (Braine, 2013, p. 3). Issues in relation to
NNS English teachers have now emerged as legitimate areas of research. There
have been empirical studies addressing issues in relation to the NNS teacher in
different contexts in Asia, Europe, and North America. These investigations have
mainly been classified into two categories:
Self-perceptions of NNS teachers (Árva & Medgyes, 2000; Braine, 2013,

2018; Hayes, 2009; Inbar-Lourie, 1999; Llurda, 2005; Llurda & Huguet, 2003;
31
Ma, 2012; Medgyes, 1994, 2001; Reves & Medgyes, 1994; Samimy & Brutt-
Griffler, 1999)
Student perceptions of their NNS teachers (Díaz, 2015; Gurkan & Yuksel,
2012; Lasagabaster & Sierra, 2002; Ling & Braine, 2007; Moussu, 2002;
Watson Todd & Pojanapunya, 2009).
The commonly held view in the teaching world has been that the ideal teacher
should be NS, with the outcome that NNS teachers from the Outer and Expanding
Circles were generally regarded as ‘second-class citizens’ in the profession (Braine,
2013; Phillipson, 1992). This has been labelled by Phillipson (1992) as the “native
speaker fallacy” (p.195) and ignores the fact that NNS teachers bring particular
attributes to the classroom which are not available to NS teachers.
3.3.1. Strengths of the NNS English language teacher
Medgyes (1994, 2001) argued that while the NS teacher may make a better
‘language’ model, the NNS teacher may provide better ‘learner’ models since they
themselves were previously successful learners of English as an additional
language. Accordingly, the NNS teacher could teach language learning strategies
more effectively, imparting their own learning experiences and helping students to
discover strategies that worked for them (Gurkan & Yuksel, 2012).
Another positive of NNS teachers is that they hold more information about the
structure of the English language. Language awareness involves explicit knowledge
about the language that the NNS teacher has learned for years. Whereas NS
teachers have better intuition about what is right and wrong in language use, NNS
teachers may have deeper insights into what is easier or more difficult in the learning
process (Medgyes, 2001). The NNS teacher also better anticipates difficulties with
particular aspects of the language as well as being more empathetic to the needs
of their learners (Árva & Medgyes, 2000; Braine, 2013; Kramsch, 1997; Samimy &
Brutt-Griffler, 1999). Given the familiarity with the teaching and learning context and
more in-depth understanding of their students’ linguistic, cultural and personal
backgrounds, NNS teachers are in a better position to set realistic targets for their
students (Braine, 2013, 2018). NNS teachers are potentially more conscious of the
constraints of the local curriculum, materials, and examinations than imported NS
teachers (Cook, 2005). They can also make use of the learners’ mother tongue for
clarification (Hayes, 2009; Medgyes, 2001). This view is supported by Inbar-Lourie
32
(1999) and Kramsch (1997), who proposed that the bilingual capacities of NNS
teachers enable them to switch back and forth between the first and the target
language to meet the demands of the learning situation. In sum, there are several
strong arguments in favour of the NNS English language teacher, particularly in
relation to teaching and learning strategies.
3.3.2. Challenges for the NNS English language teacher
The major challenge for NNS English teachers has been linked to English language
proficiency. As reported in a 2012 survey in Vietnam, approximately 87% of lower-
secondary school teachers were not competent enough to teach the communicative
curriculum (N. H. Nguyen, 2013). Findings drawn from studies on NNS teacher self-
perceptions (Braine, 2013, 2018; Hayes, 2009; Llurda, 2005) revealed feelings of
inadequate English language competence and professional inferiority. According to
Medgyes (2001), language difficulties among NNS teachers were related to
vocabulary, colloquial and appropriate use of English, followed by issues in oral
fluency, pronunciation and listening comprehension. Kamhi-Stein, Aagard, Ching,
Paik, and Sasser (2004) found that NNS teachers faced difficulties in
communication skills, and, as a consequence, they often switched to the first
language as the medium of instruction. Moussu (2006) reported a similar finding in
which NNS teachers with “foreign accents” often lacked professional confidence.
From a student perspective, research on student perceptions of NNS teachers found
that students appeared to be largely tolerant of the differences between their NS
and NNS teachers, and became more supportive of their NNS teachers over time
(Braine, 2005; Lasagabaster & Sierra, 2002; Ling & Braine, 2007). Despite such
research on student perceptions, the issue of language proficiency has remained a
critical factor and a criterion for teacher evaluation within the profession.
Teacher knowledge about curriculum and pedagogy has also been found to be a
significant determinant of successful language teaching (Medgyes, 2001). It has
been argued that language teachers need to have sufficient knowledge about the
nature of language itself, about language learning and about language teaching in
order to adopt and adapt pedagogies and strategies in response to the diverse
needs of their learners (Bax, 2003; Kuo, 2006). However, few NNS teachers of
English have theoretical understandings of language education as they commonly
draw on their own experiences as learners and as teachers (Borg, 2015; Humphries
& Burns, 2015). Unlike other professions, teaching is susceptible to the
33
‘apprenticeship of observation’ (Borg, 2015), with pedagogic preconceptions based
on personal experiences which colour beliefs and understandings about the
language classroom. On this basis, it is not surprising that Vietnamese English
language teachers, who have largely learnt English primarily for success in
grammar-based examinations, have built their practices on the processes which
helped them to succeed in these examinations. This potentially poses challenges
when these same Vietnamese teachers have been challenged to consider teaching
and learning in ways that they were not taught themselves.
3.4. National English language education policies
It is hard to deny the economics of national English language proficiency, which has
been closely associated with a persistent discourse of national socio-economic
development and global competitiveness. Particularly in Expanding Circle countries,
millions, perhaps billions of dollars have been invested with the aim of enhancing
the scale and quality of English language education (A. Kirkpatrick, 2010; Moodie &
Nam, 2016; Nunan, 2003; Spolsky & Sung, 2015).
3.4.1. The place of English in national schooling systems
The privileged position of English has given rise to its increasingly prominent role in
national education systems. English language education has been seen as a critical
and viable bridge to individual and national commercial goals. Reviews of English
language education policies in the Asia-Pacific region and East Asia, for example
by Baldauf, Kaplan, Kamwangamalu, and Bryant (2011),; Kam (2002); Nunan
(2003), have all served to reinforce the place of English as the dominant foreign
language in the national education systems in these locations.
For example, in China, English was considered vital to the country’s modernisation,
revitalisation and participation in a globalised economy (Hu, 2005; Q. Wang, 2007;
Zhang & Liu, 2014). The status of English was reflected in the Ministry of Education’s
2000 curriculum mandate for secondary schools (Hu & McKay, 2012, p. 348):
In the modern world of today, scientific progress, represented by developments in

information technology, advances by leaps and bounds. The informatisation of social life and
the globalization of economic activities have made foreign languages, English in particular,
an increasingly important tool to facilitate China’s opening up and interaction with other
countries (p. 348).
34
Similar sentiments were echoed in Japanese educational discourse in which English
was seen as an important strategy in the pathway towards internationalisation.
According to Baldauf et al. (2011), more than 95% across all age groups in Japan
chose to study English as a foreign language. The position and status of English
was also evident in the Government policy statement “An action plan to cultivate
Japanese with English abilities” published by Japan’s education ministry (MEXT) in
2003, cited in Hu and McKay (2012):
English has played a central role as the common international language in linking people
who have different mother tongues. For children living in the 21st century, it is essential for
them to acquire communication abilities in English as a common international language. In
addition, English abilities are important in terms of linking our country with the rest of the
world, obtaining the world’s understanding and trust, enhancing our international presence
and further developing our nation (p. 355)
This surge of interest in English has also been evident in other parts of the world, in
both Latin America and North Africa, where “English has established itself as a
powerful language because it is a tool as well as a resource for social mobility,
linguistic superiority, and educational and economic benefits” (Giri, 2010, p. 93). The
examples cited here reinforce the perceived importance of English language
education in many different contexts.
3.4.2. Current trends in English language education
The increasing importance of English in the global context has been reflected in
three major trends:
the “more and earlier” introduction of English to younger aged students;

the increased prominence of English as a compulsory school subject;
the concerted efforts for renovation and innovation of English language
curricula and pedagogies in national schooling systems.
There has been a significant expansion of English education at the primary school
level, lowering the starting age for formal English instruction (Hamid, 2010; Hu &
McKay, 2012; Sayer, 2015; Spolsky & Moon, 2012). A systematic review by Baldauf
et al. (2011) revealed that English was now introduced in Year 1 in several countries,
including Bangladesh, Nepal, Malaysia and Timor Lester, while in others such as
China, South Korea and Vietnam, English is to be taught from Year 3. The rationale
for this “more and earlier” approach (Hamid, 2010; Sayer, 2015) was based on
35
assumptions of an optimal age, or a critical period for language learning during
which younger learners could pick up a new language more quickly and easily.
The second trend in recent national English language policies is the increased
prominence of English as a compulsory school subject (Spolsky & Sung, 2015; Hu
& McKay, 2012; Nunan, 2003). English language study has been increasingly
mandated across all schooling levels. There have also been significant increases in
the number of classroom contact hours for English teaching and learning. Project
2025 in Vietnam is a case in point. In other contexts, for example in Shanghai
schools, Hu and McKay (2012) reported that contact hours significantly increased
by 80% between 1998 and 2011.
A third trend has seen concerted efforts to renovate and innovate both English
curricula and pedagogies in the schooling sectors. In many countries in Asia,
including Vietnam, there have been steps taken in recent decades to strengthen
and improve the teaching and learning of English through large-scale reforms at a
national level (Majhanovich, 2013; Spolsky & Sung, 2015). Common to such reform
efforts has been a shift away from traditional pedagogies with their strong focus on
form, which has been criticised as unsuited to the need for communication
(Littlewood, 2014; Humphries & Burns, 2015). The innovations have been oriented
towards practical competencies that enable students to use the language for
communicative purposes.
3.4.3. National approaches to curriculum reform
English language curriculum development, in tandem with the worldwide demand

for English proficiency, has spawned a global educational industry. In curriculum
development, a primary issue is who the change agent is, or in other words, who
decides to initiate change and for what reasons. This raises the distinction between
two major approaches to curriculum reform, the top-down and the bottom-up, which
differ significantly in relation to both the agents and the processes of change. In
recent years, when national efforts have been undertaken in the area of curriculum
and pedagogic reform, much discussion has centred on the merits of top-down and
bottom-up reform. There has been no lack of both positive and negative argument
for both models.
36
In the top-down model, the reform is centrally driven, and change is initiated and
shaped for implementation by policymakers at the top of a hierarchy (Fink, 2003;
Mellegård & Pettersen, 2016; Waring, 2017). Central authorities make decisions
about what, when and how the change should be developed and implemented
(Cummings, Phillips, Tilbrook, & Lowe, 2005; Waring, 2017). Fullan (2007)
proposed that top-down reform is usually politically driven or the result of
bureaucratic self-interest, political responsiveness or concern for solving an unmet
need. This last reason clearly fits the Project 2025 initiative. The benefit of top-down
reforms is that they can result in large-scale and systematic change at a national or
state level (Fullan, 1994; Fullan & Scott, 2009). A centralised curriculum can ensure
a consistent commitment to and coverage of what students should know or be able
to do in order to attain prescribed performance standards (Hargreaves & Ainscow,
2015; Hargreaves, Earl, Moore, & Manning, 2002). An additional advantage of top-
down initiatives relates to the time and cost necessary for the planning and
implementation of change. As Fullan (2007) stated, innovations are impossible
“without additional dollars” (p. 255); thus an advantage of the top-down model is that
it provides the financial means for change to occur.
On the other hand, advocates of bottom-up innovation argue that only practically-
driven reform can succeed because the need for change comes from the local level
where the teacher is the real agent of change (Fullan, 1994; Morgan, 1992; Waring,
2017). Calls for change are voiced by teachers, often originating from a need for
professional development or a response to changes in teaching and learning
contexts (Goodson, 2003; Mellegård & Pettersen, 2016). Based on the realities of
these classroom contexts, teachers and school administrators have the autonomy
to create their own models of change (Mason, Mason, Mendez, Nelsen, & Orwig,
2005).
Each of these approaches, notwithstanding their individual strengths, poses

potential challenges. The outcome of top-down initiatives is usually the imposition
of educational standards, centralised curricula and mandated materials produced
by specialised curriculum writers ‘removed’ from schools. The reality is that some or
all of these may not always be feasible or practical at the classroom level (Fink,
2003; D. Macdonald, 2003). In many cases, educational policies are introduced by
a Ministry with little or no consultation with the end-users and beneficiaries, namely
teachers and students (Kennedy, 1987). Related to this issue is that policy planners
37
and decision-makers may be unaware of the constraints faced by local
implementers, and/or do not provide preconditions for the change to take place. The
attempt to force a top-down change may lead to resistance or perhaps 'surface-
level' acceptance by teachers who ultimately hold power in the classroom (Ching-
Ching & Kuo-Hung, 2018). Accordingly, centralised reform mandates often have a
poor record of success in actual school improvement because of the discrepancies
between the intended reform and their local implementation (Cummings et al., 2005;
Fullan, 1994; Hargreaves & Ainscow, 2015; Okoth, 2016).
Bottom-up reform, on the other hand, may suffer from a different set of problems.
They may not work on a large scale or be able to be sustained because they are
locally or perhaps even individually inspired and conducted on a small scale (Fullan,
1994; Hargreaves & Ainscow, 2015; Mason et al., 2005). As a result, they are
unlikely to spread across a jurisdiction or to connect to authority structures to make
broader and longer-lasting impacts. On the basis of these issues, Fullan (1994)
concluded that “neither top-down nor bottom-up strategies are effective” (p. 1),
arguing instead that a blend of the two might be a more workable process. Similarly,
Mason et al. (2005) and Mellegård and Pettersen (2016) suggested a reconciliation
and combination of both top-down and bottom-up forces to create the connectivity
required for effective change.
Given the socio-political context in Vietnam Project 2025 could only be a top-down
reform with the decision to address an unmet national need made entirely on
political grounds motivated by commercial interests (Le, 2015, 2019). It was
assumed that via a centralised curriculum reform, all students across the country
could attain the same standard of English proficiency irrespective of school, location,
teacher or leadership. Nevertheless, the discussion around top-down and bottom-
up reform is important, not least for the implications it raises for the future of English
language reform in Vietnam.
3.5. English language pedagogy
While the term curriculum often refers to the overall plan of content to be taught and
learnt over a set period of time, how that content “is transformed into a blueprint for
teaching and learning which enables the desired learning outcomes to be achieved”
is commonly embraced by the term pedagogy (Richards, 2013, p. 6). Pedagogy is
often considered to be at the heart of a language curriculum (M. W. Gregory, 2001)
38
as it specifies how teachers should go about teaching the specified content
described within the curriculum. Accordingly, whilst Project 2025 has been
publicised as national curriculum reform, it is equally a reform of pedagogy, an
explicit effort to move towards communicative competence as the desired outcome.
3.5.1. Methods and approaches in language pedagogy
In the field of language education, the terms ‘approach’ and ‘method’ are commonly
used, although they are not precisely the same thing. Conceptualisation of these
notions was first undertaken by Anthony (1963) who proposed that an approach
involves specification of general assumptions and principles about language and
language learning, whereas a method points to which specific theories are
translated into systematic classroom practices.
According to more recent commentary, method refers to a specific instructional

design based on particular theories of language, language teaching and language
learning (Richards & Rodgers, 2014; Rodgers, 2009). It provides a specification of
the type of content, the roles of learners and teachers as well as the teaching
procedures and techniques. Methods tend to have a relatively short shelf life as they
are often associated with specific claims for prescribed practices and tend to “fall
out of favour as these practices become unfashionable or discredited” (Richards &
Rogers, 2014, p. 245). On the other hand, an approach is often understood more
broadly, as a more general set of assumptions, beliefs and principles that can be
used as a basis for language teaching (Fauziati, 2008). Unlike a method, an
approach has no specific set of prescriptions and techniques to be used in teaching
and permits a variety of interpretations about how the principles can be applied in
classroom practice. Because of the flexibility and possibility of interpretation and
application, approaches tend to have a longer shelf life and can be revised and
renovated over time as new practices emerge.
Both of these concepts operate with their own limitations. The concept of method in
teaching, as noted by Richards and Rodgers (2014, p. 3), is “powerful though
controversial”. The main charge against it is the imposition of a set of prescribed
teaching procedures in all classrooms. Opponents of methods (Brown, 2002;
Kumaravadivelu, 2001, 2003, 2006b) argue that they tend to be too narrow and too
prescriptively rigid. Whereas a method is seen to be limited in that it is prescriptive
and less open to interpretation, an approach, because of its general nature, is seen
39
as having no clear application of the underlying assumptions and principles in the
classroom. As remarked by Richards and Rodgers (2014), the problem associated
with an approach is that:
Much is left to the individual teacher's interpretation, skills, and expertise. Consequently,
there is often no clear right or wrong way of teaching according to an approach and no
prescribed body of practice waiting to be implemented. This lack of detail can be a source of
frustration and irritation for teachers, particularly those with little training or experience (p.
383)
Given this breadth of interpretation, if an approach to language teaching is adopted,

then an intensive effort is required for teacher pre-service and in-service training to
ensure that the teachers obtain a strong understanding of its nature and how it works
(Carless, 1998; Lamie, 2000; Steele & Zhang, 2016). Only by doing so, do teachers
have the capacity to translate the approach into productive classroom practice.
3.5.2. Developments in language pedagogy
Since language teaching became a recognised specialisation in the early part of the
twentieth century, it has undergone a number of shifts and trends with a wide range
of approaches and methods developed, used and then discarded in favour of the
next trend.
The Grammar-Translation Method dominated European language teaching for the

century from the 1840s to the 1940s, and continues to be used, in a modified form,
in some parts of the world today (McDonough & Shaw, 2012; Richards & Renandya,
2002; Richards & Rodgers, 2014). This method, inherited from the centuries-old
tradition of teaching Latin and Greek in ‘grammar schools’, was characterised by a
focus on form, deductive grammar teaching, and translation exercises with little or
no systematic attention to speaking or listening (Richards & Rodgers, 2014;
Rodgers, 2009; Van Els, 1984). Accuracy was prioritised, and the students’ native
language was the medium of instruction, used to explain rules and enable
comparison between the students’ first language and the target language. Increased
opportunities for commerce and migration, especially in Europe, eventually led to
opposition to the Grammar-Translation Method, and the search for approaches and
methods that put more focus on the oral proficiency needed for interaction.
40
The Direct Method was developed from contemporary first language acquisition
theory. Its adherents argued that language could be learned in a naturalistic way,
as in the way that a child learns his/her mother tongue. This method was
characterised by an avoidance of deductive grammar teaching and an emphasis on
native-speaker input and everyday vocabulary (Fauziati, 2008). Direct and
spontaneous use of the target language in the classroom was encouraged, with a
focus on correct pronunciation and grammar (Fotos, 2005; Patel & Jain, 2008).
Although it offered innovations for teaching procedures, the method was criticised
for lacking any rigorous methodological basis and for failing to consider the practical
realities of foreign language classrooms compared to naturalistic first language
learning conditions. The Direct Method was the first of the ‘method’ era, which saw
the rise and fall of a procession of language teaching approaches and methods
throughout the twentieth century.
The Oral Approach was developed in Britain between the 1920s and 1930s. Within
the Oral Approach, language teaching began with spoken language, and new
language points were introduced and practised situationally. Reading and writing
were taught once a sufficient lexical and grammatical basis was established. This
approach involved systematic principles of selection and gradation of the language
items according to the level of difficulty. As noted by Richards and Rodgers (2014),
perhaps the greatest legacy of the Oral Approach was the Presentation-Practice-
Production (PPP) lesson format that continues to be used in a modified form today.
Subsequent developments then led to Situational Language Teaching in Britain and

the Audiolingual Method in the United States in the 1950s and 1960s. Situational
Language Teaching is seen as a revision of the Oral Approach (Richards &
Rodgers, 2014; Rodgers, 2009). The theory that linguistic structures must be linked
to the situations in which they operate provided Situational Language Teaching with
one of its distinctive features (Mart, 2013). The Audiolingual Method, developed in
the USA, stressed the mechanistic aspects of language learning and language use.
This method reflected the view that speech could be approached through structure
and that practice makes perfect.
In the mid-sixties, educational linguists began to question the perceptions of

language, language teaching and language learning which underpinned these
methods. Practitioners found that teaching and learning outcomes fell short of
expectations, as the students were often unable to transfer their skills to real-life
41
communication beyond the classroom, and the pattern of practice, drilling and
memorisation did not actually result in competence. The view that language learning
was treated as a process of habit formation was critiqued by Rivers (1964) in her
argument that a habit was only developed when learners had a communicative need
and were in a relaxed state. When the structuralist view of language and the
behaviourist theory of learning underlying Audiolingualism were subjected to strong
criticism and began to collapse, British applied linguists then began to doubt the
theoretical bases of Situational Language Teaching. Howatt (1984, p. 280) noted
that “there was no future in continuing to pursue the ‘myth’ of predicting language
on the basis of situational events”. A questioning of the theoretical bases and the
disappointing results obtained from the classroom practices of Situational Language
Teaching and Audiolingualism led to the search for a more useful teaching method
or approach.
The 1970s and 1980s witnessed a period of adaptation, innovation and

experimentation in new approaches to language teaching. Several new directions
were pursued. One was to search for improvements through more attention to
syllabus design, taking the view of language as a tool for communication.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) emerged in the early 1970s and
generated a great deal of enthusiasm. It aimed to serve as a corrective to the
perceived shortcomings of previous approaches and methods (Bax, 2003;
Savignon, 2002, 2005). During the 1980s and 1990s, approaches based on CLT
principles, including Task-based Language Teaching and Content-based
Instruction, attracted considerable interest. In the 1980s, the genre-based, or text-
based pedagogy, based on Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) was developed
in Australia. It was developed primarily in the context of first language literacy
teaching at the school level, and was also seen to have merit in an English language
teaching environment for migrants and refugees. The SFL perspective on language
perceives it as a resource for making meanings in social contexts, wherein language
learning involves “learning how to mean and expand one’s meaning potential”
(Halliday, 1993, p. 13). The genre-based approach has gained some credibility in
Australia and has been taken up in North America, Britain, Scandinavia, Israel and
some Asian countries at different levels of school and tertiary contexts.
A different strand in language pedagogy in this period has been the influence of
technology innovation. The recognition of the potential of technology as a language
42
teaching resource along with its rapid advances has opened up computer-assisted
language learning (CALL). The use of computers and other electronic devices and
media in the classroom offer a number of advantages to interactive learning,
personalised instruction and the provision of different types of materials. Although
language teaching has not changed radically as a result of technology, it has
become clear that technology can serve as a useful aid in language classrooms.
Linked to this is the fact that language is increasingly understood as just one
semiotic mode of meaning making, and that other modes are used alongside
language, and indeed often in place of language. The most obvious example is the
visual image as a semiotic mode, whereby meanings are created and interpreted in
images, both in tandem with language and also independently. Developments in
computer technologies now facilitate the teaching and learning of language via other
modes, including images, both still and moving.
Innovations in teaching methodologies have continued to flourish as applied

linguists and English language teachers have continued to adapt and seek improved
ways that bring learning success in language classrooms. Kumaravadivelu (2001,
2003) proposed the end of the ‘method era’, and suggested that the profession is
now in a ‘post-method era’, with a gradual shift to more general pedagogic principles
that are contextually sensitive and based on a thorough understanding of the local
linguistic, socio-cultural and political contexts. If Kumaravadivelu is to be taken at
his word, then the ‘post-method era’ has been marked by the global adoption of
general principles of teaching and learning towards communication. CLT marked
the beginning of a major paradigm shift within the field of language teaching in the
late twentieth century, and has become the default approach globally in language
classrooms. It could be argued that CLT is the foundation of teaching and learning
in the ‘post-method’ era. It is the pedagogic approach at the heart of Project 2025,
and on that basis it is important to scrutinise it in some detail.
3.6. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
3.6.1. The background to CLT
CLT origins are in concurrent developments in linguistics and in language teaching

on both sides of the Atlantic dating from the 1970s when applied linguists and
language teachers called into question the theoretical assumptions underlying
Audiolingualism and Situational Language Teaching.
43
In Europe, there was a growing dissatisfaction among practitioners and applied
linguists with prevailing methodologies and their focus on the structure of language.
One leading figure, Widdowson (1972) drew attention to why ‘structurally competent’
learners remained ‘communicatively incompetent’ in their ability to use the language
to perform communicative functions. He argued that there was a lack of focus on
the nature of communication and the function of language in prevalent teaching
methodologies. At the same time, the work of British functional linguists, first J.R.
Firth and then his student M.A.K. Halliday, explored the functions of language as
‘meaning potential’ and highlighted the centrality of context in understanding system
in language and how language could be modelled as a resource for making
meaning. This perspective resonated with language teaching professionals who
understood the need to focus on what a learner was able to ‘do’ with the language,
that is to use it for the purposes of communication in different contexts. An explosion
of research in second and foreign language learning gave weight to the conviction
that learners needed not necessarily to follow a planned syllabus of learning
grammar and vocabulary. The research also served to increase interest in
alternative approaches that would address the functional dimensions of language
and language use.
The impetus for change came additionally from the changing education realities in
Europe where increasing possibilities for international travel and migration as a
consequence of the creation of the European Economic Community (the European
Union post 1993) demanded improvement in how European languages were taught.
These changes were addressed within the Council of the European Union where
work began on proposals for the teaching of languages based on the needs of adult
learners (K. Johnson, 1982; McDonough & Shaw, 2012). Derived from the view of
language as meaning potential in its social context and with an emphasis on ‘speech
acts’ (Austin, 1962), the Council proposed a functional definition of language that
served as a foundation for developing communicative syllabuses for language
teaching. Wilkins (1972) contribution was the description of communicative
functions and notional categories in syllabus design, revised and expanded in the
landmark text Notional Syllabuses (Wilkins, 1976). The Council of Europe
incorporated Wilkins’ ideas into a set of threshold level specifications, which were
defined with reference to specific communicative functions, e.g. suasion (orders,
requests, suggestions), evaluation (agreement, judgement), emotion (pleasure,
surprise, gratitude), and particular grammatical notions used to express these
44
functions appropriately, e.g. modal categories, time (past time, duration, frequency),
and quantity (articles, numbers, quantifiers). Grammar was not considered an end
in itself, rather a tool for the performance of these communicative functions (Van Ek,
1975; Wilkins, 1976).
At approximately the same time, Candlin (1978); Widdowson (1972, 1978) and
others took the lead in the development of pedagogic procedures for classroom
practices, taking into account the nature of communication coupled with ideas
around learner autonomy. These influential works served as the foundation for
‘communicative’ language courses and textbooks across Europe. The term
communicative was used to describe language courses that followed a notional-
functional syllabus based on a needs analysis for establishing learning objectives.
Concurrently, in North America, in reaction to Chomsky’s (1965) description of the

linguistic competence of the ideal native speaker as one “who knows [their]
language perfectly and is unaffected by grammatically irrelevant conditions” (p. 3),
Hymes (1972) proposed the term “communicative competence”, which referred to
“both grammaticality but also acceptability” in language use (Byram & García, 2009,
p. 493). Hymes’ criticism of Chomsky’s view of competence argued that Chomsky
paid exclusive attention to “correctness” at the expense of “appropriacy” of language
use, and, importantly, that he failed “to provide an exclusive place for socio-cultural
features” (Hymes, 1972, p. 54). The term communicative competence was then
used by Savignon in a research project at the University of Illinois in 1972 “to
characterise the ability of classroom language learners to interact with other
speakers, to make meaning, as distinct from their ability to recite dialogues or
perform on discrete-point tests of grammatical knowledge” (Savignon, 2008, p. 3).
The findings offered convincing evidence that the learners of French in her study
who engaged in communication outperformed those who had no such practice.
Along with the emergence of the notion of communicative competence and

functional-notional syllabuses, a number of course books began to appear, bearing
descriptions of ‘functional’, ‘notional’ and ‘communicative’ and containing meaning-
oriented activities (Richards & Rodgers, 2014). Classroom activities shifted from
mechanical drills and memorisation to learner participation in meaning negotiation
and ‘learning by doing’ through trial and error. Games, role-plays and information
gap-filling activities for pairs and groups were designed in order to involve learners
in the experience of communication (Brandl, 2008; Byram & García, 2009;
45
Littlewood, 2007). This emphasis on message and meaning rather than language
structure generated a great deal of interest and excitement within the language
teaching profession. Practitioners found it “an automatic solution to all the problems
of language teaching” (K. Johnson, 1983, p. 4). The rapid application of these new
ideas to language curriculum and syllabus design by policymakers, textbook writers,
and classroom teachers gave prominence and popularity to what came to be known
as the Communicative Approach, or Communicative Language Teaching (CLT).
In this way, communicative competence developed into a framework for the

teaching of English and languages more generally, with support from the most
powerful voices in English language teaching on both sides of the Atlantic. CLT can
be seen to be derived from different disciplinary perspective including different
approaches within linguistics, notably anthropological linguistics via Hymes in the
USA, functional linguistics via Halliday in the UK, language philosophy via Austin in
the USA, and applied linguistics and educational researchers, including Wilkins, van
Ek, Alexander, Widdowson, Candlin, Savignon, Brumfit and Johnson. An extensive
literature on CLT has been developed over an extended period of time, describing
the principles, developments and classroom practices within CLT, and at the same
time, reflecting the constant developments within the approach and its applications.
3.6.2. Communicative competence
Communicative competence as a term was proposed by Hymes (1972) in response

to Chomsky’s notion of linguistic competence. Hymes provided a broader view of
competence, taking socio-cultural factors into account:
The goal of a broad theory of competence can be said to be able to show the ways in which
the systematically possible, the feasible, and the appropriate are linked to produce and
interpret actually occurring cultural behaviour (p. 67).
In Hymes’ view, communicative competence was “dependent upon both knowledge

and ability for use”, that is the ability to convey, interpret messages and negotiate
meanings interpersonally within a specific context (p. 64). This became the core
principle underlying and characterising the CLT approach (Kumaravadivelu, 2006a),
whereby the goal was to promote the development of learners’ communicative
competence by engaging them in the meaningful use of language as part of the
negotiation of meanings (Brandl, 2008; Richards, 2006; Savignon, 2008).
46
Since its introduction into linguistic and educational discourses, the concept of
communicative competence has continued to evolve and be adapted to the context
of its use. Models of communicative competence include those developed by
Canale and Swain (1980), by Bachman and Palmer (1996), and also by The Council
of Europe (2001) in the Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages: Learning, Teaching and Assessment, CEFR.
The framework for communicative competence proposed by Canale and Swain

(1980) is the most frequently cited in the field of language education. They defined
communicative competence as a synthesis of the underlying system of knowledge
about language with the skills needed for communication and so included distinctive
grammatical, sociolinguistic and strategic competences. Grammatical competence,
equivalent to Chomsky’s linguistic competence, involves knowledge about the
linguistic code, and includes all the features and rules of the language system. This
competence is also referred to as accuracy in language use. Consistent with a view
of language as social behaviour, sociolinguistic competence addresses the ability
to use the language appropriately in different sociolinguistic contexts, highlighting
appropriacy in language use. Strategic competence incorporates verbal and non-
verbal strategies to enhance communicative effectiveness or to compensate for
communication breakdown. Later, Canale (1983, p. 9) added a fourth component,
discourse competence, to refer to the ability to use the language in unified and
coherent spoken and written texts. This is often understood as fluency in language
use. Sociocultural competence was later proposed by Littlewood (2011). This
involves the awareness of cultural knowledge and understanding that shapes the
exchange of meanings in cross-cultural communication both with native and non-
native speakers of English from the Outer and Expanding Circle countries. In this
way, communicative competence was aligned with the paradigm of English as a
global lingua franca and the concept of World Englishes as discussed earlier.
A second framework of communicative competence was proposed by Bachman

(1980) in his model of ‘communicative language ability’, later modified by Bachman
and Palmer (1996). In this interpretation, communicative language ability entails two
broad areas: language knowledge and strategic competence. Whilst the definition
of strategic competence is similar to Canale and Swain’s, the language knowledge
category consists of organisational and pragmatic knowledge, which complement
each other in achieving communicatively effective language use. Yet another
47
description of communicative competence was provided in the CEFR by the Council
of Europe (2001), and includes three basic components: language competence,
sociolinguistic competence and pragmatic competence.
There are strong similarities in the conceptualisation of communicative competence

in each of the models, even though different components were named and specified.
The common features foreground the appropriate and effective use of language
both linguistically and contextually, and emphasise the social aspects of language
and language use (Bagarić & Djigunović, 2007; Savignon, 2017). These common
features formed the basis for the approach to teaching and learning which came to
be known as Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). The CLT approach has
been prevalent amongst teachers of languages, especially the English language,
across the world since the last years of the 20 th century and continuing into the
millennium. It is now the default approach to teaching English in the many different
contexts, in child and adult education, in locations where English is the community
language and also where it is a foreign language. Perhaps because of its origins
and influences from different disciplines and differing motivations, and also because
it is ubiquitous, CLT appears in many and varied guises. It is the approach
prescribed in Project 2025, and as previously noted, it has been adopted by a range
of national governments in their efforts to reform English language teaching and
learning for entire school populations. Given its central place in Project 2025, it is
important to look in more detail at the ways in which it is understood and
implemented in Vietnam.
3.6.3. Core principles of CLT
In looking for the theoretical underpinnings of CLT, it is evident that the approach
was not based in any single or unified model of language, nor of language teaching
or language learning. A very general agreement is that CLT is based on the view
that language is functional (Brandl, 2008); that is, language is seen as a tool for
performing communicative purposes. Some of the specifications of this functional
view of language serve as the basis for CLT, understood by Richards and Rodgers
(2001, p. 161) as follows:
Language is a system for the expression of meaning

The primary function of language is to allow interaction and communication
The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses
48
The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features,
but categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse.
As an approach to language teaching, CLT consists of a fluid and dynamic set of

principles that inform rather than tightly prescribe language teaching and syllabus
design. The literature indicates there has been no unified set of principles clearly
outlined and agreed to as a baseline, although there have been ongoing attempts
to identify its characteristic features (Brandl, 2008; K. Johnson, 1982; Littlewood,
2014; Nunan, 1991; Richards & Rodgers, 2014; Savignon, 2008; Spada, 2007).
Common amongst these are the use of language as communication, the use of
authentic texts, and the emphasis on learner-centeredness. Nunan (1991) identified
five features that characterise the CLT approach as follows:
An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language

The introduction of authentic texts into language situations
The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language, but also on
the learning process itself
An enhancement of the learner’s own personal experiences as important contributing
elements to classroom learning
An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activity outside the
classroom
The literature also points to the fact that little has been written about learning theory
which underpins CLT. It has been argued that elements of such theory can be
inferred from typical CLT practices, such as activities that involve interaction and
collaboration amongst learners, which are linked to Long’s Interaction Hypothesis
(Spada, 2007). Another core element is the meaningfulness principle, wherein the
language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process (Farooq,
2015; Ju, 2013). Other accounts of CLT support a creative-construction hypothesis,
suggesting that learning is not simply a question of reproducing input but a creative
process, and errors are seen as evidence of learning rather than faulty learning
(Richards & Rodgers, 2001). A central tenet is that learners should be provided with
opportunities for engaging in meaningful language use rather than the mechanical
practice of language structures and patterns. It is also important to note the shift in
the literature from learning theories to learning principles. CLT is evidently not strong
on theories about language learning; rather, the focus is on learning principles which
are linked with the approach.
49
In line with these principles, a range of classroom activities has been specified,
which together point to the roles and relationships of teachers and learners in the
CLT classroom. Importance is placed on activities that require students to negotiate
meanings and develop fluency in language use, rather than on activities that
demand the accurate repetition and memorisation of sentence structures and
patterns. Opinion and information gap-filling activities are promoted with a view to
arousing learner interest and making the language meaningful, while role-plays and
improvisations aim to promote interaction within the classroom in a similar way to
real-life situations. These types of activities require changes to the ways in which
teachers and learners traditionally relate to each other. CLT classrooms are
markedly different from traditional classrooms. Within CLT, the teachers are
principally considered as facilitators supporting students to develop competence,
setting up activities and facilitating authentic communication. They are also required
to take on other roles such as needs analysts, counsellors and classroom monitors.
They are expected to be communicatively competent in the target language. The
learner in the CLT classroom is the central figure and is expected to actively engage
in classroom activities, in effect to work towards autonomy. Teachers foreground
each learner as an individual with unique needs, goals, interests and learning styles
to be reflected in the design of the methodology (Savignon, 1991). Littlewood (2011)
lists the following characteristics of a classroom with a focus on communication and
learner-centredness (p. 549):
Activities that require frequent interaction among learners or with other interlocutors to
exchange information and solve problems;
Use of authentic (non-pedagogic) texts and communication activities linked to ‘real
world’ contexts often emphasising links across written and spoken models and
channels;
Approaches that are learner-centred in that they take into account learners’
backgrounds, language needs and goals and generally allow learners some creativity
and role in instructional decisions.
The emergence of the concept of communicative competence, which went beyond

linguistic or grammatical competence, revolutionised language teaching by
redefining its goal and the pathway to achieving that goal. It also offered some
explanation as to why so many learners achieved poor levels of communicative
ability after several years of English study through the traditional focus on language
structures (Littlewood, 2011; Swan, 1985b). In separating out the different strands
50
of competence and specifying the content within each strand, it was evident that the
traditional emphasis on linguistic competence was a necessary but not sufficient
focus for language teachers. Communicative competence comprises linguistic plus
socio-cultural plus strategic and arguably plus discourse competences, and a
classroom focus on the first at the expense of the other components was seen to
run the risk of producing students who remained communicatively incompetent.
3.6.4. The role of grammar
Discussions of CLT often lead to the question of grammatical accuracy, with fears
aired that a focus on communication and communicative intent would be at the
expense of a focus on structure or form. The perceived displacement of attention to
communicative ability in some cases has led to the impression that grammar is not
important. According to Spada (2007 and Thompson (1996), this was a common
(mis)conception developed about CLT.
As noted above, the descriptions of communicative competence in Canale and

Swain (1980) did include grammatical (or linguistic) competence as one of the
fundamental competences, requiring knowledge about the language system,
including the phonological, morphological, syntactic and semantic, structure of the
language. As Canale and Swain (1980) stated:
There is no strong theoretical or empirical motivation for the view that grammatical
competence is any more or less crucial to successful communication than is sociolinguistic
competence of strategic competence. The primary goal of a communicative approach must
be to facilitate the integration of these types of knowledge for the learner, an outcome that
is not likely to result from an overemphasis on one form of competence over the others
throughout a second language performance (p. 27).
Other advocates of this view, e.g. McDonough and Shaw (2012); Richards (2006);
Savignon (2005), highlight the fact that communication cannot take place in the
absence of form and structure. Engagement in communicative events, while crucial
for language development, necessarily requires attention to form. In other words,
grammatical competence is required to produce grammatically correct texts.
However, language ability involves much more than this competence alone. It has
become empirically obvious that learners can master the rules of sentence
formation, but still not successfully transfer such knowledge into meaningful
communication. Therefore, the key to communicative success was seen as a
51
balance, wherein students learned how to use the grammar to appropriately perform
different communicative purposes (Spada, 2007). Although the balance of form-
focused versus meaning-focused activities remains a question of ongoing debate,
research findings overwhelmingly support the integration of both within classroom
experience. The combination is described by Savignon (2005, p. 640) as “a more
effective way to develop communicative ability with no apparent decrease in morph-
syntactic accuracy”. With a focus on the functional importance of language teaching
and learning, and embracing all aspects of communicative competence CLT has
evolved to become the globally accepted approach to English language teaching
and learning.
3.6.5. Different manifestations of CLT
From the 1980s, communicative competence became “the intellectual anchor”

(Leung, 2005, p. 120) for different versions of CLT which appeared as part of the
array of teacher training, curriculum and materials development. Given the breadth
of components, each of which translated into different classroom activities and
strategies, it was not at all surprising that CLT was adapted in different ways in
different contexts. From the outset, the literature has described two versions of CLT,
often called ‘weak’ and ‘strong’ versions (Howatt, 1984), which differed significantly
in their underlying assumptions. The variety evolving from the American context
tended to support the ‘strong’ version of CLT in which the emphasis was on
interaction, wherein students learnt the language through their experiences of
communication in the language (Littlewood, 2014). This strong version was based
on the premise of ‘using English to learn it’, the view that language was acquired
through communication and that learners would implicitly acquire grammatical and
lexical knowledge (Fotos, 2005). Language development was viewed as a natural
process wherein learners self-reflected, self-analysed and self-experienced the
language, processes that could not be controlled by the teacher. At the same time,
European work tended to favour a ‘weak’ version in which strategies were based on
both function and form. The weak version of CLT emphasised ‘learning to use’ the
language by providing students with underlying linguistic knowledge, and then
opportunities to use the language for communicative purposes. Weak versions of
CLT, while keeping the same goal of developing communicative competence,
accepted a more direct role for the teachers in the learning process and suggested
52
that teachers should introduce and organise structured, meaningful communicative
activities in the classroom (Butler, 2011).
In the millennium, CLT has commonly been used as a “generalised umbrella term”
(Harmer, 2007, p. 70) to describe teaching and learning sequences for improving
student communicative competence in contrast to the learning of discrete bits of the
language. Common to the evolution of CLT is that although different versions took
different pathways to language learning, they all aimed to arrive at the same goal of
achieving communicative competence. These included Content-based Instruction
and Task-based Language Teaching which have been widely adopted in
contemporary English curricula (Ellis, 2003, 2009; Nunan, 2004). What appears to
distinguish one version from another is the content rather than the pedagogy
(Spada, 2007). Despite differences in the instructional focus, these different
versions of CLT share specific features that categorise them as CLT: the emphasis
on communication and on classroom activities which place the learner at the centre
of the communication.
3.6.6. The global uptake of CLT in school curricula
CLT and variations of it have emerged as the default approaches to language

instruction globally. From its origins in Europe and North America, CLT has been
“quickly exported” to countries with a pressing need for English proficiency
(Littlewood, 2014, p. 352). In the millennium it is common to find the term “CLT”
prescribed in national curriculum policies in many and varied contexts. Particularly
in the Asia Pacific region, CLT has become a ‘slogan’ in English language teaching,
and communicative competence has been adopted as a central component of
government rhetoric (Butler, 2011; Littlewood, 2014; Nunan, 2003). Bax (2003)
reported that many English language teachers, trainers and curriculum designers
were operating with and adhering to a so-called “CLT attitude”, assuming that “CLT
is the whole and complete solution to language learning” (p. 280).
Despite this uptake of CLT, the extensive research literature on its implementation
suggests that clear evidence of CLT being successfully enacted in classrooms has
been uncommon. Humphries and Burns (2015) in a review of CLT-oriented
curriculum change concluded that moves towards CLT in many international
contexts “have resulted in mixed outcomes, even failure” (p. 239). Reports by Nunan
(2003), Butler (2011), Ho and Wong (2002), Littlewood (2007) on communicative
53
curriculum reform in different countries in the Asia-Pacific region, all concurred on
the limited success it has brought at the level of practice. The expanding list of
studies on the adoption of CLT in different geographical locations, includes the
following:
Japan (Abe, 2013; Nishino, 2011; Nishino & Watanabe, 2008; Thompson &
Yanagita, 2015; Tsushima, 2012);
South Korea (Jihyeon, 2009; Lee, 2014; Li, 1998, 2001; Moodie & Nam,
2016; Su, 2005);
Hong Kong (Benson & Patkin, 2014; Carless, 1998, 2007; Chan, 2014;
Coniam, 2014);
China (Coniam, 2014; Fang & Garland, 2014; Hu, 2002, 2004, 2005; W.
Wang, 2014; Zhang & Liu, 2014);
Thailand (Darasawang & Todd, 2012; de Segovia & Hardison, 2009; Hayes,
2010);
Malaysia (Hanewald, 2016; Pandian, 2002);
Turkey (Coskun, 2011; Kırkgöz, 2008).
Findings from these investigations differ naturally, but they have commonly
concluded that, despite affirming rhetoric at the policy level, there was little of CLT
in evidence at the classroom level. The shift from a teacher-centred to a learner-
centred approach had not taken place as planned. Hanewald (2016), for example,
expressed her concern that after decades of implementing CLT in Malaysia,
students there still entered university with “limited vocabulary, a weak understanding
of difficult words and difficulty in understanding long sentences” (p. 15). In Japan,
many secondary school teachers still adhered to traditional methods as they lacked
training in communicative approaches, and the initiatives by the Government were
not enough to transform conventional teaching practices across the nation (Nishino
& Watanabe, 2008). Nunan (2003) in a large-scale investigation into English
language policies in Asia-Pacific nations emphasised the fact that “the efforts
currently underway do not appear to be reflected in significantly enhanced English
language skills” (p. 608). Even in Hong Kong, where there was more English used
than in other countries in the region, many students left school “with only the most
limited ability to communicate in the language” (Nunan, 2012, p. 168).
54
3.6.7. Issues pertaining to CLT
It has been important to provide some detail about CLT because Project 2025 has
explicitly mandated the approach as best suited to Vietnam’s need for a
communicative workforce. Thus, in describing its provenance and development as
the most popular, most well-known and globally accepted approach to teaching and
learning English, it is also necessary to draw attention to the issues which have
surfaced over the years with its use.
3.6.7.1. Problems of identity
A recurring comment about CLT is linked to the question of identity, and is perhaps
the most common issue raised within the literature. There has been no single text
or authority regarding a definition of CLT, nor any single model that has been
“universally accepted as authoritative” (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p. 155). Its core
principles have been drawn from various sources, and there is no strong language
theory underpinning CLT, except the general statement that language is functional.
The outcome has been that many people remain somewhat confused about what
CLT is exactly. According to Harmer (2003), the term CLT “has always meant a
multitude of different things to different people” (p. 289). This comment was
supported by Spada (2007) who at the beginning of a CLT review posed a rhetorical
question of definition: “What is communicative language teaching?” His conclusion
was: “The answer to this question seems to depend on whom you ask” (p. 272). For
some, CLT meant little more than an integration of grammatical and functional
teaching. For others, it meant using processes and activities through which learners
worked collaboratively on problem-solving tasks. Littlewood (2011) reiterated the
feeling of definitional vagueness in commenting about CLT that “nobody knows what
it is” (p. 541).
Another explanation for the lack of certainty or clarity is that CLT is not a neatly
packaged language teaching ‘method’ in the sense that content, syllabus and
teaching procedures are clearly identified (Mitchell, 1987; Richards & Renandya,
2002). Rather, CLT is widely understood as an approach to language teaching,
comprising a fluid and dynamic set of principles. It offers “not just a set of static
principles set in stone”, but is “subject to some tinkering as a result of one’s
observation and experience” (McDonough & Shaw, 2012, p. 11). The relatively
varied way in which CLT has been interpreted and applied can be attributed in some
55
part to the fact that language teachers from many different educational traditions
have been drawn to it and worked creatively within its broad framework.
3.6.7.2. The issue of authenticity
One criterion for the ideal CLT classroom is that it should reverberate with the
authentic, meaningful communication that characterises interactions in real-life uses
of language (Swan, 1985b). The common view is that activities in CLT classrooms
should mirror the outside world, and authentic sources should be the material used
for classroom learning.
This issue of authenticity has seen ongoing discussion among practitioners and
researchers of language teaching. For Richards (2006), authentic materials include
cultural information, providing exposure to real language and aligning closely with
learner needs. The use of authentic materials, which make the classroom ‘parallel’
real-life, has been one of the consistent claims amongst proponents (Al Azri & Al-
Rashdi, 2014; Berardo, 2006; Spelleri, 2002). However, opponents of authenticity
argue that authentic materials routinely contain complex and irrelevant language
(Gilmore, 2007). Sourcing authentic materials could become a burden for teachers,
especially those who have to prepare their own resources (Gómez Rodríguez, 2010;
Kilickaya, 2004). Others claim that authentic resources are not always more
advantageous than constructed materials and that the latter may, in fact, be superior
because they are generally built around a graded syllabus, tailored to the needs of
learners, and therefore less demanding for the teacher (M. N. MacDonald, Badger,
& Dasli, 2006).
With or without authentic materials, a communicative curriculum alone cannot

guarantee meaningful communication in the classroom (Kumaravadivelu, 2006a).
The fact is that the classroom is not the outside world, and learning a language is
not the same as using that language (Swan, 1985b). The expectation that classroom
exchanges should achieve the spontaneity and naturalness of real-life interactions
could be over-ambitious, labelled by Swan (1985b) as “the real-life fallacy” (p. 82).
This point was also noted by Widdowson (1987), who emphasised the selection of
materials for their provocation of meaningful and real interaction rather than purely
for their authenticity. His view was that it was not important if learning materials were
derived from authentic texts and other forms of input, as long as the learning
processes they facilitated were authentic. The key point, it appears, is a balanced
56
use of both authentic and pedagogically constructed input, which helps to achieve
the intended goals of teaching and learning (Day, 2004).
3.6.7.3. CLT as ‘native-speakerism’
Another recurring critique of CLT is that it clearly reflects ‘native-speakerism’. CLT

originated in the Western industrialised world, and its underlying premises were
derived from the cultures of its origins – England, Europe and the USA. This has led
to a number of concerns in transferring “the spirit of CLT” from Western to non-
Western settings (H. H. Pham, 2007, p. 196). Su (2005) questioned if CLT as used
in Inner Circle contexts was applicable to other contexts, especially in the Outer and
Expanding Circle countries where there are fewer resources, fewer or even no NS
teachers, and students do not have the same linguistic need for English use outside
their classrooms. Constraints are also evident in the differences in the Western
based values and principles inherent in CLT and those of the traditional views of
teaching and learning in other cultural contexts. Butler (2011) warned of the danger
of imposing Anglocentric ideologies on ways of teaching, learning and
communication, and expressed her concern over “the obsession with
communicative skills” (p. 40). It is important to avoid the assumption that
approaches developed in Western contexts will also be suitable for application in
other contexts of use (Littlewood, 2011, p. 542; Savignon, 2008). These issues are
particularly salient in the present study and are addressed in some detail in later
chapters.
3.6.7.4. Teacher attitude and understanding of CLT
Studies of teacher attitude in the context of educational reforms have reinforced the
view that teacher attitude should be understood as a vital and inevitable part of any
pedagogic innovation (Datnow, 2012; J. L. Gregory & Noto, 2018). Karavas-Doukas
(1996) proposed that teacher attitudes have a strong influence on classroom
practice and directly influence what the student learns in class. If there are
incompatibilities between teacher attitudes and the philosophy underlying the
curriculum, teachers are more likely to reject innovations and adhere to their routine
practice, leading to zero change in their classroom practice (Humphries & Burns,
2015). In the case of CLT curriculum reforms, studies uniformly reveal that teacher
attitudes are not always congruent with the communicative approach in terms of its
feasibility in their local contexts (Ching-Ching & Kuo-Hung, 2018; Kennedy &
Kennedy, 1996). Li (1998) reported that the teachers in his study disregarded CLT
57
as they believed that this pedagogy could not prepare their students for the written,
grammar-based examinations which had a great bearing on their futures. Hu (2002)
reported that CLT failed to achieve the expected outcomes in China partly as a result
of clashes between the interactive, learner-centred principles underpinning CLT and
traditional Chinese classrooms, with the outcome being teacher resistance to using
CLT. Similarly, H. Wang (2008) and Zheng & Borg (2014) highlighted that CLT has
caused substantial confusion at the classroom level, wherein teachers hold different
views with regards to ‘how to teach’ the communicative curriculum, and limited
implementation at the classroom level.
Effective and sustained curriculum innovation or reform requires the capacity of

teachers to understand the changes for which they are ultimately responsible. As
commented by Morris (1995), the degree to which teachers adopt and implement
change depends upon the extent to which they acquire an informed understanding
of the pedagogic theories underpinning the reform. However, the literature on CLT
curriculum reform has highlighted the fact that teachers in many different locations
have not had a solid understanding of CLT principles. In Turkey, a study by Kırkgöz
(2008) revealed that some of the teachers either did not understand or were unable
to see the practical implications of CLT. Studies by Hardman and A-Rahman (2014)
in Malaysia and by de Segovia and Hardison (2009) in Thailand offered evidence
that many teachers had a fragmented understanding of CLT and were confused
about how to apply it in the classroom. Similarly, in exploring teachers’ perceptions
of CLT in Bangladesh, Rahman (2015) found that the teachers who claimed to be
practising CLT in their classrooms did not have a clear idea of what it entailed.
Vague teacher knowledge has also been reported in studies in various other
contexts, including Libya (Orafi & Borg, 2009), Japan (Nishino & Watanabe, 2008),
China (Fang & Garland, 2014) and South Korea (Lee, 2014). Teacher
understanding, or more precisely teacher lack of understanding of CLT, has
highlighted the critical role of professional development in regard to the knowledge
and skills necessary to implement change. However, Kam (2002) reported that
many countries have introduced reforms which incorporate CLT without adequate
training and preparation for the teachers.
Chapter conclusion
Project 2025 has been a Vietnamese government response to the pervceived need
to reform English language education at the national level in order to produce
58
competent users of the global lingua franca. Initiated and planned by policymakers
at the central level and in a clear top-down manner, the reform embraced CLT as
the prescribed pedagogy to deliver the curriculum content to achieve the desired
proficiency targets.
As the most influential and the most researched approach in the history of language
education, CLT represents efforts to combine and balance the teaching of both form
and meaning with the aim of achieving communicative competence. It has
encouraged classrooms that rely less on mechanical, teacher-centred practices,
and has directed more attention to the simulation of exchanges resembling real-life
interactions. However, although “its heart is in the right place” (Swan, 1985a, p. 11),
CLT, as documented, has not been without its problems. There has been a good
deal of confusion about the approach which has been ‘light’ on theory about
language or about language learning. The documentation of implementation issues
in different locations has supported this perception, where an absence of
foundational precepts has fostered a vagueness across the field. Given the centrally
driven adoption of CLT as the prescribed pedagogy within the curriculum reform in
Vietnam, the question arises as to what MOET actually intended in the development
of the policy. Furthermore, what preparation was provided to the schools and the
English language teachers as the implementers of the policy?
59
CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
4.1. Mixed-methods research design
Research methodologies are most often based in a either: positivist or constructivist

tradition (Brewer & Hunter, 2006; Creswell, 2011, 2012). The positivist research
philosophy underpins quantitative research, whilst the constructivist approach is
associated with qualitative research.
A positivist paradigm and its modified version, the post-positivist paradigm, operates
with the belief that material and social reality can be understood objectively; hence,
these realities are quantifiable and measurable (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2013;
Paltridge & Phakiti, 2015). Informed by positivism, quantitative methodology is
characterised by a deductive approach to research, and involves the measurement
of variables or the testing of relationships between variables in order to reveal
patterns, correlations or causal relationships (Creswell, 2012; Walter, 2010). At the
other end of the research spectrum, constructivism, often also labelled as
interpretivism, takes a more relativist and subjectivist stance, arguing that reality is
multiple and typically socially co-constructed, being dependent on who is involved,
what is being studied and the context in which a study is conducted (Denzin &
Lincoln, 2008; Silverman, 2016). Accordingly, qualitative research is generally
characterised by an inductive approach to knowledge building, aimed at capturing
the qualities or attributes of the phenomenon under study. Qualitative researchers
use this approach in order “to explore, investigate and learn about a social
phenomenon, or unpack the meaning people ascribe to activities, situations, events
or artefacts, or to build a deep understanding of a dimension of social life” (Leavy,
2014, p. 9). Qualitative research privileges the significance of meaning and holistic
concerns rather than discrete variables and statistics (Brewer & Hunter, 2006;
Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009).
These two approaches provide two fundamentally distinct ways of understanding

and studying the world. A quantitative way of understanding views the world on the
basis of “categorical data, featuring the comparison of frequencies and
measurements across subjects and categories”, whereas a qualitative approach
views the world “in terms of textual data, featuring the treatment of focal entities as
singular wholes in context” (Maxwell & Loomis, 2003, p. 249). Traditionally, each of
the two perspectives has been critiqued by advocates from the other tradition. Much
60
of the controversy has focused on the underpinning paradigm, described as the
‘paradigm wars’ (Gage, 1989), as well as on “the methods of study, the rigour of its
procedures, and the validity of its outcomes” (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003, p. ix).
Quantitative research is sometimes portrayed as being sterile and unimaginative
while qualitative research is often criticised for lacking generalisation, being too
reliant on the subjective interpretations of researchers and being incapable of
replication by subsequent researchers (Brewer & Hunter, 2006; Ivankova &
Creswell, 2009).
The field of mixed methods research has evolved out of these debates and
controversies, as a pragmatic way of using the strengths and offsetting the
weaknesses of both approaches (R. B. Johnson, Onwuegbuzie, & Turner, 2007;
Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003). Mixed methods research is often regarded as “the third
methodological movement”, in an attempt to “to combine as far as possible features
of statistical, case and survey methods” (Hunter & Brewer, 2002, p. 579). However,
it was not until the last years of the 20 th century when more studies needed a
methodology that could help to simultaneously explore the breadth and depth of
broad multi-faceted questions that researchers began to name their methodology
as mixed-method (Ivankova & Creswell, 2009; Paltridge & Phakiti, 2015).
According to Creswell (2011), a mixed methods approach is useful in studies in

which social phenomena cannot be fully understood by using either purely
quantitative or qualitative techniques alone, and there is a need for a variety of data
sources and analyses for a more complete understanding of multifaceted realities.
The type of data used in mixed methods research, therefore, can be both numeric
and verbal. The advantages of mixed methods research have been discussed at
length (Creswell, 2011; Morse, 2009). There is now some consensus that mixing
different research methods can strengthen a study based on the premise that all
methods of data collection and analysis have their limitations. Proponents argue that
employing both quantitative and qualitative methodologies can strengthen the
quality of a study because each can support, complement or expand the other,
creating a more complete picture of a research question. A mixed methods design
creates a multifaceted view of the questions by allowing for the triangulation of data
sources and potentially facilitating the creation of stronger inferences. According to
Teddlie and Tashakkori (2009, p. 33), mixed methods research is superior to the
single approach design in that it can:
61
(i) simultaneously address a range of confirmatory and exploratory questions with both
quantitative and qualitative approaches and therefore verify and generate theory in
the same study;
(ii) provide better and stronger inferences;
(iii) provide better opportunities for divergent views.
In a mixed methods approach, there are two typical research designs: the parallel
mixed design and the sequential mixed design (Creswell, 2011; Morse, 2009). In a
parallel mixed design, also known as concurrent or simultaneous design, the
quantitative and qualitative strands occur in a parallel manner, either simultaneously
or with some time lapse. They are planned to respond to related aspects of the same
research question and conclusions are based on results from both strands. In a
sequential mixed design, the quantitative and qualitative strands of the study occur
in chronological order. Research questions for the quantitative and qualitative
phases are related to one another and may evolve as the study unfolds. The second
strand of the study is conducted either to confirm or to provide further explanation
for findings from the first strand. In a mixed methods research design, there is often
one core component, which is described as the “priority” (Creswell & Plano Clark,
2010) or “backbone” (Morse, 2009) of the study. Dependent on the research
objectives, this core component can be allocated to either the quantitative or
qualitative strand. The core component and supplementary components are then
linked to inform the research questions (Morse, 2009; Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009).
Mixed methods research has become a popular research approach in the field of
language education and applied linguistics (Ivankova & Creswell, 2009; Paltridge &
Phakiti, 2015). It has offered a more multidimensional view of the processes and
practices of teaching and learning a language as well as the social, cultural and
political factors that influence language development, language teaching and
language learning.
4.2. The present study
Investigations into curriculum issues, including teacher attitudes, educational

knowledge and classroom practices as part of curriculum change, are often
considered “a major methodological challenge” (Marland, 1995, p. 133). This is not
only because attitudes and their realisation in practice are often “value-laden, tacit,
systematic and highly context-sensitive” (Borg, 2015, p. 272), but also because
curriculum reform necessarily requires the involvement of a number of stakeholders
62
who play different roles in the processes and practices within the reform (Fullan,
2007; Hargreaves et al., 2002). Therefore, it is of importance that data drawn from
these multiple sources should be used, which, as commented on by Sato and
Kleinsasser (1999), are particularly significant in exploring and understanding
attitudes, processes, practices and mandates in educational research.
In order to inform the issues inherent in the intentions and realities of Project 2025
reform, the study employed a mixed methods approach. This choice was based on
the pragmatic and flexible qualities the approach offered. The clear potential for
triangulation facilitated the construction of meaningful and coherent explanations
from both quantitative and qualitative data, therefore enhancing the legitimation of
the findings (Axinn, 2006; Creswell, 2011; Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009). As Mathison
(1988, p. 14) commented in relation to a different study, “the use of a single method
for investigation into these issues, is parallel to the view of a single individual, and
will necessarily be subjective, partial and biased”.
Accordingly, a parallel mixed methods design was adopted, which enabled

concurrent use of both quantitative and qualitative methods which were integrated
into the interpretation of the findings (Creswell, 2011; Creswell & Plano Clark, 2010).
A major advantage of the parallel design was that it was time-saving; the different
data could be collected and analysed at the same time. The design also allowed a
smaller set of data to be embedded within a larger set to analyse different type of
questions (Maxwell & Loomis, 2003; Morse, 2009; Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009).
The core component of the study was the qualitative strand, with the quantitative
strand as supplementary. The quantitative element included an online survey
targeting a large number of teacher participants across one province in northern
Vietnam. Given the limitations of surveying which does not allow for deep insights
into what teachers actually think, how they behave in the classroom, and how they
rationalise their pedagogic activities, the qualitative study was used to gather more
detailed insights into the different elements of the reform from the perspective of the
teachers and other stakeholders. These qualitative data included the relevant
curriculum mandates, the textbooks, semi-structured interviews with stakeholders
and video recordings in a number of classrooms. The findings were then generated
through an integration of the evidence from the quantitative, numerical and
qualitative verbal data. The sequence of the study is presented in the flow chart in
Figure 4.1.
63
Identifying research objectives and
research questions
Choosing parallel mixed methods research design
Supplementary component of the study

Core component of the study
(Quantitative driven)
(Qualitative driven)
Selecting supplementary data collection

Selecting core data collection methods methods
Identifying core sample and cases Identifying supplementary sample
Collecting the core data Collecting the supplementary data
Analysing the core data Analysing the supplementary data
Point of
interface Integrating supplementary findings with
Research findings those of the core findings
Discussion of findings to inform the research Where to from here – Conclusion and
questions recommendations in light of findings
Figure 4.1. The research procedure
A language classroom is holistic in nature and a curriculum reform requires the

involvement of a number of stakeholders who play different roles in the change
process, from the macro level of policymaking to the micro level in the classroom
(Fullan, 2007; Hargreaves et al., 2002). Accordingly, multiple sources of data were
important in the effort to seek convergence and corroboration. The participation of
different stakeholders aimed to capture a clear picture of the range of issues relating
to the curriculum change from policy, administrative and practitioner vantage points.
64
To understand the intent behind the reform, the official curriculum documents
published about Project 2025 were collected and analysed. A selection of the
curriculum textbooks was also analysed on the basis that these were manifestations
of the curriculum intentions in material and tangible form. To explore the realities of
the reform implementation, data were collected from a teacher survey and semi-
structured interviews with teachers and their school principals. Beyond this, a
number of English language lessons were recorded across different schools to gain
practical understandings of the curriculum enactment at the classroom level.
4.3.1. The official curriculum documentation
Official documentation represented a valuable and reliable source of qualitative

data, providing the advantage of being words which were “ready for analysis without
the necessary transcription” (Creswell, 2012, p. 223). A corpus of the relevant
national-level policy documents issued by MOET was gathered, as listed in Table
4.1. These documents were in the public domain, they were written in Vietnamese,
and were obtained from the official websites of MOET
(https://moet.gov.vn/Pages/home.aspx) and of Project 2025
(http://ngoainguquocgia.moet.gov.vn/). These policy documents made public the
governmental decisions and guidance pertaining to the English language curriculum
reform.
Table 4.1 National English language policy documents at the lower-secondary level 2008-2016
# Policy Documents Types of Policy
1 MOET (2012). The Pilot National English Language Curriculum Decision, 01/QD-
for the Lower-secondary Level BGDDT, 03 Jan 2012
2 MOET (2012). Implementing the Pilot National English Language Guidance, 3456/QD-
Curriculum for the Lower-secondary Level BGDDT, 05 Sept 2012
3 MOET (2014). The Six-level Language Proficiency Framework Guidance, 01/2014/TT-
for Vietnam. BDHDT, 14 Jan 2014
4 MOET (2016). The Format of Assessment for Language Guidance, 1475/QD-
Proficiency at the Lower-secondary Level BGDDT, 10 May 2016
65
4.3.2. The curriculum textbooks
The curriculum textbooks constituted the concrete evidence of the curriculum

intentions to be enacted at the level of the classroom (Byrd, 2001; Richards, 2001).
Thus, the textbook analysis offered insight not only into the content of the English
language curriculum at the lower secondary level, but also how CLT was made
evident in the form of learning activities to achieve the curriculum goals. This
analysis was combined with an analysis of the ‘textbooks-in-action’ – that is the use
of the textbooks in daily classroom processes and practices. This second analysis
of the textbooks provided an evidence-based way of understanding how the
intentions of the reform, specifically its prescription of CLT, were enacted in the
classroom.
The specific data set selected for the textbook analysis was drawn from the textbook
series, the “Tieng Anh” (English) Years 6-9 for lower-secondary schools (Hoang et
al., 2015a). As the extent of the materials made it impractical to analyse their entire
contents in any depth, a proportion of the learning units was selected. As the same
pattern of presentation was repeated across each of the learning units of the Tieng
Anh series, so three units in each textbook were chosen, accounting for 25% of the
total content in the series. This proportion, as suggested by Littlejohn (2011), is
sufficient for “a snapshot impression of the general nature of a set of materials” (p.
186). The learning units were chosen on the same theme (‘Our Communities’),
which allowed for a systematic analysis of the thematic continuity and progress of
that specific learning content. Of importance to note is that the textbook was
analysed with a close focus on the language input and activity types “as they are”
and “with the content and ways of working that they propose” (Littlejohn, 2011, p.
181). Details of the selected units of analysis are provided in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2. The units selected for the textbook analysis
Name of units Pages Theme
Tieng Anh 6 Unit 1: My new school 6-15 Our Communities

(Year 6) Unit 2: My home 7-25
Unit 3: My friends 26-35
Tieng Anh 7 Unit 1: My hobbies 6-15 Our Communities
(Year 7) Unit 2: Healthy living 7-25
Unit 3: Community Service 26-35
Tieng Anh 8 Unit 1: Leisure activities 6-15 Our Communities
66
(Year 8) Unit 2: Life in the countryside 7-25
Unit 3: People of Vietnam 26-35
Tieng Anh 9 Unit 1: Local environment 6-15 Our Communities
(Year 9) Unit 2: City life 7-25
Unit 3: Teen stress and pressure 26-35
4.3.3. Research location
The location for collecting the survey, interview and classroom-based data for the
study was Hai Duong, a northern province of Vietnam. The selection of this location
was primarily for reasons of accessibility and convenience, where I had personal
and professional connections and easy access to schools and teachers.
The total area of the province is 1,656 km2 (General Statistics Office of Vietnam,
2011). Administratively, the province is subdivided into a main city, Hai Duong,
where the provincial administrative agencies are located, and eleven rural districts
in which lower levels of administration are distributed. Educational affairs are
administered by the provincial DOET whose responsibility is to implement national
education policies, to allocate resources and to manage education in schools. At the
district level, subordinate offices of education are accountable both to the DOET
and to the local people’s committee. The DOET is responsible for direct oversight
of upper-secondary education, whereas the district-level offices oversee lower
levels of education, including early childhood education, primary education and
lower-secondary education.
There are 268 lower secondary schools in the province. As described in Chapter II,
the schools are typically Normal public schools complemented by a small number
of Selective schools. At the lower-secondary level, there is one Selective school in
each of the twelve districts. The selection criteria for entry to the Selective schools
are based on academic merit so that the students need to demonstrate a
consistently high level of achievement and also to pass an entrance examination.
Students in these schools are typically highly motivated in their learning, and at the
same time, under pressure to gain and retain high academic achievement.
There were 88 schools in the province working with the Project 2025 English
curriculum in 2017 (Statistics provided by the local DOET). At the time of writing, the
adoption of the new curriculum was not yet obligatory. It was originally expected that
67
by the year 2020, now extended to 2025, all lower secondary schools across the
country would be working with the new curriculum and its mandated textbooks. A
summary of schools trialling the new curriculum and the textbooks in the twelve
administrative districts in Hai Duong province is presented in Table 4.3 below.
Table 4.3. Number of districts and schools using the new curriculum in 2017
Number of schools using the new curriculum

# District
Normal schools Selective schools
1 District A 6 1
2 District B 4 1
3 District C 4 1
4 District D 9 1
5 District E 3 1
6 District F 7 1
7 District G 6 1
8 City 10 1
9 District I 7 1
10 District J 5 1
11 District K 3 1
12 District L 12 1
Total 12 76 12
4.3.3. Research participants
The data for the study were generated in 2017. The initial stage of the process
involved gaining official permission from the relevant levels of administration.
Contact with the provincial DOET Head of Foreign Language Education Division
was made both in writing via email and then in person, in which the aims, scope and
involvement of the potential participants were clearly outlined. A list of contact
details of teachers working in lower secondary schools in the province was provided
by the DOET office, and was used for delivering the online survey via email.
Permission was then sought from the school principals in person to gain access to
their schools. Visits to the participating schools were made seeking consent from
teachers for classroom observations and interviews and also importantly, to build a
rapport with the teachers and students. All participants were informed of the
research objectives, its scope and their involvement in the study.
In a practical consideration of the research contexts and types of data needed to

inform the research questions, the study used purposive sampling strategies
68
(Creswell, 2012; Leavy, 2014). From the population of 567 teachers of English
working in the 268 lower-secondary schools in the province, 178 teachers who had
been working with the new curriculum in the 88 public schools were invited to
participate in a survey. Eleven teachers were then asked for their permission for
classroom observations and recordings and in-depth interviews. Other interviewees
included four school principals in four participating schools.
4.3.4. The survey
A major advantage of using a survey is that it can be delivered to a large number of

participants in a short period of time and can yield “a maximum amount of data per
research dollar” (Chadwick et al., 1984, p. 160). It allows for the collection of a
breadth of data from a large sample, and these data can be generalised to larger
populations (De Vaus, 2002; Ruel, Wagner, & Gillespie, 2016). It can ask for facts,
including demographic information, and also is typically used for ascertaining
individual perspectives, opinions, and the reporting of experience and behaviour
(Leavy, 2014).
An online survey was used in the study for the reasons that it saved time in
distribution, and in gathering and processing the data. The online survey was piloted
with more than ten experienced Vietnamese teachers of English. After the pilot,
modifications were made, mostly in terms of wording and question order. The final
survey consisted of 10 questions, divided into three parts. Part 1 covered
demographic information about the respondents; Part 2 posed attitude questions
about the goals of the Project; Part 3 focused on teacher understanding and practice
with the new curriculum including challenges they faced in the implementation
process. Different types of closed questions included multiple-choice, checklists,
Likert scale and rating scale. Open-ended questions were kept to a minimum, in
order to avoid “respondent burden” which “occurs to the degree that respondents
experience their participation as too stressful and/or time-consuming” (Leavy, 2014,
p. 107). A heavy burden can result in respondent fatigue, a higher non-response
rate and also a lower quality of response (Ruel et al., 2016). A copy of the survey is
attached as Appendix A. A total of 178 teachers who had been working with the new
curriculum in 88 public schools were invited to participate in the survey. In total, 172
emails were successfully delivered, and after a one-month period, 112 responses
had been received, which equates to a response rate of approximately 65%.
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Table 4.4 below presents demographic information of the 112 teacher participants
in the survey and provides biographical details relating to their gender, education,
teaching experience and current levels of English language proficiency.
Table 4.4. Teacher demographics
Summary of Participants
Gender Males: 7% (n = 8)
Females: 93% (n = 104)
Formal Education BA Degree (four-year undergraduate): 93% (n = 104)

BA Degree (three-year undergraduate): 7% (n = 8)
Teaching Experience 2 - 5 years: 5% (n = 5)
6 - 10 years: 10% (n = 11)
10 - 15 years: 16% (n = 19)
15 - 20 years: 60% (n = 67)
> 20 years: 9% (n = 10)
English Language Proficiency B1: 6% (n = 7)
B2: 84% (n = 94)
C1: 10% (n = 11)
More than 93% of the teacher participants were female, reflecting the fact that
English language education at the lower secondary level, and the school sector in
general, is predominantly a female profession in Vietnam. All of the teachers had a
relevant qualification in English language teaching, with 93% having a four-year
undergraduate degree. These teachers had a great deal of experience in teaching
English at the lower-secondary level, with 85% having more than 10 years’
experience. Approximately 94% had achieved Proficiency Level B2 or above in
English language, which met the mandated level set by MOET. The data indicate
that the typical survey participant was a well-qualified female teacher with many
years’ experience of teaching English at the lower-secondary level.
4.3.5. Classroom observations
Classroom observation is defined by Gebhard and Oprandy (1999, p. 5) as “non-

judgemental description of classroom events that can be analysed and given
interpretation”. The major strength of observation in language classroom research
is that it offers a close-up description of events, activities and incidents happening
in classrooms and, therefore, allows for the collection of evidence about teaching
70
and learning practices (Paltridge & Phakiti, 2015; H. Simons, 2014). Observations
allow investigators to obtain detailed information about how language is used,
together with language activities, classroom interactions, instructions and other
noteworthy events at close range (Nunan, 1992). With a focus on the teacher,
observations can document a range of elements, from the amount of teacher use of
the target language, to the use of curriculum materials, through to the types of
feedback given to student responses. With a focus on students, these same
observations can range from student questioning, their interactions with peers and
participation in collaborative activities, as well as interactions with the teacher.
Observations, therefore, allow a wide range of aspects of the classroom context and
the classroom culture to be captured in a holistic way and are an effective data
collection instrument to understand how a curriculum is actually implemented
(Cohen et al., 2013; Creswell, 2013). Furthermore, as argued by Patton (2002),
direct observation offers the chance to learn things that participants might be
unwilling to talk about in interviews and can provide a more insightful understanding
of what is going on in practice.
The study used a non-participant observation strategy (Axinn, 2006; Ivankova &
Creswell, 2009), of observing without participating in the activities. This approach
provides the researcher with an insight into the observed activities to gain a broader
view of what is happening by freely observing, listening and taking field notes. As
described by Hennink, Hutter, and Bailey (2010, p. 185), this type of observation
aims to “blend into the background and not influence what you are observing”.
However, it is noted that in reality, this researcher was part of the situation she
observed, and it was inevitable that her presence or actions might influence the
situation. The influence of the researcher in this way has been referred to as the
“Hawthorne effect” (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009, p. 66), referring to the changes in
the behaviour of research participants because they are aware that they are being
studied. The participants are liable to modify their behaviour when they know that
they are part of an experiment or are under investigation. This was considered one
of the inbuilt biases of observation that needed to be considered to minimise
possible adverse effects.
In Vietnamese schools, classroom observations are common professional practice

and are conducted on a regular basis, with the observers being colleagues, school
principals or visiting bureaucrats. The purpose of these observations is often to
71
assess the quality of teaching and learning and is considered to be part of
professional development. Despite this, teachers are often under pressure when
being observed for fear of criticism and negative evaluation. Many Vietnamese
teachers suffer from what Le (2011) called “observation phobia” (p. 97), which was
another factor which required attention in this study. On account of both the
“Hawthorne effect” and also the “observation phobia” of teachers, efforts were made
to build rapport with the teachers by making visits to their classrooms and engaging
in conversations so that they became comfortable with the researcher in the
classroom.
It was critical to select schools as cases for exploring how the new curriculum
worked in the classroom. The selected schools needed to have sampling
representativeness, and at the same time provide a practical understanding of the
implementation of the intended curriculum. Based on the assumption that there
might be some disparities between schools in the urban and rural areas, and
between Normal and Selective schools, four lower secondary schools in two
different districts were selected. School A (Normal school) and School B (Selective
school) were located in the city; School C (Normal school) and School D (Selective
school) were located in a rural district in the northern part of the province. The choice
of a range of schools, i.e. Normal and Selective, offered data across the ability range
of students. The purpose was to understand the curriculum implementation across
different school types and in different socio-economic contexts to develop an
understanding of the variables that impinge on the implementation of the curriculum.
The schools participating in classroom observations are presented in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5. The selected schools for classroom observations
Number of
Number of Number of
School Name Type Location English
students observations
teachers
School A Normal Urban district 1164 students 6 7
(City)
School B Selective Urban district 1089 students 6 7
(City)
School C Normal Rural district 630 students 3 7
(District J)
School D Selective Rural district 500 students 4 7
(District J)
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28 lessons were observed in the participating schools. An observation protocol was
built to enable field notes (a copy of the protocol is included as Appendix B), and a
video recorder was used to record lessons to be revisited and reviewed. The use of
video was beneficial and limited the problems often associated with observations
alone, which were noted by Chadwick at al. (1984, p. 96), to typically include:
(i) the sheer inadequacy of human sense organs,

(ii) the selective perception or tendency to pay attention to certain events at the expense
of others,
(iii) the observations becoming less effective because of overfamiliarity, boredom or
fatigue.
4.3.6. Semi-structured interviews
An essential part of the qualitative strand involved in-depth interviews. In-depth

interviews are often described as “a conversation with a purpose” (Hennink et al.,
2010, p. 109) or “knowledge-producing conversations” (Hesse-Biber, Hesse-Biber,
& Leavy, 2006, p. 128). The interview is considered powerful data as it allows
interaction between researchers and interviewees and offers opportunities for
interviewers to ask for explanations or clarification of responses (Teddlie &
Tashakkori, 2009).
Purposive sampling was used as a non-probability sampling strategy to recruit

participants for an interview (Creswell, 2012; Leavy, 2014) and comprised eleven
teachers and four school principals in one-to-one meetings. Semi-structured
interview protocols were developed, in which many of the questions were open-
ended and “allowed the respondents opportunities to develop their responses in
ways which the interviewer might not have foreseen” (Campbell, McNamara, &
Gilroy, 2004, p. 99). Before any interviews, the participants were asked for their
preference for the language of the meeting (i.e. English or Vietnamese), and all
chose Vietnamese. All of the interviews were audio recorded.
4.3.6.1. Teacher interviews
Eleven teachers from the four selected schools agreed to participate in an interview.
The interviews were conducted after the classroom observations. The four
overarching themes of the interview protocol, a copy of which is at Appendix C1,
were:
73
(i) Teacher attitude in relation to the curriculum reform,
(ii) Teacher understanding of CLT
(iii) Teacher practices using the new curriculum, including perceived constraints to its
implementation,
(iv) Professional development
Details of the teachers participating are summarised in Table 4.6 below, in which
the names of the teachers are coded alphabetically for confidentiality.
Table 4.6. Interviewed teachers
Experience (years)
# Name School School type of teaching of the new Location
English curriculum
1 Teacher A School A 20 3
2 Teacher B School A 30 4
Normal Urban
3 Teacher C School A 14 3
district
4 Teacher D School A 15 2
5 Teacher E School B Selective 12 3
6 Teacher F School C 18 3
Normal
7 Teacher G School C 30 4
8 Teacher H School D 32 2 Rural
9 Teacher I School D 21 4 district
Selective
10 Teacher J School D 13 3
11 Teacher K School D 12 3
The obvious point to note from Table 4.5 is that the teachers were collectively very
experienced, each with an average of twenty years in the classroom. They were
also practised in relation to implementing the new curriculum with an average of
more than three years’ experience.
4.3.6.2. Interviews with school principals
Besides the interviews with teachers, it was also critical to involve voices from the
school leadership. At the local level, the school principal has a pivotal role in
promoting or inhibiting educational change in the school (Fullan, 2015). The
principal plays an important role in several areas: the bureaucratic process,
curriculum leadership, strategic orientation, academic, administrative and resource
support to “attack incoherence” in the process of implementing change (Fullan,
2015, p. 123). A semi-structured interview protocol for the principals (Appendix C2),
was developed, focusing on three main themes:
(i) Understanding of and attitude towards the curriculum reform
74
(ii) Perceived constraints to its implementation
(iii) Teacher professional development
Details about the participating principals are presented in Table 4.7.
Table 4.7. Details of the school principals
# Name School Location
1 School Principal A School A

Urban district
2 School Principal B School B
3 School Principal C School C
Rural district
4 School Principal D School D
4.4. Data analysis
Since the study consisted of multiple data sources, the analysis of each type of data
was conducted independently, employing separate analytic tools to treat the
numerical and verbal data. Results obtained from both sets of data analyses were
merged by using a joint inference strategy (Creswell, 2011; Morse, 2009), in which
both congruent and divergent findings were triangulated and discussed.
In regard to the survey, because the aim was to describe rather than test a
hypothesis or identify correlations between variables, a univariate method of
analysis was used, which involved the description of the distribution of a single
variable at a time (Bryman, 2012; De Vaus, 2002). Descriptive statistics was
employed as the tool for the univariate analysis in which patterns and frequencies
in the responses were calculated. As the survey was administered online, the
frequency, percentages and standard deviation of variables deriving from participant
responses were automatically generated. One of the advantages of using a web-
based survey compared to the traditional paper form was that the representation of
quantitative results was made available in tables, charts, and statistically in the form
of concise numbers. This ready-to-use data analysis saved a great deal of time by
inputting, classifying, categorising and calculating the data, which was traditionally
handled manually, or via spreadsheets or computer-assisted software. The verbal
data derived from the open-ended questions were treated as qualitative data.
Unlike the analysis of quantitative data, there are few clear-cut and well-established
rules for analysing verbal data (Creswell, 2013; Hennink et al., 2010; Leavy, 2014).
75
There are no one-size-fits-all strategies for analysing qualitative data due to different
research aims, the nature of the phenomenon under investigation as well as the
experiences and interpretive skills of researchers (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005;
Schreier, 2012).
Qualitative data, which formed the core component of the study, comprised data
from different sources, including:
(i) Government-issued curriculum mandates;

(ii) Curriculum textbooks;
(iii) Interviews with the teachers and school principals;
(iv) Videos and field notes of classroom practices;
Given the diversity of these data, three methods were used for their analysis and
interpretation:
(i) A qualitative content analysis method for analysing the curriculum documents and
the interviews ( see section 4.4.1)
(ii) An integrated framework for the analysis of the textbooks (see section 4.4.2)
(iii) Resources from SFL for the analyses of teacher attitudes and classroom discourse
(see section 4.4.3)
4.4.1. Qualitative content analysis of the curriculum documents and

interviews
Qualitative content analysis (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008; Schreier, 2012) was used to
examine the curriculum mandates and interviews. As a flexible method for analysing
textual data, content analysis is defined as “a research method for the subjective
interpretation of the content of text data through the systematic classification
process of coding and identifying themes or patterns” (Schreier, 2012, p. 1277). This
method of analysis enables researchers “to sift through large volumes of data with
relative ease in a systematic fashion” (Stemler, 2000, p. 1). Therefore, an advantage
of this method is to allow a large volume of verbal data to be dealt with, analysed
and interpreted in corroborating evidence (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008). It is a widely used
technique for making replicable and valid inferences from data to their context,
aiming to generate new knowledge, insights, and practical guides to action (Drisko
& Maschi, 2015; Krippendorff, 2018). Qualitative content analysis is considered a
well-suited method for studies which focus more on description and interpretation
than on seeking to develop theory (Drisko & Maschi, 2015; Neuendorf, 2016) and is
76
also “extremely well-suited for the analysis of multifaceted sensitive phenomena”
with data from multiple sources and perspectives (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008, p. 114).
Qualitative content analysis is flexible in that it allows researchers to adopt an

inductive (data-driven) or deductive (concept-driven) approach or a combination of
both, depending on the purposes of the research (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008; Hsieh &
Shannon, 2005). The main difference between the inductive and deductive
approaches is that the former involves generating codes, categories and themes
directly from the original data, while the latter is used when the structure of the
analysis is operationalised on the basis of former knowledge grounded in prior
theories or models (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008; Miles & Huberman, 1994; Schreier, 2012).
Typically, if there is not enough former knowledge about the phenomenon or the
knowledge is fragmented, an inductive approach would be recommended (Drisko &
Maschi, 2015). Deductive content analysis is better suited to testing categories,
concepts, models or hypotheses, or to retesting existing data in a new context (Elo
& Kyngäs, 2008; Krippendorff, 2018; Mayring, 2004). Drisko and Maschi (2015)
suggested a combination of both, generating predefined categories by employing a
deductive strategy and then adding sub-categories by using an inductive approach
to ensure the reliability of findings. In this study, a deductive approach was used as
the starting point of analysis and then combined with complementary inductive
strategies to add more categories deriving from the original data. The analysis was
conducted in the three phases of preparing, organising and reporting on the data,
as suggested by Elo and Kyngäs (2008).
4.4.1.1. Preparation phase
The official curriculum documents were placed in one folder, with the audio interview
files in another folder. This consisted of multiple sub-folders for interviews with
teachers in each school and with school principals. As the working language of all
interviews was Vietnamese, the transcription was in Vietnamese. As a semi-
structured protocol was used for conducting interviews, some overarching themes
were already predefined by the interview questions. These themes were used
deductively as the starting point for the content analysis.
4.4.1.2. Organisation phase
This phase involved data coding and categorising codes. A categorisation matrix
was developed (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008) which included generic categories and sub-
77
categories of codes basing on the predefined overarching themes of the research.
This process also involved checking for overlap and redundancy. Coding took place
in Vietnamese as it helped to reduce the potential risk of misinterpretation and loss
of meaning (Van Nes, Abma, Jonsson, & Deeg, 2010).
The codes for the identification of participants and schools were alphabetical (e.g.
Teacher A, Teacher B, School Principal A, School Principal B, School A, School B)
and numerical order (e.g. Lesson 1, Lesson 2). This type of coding served the dual
purposes of convenience and confidentiality.
Five generic categories were defined to analyse curriculum policies, with the aim of
understanding the curriculum intentions for the lower secondary level. These were:
(i) Statements of curriculum goals

(ii) Communicative competence
(iii) The designated approach to pedagogy (CLT)
(iv) Testing and assessment
(v) Prerequisites for curriculum implementation
Four generic categories for analysing the interviews were identified:
(i) Attitude towards the curriculum change

(ii) Understanding of the curriculum principles
(iii) Practices within the curriculum, including the perceived constraints to its
implementation
(iv) Teacher professional development and support
An example of how the data were coded into generic and sub-categories is provided
in Table 4.8. Only the selected quotes were translated into English for the reporting
of findings.
78
Table 4.8. An example of data coding
Generic
Example of raw data Sub-category
category
Curriculum policies
“Communicative competence is the ability to use
Communicative
knowledge about the English language into Definition
competence
communicative activities…”
“The students should be put in the centre of
CLT The role of learners
learning and become active learners.”
In-depth interviews
“It [CLT] means student-centeredness. The
teachers play the role of facilitators. The students CLT means student-
CLT
will need to discover new information by centredness
themselves”
“Honestly speaking, I think training and
Professional
workshops are not very effective. For example, Insufficient in-service
training and
when changing from the old curriculum to the training
support
new one, there was no training.”
4.4.2. Integrated framework for the analysis of the Tieng Anh textbooks
As the material manifestation of a curriculum, a textbook is often understood as “the

visible heart of any ELT programme” (Sheldon, 1988, p. 237), and perhaps the most
common form of teaching and learning resource used in language classrooms. This
statement would be particularly true in Asian contexts. However, it is also generally
accepted that no textbook or set of materials is likely to be perfect, and there is no
agreed set of criteria for textbook evaluation (McDonough & Shaw, 2012; Meurant,
2010). This is possibly because “the needs, objectives, backgrounds and preferred
learning styles of the participants differ from context to context” (Tomlinson, 2003,
p. 15).
Nevertheless, there have been various attempts to develop criteria for evaluating
and selecting teaching and learning materials. These include the criteria proposed
by Cunningsworth (1995), Sheldon (1988), McDonough (2003), and Littlejohn
(2011), as well as checklists for evaluation by Byrd (2001), Garinger (2002),
McGrath (2002), Tomlinson (2003), Tomlinson and Masuhara (2004), and Harmer
(2007). All of these provide detailed descriptions of materials with implicit
assumptions of what a ‘desirable’ product should look like. Although they offer
79
guidelines for analysing textbooks, it is unlikely that a published checklist could be
used without necessary adaptations to a local context and the purposes of the
analysis (Richards, 2001). In other words, a textbook analysis needs to be
conducted with a clear purpose grounding the criteria that are subsequently
generated around the contextual specifics of the program, including the teacher, the
learner and the pedagogy.
The Tieng Anh is a localised textbook series made for Vietnamese schools,
developed by the local textbook writers in collaboration with Pearson, an
international publishing company with a special interest in English language
teaching and learning materials. The integrated framework used to examine the
textbook was an amalgamation of the work of Littlejohn (2011), Richards (2006) and
Royce (2007). The work by Littlejohn (2011) comprised two major aspects:
Publication and Design, which provided a basis for building internal and external
descriptions of the materials. Added to Littlejohn’s (2011) Design category was
Richards’ (2006) classification of language practice types, and also Royce’s (1998,
2007) focus on intersemiotic complementarity between visual and verbal modes in
multimodal texts included in textbooks. Richards’ (2006) classification of language
practice types in a CLT classroom was used to categorise the language activities in
the textbooks. Given the multimodal nature of the textbook series, the analysis also
considered in some detail the complementary role of visual images within the
learning activities, using Royce’s (1998, 2007) framework on intersemiotic
relationships between visual and verbal modes within a learning activity. The
integrated framework is presented in Table 4.9 below and then described in more
detail. A sample textbook analysis is presented at Appendix G1.
Table 4.9. Materials analysis from Littlejohn (2011), * added from Richards (2006), ** from Royce (1998, 2007)
Aspects of the textbook Specific focus of analysis
The materials package

Publication Published form of the learner materials
Subdivision of the learner materials
Aims and objectives
Principles of selection
Principles of sequencing
Design
Type of language practice*
Focus of language practice
Participation
80
The role of visual images**
4.4.2.1. Publication and Design
For Littlejohn (2011), Publication relates to the “tangible” or material aspects of the
textbooks and provides an external description. The analysis includes the materials
package, how they appear as a complete set, and whether they were produced in
hard copy or electronically. A description of the subsections of the materials is also
included, together with their length, along with any standard patterns of recurring
features in each learning unit.
The Design of the materials considers the stated aims, the selection and the
sequence of content. Of central importance is the nature of the teaching/learning
activities in the materials, which requires a close focus on the nature of each
exercise and learning task. Richards’ (2006) classification of the types of language
practice as mechanical, meaningful or communicative was used for this purpose.
The teaching/learning activities also suggested the process of classroom
participation or working arrangement, for example, whether the learners were
organised to work individually or in pairs or in groups, and from this, the roles that
teachers and learners were to adopt. A categorisation of the functions of the visuals
included in the textbooks drew on Royce’s (1998, 2007) approach to intersemiotic
complementarity analysis and offered a principled means of analysing and
interpreting the textbook design. Further detail is presented on the types of language
practice and the functions of visual design.
4.4.2.2. Types of language practice
Richards (2006, p. 16) provided a detailed description of the three main types of
language practice commonly found in English instructional materials, which he
labelled as mechanical, meaningful and communicative language practices. These
categories were used to analyse the activities included in the Tieng Anh textbooks.
Mechanical practice refers to controlled activities, which involve a strong focus on

language form. A focus on form may also be labelled a focus on grammar, structure
or syntax. Such practice includes, for example, decontextualised grammar
exercises, substitution drills and pronunciation drills. Students can successfully
complete these exercises without necessarily understanding the language they are
81
using or transferring the language in the activities into communicative use. This kind
of activity is often referred to as accuracy practice.
Meaningful practice refers to activities where language control is still provided, but
students are required to make meaningful choices as part of the practice. The
practice is oriented towards meaning, but learners still work with a predictable range
of language. This would include, for example, an activity in which students are given
a street map to talk about the location of a building in the map and a list of
prepositions they have studied. The practice is now meaningful, as learners have to
respond based on the context provided, i.e. the street map. These are activities
organised around a specified situation or context so that students can cope using
resources which are pertinent to that context.
Communicative practice refers to activities with a focus on the communication of

messages, in which meanings are exchanged, and in which the language used is
correspondingly unpredictable. Examples include using the language for open-
ended discussions, role-plays, problem-solving and context-based tasks. Fluency is
developed when students negotiate meanings, correct misunderstandings, use
communication strategies to maintain comprehensible and ongoing communication,
and work to avoid communication breakdown. This type of activity is the clear aim
of CLT classrooms.
A sequence of mechanical, meaningful and communicative practices may be

interpreted as a process of scaffolding. Students may need to go through a process
of more mechanical activities, that is from exercises with a focus on form and
accuracy, to meaningful and less scaffolded practice, before they can independently
participate in fluent communicative interactions.
4.4.2.3. The role of visual images
A feature of contemporary textbooks is the pervasive use of both verbal and visual
semiotic modes, essentially language and images. The Tieng Anh series was no
exception. Promoted as “richly-illustrated” textbooks that focus on offering students
“motivation, memorable lessons and joyful learning experiences” (Hoang et al.,
2015b, p. iii), the Tieng Anh series incorporated an extensive range of visual images.
The aim was to support language teaching and language learning with the use of
visual imagery as part of the effort to develop communicative competence..
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In considering the textbook both as a pedagogic resource and as a configuration of
choices from both language and visual semiotic systems, it is argued that all of the
semiotic choices made in the textbook design have a role in the teaching and
learning activities. Therefore, a textbook analysis should examine the proposition
that the verbal and visual semiotic modes within a text complement each other to
add and project meaning to the learning activities. This is the proposition in Royce’s
(2007) framework for intersemiotic complementarity. Using the framework, the
analysis focused on identifying the intersemiotic semantic relationships between the
visual and verbal modes included in the learning activities in the Tieng Anh. Royce
deployed the metafunctional categories within Systemic Functional Linguistics
(SFL) and specified three types of intersemiotic complementarity between language
and image within a multimodal text: ideational, interpersonal and compositional. This
aligns with the meaning potential in language and image proposed within SFL
through which all texts make ideational, interpersonal and textual meanings and
images correspond via representational, interactive and compositional meanings.
The ideational intersemiotic relation is determined by semantically related lexical
items in the text and the corresponding representational elements of the image. This
relationship is realised through the intersemiotic relations of Repetition, Synonymy,
Hyponymy, Meronymy, Antonymy and Collocation, which function to create
cohesion across the two semiotic systems of language and image. The
interpersonal relationships that relate images to text refer to their function of
addressing the reader/viewer and also with the congruence or dissonance of their
attitudinal stance. The compositional relations involve features of the layout which
enable the image and text to cohere in a single page.
An in-depth analysis of the visual-verbal complementarity within each of the images

and the contribution of the image to the teaching and learning activities was not
feasible as part of this study. Rather, the analysis of images in the texts firstly
identified them and then evaluated them as either functional or not functional in
relation to the teaching and learning activity to which it related. In this way, the
analysis placed a particular focus on the ideational intersemiotic complementarity
between the image and the language as part of an activity. The aim was to consider
the use of images in the texts and if and how they contributed to the activities to
which they were attached.
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4.4.3. Resources from Systemic Functional Linguistics for the analysis of
teacher attitude and classroom discourse
Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) is part of the functional tradition in linguistics

and is, therefore, distinct from the formal tradition. Functional theories perceive the
phenomenon of language functionally, that is the aim is to understand how language
functions or what functions humans use it to satisfy. Formal theories, by contrast,
are more interested in the form of language, that is the interest is in the constituent
parts of a language and how these operate independently and in combination. The
particular functional theory used in the study is SFL, developed from the 1950s
onwards by MAK Halliday, firstly in the UK and then in Australia. The achievement
of SFL has been to provide a model of language, so that its component parts can
be seen and understood in relation to one another. The key premise of SFL is to
propose that language is the fundamental human resource for making meaning.
Language has evolved in humans to ‘transform experience into meaning’, whereby
both inner and outer experiences become meaningful via language.
Language use is understood as choice, albeit unconscious choice for the main part.
The idea of choice allows for the distinction between language as a system and
language in use. Language as a system can be understood as an entity, an abstract
phenomenon of many parts, all of which are related and combined into a unified
system of language. Language in use is how the system is used by individuals as
they go about their daily lives. Each instance of language in use is drawn from the
system of language and can be understood as a text. Texts are instances of
language use from the language system.
The SFL model of language is expansive and, as would be expected of any theory
of language, it is required to provide great detail to create a satisfactory model of
this complex phenomenon. It is not useful to attempt to provide all of that detail here.
Instead, the focus will be on those parts of the model which have been used in the
study and to account for how these specific aspects relate to the whole. One benefit
of the process of developing a model of language is that the model is represented
as a visual to support understanding of the relationships between the different
components. In line with this approach, a visual model is provided here, one which
is constructed to foreground the salient components in this study.
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The starting point is that SFL is a stratified model, that is there are different levels
within language. These are the level of phonology/graphology, the level of lexico-
grammar and the level of discourse semantics. The distinction between phonology
and graphology is that the phonology is related to spoken language and graphology
to written language. Visually these are represented as co-tangential circles because
the theory proposes that language at each stratum is expressed or realised at the
stratum below. This also points to the fact that the process of modelling language is
an artifice; it is not real. Whilst we can visualise different strata within language and
then later theorise about how they operate, they are essentially parts of language
and cannot be separated from each other. The three-level model of language is
represented as follows:
Figure 4.2. Language as a stratified model (Martin, 1992)
It is important to note that there are some variations in the modelling of language
amongst different researchers working in SFL. It is not the place in this study to
discuss the merits of variations within the modelling. It suffices to state that the
specific model used in the study was developed by JR Martin and colleagues. Martin
includes a stratum of discourse semantics and the specific subsystems from that
stratum are used in the study.
The next important aspect to note is that the context in which language occurs is
also stratified. There are two levels within the context, the context of culture and the
context of situation. The context of situation is the immediate situation in which
language occurs and is labelled as Register. The context of culture is the broader
context. Martin labels this as Genre. The two strata within the context are important
in this study and can be represented as follows:
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Figure 4.3. Co-tangential contextual circles
The theory then proposes that language and context are inextricably linked, and ties
them together in a stratified model of language in context. The use of the preposition
in is important for the fact that language is always used in a context and that the
context is absolutely important in considering how language is used. The
relationship is bidirectional, that is the context(s) shape language, and language
also impacts on the context(s).
Given the proposal that language is a resource for making meaning, it is important
to account for meaning as used in SFL. The theory proposes that there are three
generalised kinds of meanings within language, and that every instance of language
use can be looked at in relation to these three meaning types. These are labelled
as the metafunctions within SFL, specifically the ideational, the interpersonal and
the textual metafunctions. Ideational meanings are those which are made in relation
to what is going on, who is involved in the activity or event and the circumstances
surrounding the activity or event. Interpersonal meanings are those which are made
about the roles of the participants involved and their relationships. Textual meanings
enable both ideational and interpersonal meanings through the creation of text. This
is a scant description of the metafunctions which will be elaborated upon in relation
to how they are evident in the study. Suffice to say that there are three general kinds
of meanings and that these are manifest in different subsystems at the levels of
discourse semantics and lexico-grammar in the model of language. They are not
seen as distinct systems as the level of phonology/graphology because they are
expressed simultaneously in a spoken utterance or written words. The separation
of meaning into generalised types of meaning can be represented visually as
follows:
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Figure 4.4. The metafunctional organisation of language
At the level of the context of situation, SFL proposes three distinct variables at play,
theorising register as comprising the three variables of, the Field, the Tenor and the
Mode. In every situation we can differentiate between who or what is involved and
the specifics of the activity, that is the Field of activity. The Tenor pertains to the
roles and relationships of those involved in the Field and the Mode is most easily
understood as the channel of communication, most simply as the spoken or written
language used. The stratum of register is important in this study for the fact that one
specific register, that of pedagogy is used to understand the teaching and learning
in the classrooms.
When the strata of context are mapped on the strata of language, the different
variables and kinds of meaning align in a way that creates a unified model. The
register variable of Field is aligned with the Ideational metafunction,Tenor is aligned
with the Interpersonal metafunction and Mode correlates with the Textual
metafunction. Thus, the variables in the context are aligned with the generalised
kinds of meaning within the language. This is represented in the following figure:
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Figure 4.5. Modelling language in context (Martin, 1992)
As stated, the model presents different subsystems as expressing different kinds of

meaning at different strata. There are subsystems which realise meanings at the
level of discourse semantics and others which realise meanings at the level of
lexico-grammar. These subsystems are specific to one of the three kinds of
meanings or metafunctions, that is they are used to express ideational or
interpersonal or textual meanings. Given that one important focus of the study is on
the analysis of classroom discourse, then the roles and relationships between
teachers and students are foregrounded. The role of the teacher in the broader
socio-political system is also pertinent in the study. On both counts, interpersonal
meanings are important and interpersonal sub-systems which realise these
meanings are described and examined in some detail. The particular subsystems
used for analysis are represented in the model in the following figure:
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Figure 4.6. The subsystems of discourse semantics used in the study
4.4.3.1. Appraisal: the framework for understanding teacher attitude
To understand teacher attitudes towards the new curriculum, the study used the
Appraisal framework (Martin & White, 2005) within SFL to analyse the teacher
interviews and the responses to open-ended questions in the survey.
The system of Appraisal was developed in the 1990s and 2000s (Christie & Martin,
1997; Martin, 2000; Martin & Rose, 2007; Martin & White, 2005; White, 2015).
Appraisal is with the expression of the language of evaluation, the meaning-making
resources by which speaker/writers express their emotions, judgements and
appreciations of different entities, both human and non-human (White, 2015).
Appraisal is an interpersonal system within the SFL model, which has evolved for
“negotiating our social relationships, by telling our listeners or readers how we feel
about things and people” (Martin & Rose, 2007, p. 26). In this study, it was important
to understand how the teachers evaluated the new curriculum as an important
component of how they enacted it in their classrooms.
The Appraisal system distinguishes between three semantic categories, namely

Attitude, Engagement and Graduation as represented in Figure 4.7 below. Attitude
concerns the resources for expressing emotions and attitudes and was, therefore,
particularly useful for the focus in the study. The sub-system of Attitude, consists of
three elements, namely Affect, Judgement and Appreciation. Affect encompasses
language resources for expressing emotions and feelings. Judgement deals with
the resources for evaluating human behaviour and character by reference to
ethics/morality and other systems of conventionalised or institutionalised cultural
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and social norms. Appreciation pertains to the evaluation of objects, artefacts, states
of affairs and processes with regards to how their values are assigned socially. Each
subset of Attitude can be positive or negative, and can be expressed explicitly
(inscribed), or implicitly (invoked).
Figure 4.7. Basic system for Appraisal (Martin & White, 2005)
The Appraisal system was used to analyse how the teachers expressed their
attitude in relation to the curriculum reform, as evidenced specifically in their
language choices of Judgement, Appreciation and Affect, either positive or negative.
The analysis included inscriptions of evaluation where it was explicitly stated, as
well as the implicit invoking of evaluation where meaning was less clearly obvious
or could not be simply tied to the choice of a lexical item, and where the evaluation
was necessarily understood in relation to the context. As attitudinal meanings can
be expressed by combinations of words above the level of the clause in particular
textual settings (White, 2015), the analysis looked at both individual clauses, and
also strings of clauses expressing the attitudinal meaning of the speaker/writer. It
identified the Source of the Attitude, and also the Target of the Attitude, that is the
appraised entity or human participant. In this way, an interpretation of the attitude
of the teachers participating in the survey and in the interviews was based on the
evidence provided by the Appraisal analysis. A sample analysis is included as
Appendix G2.
4.4.3.2. Analysing classroom discourse
The framework for undertaking classroom discourse analysis was also SFL based,
adapted from work on pedagogic register by Martin and Rose (2013), and Rose
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(2014, 2018). Theorised from the standpoint of genre and register, Martin and Rose
interpreted pedagogic discourse (Bernstein 1990) in terms of “pedagogic register”
(Christie, 2002), and in so doing were able to incorporate the register variables of
field, tenor and mode into a framework for the analysis of classroom discourse.
The concept of pedagogic register
The notion of classroom pedagogic register, first proposed by Christie (2002), was
based on the work of (Bernstein, 1990, 1996) and his observations about the nature
of pedagogic discourse. Bernstein distinguished between two aspects of classroom
interaction: the first that discourse is taken from its original source (esoteric
knowledge) and recontextualised for the purpose of teaching and learning; the
second relates to habits of thinking and forms of consciousness. The former he
called instructional discourse, and is concerned with the ‘content knowledge’, or
competences; the latter he labelled regulative discourse, which shapes the ‘moral
regulation’ or conditions for instructional discourse to take place. The relationship
between the two discourses is one of ‘embedding’ in that the instructional discourse
is embedded in the regulative discourse. In his explication of these two distinctive
features of pedagogic discourse, Bernstein (1990, p. 174-175) wrote:
We shall define pedagogic discourse as the rule which embeds a discourse of competence
(skills of various kinds) into a discourse of social order in such a way that the latter always
dominates the former. We shall call the discourse transmitting specialised competences and
their relation to each other instructional discourse, and the discourse creating specialised
order, relation and identity regulative discourse.
SFL scholars, initially Christie (2002) and then Martin and Rose (2013) reworked
Bernstein’s sociological conceptualisation of pedagogic discourse from the
perspective of SFL, a key element of which was to reconstitute it as pedagogic
register. In this way classroom discourse could then be analysed and interpreted
from within the stratified model of language at the heart of SFL, in which the strata
of genre and register at the level of context were tied to strata within language, that
is at the levels of discourse semantics and lexico-grammar. In this way, Martin and
Rose (2013) proposed a model for classroom discourse to incorporate pedagogic
activities (Field), negotiated in pedagogic relations between teachers and learners
(Tenor), and presented through pedagogic modalities – spoken, written, visual and
manual (Mode), as shown in Figure 4.8. The cultural function of the pedagogic
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register is to exchange knowledge, skills and values between teachers and learners,
an exchange which is at the heart of educational practice.
Figure 4.8. Dimensions of pedagogic register (Martin & Rose, 2013)
Figure 4.9 shows the location of pedagogic activities, relations and modalities at the
level of register and how each ties to the strata discourse semantics, lexico-
grammar and phonology within language.
Figure 4.9. Pedagogic register in an SFL model
Martin and Rose’s model has been particularly useful in considering classroom
discourse for this study. It facilitated a ‘global’ understanding of the English language
classroom, including the teaching and learning activities, the roles and relationships
between the teacher and his/her students and the particular resources which were
in use to support the teaching and learning. At a more detailed level, the framework
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offered a theoretically supported means of analysing and interpreting specific
aspects of the classroom discourse as it unfolded in the recorded lessons.
Table 4.10 lists the particular components of the English language classrooms
which were the focus of discourse analysis in the study. A sample of classroom
discourse analysis is included as Appendix G3.
Table 4.10. Aspects of classroom discourse analysis
Resources for
Register variables Aspect for analysis
analysis
Pedagogic activities Types of language Types of language practice
(Field) practice Classroom arrangement
Patterns of classroom exchanges
The role of teachers and students
Pedagogic relations Appraisal
Classroom participation
(Tenor) Negotiation
Student-to-student interaction
The use of Vietnamese
The use of textbooks
Pedagogic modalities
Textbook, images The use of other modes of meaning,
(Mode)
including images
Pedagogic activities
Pedagogic activities include all of the teaching and learning activities and tasks
specified by the teacher either orally or in writing. The primary interest was to
determine if and how students were provided with opportunities for the
interpretation, negotiation and expression of meanings in the target language. The
key interest was not so much in the content, but in how that content was taught and
learnt. The focus of analysis centred on the types of language practice activities
classified as mechanical, meaningful or communicative in line with Richard’s (2006)
classification of activity types within CLT, while the types of classroom arrangement
drew attention to the students working in pairs, groups, or individually.
Pedagogic modalities
As the classroom lessons unfolded, various pedagogic modalities were enlisted by

the teacher to enable the pedagogic activities and the pedagogic relations to support
English language teaching and learning. These modalities included the spoken
English language in the classroom and the written English language incorporated
within the textbooks. Other modality included the use of images and their use
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alongside written language in the textbook were analysed in some details in the
study. All of these modalities came into play and were deployed in various ways. In
fact, the means of understanding how classrooms were similar and/or different was
to consider how pedagogic modalities were used to bring coherence to the
pedagogic activity and pedagogic relations particular to each. Common instances
of sources of meaning in the classroom included texts and images from the
textbooks, photocopies, black/white boards, screens, audio and video recordings,
through which resources for meaning making were engaged as part of the teaching
and learning. The analysis of pedagogic modalities also provided evidence on the
‘textbook-in-action’, or how the teachers in the study deployed and adapted the
textbooks in their teaching practices. The aim here was to triangulate with the
textbook analysis to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the textbook
series as well as of teacher practices with the textbook in the classroom.
Pedagogic relations
The tenor of the classroom was evident in the prevailing pedagogic relations. This
was the interpersonal dimension through which the roles of the teacher and the
students were made evident, as well as their relationships, which were enacted in
classroom exchanges and in patterns of classroom participation. This was at the
heart of the analysis because the pedagogic relations were closely related to the
prescribed pedagogy in the reform. The analysis of pedagogic relations provided
evidence of if, how and in what ways CLT was enacted at the classroom level and
was a central focus of the study. This analysis was possible because of the
alignment between the variables within the pedagogic register and the
metafunctions within the language strata. Specifically, the variable of Tenor in the
pedagogic register was evident in the pedagogic relations between the teacher and
his/her students, and at the stratum of discourse semantics this was enacted
through the system of Negotiation. We see this both in classroom exchanges and
classroom participation.
Classroom exchanges
Options within classroom exchanges are described within the discourse semantic
system of Negotiation (Martin 1992, Martin and Rose 2007), developed from initial
work by Berry (1981) and involving two dimensions: the type of exchange and the
role of speakers.
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Language exchanges are either of knowledge or of actions, and participant
speakers in an exchange are either in primary or secondary roles. The goal of
knowledge exchange, the prevalent type of classroom interaction, is to exchange
knowledge or information. The participant in the exchange who provides knowledge
is labelled as the primary knower (K1), while the secondary knower (K2) demands
or receives the knowledge. In an action exchange, the goal is to perform an action.
The participant performing the action is the primary actor (A1), and the participant
demanding the action is the secondary actor (A2). The minimal knowledge
exchange or action exchange comprises one K1 role or A1 action, without a K2 or
A2 demand. In this case, K1 or A1 often initiates the exchange and takes on the
primary role. K1 and A1 can also initiate by anticipating a secondary role. In this
case, the primary role is delayed (dK1). Berry’s model of exchange was developed
from the ‘Initiation – Response – Feedback’ (IRF) cycle proposed by Sinclair and
Coulthard (1975) on the basis of their pioneering classroom analysis, in which the
teacher initiates the exchange and the learner displays knowledge by answering the
initiating question. The teacher has the authority to evaluate the response, thus
usually taking the role of the primary knower. Examples from the dataset are
presented in Extract 1 (Knowledge exchange), and Extract 2 (Action exchange).
Spr. Exchange Role

And the last one
T Happy dK1 Initiation
Nguyen Ngoc Anh please?
S2 Happy and Unhappy K2 Response
Unhappy
T Okay K1 Feedback
You are very good
Extract 1. Knowledge exchange (Lesson 2)
Spr. Exchange Role

So now who can come here and write the
T A2 Initiation
answers? Trang please?
S4 [goes to the board and writes answer] A1 Response

T Yeah thank you A2 Feedback
Extract 2. Action exchange (Lesson 3)
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Pedagogic exchanges are distinct from other types of exchanges in that the teacher
often holds the knowledge which the learners need to acquire. The teacher asks
questions for students to display their knowledge (dK1 role), and students’
responses (K2) are commonly evaluated by feedback which indicates if the
acquisition of knowledge has been successful. Moves can also be tracked to clarify
understanding, or to challenge. These moves are labelled as tracking (Tr), or
response to tracking (rTr), or challenge (Ch). Extract 3 below presents an example
of an extended exchange in which the teacher asked a tracking question to clarify
the answer with the whole class.
Spr. Exchange Role

Can you guess what food or what dish we are
T going to (…) today? What dish? dK1 Initiation
Linh Trang?
S2 Omelette K2 Response
Omelette?
T Tr Tracking
Do you think so?
Ss Yes rTr Response
T Good job K1 Feedback
Extract 3. Extended knowledge exchange (Lesson 3)
In language learning classrooms, especially within a CLT-based curriculum, the

teaching and learning goal is for authentic communicative exchanges in the target
language between the teacher and student, and among students. This means
exchanges need to be extended beyond a basic three-move basic pattern
(dK1^K2^K1 or IRF), such that achieving frequent instances of extended exchanges
in the target language is seen as one criterion for evaluation of a successful
communicative classroom (Nunan, 1992). The analysis of classroom exchanges
provided a useful means of categorising both the extent and the kinds of exchanges
negotiated in the classrooms in the study and provided an evidenced-based means
to interpret the pedagogy.
Classroom participation
Student participation in classroom exchanges is also a significant dimension in

pedagogic relations. According to Rose (2018), the analysis of participation is
“critical to identifying how many and which students in a class are addressed and
speak, and how they are evaluated” (p. 17) and brings to attention those students
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who are actively involved in classroom exchanges and those who are not. This is
often overlooked in the analysis of classroom discourse, where the transcripts of
classroom talk do not feature non-participating students.
Rose (2014) schematised the relations between classroom participation and

educational success as in Figure 4.10 following. Whilst Rose’s data were from
primary school classrooms in Australia, the argument is accepted as equally
pertinent to English language classrooms in Vietnam. Simply, those students who
participated most frequently tended to be the higher achieving and successful
students, whilst those who participated less or reluctantly tended to be the less
successful students.
Figure 4.10. Classroom participation and educational success (Rose, 2014)
4.5. Legitimation of data quality and findings in mixed methods research
In order to ensure the quality of the data and the research findings, it was important
to be accountable for the data collection, analyses and interpretive strategies. As
noted by Leech and Onwuegbuzie (2007), such accountability implies that a
researcher aims to assess and document the validity of the research findings. This
is important because an issue that arose initially in relation to mixed methods
research was that there was no consensus about how to evaluate its design.
Legitimation (Morse, 2009) evolved as the term for validity in mixed methods
research studies. It is proposed that mixed methods data analyses can offer a more
comprehensive means of legitimating findings than do either quantitative and
qualitative data analyses alone by allowing access to and triangulation of
information from both data types (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009). When the
quantitative and qualitative data are valid and credible, then the mixed study will
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have strong data quality. Data quality in mixed methods research is determined by
the standards of quality in both the quantitative and qualitative strands. Each of the
two strands requires different standards for the measurement of data quality and
adopts different terms (Table 4.11). However, common to both approaches, these
standards serve the same purpose of evaluating the quality of the data, their
interpretation and the findings.
Table 4.11. Types of criteria for trustworthiness (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009, p. 296)
Quantitative criteria Qualitative criteria
Internal validity Credibility

Reliability Dependability
External validity Transferability
Objectivity Confirmability
Internal validity/ Credibility is the critical quality of any empirical research to ensure
the ‘goodness’, or trustworthiness of the research findings: Do the findings make
sense? Do we have an authentic portrait of what is being examined? The truth value
of the study, therefore, is closely associated with the adequacy of the data collected
and the triangulation of the data and results. To ensure the quality of the data
collection in this study, efforts were made to build up rapport with the teacher
participants. With knowledge of the culture and of Vietnamese teachers, it was
assumed that they may exhibit ‘observation phobia’ and a fear of being negatively
evaluated, with the consequence that they might report compliance with MOET
requirements whilst continuing with their own ways of teaching. Before conducting
interviews and observations, time was invested in visiting the schools and talking to
the teachers, to establish relationships as a colleague and a researcher who had a
genuine interest to understand the curriculum reform from the teachers’ perspective.
These efforts brought positive outcomes as the teachers were comfortable in talking
about and sharing their personal stories with the researcher. For those who
participated in the online survey, as the distance made it impossible for face-to-face
conversations, connection and rapport was established via emails sharing personal
experiences as students and teachers, the interests of the researcher and the
purpose of the study. Many of the teachers responded to emails, and several
requested to stay in touch and to discuss further the realities of teaching and
learning English in their schools. Such connections provided the opportunity to
develop relationships with the teachers, which made it possible to collect credible
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data, as well as to gain a deeper understanding of the local context where teaching
and learning were operating.
The research location was decided on the basis of personal and professional
connections. As socio-economic conditions varied across different regions in the
country and a single province could not perfectly represent the whole country,
attempts were made to maximise the adequacy of the data and data analysis
procedures and data triangulation. The selection of both urban and rural districts in
the province and the selection of different school types allowed a broader insight
into any potential gap amongst students of different levels of achievement and
different home backgrounds. The collection of data from several sources enabled
the triangulation of data and findings. Each type of data was analysed using the
methods outlined above, including descriptive statistics for the survey data, thematic
coding for the interviews, and different frameworks for analysing teacher attitude,
the textbooks and classroom discourse. The overall plan was made with a view to
treat each type of data in an appropriate way and to generate credible findings that
best reflected the investigation. Although the use of different analytical frameworks
made the study lengthy, this was seen as necessary to inform the research
questions in the most reliable way.
Reliability/Dependability refers to whether “the process of the study is consistent,

reasonably stable over time and across researchers and methods” (Miles &
Huberman, 1994, p. 278). In the study, the use of videotaped recordings ensured
that the classroom events could be revisited and reviewed later on. Additionally, the
interviews with teachers were conducted after the classroom observations,
providing the opportunity to address some of the teacher strategies when they were
still fresh. The participation of different stakeholders in relation to the curriculum
reform (i.e. teachers and school principals) enabled a comparison of data and
findings.
External validity/Transferability refers to the generalisability of the research findings

and if they can be transferred to other contexts. The study was based in one
province of Vietnam, and could not be an absolute representation of the other 62
cities and provinces in the country. However, the findings from the study offered
‘particularisation’ (van Lier, 2005) of the location in the research, which offers useful
evidence for “comparative information to a wide variety of other cases” (p. 198).
Although generalisation of the research findings should be treated with caution,
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many concurrent features and issues in relation to the reform could be shared
across Vietnam and in other EFL contexts where curriculum change was the goal.
Objectivity/ Confirmability concerns the degree of replicability possible in other

studies by different researchers (Miles & Huberman, 1994). This criterion is to be
ensured by explicit descriptions of the research design, data collection procedures
and data analyses to have a complete picture including ‘backstage’ information
about the phenomenon under investigation. In this study, objectivity was achieved
through a descriptive analysis of the survey data, which was presented in the form
of tables and concrete statistics. Attempts to achieve confirmability of qualitative
data were made by providing samples of data coding, analyses, quotes and
quantifying tables and figures to support the interpretations. Appendices A, B, C, D
and G provide samples of the data collection instruments and samples of analyses.
4.6. Ethical considerations
The study was conducted in accordance with the ethics approval (H-2017-027, 09
Mar 2017) granted by the Human Research Ethics Review Group (Faculty of Arts
and Faculty of the Professions, The University of Adelaide), and was deemed to
meet the requirements of the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human
Research (2007). Ethics approval is included as Appendix D, with the consent form
and participant information sheets included as Appendix E and Appendix F.
4.6.3. Level of risk
This study was considered to be low risk by the Human Research Ethics Review
Group, with minimal risks for the research participants, such that the:
Teacher participants would have to spend time completing the online survey
and/or interviews.
Participants might feel uncomfortable talking about their personal attitude,
understandings and practices.
Participants might feel reluctant evaluating a centrally planned curriculum
and/or their managers and colleagues.
Teachers and students might feel pressure when being observed.
The researcher was aware of the potential risks to the participants and proposed
measures to minimise the risks, including:
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All of the information pertaining to the research aims, its scope and
procedures was made clear to the participants so that they could decide
whether to take part in the project. Participation was totally voluntary
regarding the online survey, the interview and the classroom observation.
Participants were informed that their identities would be kept confidential and
data would be made non-identifiable before being reported.
Participants were informed that they could withdraw from the project at any
time they wished.
Teacher participants were informed of the number of observations and the
schedule of observations was made through discussion with the teachers in
advance.
The time for the interviews and observations was arranged at each
participant’s convenience.
Teacher participants were asked for their permission to make audio and
video recordings before use.
4.6.4. Confidentiality
In accordance with the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in

Human Research (2007), the identity of the participants was treated with strict
confidentiality during data collection and during the reporting of the research findings
to ensure that their identity would not be disclosed.
The survey was administered online, in which the participants remained completely
unidentified. Information such as gender and teaching experiences could not be
identified at source. In interviews and observations, the names of the participants
and schools were coded and pseudonyms were used. The researcher ensured that
information relating to the participants would remain confidential and that only the
researcher and her supervisors would have access to this information.
4.6.5. Storage of data
The research complied with the regulations for data storage at The University of
Adelaide. Digital materials, including survey, transcripts, field notes, audio and video
recordings, were stored in the researcher’s computer and password-protected
portable drives. Printed and analogue materials were stored in a secure locker in
the specified office to be retained for five years after the submission of the thesis.
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4.7. Limitations of the study
The study used a mixed methods research design, exploring the curriculum renewal
in Vietnamese lower-secondary schools, using data from several sources collected
over an extended period of time. The study was located in one northern province of
Vietnam, and whilst this province was typical of Vietnamese provinces, it was not
representative of all other provinces and all lower-secondary schools in the country,
especially those in remote mountainous areas catering to ethnic minority students.
Therefore, generalisations from the findings have been made with caution. For the
purposes of generalisation, there is a need to conduct further studies in different
geographical locations and socioeconomic regions.
Another limitation of the study was in the number of classroom observations. A total
of 28 observations were made in four schools, making the number of visits and time
spent in each school relatively limited. Only one camera was available and was
placed at the back of the classroom, making it hard to record the voices of students
when working in pairs and group activities. Although attempts were made to take
notes during such collaborative activities, it is accepted that there is a need for
multiple recorders to record all interactions to qualify as optimal data for classroom
discourse analysis.
Chapter conclusion
Given the holistic nature of language learning classrooms and the dynamic, multi-
dimensional process of curriculum change, the study adopted a mixed methods
research design, incorporating both quantitative and qualitative data collection and
analysis. The strength of a mixed methods research design was to allow the
triangulation of data and findings, and, therefore, to facilitate stronger findings. As
multiple sources and types of data were involved, different methods of data analyses
were used. Each of the analytic methods was matched to each of the data types to
enhance the reliability and validity of the research findings. The total data set and
data analyses used in the study are summarised in Table 4.12 below.
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Table 4.12. Summary of data and methods of data analyses
Research strand Type of data Methods of analysis
Quantitative Survey data Descriptive statistics
Official curriculum
Qualitative content analysis
documents
Framework adapted from Littlejohn (2011),
Textbook analysis
Richards (2006), Royce (1998, 2007)
Qualitative analysis using SFL resources;
In-depth interviews 1. Appraisal to analyse teacher attitude
Qualitative (Martin & White, 2005)
2. Pedagogic register (Martin & Rose
(2013) to analyse the teaching and learning
Classroom discourse context
analysis 3. Negotiation (Martin & Rose, 2007) to
analyse teacher and student classroom
exchanges
These data and their analyses are the focus of the following chapters and constitute
the findings of the study.
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CHAPTER V: INTENTIONS OF THE CURRICULUM REFORM
The Pilot English Language Curriculum for Lower-Secondary Education was

promulgated by The Ministry of Education and Training (MOET, 2012) as the launch
of Project 2025. The curriculum and accompanying textbook series, Tieng Anh,
have been trialled in a number of schools since 2012, in parallel with the existing
2006 curriculum. MOET gave schools the right to choose either of the programs in
consideration of their local capacities. Some schools used the new curriculum with
all students, while others introduced it to a number of classes, and still others worked
with the old curriculum until they were ready for the new program. The aim in the
following is to offer insight into the intentions of the curriculum reform via an
examination of the official policy documentation relating to the project that has
entered the public domain.
5.1. Statements of aims and objectives
The intentions in relation to Project 2025 curriculum reform were made explicit
through the statement of goals and assessment of learning outcomes, the
prescribed pedagogy, and the prerequisites for its implementation. Consistent
across the curriculum policy was a discursive positioning of Vietnamese citizens as
proficient English users who would contribute significantly to the country’s
competitive edge in the global market. The role of English was emphasised in the
new curriculum as “an important communicative tool for the economic and
technological development of the nation” (MOET 2012, p. 3). This is the first time
English language education was situated within the broader social context of a
vision for national, regional and global development. English language education in
schools was expected to serve as the viable bridge for young Vietnamese learners
to develop their competence in the global lingua franca. This reasoning which
prompted the curriculum reform is clearly seen in the stated goal of the new
curriculum:
English language education at lower-secondary schools aims to help students practise and
develop their communicative competence in English. This develops a foundation for the use
of English as an instrument for study in school and in life, develops the habit of life-long
learning, and becomes socially responsible citizens in the context of globalisation (MOET,
2012, p. 5)
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In this statement, the idea of communicative competence is situated alongside
globalisation. The curriculum characterised English as a significant and compulsory
school subject at the lower secondary level of schooling. Viewed as a continuation
of the primary English program, the proficiency goal for lower-secondary schools
was to “develop student communicative competence with a target of Proficiency
Level 2, equivalent to Level A2 in the European Framework of Reference for
Languages, CEFR” (MOET, 2012, p. 5). For the first time, a specific level of
proficiency was explicitly set out to assess learning outcomes and standards, and
also for the first time the term ‘communicative competence’ was explicitly prescribed
in the official curriculum.
Table 5.1 lists occurrences of specific lexical items in the official curriculum
document. ‘Communicative competence’ appeared 21 times along with 34 uses of
‘communicative/communication’. Less attention was given to formal linguistic
features, with 26 occurrences in total, compared to 101 occurrences of the macro
skills ‘speaking’, ‘listening’, ‘writing’ and ‘reading’ together, of which speaking was
mentioned most often. These numbers offer some indication that the focus in the
new curriculum was on the use of the language as a means of communication, as
distinct from the learning of linguistic structures. It also points to the broad thinking
about language adopted in the new curriculum; language was understood to be
functional and to be used as an instrument to perform communicative functions. In
this way, the curriculum was aligned with CLT as the underpinning view of how
English language would be taught and learned.
Table 5.1. Lexical search terms and occurrences
Search terms Occurrences
‘Communicative competence’ 21
‘Communicate/Communication’ 34
‘Linguistic Knowledge’, ‘Grammar’, ‘Vocabulary’ 26
‘Speaking’ 33
‘Listening’ 27
‘Reading’ 22
‘Writing’ 19
‘Culture’ 13
In terms of the classroom contact time, there was a slight increase in the timetabled
hours for English within the new curriculum as shown in Table 5.2. Across the four
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years of lower-secondary schooling, English was allocated 420 lessons of 45
minutes each, three times per week, over 35 weeks per year. This was equivalent
to 315 hours in total. There was an increase of 27 hours of teaching time in Year 9,
which was the only change compared with the previous iteration.
Table 5.2. Instructional hours within the new curriculum
Lessons and time (1 lesson = 45 mins)

Year level
Old Curriculum New Curriculum
Year 6 105 105
Year 7 105 105
Year 8 105 105
Year 9 70 105
385 lessons 420 lessons
Total
(288 hours in total) (315 hours in total)
5.2. Communicative competence
Communicative competence was prescribed as the goal and guide for the process
of teaching and learning within the new curriculum. The concept of communicative
competence was defined by MOET as:
the ability to use knowledge about the English language (i.e. phonetics, vocabulary and
grammar) to participate in communicative activities by listening, speaking, reading and
writing appropriately in a meaningful context of situation (MOET, 2012, p. 13)
Attention was to be given to providing students with the knowledge and skills needed
to use linguistic knowledge appropriately to achieve a range of communicative
purposes. This marked a significant shift from the mastery of grammar and
vocabulary in traditional methodologies to the mastery of skills required for
communication in different contexts. Grammatical and lexical knowledge now
played an enabling role “to support students to form and develop communicative
competence” (p. 14). The repertoire of knowledge about language including
grammar, vocabulary and phonetics was described as follows:
Knowledge about phonetics: vowels, semi-vowels, diphthongs, consonants, consonant

clusters, word stress, rhythms, basic sentence stress.
A reservoir of lexis: about 800 – 1000 words, excluding those learnt in the primary English
program.
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Knowledge about grammar: declaratives, interrogatives, negatives, exclamatives, simple,
compound and complex sentences, word classes, verb tenses, passive voice, direct and
indirect speech, comparatives and superlatives, relative pronouns, prepositions,
determiners, etc. (MOET, 2012, p. 14).
Based on MOET’s definition, the path to communicative competence was in

providing students with linguistic knowledge, which could then be utilised to achieve
communicative intentions. This was clearly a ‘weak’ interpretation versus a ‘strong’
view of CLT. Comparing the MOET description of communicative competence to
the frameworks developed by Canale (1983); Canale and Swain (1980), discussed
in Chapter III, it is evident that MOET addressed two of the components they
describe, that is ‘grammatical competence’ (accuracy) and ‘sociolinguistic
competence’ (appropriacy). Other competencies, such as ‘discourse competence’
(fluency), ‘strategic competence’ (efficacy), along with the emerging concept of
‘sociocultural competence’ (Littlewood, 2011), were not explicitly mentioned. It is
also clear that MOET did not adopt the framework of ‘communicative language
competence’ in the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001).
5.3. CLT as the prescribed pedagogy
Along with the promotion of communicative competence, MOET prescribed CLT as

the designated pedagogy to achieve the targeted levels of proficiency. MOET
offered its rationale for the selection of CLT as follows:
The approach to teaching English at the lower-secondary schools is Communicative

Language Teaching (CLT), which is suitable for the students’ psychological development
from early childhood to adolescence (MOET, 2012, p. 16)
This was the first time that the term CLT was explicitly prescribed in an official
curriculum document in Vietnam and there was no explanation for the statement
that CLT was “suitable for the students’ psychological development” (ibid.),
Although, as described earlier in Chapter II Section 2.2, the previous curricula had
attempted to shift from the traditional language classroom to a more communicative
orientation, they did not name CLT as the prescribed pedagogy and provided no
detailed guidelines for teaching and learning within a CLT approach. The new
curriculum was seen as a deliberate effort by MOET to provide a mandated and
unified approach to language teaching. Hoang (2015), the general editor of the new
curriculum textbook series, stated:
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The design of the new curriculum drew on insights of the Council of Europe’s CEFR and Van
Ek and Alexanders’ Threshold Level English. In particular, it was based on the principles of
communicative language teaching in combination with a consideration of the social and
cultural realities of Vietnam, using selectively and creatively the insights of several curricula
of English as second/foreign language of countries in the region and in the world such as
the USA, the UK, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, China, Thailand, South Kora, and Japan
(p. 13)
Although MOET did not cite any specific authors or researchers in the
conceptualisation of CLT, they did provide two general principles of the approach in
the curriculum document, including student-centredness and the use of language
for communication. There was an expectation that the teachers should treat
students as the ‘central figure’ in the teaching and learning process, along with the
outcome that students would demonstrate high levels of involvement, participation
and autonomy, as opposed to passive and rote learning as in their traditional
classrooms. The new roles of the teacher and student were made clear in alignment
with the communicative approach:
The students should be put in the centre of learning and become active learners. The teacher
should treat students as the central figure in the learning process. The role of the teacher is
to organise the learning activities and guide the students in the process of learning (MOET,
2012, p. 16)
The use of the target language for communication through different kinds of
classroom activities would require students to interact with their teachers and peers:
Learning activities should be designed with some degrees of flexibility and individualisation,
and should be relevant to students’ social lives; therefore, they can relate to their background
knowledge and understanding in their language practice. Learning activities should be
designed to improve students’ responsibility of their own learning, at the same time, enhance
their collaborative learning in pairs and groups (MOET, 2012, p. 17)
In line with the emphasis on the interactive aspect of language use as a crucial factor
in developing competence, MOET gave prominence to the increased use of the
target language in the classroom where “students should be encouraged to use
English as much as possible” (p. 17). The teacher challenge was to create
opportunities for language use in various ways such as language games, role-plays
and quizzes to stimulate motivation through relevance to the external world in which
the students lived:
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The key learning strategy in the communicative classroom was to be “learning how
to learn”. Whilst there was no guidance in relation to the teaching of this strategy is
was explicitly what MOET expected students to build and develop:
‘Learning how to learn’ is a combination of learning strategies which help students establish
and develop their communicative competence in English inside and outside the classroom
in an effective way (MOET, 2012, pp.14-15)
As autonomous learners, MOET expected young students to become “the

independent learner in the future” (p. 15). The Ministry encouraged increased
interaction in the target language between teachers and students and amongst
students in pairs and teams in problem-solving activities. This implicitly suggested
a theory of language learning adopted by MOET – that learning would take place
through an emphasis on learning by doing things with the language in authentic
interactions – and was clearly aligned with a communicative approach.
The championing of CLT as the approach to teaching and learning, along with an
emphasis on student-centred learning with the goal of Proficiency Level A2,
indicated MOET’s strong desire to encourage radical change in English language
classrooms. MOET also made its intentions clear to move to an interactive and
engaging language classroom, as opposed to the entrenched traditional grammar-
focused classroom. It expected to change the learning style of students, from “more
passive, less vocal” (Butler, 2011, p. 40) to create active, critical and autonomous
learners. MOET’s intentions were ambitious, focused on making changes to improve
the quality of language teaching and learning. CLT was the nominated vehicle
through which the improvements in communication would take place.
5.4. Testing and assessment
In line with changes to the language achievement goals and in the pedagogic
approach, changes in relation to testing and assessment were also highlighted.
According to MOET, the purpose of the testing and assessment was to:
Provide feedback about students’ learning during and after a learning period, encourage and
orient students during their learning process, provide tools to help teachers and schools
evaluate and direct the English teaching and learning at the lower secondary level more
effectively (MOET 2012, p. 18)
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MOET suggested that both formative and summative assessment were required,
including quantitative measures via testing, and qualitative via comments and
feedback. Formative assessment was to be conducted on a regular basis as part of
classroom teaching and learning, on the basis of which the teacher would review
the progress of the students. Summative assessment was to be in the form of mid-
term and end-of-term tests, and was designed to determine what the student was
able to do with language after a given period of classroom time. MOET required that
testing should not only reflect what had been taught but also that it should
correspond with the CLT approach. Given the goal of communicative competence,
MOET suggested the inclusion of oral proficiency tests, along with the more
traditional paper-and-pencil format. The intention was to place more weight on
developing oral proficiency amongst students, indicating some coherence between
the stated goal of teaching and learning and the method of assessment:
The test should correspond to the methodology used in the classroom, which includes an
oral test (dialogues, monologues) and written tests integrating skills and linguistic
knowledge. This is combined with objective multiple-choice testing items, open-ended items
and other forms of assessment (MOET 2012, p. 15)
As this statement indicated, MOET’s requirements for testing and assessment were
clearly aligned with the communicative approach. However, guidelines on the
communicative test format and criteria to measure learning outcomes were provided
for the first time in 2016 (MOET, 2016), pointing to the fact that in the first four years
of the reform implementation process, there was no guidance or benchmarks
against which to measure learning outcomes. Accordingly, no information was
available in regard to how well students functioned and performed in English, or how
many actually attained the Proficiency Level A2 as intended.
MOET’s guidance on communicative testing did not extend to the competitive

national examination for school graduation and university admittance, which
remained written-based. The rationale was that it was not practical to produce and
administer a performance-based oral test for approximately one million students on
the same day. Such performance-based assessment would be time-intensive and
not easy to administer. The pragmatic decision was made to adhere to the traditional
format of paper-and-pencil testing. However, paper-and-pencil testing is limited to
content-based skills (e.g. grammar, lexis, reading and perhaps writing), and does
not lend itself well to performance-based assessment. It is safe to surmise that
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teachers and students might minimise or possibly neglect any strong focus on
untested skills and spend more time preparing for the examination rather than
pursuing more ideal than real goals of communication. In this way, the examination
would continue to have a washback effect on teaching and learning and would
encroach on the potential of the communicative curriculum.
5.5. Prerequisites for curriculum implementation
To ensure adequate preparation for the successful implementation of Project 2025,

MOET specified a number of prerequisites. Although these requirements appeared
to be highly relevant to ensure successful curriculum implementation, there were a
number of unresolved issues.
The first prerequisite was that students needed to attain proficiency level A1 at the
primary school level before embarking on the new program in the lower secondary
school. Although listed as an essential prerequisite, this was not achievable in
practice. Primary education in Vietnam is universalised, which means that students
automatically move from primary school to lower secondary school without the need
to pass formal examinations. The responsibility for determining whether students
are ready for the lower secondary English program rests with schools. If a placement
test was organised to determine students’ level of English, it is unclear what would
happen if one or more students did not achieve the prerequisite level. Should they
be refused the right to study with the new curriculum at the lower-secondary level?
Furthermore, as noted above, guidelines for achievement testing were only made
available four years into the trialling of the new curriculum. In the first four years of
implementation, there was no consensus among schools about selecting students
at an appropriate level for study within the new curriculum.
In relation to teacher qualifications, MOET stipulated that teachers should attain

Proficiency Level B2 or above, and that they should participate in professional
development to qualify to teach the new curriculum. It was understood that the
teachers, all of whom were non-native speakers of English, needed to be competent
users of English. However, a 2011-2012 nationwide review of teacher proficiency
showed that 87% of lower secondary teachers failed to meet the desired level of
proficiency (N. H. Nguyen, 2013), indicating that language proficiency had been a
major challenge for Vietnamese teachers of English..
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MOET also made explicit a preferred class size as part of the curriculum reform.
Specifically, the number of students should not exceed the MOET recommendation
on maximum class size for lower-secondary classrooms as specified in Circular
12/2011/TT-BGDĐT (MOET, 2011). According to this mandate, the maximum class
size was 45 students.
Finally, each classroom was expected to be adequately equipped with audio-visual

and other devices to support English language teaching and learning. According to
Circular 51/2018/TT-BTC from the Ministry of Finance, the funding for these
classroom resources was to be allocated from the local budget of each province.
The aim was for well-equipped classrooms, especially in disadvantaged areas
where it had been previously reported that “a decent classroom with basic furniture
remains desired” (Le, 2015, p. 186).
Chapter conclusion
MOET’s clear intention was to develop student communicative competence

equivalent to Proficiency Level A2 after four years of study in the lower secondary
school. The imperative to transform traditional, grammar-based classrooms into
interactive learner-centred classrooms via the implementation of CLT was made
explicit, along with some changes to testing and assessment. Support for the
change was also indicated in relation to teacher proficiency levels, classroom size
and classroom equipment. However, as noted, the high-stakes examination for
university entry remained written-based and unchanged. The next stage of
investigation was to look more closely at exactly how the intentions of the new
curriculum were made concrete in the Tieng Anh textbook series, which served as
the classroom resource for developing communicative competence.
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CHAPTER VI: THE NEW TEXTBOOK SERIES
The policy documents which accompanied the Project 2025 reform made a broad
comment about the direction MOET set for English language education in the school
sector. The intentions of the Government were evident in the policy, but there was
a lack of any specific information about implementation at the micro level of the
classroom. [see my email] This lack of specificity is to be expected in policy
documents and is balanced by greater detail at the level of implementation. The
detail of the curriculum reform was in the new textbook series designed as part of
the policy, and it was expected that the Tieng Anh series would reveal more about
the how the policy intentions were to be implemented in classrooms.
The analysis focuses on how features of CLT are evident in the input and learning
activities which aim to help students develop communicative competence. Using
Littlejohn’s (2011) two categories of Publication and Design presented in Table 4.8,
Section 4.4.2.1, the analysis begins with an external description of the textbook.
This is followed by an internal examination of the textbook design with a focus on
the learning objectives, principles of selection and the sequencing of content. The
specific types and focus of language practice activities as described by Richards
(2006) are detailed, as well as the function of the visual images which accompany
or which are included in these activities (Royce, 1998, 2007).
6.1. Textbook publication
Publication primarily deals with the ‘tangible’ or material aspects of the textbook
series, including a description of the textbook package, its published forms and
recurring patterns within the learning units.
6.1.1. Textbook package
The Tieng Anh was published as a ten-year curriculum textbook series, extending
from Year 3 to Year 12. The Tieng Anh for lower-secondary students covers Year 6
to Year 9, serving as a continuation of English study from the primary level and
providing a foundation for the senior secondary years. The series includes Student
Books, Teacher Books, Work Books and CDs, offering materials for classroom
teaching and learning, homework and additional resources for teachers.
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Each Student Book spans one year of schooling and contains 12 topic-based units,
with each unit to be taught in seven 45-minute lessons. The CD contains the audio
recordings used in the learning activities, and are part of the Student Book. The
Workbook mirrors and reinforces the content of the Student Book, offering
homework practice for the language and skills addressed in class, with additional
tasks for student self-assessment. The Teacher Book offers teachers full procedural
notes for teaching the different elements of each unit. It also contains additional
materials for the teacher, including transcriptions of audio recordings and exercise
answer keys.
The Student Book forms the focal point for classroom work, and is the primary focus
of the textbook analysis in the study.
6.1.2. Published form of the textbook
The Tieng Anh and all other components in the materials package are monolingual
in English, except for the cover name “Tieng Anh” (translated as “English”). The
textbook is published with high-quality printing in colour on good quality paper for
durability. The Student Book is also published in an electronic form, which can be
accessed online, or used offline. This e-book incorporates an interactive platform
enabling answer-checking functions and is intended for self-study.
6.1.3. Subdivision of the textbook
In terms of structure, each of the Tieng Anh series is subdivided into 12 learning
units with a standardised number of pages for each unit. A review section follows
each set of three learning units, providing revision and further practice. After each
review lesson, students undertake a formal written test to assess progress.
All of the twelve learning units follow a standard pattern. Each consists of eight
sections, providing the content for seven classroom lessons of 45 minutes each.
The learning unit begins with a dialogue in a ‘Getting Started’ section, followed by a
range of exercises presenting the vocabulary items and the grammatical features to
be learnt and practised within the unit. This section occupies two pages and is
allocated one 45-minute class lesson.
‘A Closer Look 1’ presents and targets practice of (a) vocabulary, which is often
illustrated and accompanied by visual resources, and (b) pronunciation, which
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comprises two or three sounds being introduced and practised in isolation or in
context. ‘A Closer Look 2’ deals exclusively with grammar, with a focus on
grammatical rules and meta-linguistic items, followed by a series of exercises and
tasks for practice. A ‘Remember’ box appears where necessary to highlight common
errors in use that students should avoid. ‘A Closer Look 1’ and ‘A Closer Look 2’
cover three pages in total; each is designed to be taught in one 45 minute period.
The ‘Communication’ section is intended to help students use the language in

everyday contexts and consolidate what they have learned in previous sections. The
aim is to give students an opportunity to learn and apply the language to their lives,
and provide cultural information about Vietnam and other countries. Additional
vocabulary necessary for engaging with the activities in this section is included. This
section is to be covered in one 45-minute period.
‘Skills 1’ comprises Reading and Speaking. The reading text is closely linked to the
topic of the unit, and provides input for the speaking activities that follow. ‘Skills 2’
consists of Listening and Writing. Similarly, these activities provide students with the
opportunity to listen to the language from the recording, and also provide input for
the writing activities. Writing tips and samples are provided to guide student writing.
The target in the writing section is a complete piece of writing to be marked by peers
or teachers. Skills 1 and Skills 2 each covers one page and is designed for one 45-
minute period.
The ‘Looking Back’ and ‘Project’ sections cover two pages and are designed for one
period of study. Looking Back recycles the language from previous sections to help
students consolidate and transfer what they have learnt into additional language
production. The unit ends with a Project, which offers students the opportunity to
work by themselves or in a team and to extend their imagination by engaging in a
problem-solving task. The teacher has the option to use this section as an extra-
curricular activity or as homework.
The Student Book also includes a glossary of new vocabulary in alphabetical order
at the back of each book, specifying word classes, pronunciation and the
Vietnamese translation of the new lexical items.
The clearly-divided subsections with explicit attention to the grammar and other
formal features of the language, coupled with skills practice, provide evidence that
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the Tieng Anh favours a ‘weak’ version of CLT (Howatt, 1984). The ‘weak’ version
places emphasis on learning to use the language based on a foundation of learning
about the language, rather than focusing entirely on communication as in a ‘’strong’
version of CLT. In this way, the textbooks clearly express the intention of the
curriculum policy.
As stated one focus in this study is to consider if and how CLT is evident in the
textbook. This question asks if there is sufficient opportunity for students to practise
and to have sufficient communicative experiences in English to develop their
communicative competence. A closer look at the design of the textbook aims to
offers insight into how the communicative approach is developed and organised to
exploit communicative activities.
6.2. Textbook design
The exploration of the textbook design centres on the objectives set for classroom
teaching and learning, how the content and the activities are selected and
sequenced, what types of language practice are included, and then what kind of
visual images are included to support classroom teaching and learning.
6.2.1. Learning objectives
Tieng Anh articulates a route to the goal of developing communicative competence

via a set of specific learning outcomes after each unit of instruction. Accordingly,
each learning unit is designed with specific performance objectives for students at
the end of the unit. These are set out in the form of language-based objectives,
which serve as a guide for the design of learning activities, give direction to the
student experience, and become the basis for evaluation. Figure 6.1 provides an
example of the learning objectives in Tieng Anh 7, Unit 2 My Hobbies.
Figure 11. Learning objectives in Unit 2 Tieng Anh 7, Teacher Book
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The learning objectives include pronunciation, topical vocabulary, verb forms, and
performance outcomes in the macro skills. However, they do not describe the
conditions under which the objectives are expected to occur. Nor do they set out
standards of acceptable performance, or any criteria to determine an acceptable
level of performance. So, whilst the objectives can serve as a guide for the teacher
to know ‘what to teach’, they do not offer criteria or benchmarks for assessing
student progress, or any means to determine the extent to which the objectives are
achieved.
3.3.3. Principles of selection
Tieng Anh purports to follow a theme-based, functional-notional approach to

syllabus design, in a deliberate attempt to integrate topical and notional items with
grammatical and functional elements. This general principle runs consistently
through the whole series and gives direction to the design of the textbook content.
A book map from Tieng Anh 7 is shown in Figure 6.2. The book map shows a list of
learning topics developed from the macro-theme ‘Our Communities’, a description
of the specific micro-skills in each of the macro-skills, and an inventory of grammar,
lexis and phonology to enable communication.
Figure 12. An extract from the Book Map in Tieng Anh 7
Whilst it is presented in a simple, comprehensive way, the table of content is not

arranged in terms of any specification of functions and notions, nor in relation to the
textbook subdivision. It appears to be more a skills-based rather than a functional-
notional arrangement.
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The underlying principle of selection of the functional and notional components is
not always predictable because there is no one-to-one relationship between form
and function. Apparently, some forms and functions naturally suggest themselves
and are predictable. For example, talking about ‘My Hobbies’ in Unit 1 (Figure 6.1)
hardly seems feasible without knowledge of liking and disliking verbs, which are
often followed by a gerund (V-ing, e.g. I like swimming). On the other hand, the
introduction of compound sentences, as in Unit 2, has a less obvious relation to the
topic of ‘Health’. This leads to arbitrary decision-making by the textbook writers
about which forms to introduce with which functions, many of which appear to be
produced through intuition. This is a common issue underlying the design of
functional-notional syllabi, as noted by McDonough (2003).
With regards to continuity, Tieng Anh maintains strong continuity across the year
levels. This is evident in the selection and development of the themes selected. The
principle of theme selection and subdivision of themes into topics is based on an
increasing degree of complexity, starting with everyday, familiar themes,
progressing to broader and more complex issues as the students progress in years.
Table 6.1 below presents the development of the topics drawn from the two themes
‘Our Communities’ and ‘Visions of the Future’. While Tieng Anh 6 and 7 focus on
familiar topics associated with life in the community such as ‘My Home’ and ‘My
Hobbies’, Tieng Anh 8 and 9 cover topics with broader and more complex issues,
such as ‘Local Environment’ and ‘Peoples of Vietnam’ where the students are
challenged to engage at the community and then the broad societal level.
Table 5.1. Development of themes and topics
Tieng Anh Theme Topic Theme Topic
Tieng Anh 6 ‘My Home’ ‘Robots’

Tieng Anh 7 ‘Our ‘My Hobbies’ ‘Visions of the ‘Sources of energy’
Tieng Anh 8 Communities’ ‘Peoples of Vietnam’ Future’ ‘Life on other planets’
Tieng Anh 9 ‘Local Environment’ ‘Space travel’
Continuity is also evident in the selection of texts. In the Tieng Anh these include a
range of text types, e.g. dialogues, emails, narratives, with cross-curricular content
of geography, history and so on. The length and complexity of texts increase as the
students change year levels. Longer texts are found in Tieng Anh 9, while in Tieng
Anh 6, the texts are shorter with less complex linguistic structures. At this level, the
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majority of texts are constructed. Authentic texts are rare, with only three examples
found in the sample units. The remainder of the texts, including scripted dialogues
and written teaching texts, are constructed for particular language practice activities,
essentially for students to encounter the high-frequency lexical items deemed
necessary. Since they are constructed, the places and entities in these texts do not
exist in reality. For example, a reading text in Tieng Anh 6 is about a fictionalised
international school, VinaBrita; similarly fictionalised is the teenager magazine
named 4Teen.
The variety of English used in the recordings is Standard British English. Evidence
of British English is also seen in the spelling of lexical items, such as “organise” (Unit
3 Tieng Anh 6), “recognise” (Unit 3 Tieng Anh 8)”. The rationale underlying this
selection is that British English is “the parent variety” and “no matter how diverse
and open it is in the modern world, education in general and general education in
particular of any country must teach its pupils things which are standard” (Hoang,
2015, p. 13).
6.2.2. Principles of sequencing
The Tieng Anh series follows a cyclical progression in which the goals are for
students to develop their knowledge about language as well as the ability to use the
language. As the selection of textbook items is not based on linguistic criteria, its
sequencing principles are not based on the degree of complexity of grammatical
form. Rather, progression within the series can be identified by at least three
underlying principles, which remain consistent throughout.
Sequencing is firstly reflected in the recurrence of the language practices. Practices

involving knowledge about language are inserted into various exercises, including
matching, multiple choice and blank filling, both in texts or as discrete-point items.
Repetition of language skills practice is also seen across the learning units and
across year levels. For example, the skills of scanning for specific information or
skimming for main ideas reappear in a number of the reading lessons. Similarly,
listening for the main ideas and listening for detail are repeated across numerous
listening activities. This pattern aims to encourage students to incrementally develop
their language abilities over the years.
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Sequencing is also evident in the content and learning activities in which previously
introduced elements serve as entry points for the next element. The sections in each
learning unit are consistently designed with a standardised number of pages in
each, starting with topic introduction (‘Getting Started’) then vocabulary, grammar
and pronunciation practice (‘A Closer Look 1’ and ‘A Closer Look 2’), followed by
language skill practice (‘Communication’, ‘Skills 1’ and ‘Skills 2’), a revision (‘Looking
Back’), and ending with collaborative work (‘Project’). This organising principle is
sustained throughout the textbook series, indicating a high degree of structure,
progression and consistency in the design. However, it is of importance to note that
the introduction of linguistic items in some places is not in the form of texts in
contexts as promoted within the curriculum. Rather, it seems to promote the
accumulation of separate blocks of ‘static’ knowledge with an extensive focus on
discrete-point item practices which are isolated from potential contexts of use.
Figure 6.3 provides an example of A Closer Look 1 in Tieng Anh 8 where all the
language items are practised in isolation from any meaningful contexts.
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Figure 6.3. A Closer Look 1, Tieng Anh 8 Unit 2
Despite the appealing physical design, the exercises in Figure 6.4, essentially
repetition drills, categorising, matching and blank filling, are mechanical, constituting
a separate block of discrete-point practice. Following this lesson are pronunciation
and grammar, which are again mechanical and decontextualised. While it is claimed
that the use of vocabulary and grammar should be in meaningful contexts, it appears
that the textbook design does not always achieve this intention. This traditional
treatment of grammar is more aligned with a traditional grammar-based classroom
rather than a CLT classroom. Explicit attention is placed on form at the expense of
meaning and communicative function, and grammar appears as a product rather
than a process.
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The third principle of sequencing is identified in the ordering of skills. The productive
skills, including speaking and listening, invariably follow on from the receptive skills
of reading and listening, providing language input for students to produce their own
output. Figure 6.4 is an extract from Unit 1, Tieng Anh 8, where the implicit logic of
the content and progression of the learning activities is made apparent.
Figure 6.4. Skills 1, Tieng Anh 8 Unit 1
The reading section begins with an image and a lead-in question on the use of
computers for leisure among teenagers. This pre-reading activity offers a lead-in
discussion around the topic, aimed at preparing the students for the reading text.
What follows are two reading comprehension tasks, involving a multiple choice and
an information-gap exercise. Post-reading activities include two speaking tasks
where students are required to offer a personal opinion, agreeing or disagreeing, in
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preparation for a follow-up role play. The selection of the topic and the content of
the reading text are familiar and relevant to lower-secondary students. The
challenge is to work through all of these activities in a single forty-five-minute lesson.
6.2.3. Types of language practice
As a way of quantifying the content of the textbooks, the learning activities across
textbook sections were classified in relation to the type of language practice they
encouraged: mechanical, meaningful or communicative as described by Richards
(2006). This classification also provided a means of considering these types of
practices as important elements of the pedagogic activities within the qualitative
analysis of pedagogic register.
Figure 6.5 presents the percentage average allocated to the different language
practice types in the textbooks. The largest proportion is meaningful practice, taking
up approximately 45% of time, followed by mechanical practice (32%) and
communicative practice with the smallest proportion (23%).
The Tieng Anh Series

(on avarage)
Meaningful Practice
32%
Communicative Practice
45%
Mechanical Practice
23%
Figure 6.5. Types of learning activity in the Tieng Anh series
6.2.3.1. Mechanical practice
Mechanical practice activities account for approximately 32% or one third of the total
learning activities across the textbook series. Practice of this type aims at accuracy
in language use, involving a primary emphasis on form, often presented as explicit
grammar rules in discrete-point exercises. Activities include highly mechanical
exercises, such as repetition and substitution drills in isolation from specific contexts
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of language use. Other common mechanical exercises are matching, filling in
blanks, or completing sentences in which student attention is explicitly drawn to
specific lexical or grammatical items.
Figure 6.6 presents some typical examples of mechanical exercises focusing on

vocabulary. Exercises range from listening and repeating words (Figure 6.6a), word
matching (Figure 6.6b), putting words into correct categories (Figure 6.6c), and
selecting words to fill the blank space (Figure 6.6d). More difficult exercises include
completing a word web (Figure 6.6e) and completing sentences (Figure 6.6f) where
students have to use their own words to complete the exercise.
a) Listen and repeat, Tieng Anh 8 Unit 1 b) Matching words, Tieng Anh 7 Unit 1
c) Put words in correct groups, Tieng Anh 6 Unit 2 d) Put words in the blanks, Tieng Anh 6 Unit 1
e) Word webs, Tieng Anh 9 Unit 1 f) Complete the sentences, Tieng Anh 7 Unit 1
Figure 6.6. Examples of mechanical vocabulary exercises in the Tieng Anh
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Grammatical exercises are also a strong focus in mechanical practice. These
activities, focusing on language form, aim to raise student awareness about discrete
grammatical features and meta-language in the form of explicit grammatical tables
and ‘remember’ boxes as in Figure 6.7.
a) Grammar Box, Tieng Anh 7 Unit 3 b) Remember Box, Tieng Anh 7 Unit 3
Figure 6.7. Examples of mechanical vocabulary exercises in the Tieng Anh
The introduction of grammatical rules is often accompanied by strictly controlled

practice in various exercise types, exemplified in Figure 6.8. These include using
correct verb tenses (6.8a), multiple-choice responses (6.8b), correcting errors
(6.8c), matching parts of sentences (6.8d), and rewriting sentences (6.8e). More
challenging exercises require students to complete sentences using their own ideas
as in 6.8f.
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a) Using correct verb tenses, Tieng Anh 7 Unit 3 b) Multiple choice, Tieng Anh 7 Unit 3
c) Find and correct errors, Tieng Anh 8 Unit 3 d) Matching, Tieng Anh 9 Unit 2
e) Rewrite sentences, Tieng Anh 9 Unit 3 f) Complete sentences, Tieng Anh 9 Unit 1
Figure 6.8. Examples of mechanical grammar exercises in the Tieng Anh
Mechanical practice also targets pronunciation. Such practice is largely in the form
of repetition drills where students are asked to listen and then repeat specific sounds
or words (Figure 6.9a), or listen to recognise words (Figure 6.9b). However,
although the textbook introduces and provides practice with the sound system in
English, it is generally seen as beneficial if Vietnamese students are exposed to
additional emphasis on the practice of the sounds that do not exist in the Vietnamese
sound system and which present a challenge for students.
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b) Listen and circle, Tieng Anh 7 Unit 1
a) Listen and repeat, Tieng Anh 8 Unit 2
Figure 6.9. Examples of pronunciation exercises in the Tieng Anh
6.2.3.2. Meaningful practice
Nearing a half, at 45%, of the learning activities in the Tieng Anh, meaningful
practice is the most frequently prescribed type of language activity. Meaningful
practice activities are less controlled, are more oriented towards meaning-making
and require a higher level of engagement with the target language than mechanical
activities. Meaningful learning tasks require students to work with a predictable
range of language in a provided situation, or to work with a complete spoken or
written text. Unlike mechanical practice with its primary focus on form, meaningful
practice ranges from the practice of specific language items to a variety of tasks
involving speaking, listening, reading and writing. Figure 6.10 presents two
examples of meaningful practice, the first with a focus on vocabulary and the second
on grammar.
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a) Complete the text, Tieng Anh 9 Unit 1 b) Find the grammar mistakes, Tieng Anh 8 Unit 1
Figure 6.10. Meaningful practice with a focus on vocabulary and grammar
These tasks involve meaningful language practice in that students are provided with
the opportunity to work with whole texts, challenging them to understand the text to
be able to complete the tasks. Practice of this type is more demanding than
mechanical practice but also more engaging because students are exposed to
meaningful texts rather than discrete, decontextualised language items. The
provision of whole texts is beneficial to language learning since the text is purposive
and cohesive. It also contains linguistic structures that can be used to highlight
formal features of the language as they appear in authentic contexts.
Given the inherent value in activities which work with whole texts, it is salutary to
note that the number of text-based activities is much fewer than that of non-text-
based activities as shown in Table 6.2 below. There is an average of 2.5 spoken
texts and 5.5 written texts at each level of Tieng Anh, used in an average of 12.5
text-based activities. These text-based activities constitute approximately 31% of
the total number of learning activities.
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Table 6.2. Texts and text-based activities in the Tieng Anh
Number of texts % of text-

Text-based Total
Spoken Written based
activities activities
texts texts activities
Tieng Anh 6 3 6 13 41 32%
Tieng Anh 7 2 5 9 41 22%
Tieng Anh 8 2 6 15 40 38%
Tieng Anh 9 4 5 13 41 32%
Average 2.5 5.5 12.5 41 31%
6.2.3.3. Communicative practice
Communicative practice accounts for 23% or less than one quarter of the total
learning activities in the Tieng Anh series, the least of Richards’ three categories of
practice. Communicative practice includes activities such as discussion, gap filling
and role plays, where real information is exchanged and the language use is not
totally predictable. Such activities are in the form of free practice, which means there
is no constraint on language use. Students are expected to use their existing
resources and strategies to actively participate in these interactions to achieve
communicative competence in cooperative negotiation, joint interpretation and the
expression of their own ideas. Practice of this type is often targeted at fluency and
genuine communication that bears a close resemblance to English language use
outside the classroom, which is the ultimate goal of a communicative focus.
Accordingly, it is argued that if communicative competence is the ultimate goal of
the English language curriculum, then more communicative practice should be in
evidence in the textbooks, as this is the type of practice which offers students the
best opportunities to participate in the sharing and negotiating of meanings on a
genuinely communicative basis.
Examples of communicative practice are shown in Figure 6.11 where students are
asked to write an email to an ‘imagined’ pen pal, and a role play in Figure 6.12,
where students are required to take on a role and participate in a discussion from
within that role.
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Figure 6.11. Write an email, Tieng Anh 9 Unit 1 Figure 6.12. Role play, Tieng Anh 8 Unit 1
In the Tieng Anh, learning activities are built around particular topics, an outcome of
the theme-based approach. On a positive note, students benefit from the recurrence
of frequently used vocabulary in a topic. However, the challenge in this type of
practice is that the language, the context and the activities are designed to fit the
specific topic of the learning unit rather than to meet real-life interactional needs.
The outcome is that some activities appear to have only weak connections with the
students’ life and experiences. The example shown in Figure 6.13 below from Tieng
Anh 8, Unit 2 (‘Life in the Countryside’) highlights this issue.
Figure 6.13. Discussion, Tieng Anh 8 Unit 2
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In the task, students are asked to work in pairs and interview their partner about
his/her opinion of the life of nomads. The topic of the discussion is likely to be
unfamiliar to 13-year-old students. Life in the countryside of Vietnam is typically of
fixed habitation in villages rather than nomadic. The task is in danger of not meeting
any real communicative needs either inside or outside the classroom, and,
therefore, it may not provoke discussion among these young learners who have little
understanding of and, more importantly, little connection with nomadic life
experiences. On the one hand, it is acknowledged that the learning tasks should be
designed with an achievable challenge, essentially to challenge the learners to
make and create meanings in interaction. On the other hand, school learners are
more at ease with texts, contexts and illustrations that relate to their own cultural
experiences.
6.2.4. The targets within language practice
Figure 6.14 provides information about the specific focus within language practice
activities. As evident in the pie chart, speaking and grammar are the two prominent
foci, accounting for 51% of all the different kinds of practice.
Pronunciation
5%
Vocabulary
15% Speaking
29%
Grammar Listening
22% 5%
Reading
Writing
17%
7%
Figure 6.14. The focus of language practice
Speaking skills activities account for 29% of practice in the textbook series. These
speaking activities are largely part of meaningful practice and communicative
practice. This is an innovative feature of the textbook series, and aligns with the
communicative intention of incorporating more spoken elements to “encourage
students to use English as much as possible in the classroom” (MOET, 2012, p. 15).
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This is understood as a conscious effort to foreground oral proficiency that has been
largely overlooked in the past.
Grammar focused activities also have a prominent place in the classroom, featuring
in 22% of activities. The emphasis on speaking and grammar practice in the
textbook is evidence of the explicit intention to improve students’ speaking skills,
and, at the same time, increase student awareness of language form. Again, the
focus on both form and function adds strengths to the view that the textbook is
aligned with a ‘weak’ version of CLT.
6.2.5. Participation
Table 6.3 presents the average number of learning activities categorised according
to the classroom arrangement, that is whether students are asked to work in pairs,
in groups or individually. Individual activities here also include those involving
‘teacher-with-class’, in which the teacher addresses a question to the whole class
and then invites one or two students to provide the answer. In such activities,
interactions only take place between the teacher and the one or two chosen
students, but not with the majority of students. The pattern of interaction is directed
through and by the teacher at all times.
Table 6.3. Classroom working arrangements
Pair work Group work Individual

Total activities
activities activities activities
Tieng Anh 6 4 3 34 41
Tieng Anh 7 5 6 30 41
Tieng Anh 8 4 4 32 40
Tieng Anh 9 3 5 33 41
Average 4 4.5 32.3 40.75
% 10% 11% 79% 100%
There is a strong consistency across the lower-secondary year levels in terms of the
total number of activities as well as the arrangements made to engage in these
activities. The great majority of the learning activities in the textbooks, 79% of the
total, are designed for individual work, which far outweighs arrangement for
teamwork at 11% and pair work at 10% respectively. There is some acceptance that
particular activities and topics may be best suited to one particular style of work, and
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that each type of activity has its place in the language classroom. However, where
the goal is to give students opportunities to learn from and interact with others in the
target language, then more pair and teamwork would be expected to provide
students with such opportunities. The clear focus on individual work is only likely to
promote more traditional ways of teaching and learning, at odds with promoting the
more informal and spontaneous interaction among students that is essential to the
development of communicative competence.
It is important to note that the raw numbers and percentages were based on the
textbook suggestions only. The expectation was that teachers would or could adapt
individual-based activities to more collaborative modes of working. The analysis of
the classroom discourse presented in Chapter VII provides more information about
how arrangements for classroom teaching and learning were actually made within
a number of classrooms.
6.2.6. Visual images in Tieng Anh
In line with all contemporary language materials, a feature of the Tieng Anh series
is the large number of visual images accompanying the teaching and learning
activities. The visuals are typically in the form of static photographs and graphics
involving drawings, sketches and symbols. Table 6.4 lists the number of visuals
found in each learning unit of the textbook series.
Table 6.4. Images included in the Tieng Anh

Tieng Anh 6 Tieng Anh 7 Tieng Anh 8 Tieng Anh 9
Unit 1 46 32 40 38
Unit 2 45 36 51 22
Unit 3 39 37 44 42
Average 43 35 45 34
Tieng Anh 8 contains the most visuals with an average of 45 images per unit,
followed by Tieng Anh 6 (43 images), Tieng Anh 7 (35 images) and Tieng Anh 9 (34
images). These figures indicate an approximate 20% variation in the use of images
in different years. More noticeable is the variation in the number of visuals
incorporated in a single unit across the textbook range. For example, there are 51
images in Unit 2 of Tieng Anh 8, more than doubling the 22 in the parallel Unit in
Tieng Anh 9.
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The examination of images used in the Tieng Anh drew on Royce (2007), as
described in Chapter IV, Section 4.4.2.3, in which he proposed an SFL motivated
framework to interpret what he labelled as the intersemiotic complementarity
between images and language. In line with SFL, the work focused on the
intersemiotic semantic relationship between the visual and verbal modes in
multimodal texts within learning activities.. The analysis indicated that a number of
images demonstrated some degree of intersemiotic complementarity with the
language in the text and added to meanings within the learning activities. In this
study such visuals have been categorised as functional images. However, some
images had almost no intersemiotic complementarity with the verbal elements in the
text. These images were considered non-functional or as having an unclear function,
raising questions about the underlying rationale for their use.
6.2.6.1. Functional images
Functional images displayed ample evidence of intersemiotic complementarity with

the verbal text in the learning activities and were categorised in the study as images
for tasks, images for illustration or images for decoration.
Images for tasks
Some images served as the primary source of meaning essential for the completion
of a task, displaying a strong ideational intersemiotic relationship with the language.
Here the image provided students with essential visual clues to access the
meanings needed to complete an exercise. Students were engaged in negotiation
of the meaning conveyed by the visuals alone, or sometimes by an integration of
the visual and verbal cues.
Figure 6.15 is an example taken from Tieng Anh 6. Although the exercise was highly
mechanical, the images demonstrated strong ideational intersemiotic
complementarity through reinforcement of the meaning in the visual and the verbal
items. These visualshad an essential role in giving students visual clues for
ideational meaning. Figure 6.16 presents an example of an image description task
where students were required to read the meanings represented by the images.
This activity was in the form of a communicative practice which required the student
to engage with the images, and to transfer this into oral production.
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Figure 6.15. A vocabulary exercise, Tieng Anh 6 Figure 6.16. Image description
Unit 1
task, Tieng Anh 9 Unit 1
Images for illustration
Visuals also served illustrative purposes. This was the most common function of the
images in the textbooks. Illustrative visuals displayed some degree of intersemiotic
complementarity with the language in the text, performing a complementary role to
the meanings encoded in the verbal text. The visual contextualised the background
environment, and/or gave visual clues to access ideational meaning. The
illustrations also added interest and potential learning motivation by making the texts
colourful and engaging. This type of image was found in several learning activities,
ranging from discrete-item mechanical practice, to meaningful and communicative
practice.
Figures 6.17 and 6.18 present two examples of such images used in meaningful
practice activities, including a form-focused task in Tieng Anh 9 and a reading text
in Tieng Anh 6. There was ample evidence of intersemiotic complementarity
between the visual and verbal modes of meaning in the texts. For example, the
images of a bridge and lanterns in Figure 6.17 were repeated in the text, displaying
a cohesive relation of repetition between the visual and the verbal. Similarly, in
Figure 6.18 the visuals representing two ethnic minorities in Vietnam were also
repeated in the text, a repetition of meaning projected in both semiotic modes.
Furthermore, these images were real-life photographs, serving as an authentic
source of input in the language classroom.
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Figure 6.18. Real-life photographs used for
Figure 6.17. Real-life photographs used for
illustration, Tieng Anh 8 Unit 3
illustration, Tieng Anh 9 Unit 2
Images for decoration
The third category of images comprised those used for decoration. Unlike those for
illustration, these decorative visuals added little or no content to a verbal text or
support task completion. However, they did display some ideational intersemiotic
complementarity with the language in the text.
Figure 6.19 presents two examples in which the images were decorative. Both
depict hands, photographed in one and graphically produced in the other. The
images of hands symbolised ‘helping’ or ‘supporting’, perhaps even ‘lending a hand’
holding some relevance to the topic of ‘volunteering’. The images displayed a low
level of ideational intersemiotic complementarity through a relation of synonymy.
However, apart from being decorative, they played no role in the completion of the
tasks. These images made the textbook more colourful and arguably more visually
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interesting, and in this way, they may have added some extra attraction to the task.
However, the use of visuals purely for decorative purposes is not always desirable
due to the space constraints in a textbook. Images which serve a meaningful
function in a learning activity are potentially more useful. For example, real-life
photographs showing young people helping with volunteering work or community
support activities may have had a higher level of intersemiotic complementarity with
the language in the text. They could add reality and serve as triggers for students to
think and talk about volunteering and what it means.
Figure 6.19. Examples of the images used for decorative purposes, Tieng Anh 7 Unit 3
6.2.6.2. Images with questionable function
Alongside those images functioning as the primary source of meaning or

complementing meaning in the verbal texts, there were a number of visuals with
limited or no clear function in relation to the learning activities. These images
displayed very little or no intersemiotic complementarity in relation to the verbal
elements in the text. They had little relevance to the learning task, and an unclear
connection with the written text. Some were poorly designed or were included
without appropriate labelling.
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The image in Figure 6.20 has no connection to the verbal text and plays no role in
the learning activities. The image displays a photograph of Hoan Kiem Lake in
Hanoi. It was at best redundant and was possibly even non-functional if the students
looked to the image to support their understanding of the task.
Figure 6.20. Visual with no connection to the learning task, Tieng Anh 9 Unit 2
Incorporating real-life photographs to boost the authenticity of language use was not
always well achieved in the Tieng Anh. Despite the inclusion of photographs to bring
life to a task, the Tieng Anh did not consistently label these photographs, creating a
‘knowledge gap’ in relation to the entity or place mentioned.
An example of a well-labelled photograph is presented in Figure 6.21, labelled as

the traditional dress worn by Lolo women, an ethnic minority group in Vietnam.
However, another photograph in the same unit (Figure 6.22) appeared with no
labelling. The photograph also had unclear ideational intersemiotic complementarity
with the verbal elements in the text. Given the fact that Vietnam is a country of ethnic
diversity with 54 minority groups, it is difficult for students to know which ethnic
minority was represented in the photograph while the verbal text offered little
clarification.
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Figure 6.21. A well-labelled photograph, Tieng Figure 6.22. A non-labelled photograph, Tieng
Anh 8 Unit 3 Anh 8 Unit 3
A lack of labelling was a common feature across the textbook series where a large
number of photographs were included without any labelling. Photographs do not
always need labelling if they display some degree of complementarity with the verbal
elements, for example if they are closely related to, clarified or reinforced by verbal
information. However, labelleing frequently did not occur where it was difficult, if not
impossible, to identify the photograph and/or its relationship to the written text. The
inconsistency in labelling raises two issues. It indicates an underestimation of the
potential of real-life photographs as rich and authentic sources of meaning and
knowledge that can support teaching and learning. It also raises the question of
whether there was any educational basis for the selection of such photographs and
any rationale for their inclusion.
The Tieng Anh also included an extensive number of drawings and sketches of
different characters and objects. This was a cost-effective way of producing visual
materials, as it reduced the cost for copyrighted images, or taking photographs
specific to a particular learning activity. However, some images required a better
design, as in the images shown in Figure 6.23 taken from Tieng Anh 6.
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Figure 6.23. Examples of images that need better design, Tieng Anh 6 Unit 2
The task required students to look at the four images and to articulate their
differences. The two conceptual drawings depicted Nick’s country house and Mi’s
townhouse. The floorplans were also included to provide more detail for students to
compare and contrast features of the two houses. However, while the floorplans
were carefully drawn, the drawings of the houses from the outside seemed to be
carelessly sketched. Neither floorplan matched well the external drawing of the
houses, lacking any intersemiotic complementarity with the verbal mode. In
particular, the drawing of Nick’s house on the left appeared to be a single storey
house, while its floorplan showed a double-storey house, causing confusion as to
whether the two drawings depicted the same building. Where images are the only
sources of meaning for completing a task, their poor design may be confusing.
The broad conclusion is that there was a lack of strategic selection of images, and
a lack of educational rationale for the design and selection of images. This perhaps
is some indication that there was insufficient attention to semiotic modes beyond
language in both the curriculum documents of intent and the textbooks as
manifestations of those intentions. It appeared that there was a limited appreciation
of the meaning-making potential of images and their potential in complementing
verbal language in teaching and learning in the classroom.
Chapter conclusion
The Tieng Anh textbook series is seen as a cost-effective way of providing the
teachers and students with structure, continuity, security and revision. Oriented to a
communicative approach, it is expected to offer students the necessary information,
input and communicative experience with the target language, aiming towards
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communicative competence equivalent to Proficiency Level A2 at the end of Year
9.
The analysis of the Tieng Anh was conducted from an external description of its
physical features as well as an internal account of its design. The finding is that
Tieng Anh is a well-designed textbook series, appealing in appearance with high-
quality paper and colour printing. Using a cyclical, theme-based approach, the
textbook series maintains continuity across the year levels, covering thematic or
topical vocabulary, knowledge about grammar and the four macro skills. The content
and language practice activities are designed in a sequence enabling students to
go through a process of more scaffolded to less scaffolded teacher support until
they can independently perform a communicative function in listening, speaking,
reading and writing. The textbook allows students to go from mechanical practice to
more independent language production. From this perspective, the textbook
provides a sequence of activities that move back and forth between accuracy and
fluency, in line with a ‘weak’ version of CLT.
However, the findings also indicate that communicative practice takes up the least
proportion of class time compared to mechanical and meaningful types of practice.
It is argued that if communicative competence is the ultimate target of the English
language curriculum, then more communicative practice needs to be in evidence,
as this is the type of practice which offers students the best opportunities to
participate in the sharing and negotiating of meanings on a genuinely
communicative basis. Furthermore, activities that require collaboration in pairs and
groups are far fewer in number than those requiring individuals working alone, which
offer fewer opportunities for student-to-student interactions. Importantly, if the
teachers are not able to adapt the textbook content or do not see it as their role to
adapt the textbook, then the outcome is the traditional teacher-directed classroom
rather than the interactive, learner-centred classroom as expected in a CLT
approach.
A different issue relates to the prominence of scripted spoken and written texts used
for practice activities. The texts and the simulated contexts for communicative
activities are mostly constructed, which raises the issue of authenticity of language
input provided in the textbook. It is noted that the Tieng Anh is not alone in relation
to authenticity as the same strategy is commonly found in other EFL textbooks.
However, in the absence of authentic materials, students may find it hard to cope
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with genuine interactive discourse when they encounter it in real life. This is
exacerbated by the use of only one variety of English in the audio materials, which
does not alert learners to different varieties of English or prepare them for
intelligibility issues in cross-cultural communication.
The Tieng Anh includes a large number of visual images, many of which display
strong intersemiotic complementarity with the verbal elements in the text, and
therefore are functional in adding meaning to the learning activities. However, as
noted, there are also several with little or no relevance to the learning activities.
Given the fact that textbooks are typically constrained by space, only well-grounded
choices of visual elements need to be included. This finding indicates a lack of
understanding of the potential of visual materials in the design, as well as a lack of
appreciation of the importance of the visual semiotic in the contemporary world and
its place in classroom teaching and learning.
A final point to note is that the textbook is the provider of input and activities which
are recontextualised and brought to life in the classroom. It is the role of the teacher
to adapt the content to shape it appropriately to particular classes and students. On
this basis, it is important to set this ‘textbook-as-object’ analysis alongside an
analysis of the textbook-in-action, involving an analysis of the use of the textbook in
the classroom. This takes the study to the implementation of the reform, the focus
of Chapter VII.
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CHAPTER VII: REALITIES OF THE CURRICULUM REFORM
To this point, the analysis has focused on the intentions of the Project 2025
curriculum reform by looking at the Government policy statements (Chapter V) and
then at the new textbook series, Tieng Anh, as a material product of the intent
(Chapter VI). Attention now turns to the implementation of the curriculum, and for
this purpose, the data source is the teachers who were the key agents in the
implementation process. The aim is to provide an empirical understanding of how
teachers at the local level evaluated the curriculum reform, how they engaged with
it and how they spoke about it. It draws on data from 112 survey participants, 11
teacher interviews, 4 principal interviews, and 28 classroom observations. A
summary of the demographics of the teacher participants is provided as contextual
information and is followed by an analysis of teacher attitude towards the new
curriculum and their understandings of CLT. The section documenting the
classroom discourse provides evidence of the ‘how’ of implementation – how the
teacher attitude and teacher knowledge of CLT translated into classroom practice.
7.1. Teacher Attitude
As part of the aim of describing, analysing and interpreting the reality of the
curriculum reform at the classroom level, information was initially sought to gauge
the attitude of teachers towards the new curriculum. Their disposition towards the
mandated content and the prescribed ways of teaching that content was determined
to be a useful starting point from which to analyse their practice. Drawn from the
online surveys and face-to-face interviews, the aim was to document how the
teachers evaluated the curriculum change, how they appraised the achievability of
the curriculum goals in their local context, and what they believed might hinder its
implementation.
7.1.1. The necessity and feasibility of the new curriculum
Table 7.1 below indicates that the teachers assessed their students to be
‘communicatively incompetent’ and needed significant improvement in their ability
to use English communicatively. Over 90% of the teachers reported that their
students needed to improve their listening skills, and around 80% believed that their
students should have more substantial input in relation to speaking skills and
pronunciation. Writing skills were also in need of improvement, as stated by 54% of
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the participants. In contrast, the teachers believed that their students generally had
a strong command of the English language system, including its grammar and
vocabulary.
Table 7.1. Teacher perceptions of student needs
Listening Speaking Pronunciation Reading Writing Grammar Vocabulary
92% 77% 80% 8% 54% 7% 19%

Responses
(n=76) (n=64) (n=66) (n=7) (n=45) (n=6) (n=16)
In line with the perceived need to enhance student communicative skills, 92% of the
teachers approved of the curriculum change, indicating overwhelming support for
the innovation, as shown in Table 7.2. Of these, approximately 58% viewed the
reform as necessary and 34% as very necessary.
Table 7.2. The need for the curriculum change
Not Somewhat Very

N/A Necessary
necessary necessary necessary
1% 4% 2% 58% 34%
Responses
(n=1) (n=4) (n=2) (n=54) (n=33)
Correlation tests* showed no statistically significant relationship between teachers’

perceived necessity of the curriculum change and their gender (p=.272), their
education (p=.636), their teaching experience (p=.206) or their level of English
proficiency (p=.965). Teacher attitude about the need for curriculum renewal was
not shaped by background or prior training and experience. Rather, their attitude
was more obviously aligned with the perceived need to improve communicative
competence as indicated above.
Despite the overwhelming support for the reform, Table 7.3 below indicates that
76% of the respondents believed that the set achievement targets could only be
partially achieved, whilst far fewer, 19%, regarded the overall goal as achievable. At
the opposite end of the scale, only 5% of the teachers believed that the new
curriculum could not support students to use English as a tool of communication for
* p-Value is based on a Pearson Chi-square test, confidence level at 95%
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their studies and future personal development. The overall goal covered a broad
sweep and may have been viewed as overly ambitious, and on that basis, the
teachers were reluctant to wholly endorse its achievability. The second goal was
much more tangible, as it was related to an English language proficiency level. Two-
thirds of the teachers (66%) viewed this goal as partly achievable. Only 13% of
respondents expressed real confidence that their students could reach the
Proficiency Level A2 with a larger number (21%) taking the view that this goal was
completely unachievable. More teachers took the view that their students would not
reach the target proficiency in the English language than those who believed they
would.
Table 7.3. The achievability of the curriculum goals.
Comments by teachers
# Overall goals of the new curriculum Partially
Unachievable Achievable
achievable
English language education at lower-secondary
schools aims to help students to practise and develop
their communicative competence in English, which
5% 76% 19%
1 becomes a foundation for the use of English for study,
(n=5) (n=71) (n=18)
and helps to create the habit of life-long learning,
through which they become responsible citizens in the
context of globalisation.
After finishing lower-secondary school, students 21% 66% 13%
2
achieve level A2 of proficiency on the CEFR. (n=20) (n=62) (n=12)
Again, there was no statistically significant correlation found between teacher

attitude about the achievability of the curriculum goals and their backgrounds,
including gender, education, experience and English proficiency levels (p>.005). In
fact, the teacher attitudes were grounded in their perceived understandings of the
constraints hindering the achievement of the specified goals. Further insights into
teacher attitude were evident through the Appraisal analysis of the teacher
interviews.
7.1.2. Attitude towards the new curriculum
Table 7.4 provides a summary of the evaluations expressed by the teachers as

evident in the Appraisal analysis of the interviews, along with the data generated
from the open-ended survey questions. The Table presents details of the specific
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type of positive or negative Attitude identified in the analysis. Positive evaluations
accounted for 20% of the total, while negative evaluations were four-fold higher, at
80%. Negative Appreciation was the most frequently expressed Attitude type, at
58% of the total of negative evaluations. Instances of emotional Affect were rare
and only positive, accounting for only 4%, while Judgement in relation to accepted
norms accounted for 22% of the total of negative Attitude.
Table 7.4. Attitude types in teacher responses
Attitude Instances As %
Positive 39 20%
Affect 6 4%
Judgement 1 -
Appreciation 32 16%
Negative 158 80%
Affect - -
Judgement 44 22%
Appreciation 114 58%
Total 197 100%
Table 7.5 details the inscribed/explicit versus invoked/implicit expressions of

Attitude. Whilst there was a clear distinction between negative and positive Attitude,
the ways in which both were expressed were very similar. Very close to 50% of the
positive Attitude tokens were inscribed and the same percentage invoked. The same
was evident in relation to the negative Attitude expressed.
Table 7.5. Inscribed and invoked Appraisal instances in teacher responses.
Attitude Instances As %
Positive 39 20%
inscribed 22 11%
invoked 17 9%
Negative 158 80%
inscribed 79 40%
invoked 79 40%
Total 197 100%
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The Attitude analysis also indicated that the new curriculum was not the only Target
(the entity or person appraised) of the teacher evaluation. Other Targets were linked
to the new curriculum and were appraised by the teachers. These included the
textbook, the workload, the previous curriculum, the class size, the students, the
parents and the teachers themselves. Table 7.7 lists the different Targets of the
attitude expressed, the Source, that is the appraiser, and the Attitude type (Affect,
Judgement, Appreciation) as either positive or negative, inscribed or invoked.
Table 7.6. Example of Appraisal analysis
Appraisal language Source Target Attitude type
The new Positive; Inscribed

I really like the new curriculum Teacher K
curriculum Affect
because it’s rich in terms of knowledge Teacher K
curriculum Appreciation
and can help students develop their skills Teacher K
I think the new curriculum is good Teacher K
For the old curriculum, hard work is the The old Negative; Provoked
Teacher K
determinant of achieving good results curriculum Appreciation
But this new one asks the students to be more The new Positive; Provoked
Teacher K
critical curriculum Appreciation
One thing about this curriculum is that it The new Positive; Provoked
Teacher K
requires the use of English as the final aim curriculum Appreciation
Generally, the appearance of the books is eye- The Positive; Inscribed
catching and motivating to the students with a Teacher J
textbook Appreciation
lot of visual images
The Positive; Inscribed
It is not boring at all Teacher J
textbook Appreciation
Curriculum Negative; Inscribed
I think my students can’t reach A2 level. Teacher G
goal Appreciation
Even for selective classes, I’m not sure Curriculum Negative; Inscribed
whether 20% of the students can achieve A2 Teacher G
goal Appreciation
level
Heavy Negative; Inscribed
Most of the sections are long, Teacher A
workload Appreciation
Heavy Negative; Provoked
so we have to race to meet the time Teacher A
workload Appreciation
How to run communicative tasks in a class of Negative; Provoked

Teacher J Large class
43 students? Appreciation
I have to say that students are lazy Teacher G Students Negative; Inscribed
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Judgement
Negative; Inscribed
They are not keen to learn English Teacher G Students
Judgement
Their parents do not really care much about Negative; Inscribed

Teacher G Parents
their studies Judgement
Negative; Inscribed
To be honest, I’m not very confident Teacher A Teachers
Judgement
There are a lot of things that I haven’t been Negative; Inscribed

Teacher A Teachers
very clear about, as the teaching methodology Judgement
The following section presents more detail about positive and negative appraisals
in relation to the new curriculum and its related Targets.
7.1.2.1. Positive Attitude
Thirty-nine instances of positive Attitude were recorded, constituting 20% of the total
number. In this category, Appreciation was the prevalent choice (16%), while
instances of Affect were rare (4%), and only one instance of positive Judgement
was evident.
Positive Appreciation was the most common means by which the teachers made
positive evaluations of the new curriculum. Typically, these positive comments were
about the value of the new curriculum and were expressed explicitly rather than
implicitly, as in the following example:
“I really like the new curriculum because it’s rich in terms of knowledge and can help students
develop their skills… Generally, I think the new curriculum is good” (Teacher K)
In some instances, positive Appreciation was conveyed implicitly, as when a teacher

expressed Appreciation because the new curriculum could foster critical thinking
rather than focus on grammar and lexis and this capacity was ranked more highly
in relation to acuity in language. The previous curriculum was implicitly charged with
a negative attitude as it valued hard work and disregarded critical skills and abilities
as relevant for language use. Furthermore, the new curriculum was valued because
it placed communicative ability at the centre of learning, as evident in the following
comment.
“For the old curriculum, hard work is the determinant of achieving good results. But this new
one asks the students to be more critical. One thing about this curriculum is that it requires
the use of English as the final aim” (Teacher K)
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A number of positive evaluations were made when the teachers made a comparison
between the new and old curriculum. Some teachers explicitly acknowledged the
advantages of the new over the old. These positive comparisons by the teachers
were linked to the fact that the new curriculum promoted the development of
communicative skills in the students. In the previous iteration of the curriculum, the
study of grammatical form and vocabulary was the main focus, whereas the new
program was seen as more advanced because it was designed to develop the ability
to use the language:
“When working with the new curriculum, I found that obviously it has more advantages over
the old one in that it can help to develop students’ language skills” (Teacher H)
The textbook series developed as the vehicle for the new curriculum was a frequent
Target for appraisal. Positive Appreciation of the new textbooks included their
appealing appearance and their rich visual resources as in the following comment:
“Generally, the appearance of the books is eye-catching and motivating to the students
with a lot of visual images. It is not boring at all” (Teacher J)
This teacher appreciated the design of the new textbook series because it could
stimulate student interest and motivation. The diversity of learning tasks in the
textbooks was also positively evaluated because they were varied in terms of the
degree of difficulty and, therefore, allowed for flexibility with students at different
levels, as in the following comment:
“I think the level of difficulty of tasks in the textbooks is varied. The books can be used for
different levels of students. There are tasks for good students, and other easier ones for
weaker students” (Teacher D)
Whilst these comments illustrate the positive evaluations made by the teachers, the
analysis revealed a much larger number of negative comments about the new
curriculum, including the English language proficiency levels specified in the goals
and the teachers’ understanding of the contextual constraints.
7.1.2.2. Negative Attitude
Negative Attitude was by far the more common teacher evaluation. A total of 158
instances were recorded, or 80% of the total of expressed Attitude. Around 58% of
this total were Negative Appreciations, followed by 22% negative Judgements. The
quantity and the targets of these negative evaluations revealed the extent of the
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teacher concerns, including the challenges they faced in reform implementation in
their local contexts.
Partial achievement of the curriculum goal
All of the teachers shared the view that it was difficult for their students, especially
those at the mid-range of achievement in Normal schools, to attain the Proficiency
Level A2, the achievement target specified in the curriculum goals. This finding is
consistent with the survey data in which the majority of the respondents reported
that only partial achievement of this proficiency goal was feasible. The number of
students considered able to achieve this level varied for different teachers, as
evident in the following comments.
“They [students] can’t achieve A2 level of proficiency. No… I think about 40% to 45% of
students in top classes can achieve. In other classes, there may be about 30% to 35%, and
only 10% to 15% of students in the lowest ranked classes” (Teacher J)
“I think my students can’t reach A2 level. Even for selective classes, I’m not sure whether 20%
of the students can achieve A2 level” (Teacher G)
The interviews with school principals provided similar views about the capacity to
achieve the curriculum goals. Proficiency Level A2 was again seen to be overly
challenging for students in the mid-range of achievement in mainstream classes. As
one principal from a Normal school commented:
“I think it is impossible for students in this school to reach the required level which is too high.
The new program seems to be difficult and heavy for our students in particular and the
students in this rural district in general. All the three teachers in my school complained that
the lessons are too long and too challenging to our students” (Principal of School C)
In a similar vein, the principal of School A, a Normal school in the city, expressed
her doubts about the achievement of the proficiency level:
“There would be an estimated 20 to 30% of students who can reach the proficiency level
required by MOET. Now I think the program is difficult and heavily overloaded to both
teachers and students. It is overloaded but ineffective. Most of the students cannot speak
English. There is no point if students remain unable to communicate with foreigners in
English” (Principal of School A)
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In Selective schools, it was expected that the proficiency achievement rate would
be higher. However, one principal expressed her concern that not all the students
were at a similar level because the primary school English program was optional:
“I think for my students the new program is much better than the previous iteration. It is
beneficial and suitable for about 70% of students, while for the remaining 30% it is
overloaded… Some students did not study much English previously, as English is an
optional subject at the primary level. When starting learning with the new program at the
secondary level, those students find it hard to cope with. This is the issue that I am so much
concerned about” (Principal of School D)
Level of difficulty of the curriculum
A key concern among the teachers was the expected English language level in the
new curriculum for mainstream students. From the teacher perspective, the new
program was “difficult” in terms of the skills and knowledge required, and “heavy” in
terms of the workload allocated for classroom teaching and learning. Many teachers
were concerned that the curriculum was too challenging and demanding for average
students and more so for struggling students. By contrast, it was suitable and
beneficial for high achievers, especially those in top classes or in selective schools.
As such, it was evaluated with negative Appreciations, as illustrated in the following
comments.
“I think the new program is more difficult in terms of both linguistic knowledge, the number
of new words and level of difficulty. I think the new program is more suitable for good students
who will develop their language skills, especially speaking skills. However, the students who
are not very good will achieve nothing” (Teacher G)
“The specific objectives set out in the curriculum are only suitable for selective classes and
schools. For students in rural and mountainous areas, it is difficult to achieve because the
program is too heavy” (Teacher S4 from the survey)
Several negative Appreciations about the textbooks were also evident in the teacher
interviews, mostly regarding the ineffective design of some sections, and the
inclusion of topics unfamiliar to both teachers and students, which made it even
more challenging, exemplified by:
“Some topics or contents for learning in the books are not familiar to the students, even for
the teachers. If the teachers have almost no ideas about the topics, how can they explain to
the students? Sometimes I feel that some of the contents are “up in the clouds”, and have
almost no relation to the students’ everyday life” (Teacher D)
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Mixed ability students with different levels of motivation
Consistently, the teachers linked their students’ learning ability to the success of the
curriculum reform. It is interesting that the teachers routinely evaluated their
students on their performance as “the top” and “the other”, “the good” and “the not-
very-good”, “the strong” and “the weak”, or “the hardworking” and “the not
motivated”. If the students were good and worked hard, they would benefit greatly
from the new curriculum. On the contrary, the students who were not at a high level
would achieve little. An example of this kind of Judgement follows, made more
interesting by the positive Appreciation of the curriculum:
“But it [the new curriculum] is difficult for weak students. For top classes, I can achieve most
of the objectives of the lesson. But for other classes, I can only cover half of the target.
Generally, I think the curriculum is good, but only for good students from selective classes”
(Teacher K)
Other instances were found where a teacher expressed her discontent about her
students’ laziness and lack of motivation to learn, as in:
“I have to say that students are lazy. They are not keen to learn English. Students in rural
areas have little motivation for learning English” (Teacher G)
In this instance, the Judgement was of the students in general and was independent
of the curriculum. In another interview, the teacher expressed her concerns that her
students did not have a good foundation of English in the earlier years of their
schooling, making it more challenging to ensure success at the secondary level. The
same teacher also commented that the students remained silent during
communicative lessons, or learnt slowly. She also noted the challenge of English
instruction in economically disadvantaged areas where students were often
demotivated to learn foreign languages. These students normally achieved a very
limited language proficiency as a result of insufficient support and little incentive to
learn:
“Students do not gain much from their primary English studies, so it is difficult for them to go
on with English 6. Sometimes the class is too quiet for communication lessons. What can I
do if the students don’t talk” (Teacher F)
The parents were also one of the Targets for Judgement. In commenting on the role
of parents in the success of a student at school, one teacher explicitly named the
parents as significant contributors to the attitude and achievement of their children.
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One rural teacher stated her concern that when the parents did not pay attention
and give encouragement to their children, there was little motivation for learning,
resulting in poor school performance:
“Students in rural areas have little motivation for learning English. If the students have little
motivation and passion for learning, they don’t spend time studying… Their parents do not
really care much about their studies; they think that if their children do not perform well at
school, it is not necessary for them to invest resources on learning. These students do not
take any further tutorials besides formal classroom instruction” (Teacher G)
The Judgement is clearly negative of the students and their parents in the rural areas
of the province, which are generally perceived to be under-resourced and also
underachieving. These comments also raise the issue of additional tuition outside
of the formal school timetable. As noted in Chapter II, section 2.1.4, a ‘shadow
education’ industry is an important factor in the educational context in Vietnam.
Workload
A heavy workload was also a factor in the evaluation of the new curriculum where a
general comment was that teachers lacked the time to cover the required content.
The teachers complained through expressions of negative Appreciation that they
had to ‘race’ to finish lessons in the 45 minutes allocated for lessons. This finding is
in line with the textbook analysis, which suggested a heavy workload for lessons of
forty-five minutes.
“… the learning contents in the textbooks are too much with a lot of exercises and tasks.
Teachers had to quickly move on to new exercises and tasks, which made both teacher and
students demotivated and tired” (Teacher S3 from the survey)
“Most of the sections are long, so we have to race to meet the time. Sometimes I want to
skip some parts, but there are new words or new knowledge in those parts which may be
included in the tests. For example, if I skip one part, but other teachers don’t. Therefore I
always try to cover all sections in the mandated textbooks” (Teacher A)
Along with the heavy workload, an increase in curriculum hours for English was
considered an unwelcome imposition. All four principals shared the concern that
the current school program was already heavily overloaded for students.
“Honestly, I think if we increase the class time for English, we have to decrease the time for
other school subjects; otherwise students will be overloaded. For example, Year 6 and 7
students currently have 30 periods of learning per week. This means for most of the morning,
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students have to take 5 periods, which finishes at 11.35am. Combined with other activities
outside class time and lesson breaks, I think the students are already overloaded” (Principal
of School D)
The teaching staff were also overloaded, and in some instances overwhelmed. On
top of extra timetabled teaching duties, teachers had to participate in extra-
curriculum events, and respond to parents and bureaucrats. Unfortunately, schools
could not afford to hire additional staff, as stated by one urban principal.
“I find an unreasonable issue here. In the previous curriculum, there were two learning
periods per week for Year 9, while there are three period within the new curriculum. So the
teachers have to teach more classes. There are seven Year 9 classes in my school, which
means the teachers have to teach seven more lessons. The managers have not prepared
for this. I am not allowed to hire more teachers because the school does not have the money
to pay” (Principal of School B).
Class size
Large class sizes made it extremely challenging to implement and monitor effective
communicative activities as well as keep track of student progress and also provide
individualised feedback. This became even more challenging when a teacher was
responsible for teaching multiple classes per term.
“There are 41 or 43 students in one class. I think the class needs to be divided into 2 or 3
smaller classes in order to teach and learn effectively. How to run communicative tasks in a
class of 43 students?” (Teacher J)
The effect of written examinations
The spectre of high-stake examinations and their washback effect was evident in
the teacher interviews. While the curriculum goal was to develop communication
skills, the high-stakes examinations remained unchanged: written and grammar-
based. A shared concern among the teachers was that an intensive focus on
communicative ability would be at the expense of grammar practice, resulting in
lower achievement levels in written tests and examinations:
“One student may understand the lesson and use more English, but he or she may not
perform well in the tests where there are grammar items included. Students who are good
at communicative English may not be good at grammar” (Teacher K)
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“However, the entrance exam to Year 10, there are only reading, writing and grammar.
Therefore, students are not encouraged to develop their communicative skills and they still
study for the exam to Year 10” (Teacher S12 from the survey)
The importance of the written examinations has led to a marked increase in private
tutoring in addition to formal schooling. Private tutoring has been a persistent feature
of the Vietnamese education system where a strong desire for high achievement
has created a context in which many students and parents have felt obliged to
engage with private tuition. Many teachers confirmed that they also worked as
private tutors themselves in the shadow industry regardless of government
restrictions because of the strong demand from students and parents:
“It’s not allowed to teach extra lessons according to the regulations. I do teach but you know
I can’t really say it in public. It’s kind of confidential information shared by the teacher,
students and their parents. Administrative officers said extra teaching should be banned.
They said that it should be stopped, but their children all go to our extra classes”. (Teacher
J)
Teacher J further commented that the students who would achieve the target level
of proficiency were those who subscribed to more private tutorials:
“So I suggest that you should note further information here is that the students take more
lessons outside of school. They can achieve A2 level as a result of their family investment,
rather than from the school and me” (Teacher J)
The ‘shadow education’, the name given to the phenomenon of additional tutoring,
loomed large in relation to Project 2025. Out of school teaching and learning has
been an expanding industry over a number of years in Vietnam and is widely
accepted as a normalised cultural practice. The reform has made additional
demands on teachers as part of the formal education system, yet the private world
of tutoring still plays an important part in education and cannot be ignored.
Teacher confidence
Some expression of negative Judgement were about the teachers themselves and
were related to their English proficiency levels. Furthermore, it appeared that there
was a lack of, or ineffective teacher support, resulting in the fact that the teachers
were confused or did not know what they should do in relation to the new curriculum,
as indicated in the following comments:
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“Honestly, when I taught the new curriculum for the first time, I was not confident at all. There
was only me working on my own. I complained all the time. I always lacked class time to
cover the syllabus, and I had to teach during the break time. I was too tired, and there was
no one out there to ask” (Teacher I)
“To be honest, I’m not very confident [teaching the curriculum] because there are a lot of
things that I haven’t been very clear about, as the teaching methodology… If being asked
whether I am confident about teaching the new curriculum, I may say that no one can say
they are confident” (Teacher A)
The low level of confidence among teachers indicated that they were not well
supported to implement the new curriculum successfully. Teacher stress was also
mentioned, another factor which impacted on the capacity to enact the intended
changes.
School and classroom facilities
A lack of material facilities to support teaching and learning was another constraint
frequently mentioned by the teachers. In the following comment, the teacher
expresses discontent about the poorly equipped classrooms:
“I just say simply about Vietnam’s education system is that there is a lack of facilities, lack of
teaching aids, audio-visual equipment. We are not provided with teaching aids like disc
players, speakers, so we have to buy. We are not supplied with necessary facilities for
teaching and learning foreign languages, but are required to achieve this objective or that
objective. This sounds silly” (Teacher J)
This finding was reinforced by the school principals. Generally, urban classrooms
were better equipped as a result of voluntary financial contributions from the
parents, as expressed by the Principal of School A:
“The classroom facilities are largely upgraded and equipped by parents. The State doesn’t
have the money. I have to say honestly that some equipment provided by the public sector
is not usable and not good quality. I have to encourage parents to contribute and buy
classroom devices for their children. Some parents complain but I have no other choice”
(Principal of School A)
In rural schools, where the parents were poorer, there were even more limited
facilities to support classroom learning. A further comment was made by one of the
rural school principals:
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“The school facilities have not yet met the requirement for teaching and learning. To be
honest, I cannot ask the parents for contributions because many families are financially
struggling themselves. I only use the money from the State which is little. As you see, not all
classrooms have a screen projector” (Principal of School D)
The data analysis further indicated that the large class sizes, which were an obvious
impediment to establishing a communicative classroom, were the result of a lack of
financial investment in more school buildings:
“In some schools, I know there are classes of over 60 students. The regulation on class size
is no more than 45. But there is a lack of classrooms. This is the reality” (Principal of School
A)
Overall, the Appraisal analysis indicated some positive teacher attitude towards the
new curriculum. However, negative attitude was far more common. The negative
attitude was primarily focused on potential hindrances to the implementation of the
communicative-based curriculum at the classroom level. Chief among these barriers
was the overly ambitious proficiency goal, set against the general level of student
ability in mainstream classrooms. The required level of achievement, the heavy
workload, limited instructional hours, large class sizes and unsatisfactory classroom
resources all conspired to limit the potential for communicative classrooms.
Furthermore, unmotivated students, unconfident teachers, coupled with the strong
washback effect of the paper-and-pencil examinations, all contributed to the
challenges in implementing the prescribed communicative curriculum. The
constraints ranged from the macro-level of curriculum design to micro-level of the
classroom context, and cumulatively amounted to doubt among the teachers that
Project 2025 could actually be implemented successfully in the classroom.
The interviews with the school principals further reinforced the teacher evaluations
that the curriculum goals could only be partially achieved. Given the constraints
voiced by the principals, it is clear that they had limited power to resolve these
issues. Large class sizes, lack of school facilities and limited instructional hours
were beyond the control of these public schools which were directed by external
bureaucracies and relied on too scarce Government funding.
7.2. Teacher understanding of CLT
The attitude of the teachers to the curriculum reform was evidenced in the Targets
they chose to appraise and the positive or negative comments they made about
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these Targets. A general finding was that the teachers did see merit in the new
curriculum but that it was difficult to implement due to a number of organisational or
structural matters. They did not comment on the content of the curriculum and did
not focus strongly on CLT as the pedagogy prescribed to achieve the curriculum
targets. Rather they focussed on obstacles to teaching in a communicative manner,
such as class size and school resources which curtailed their capacity in using a
CLT approach.
In wanting to look in more detail at the prescribed pedagogy, the teachers were
questioned about CLT. The aim here was to gain an insight into teacher knowledge
and understanding of the communicative approach as well as the sources of teacher
knowledge, which necessarily encompassed issues in relation to the scope and
quality of in-service professional training and support as part of the curriculum
reform.
7.2.1. Teacher conceptualisation of CLT
Table 7.7 collates the survey responses to features related to the communicative
approach. In this multiple-choice question, teachers were asked to select one or
more items from a list of choices, with an aim to obtain a general picture of how they
conceptualised CLT. As the table reveals, the great majority of the teachers (84%)
agreed that the goal in the CLT classroom was to help students develop
communicative skills. A similar proportion (79%) believed that more interactivity
should be evident in the CLT classroom. None of the teachers felt that CLT should
result in a teacher-centred classroom. They also disagreed with the statement that
CLT placed an exclusive focus on grammar instruction. These were relatively simple
pairs of opposite statements which provided baseline data only. The question of
responsibility for what kind of materials would be available based on the needs of
students in particular classrooms was less clear. Approximately 38% of the teachers
suggested that within a CLT approach they would adapt the textbook materials to
their specific needs, but the majority of the respondents felt that the textbook should
provide the resources they required.
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Table 7.7. Teacher understanding of CLT
Responses
Features
(n) (%)
1 A learner-centred pedagogy 69 84%
2 A teacher-centred pedagogy 0 0%
Primarily focusing on developing student communicative competence
3 69 84%
in English
4 Primarily focusing on grammar 0 0%
Encouraging interactions in English between teachers and students,
6 65 79%
and amongst students
7 Using only English in the classroom, avoid using Vietnamese 9 11%
Teachers select and design activities and materials suitable to the
8 31 38%
needs, interests and level of the students
When the interviewees were asked to describe in more detail what CLT involved
and how they applied it in their own practice, they found it difficult to respond, as
evidenced in the minimal and fragmented descriptions of CLT recorded throughout
the interviews. None of the teachers offered any detailed account of CLT, nor was
able to describe their practices using CLT. One teacher claimed that she never
heard the term CLT before. It was also apparent that the teachers were not familiar
with technical terminology in the field of language teaching and learning. Little of the
metalanguage associated with CLT, such as ‘communicative competence’,
‘communicative activities’, ‘functions’, ‘authentic materials’, ‘genuine interaction’,
were mentioned. The teachers expressed a fragmented knowledge of CLT, which
resulted in confusion about how to work with the approach in their teaching practice.
Their conceptions of CLT remained very general and centred primarily on the view
that it was a learner-centred approach, it made a focus on speaking, and it paid less
attention to grammatical form than traditional teaching.
7.2.1.1. CLT is student-centred
Student-centredness was the common conception of CLT amongst the teachers,

although none described precisely what they meant by a student-centred approach,
as exemplified in the following definition:
“It [CLT] means student-centeredness. The teachers play the role of facilitators. The students
will need to discover new information by themselves” (Teacher I)
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Another teacher asserted that traditional deductive teaching should be avoided
within the communicative approach, and teachers should encourage the students
to learn and discover new knowledge. She stated:
“The instructors [in in-service teacher training] guided us on how to teach a lesson. What is
in my mind now is that I should encourage students to learn and avoid deductive teaching”
(Teacher K)
7.2.1.2. CLT focuses on speaking skills
The second common conception about CLT was that it involved a greater focus on
speaking. The teachers commented that there should be more interaction in the CLT
classroom. However, they found it hard to give any further account of how an
emphasis on spoken language could be achieved:
“Generally, more interaction will be needed in class. I understand, but it’s difficult to express
in words comprehensively” (Teacher K)
“It [CLT] means teachers and students have to interact more with each other” (Teacher E)
Others expressed a similar view about the need to give priority to speaking. For
example, one teacher described her classroom pedagogy as the integration of the
four macro-skills with greater weighting on speaking:
“I focus on all language skills, especially speaking. For example, even when the task is about
writing, actually speaking skills are still involved” (Teacher I)
7.2.1.3. CLT means less focus on grammar
In interview, the teachers commonly acknowledged a less significant role for

grammar in CLT classrooms in contrast to a more traditional approach. They also
shared a similar view about the general goal of teaching being to focus on
communicative skills in the target language. However, the focus on communicative
skills did not mean complete avoidance of a focus on form. When asked about the
role of grammar, all the teachers advocated the need for grammar as a prerequisite
for communication to take place. They were more articulate when talking about
teaching grammar, as it was the practice with which they were comfortable and
familiar:
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“In CLT, grammar teaching is not as important as in the traditional methodology. Grammar
now plays a supporting role in practising communicative skills. In the past, grammar played
a central role” (Teacher B)
“I still think it [grammar] is important because students need to understand the structures.
Therefore, grammar still needs to be reinforced... Of course, the final aim is to communicate,
but grammar still plays an important role. I think there should be a balance of both developing
skills, but understanding the structures” (Teacher K)
Some teachers expressed concerns about developing communicative skills at the

expense of knowledge about grammar, which they feared might negatively impact
on student achievement in the high-stakes written examinations:
“Although the aim of the curriculum is to target more interaction – speaking and listening –
grammar still plays an important role. Furthermore, the entrance examination to high school
and university does not include listening and speaking, but only grammar. Therefore, the
students still have to focus on learning grammar” (Teacher D)
Again, the wash-back effect of discrete-point testing and the intensification of private
tutoring with an exclusive focus on grammar was highlighted. In the following quote,
the teacher commented on the role of grammar in testing and emphasised the need
to prepare students for these pencil-and-paper events. The communicative
curriculum could not fully address the grammar required for success in
examinations:
“Grammar is significantly important for the tests. As for teaching grammar, we teach in extra
classes in the afternoon. Along with the regular class hour in the morning, each class has
one tutoring lesson of about 2 hours per week. It is not sufficient for grammar learning in the
morning classes” (Teacher I)
This comment points to the acceptance of private tutoring as a necessary element

within the system. The teacher acknowledges the role of both parts of the
organisation, formal schooling where CLT may take precedence and then private
tutoring where the focus can turn to the grammatical pressures inherent in the
examination. This informant pragmatically noted the intense pressure for
achievement in examinations. The pressure was not only for the students but also
for the teachers who could experience pressure from school managers and parents
alike, which was linked to examination success:
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“If students do not attend extra lessons, they may even fail the entrance exam to high school.
We are under pressure of making sure that the students can perform well in exams and gain
good marks” (Teacher I).
7.2.2. Sources of teacher understanding
The analysis revealed that the teachers had limited experience and understanding
of the principles and practices inherent in CLT, and that the primary source of this
understanding was the in-service training undertaken as part of the preparation for
the curriculum reform. One senior teacher commented that she did not have the
opportunity to engage with CLT in her undergraduate teacher training program or in
other pre-service courses:
“I heard about CLT from the training. I didn’t learn about it when I was at university a long
time ago. At that time, I only knew about deductive teaching, you know, the grammar-
translation” (Teacher A)
In-service training for teachers was mostly in the form of short courses, seminars
and workshops sponsored by MOET and the local DOET. A range of negative
comments were forthcoming about the quantity and quality of these in-service
opportunities, exemplified by the following complaint about the insufficient support
this teacher received before and during the implementation of the new curriculum:
“Honestly speaking, I think training and workshops are not very effective. For example, when
changing from the old curriculum to the new one, there was no training. Only a small number
of teachers who worked with the new curriculum in the first year were invited for training. But
the number is very small. For us, we have to find our way with little guidance and instruction.
I think the training content is general and not practical” (Teacher J)
The limited opportunities for professional development meant that not every teacher
had the chance to participate. Some reported that they learned about CLT by
observing other teachers. Others questioned the practicality of ‘quick-fix’ training
workshops.
“I only attend the workshops organised by DOET and the district office. I’m not allowed to
attend other workshops. The district office organises one workshop annually. DOET
organises more, about two. But to be honest, I have to say that these workshops are not
practical, not really close to the curriculum. All the teachers from different levels were
attending the same workshops. A one-day workshop does not solve anything. I think the
administrators organised workshops just for quantity and for making reports. Regarding the
benefits and effectiveness, I think there is none” (Teacher J)
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Sharing the same experience, another teacher commented on the ineffectiveness
of the training. She also expressed a lack of confidence about the pedagogy about
which she did not have sufficient understanding. She relied on her own experience
as a teacher and as a learner to teach the new curriculum, rather than from
theoretically informed practice:
“To be honest, I’m not very confident. Because there are a lot of things that I haven’t been
very clear about, as the teaching methodology. In the training, the instructor explained pretty
briefly and not into details. Mostly I use my own experience gained from everyday teaching”
(Teacher A)
Another teacher expressed her feelings of isolation and frustration when teaching
the new curriculum for the first time, confirming the lack of support in the process of
curriculum implementation.
“There was only me working on my own. I complained all the time. I always lacked class time
to cover the syllabus, and I had to teach during the break time. I was too tired, and there was
no one out there to ask” (Teacher I)
The insufficient professional training and the lack of teacher learning opportunities
resulted in uncertainties and confusion among these teachers with regard to how to
teach the communicative curriculum. As a consequence of this lack of
understanding of the principles underpinning CLT, teachers were more likely to
revert to or persist with their existing traditional, form-focused practices. This raises
an important issue regarding the process of change more generally as, in this case,
professional development or the lack of appropriate professional development
emerged as an important determinant of the approach to teaching and learning in
English language classrooms:
“As a teacher, I feel a little bit isolated. I do not have the chance to learn and improve. I would
really want one or two experts to come and guide me because I almost do it in my own way,
from my past experience or sometimes learnt by observing other colleagues. I do not really
know what the standards are to follow. It’s not really because I’m lazy, but mostly because I
don’t know how. I’m still lucky here at this school because I have knowledgeable colleagues.
I know that in other schools, there may not the same. Generally, I think the teachers love
their jobs and want to commit, but they don’t know what and how to do better” (Teacher K)
Further insights about how the teachers enacted the curriculum were gained as part
of thee analysis of classroom discourse presented in the following section, where
the data offer evidence of teachers’ actual pedagogic practices, as opposed to them
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reflecting on their pedagogic practices. Using an SFL informed analytical framework,
the focus was to look in some detail at how the teachers and students in participating
classrooms engaged and interacted within routine English language lessons.
7.3. Classroom discourse analysis
As discussed in Chapter IV Section 4.4.3, the analysis of classroom discourse was

adapted from SFL which offered a linguistically theorised perspective of the
language used by the teachers and students as they engaged in teaching and
learning English. The approach, labelled as pedagogic register (Martin & Rose,
2013) sits within a framework of classroom discourse analysis, in which discourse
is understood simply as the language used in the classroom. As such, an analysis
of the language used in the classroom offers a lens with which to examine and
interpret curriculum and pedagogic processes.
The content of the curriculum was mapped in the Tieng Anh and was sequenced by
the curriculum and textbook writers. In effect, the elements of language which
constituted the content of the lessons were mandated by MOET and were not to be
contested in any way. This content was mapped through specific topics and
packaged into distinct units. The content, or, in SFL terms, the experiential
meanings in the curriculum, was not a focus in the study. It was accepted by all as
the appropriate language content for the students in this age range to be learning.
Whilst the content of the pedagogic activities was not central to the research, the
type of pedagogic activity, what Richards (2006) described as the different types of
language practice, mechanical, meaningful and communicative, were of key
interest. The analysis of these variations in pedagogic activities brought to the
surface the nature of language practice tasks prevalent in the classroom. In this
way, the analysis offered insight into if and how such tasks provided the opportunity
for genuine classroom interactions in the target language. The analysis of
pedagogic relations, the Tenor of the roles and relationships between the teacher
and the students was at the heart of the discourse analysis. Accordingly, the
prevalent patterns of oral classroom interactions were identified, along with the
respective roles of teachers and students, use of the mother tongue, and
participation by the students, including interactions between and among students in
pair and group work. In considering the pedagogic modalities, an exclusive focus
was placed on how the textbooks worked to utilise the visual semiotic within
language based activities and tasks.
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Because the lessons unfolded with recurring features and patterns, a subset of six
lessons was selected from the 28 observed lessons, as listed in Table 7.8, including
one from an urban Selective school, one from a rural Selective school, and the
others from Normal schools in urban and rural areas. This data set made it practical
for comprehensive coverage and in-depth analysis of classroom discourse across
the different kinds of schools and class types. The classroom exchanges presented
in the study were taken from the transcriptions of the selected lessons with the aim
to illustrate key features of the classroom discourse.
Table 7.8. Details of selected lessons
Class/ Type School/ Type Size
Lesson 1 (8C) Normal School A 40 students

Normal school
Lesson 2 (6E) Selective School A 48 students
Lesson 3 (7C) Selective School B Selective school 47 students
Lesson 4 (8C) Normal School C 37 students

Normal school
Lesson 5 (7A) Selective School C 36 students
Lesson 6 (6B) Selective School D Selective school 40 students
7.3.1. Class size and arrangement
The average size of the observed classrooms was 42 students, as indicated in Table
7.9. Urban schools generally had larger classes than those in the rural areas. School
B had the largest class size among the four schools, with an average of 47 students
per class, above the MOET recommendation of 45 students.
Table 7.9. The average size in the observed classrooms
School School type Location Average size
School A Normal Urban district 42 students

School B Selective Urban district 47 students
School C Normal Rural district 37 students
School D Selective Rural district 40 students
Average 42 students
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A traditional style of classroom arrangement was evident in all of the classrooms,
as the diagram in Figure 7.1 shows. This typically consisted of six to eight
symmetrical rows of fixed seating, with students facing the teacher at the front of the
room. Four to five students sat on each of two benches, making up to ten students
in a row. An alternative arrangement had three benches, each with two or three
students. A blackboard and/ or a projector screen were placed at the front and a
teacher’s desk at the front and side of the classroom. This has been the traditional
classroom setting in Vietnamese schools and is easy to implement with large
classes. This physical arrangement directed focus onto the teacher and minimised
student-to-student interaction, thereby supporting a traditional learning environment
as part of a teacher-centred pedagogy. Students were located in a defined area,
which controlled the interactional flow so that attention was routinely directed to the
teacher at the front of the classroom.
Teacher
Teacher Desk
Desk
Two or three
Four/five Students Students
Figure 7.1. Typical classroom settings
Immediately, it is evident that this arrangement of classroom seating is not well

suited to communicative language teaching. Yet this was the default classroom
arrangement accommodating on average 42 students. In reality, these traditional
classroom arrangements clearly hamper a pedagogy such as CLT. Large numbers
of students seated in rows all oriented to the teacher at the front is a classroom
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arrangement that does not encourage communication between and/or amongst
students. Such an arrangement was originally established to support the traditional
one-way communication with the teacher at the centre of all interactivity.
7.3.2. Pedagogic activities
In applying Martin and Rose’s notion of pedagogic register to the analysis of

classroom discourse, the focus was on the nature of the classroom teaching and
learning activities as the means to consider how these activities provided the
students with opportunities to communicate both with the teacher and with each
other in the classroom.
7.3.2.1. Language practice types
Table 7.10 summarises the different types of language practice activities conducted
in each lesson, based on the categorisation suggested by Richards (2006). A
prominent feature across the lessons was the limited opportunity for genuine
interaction, evident in the predominance of accuracy-based activities such as drills
and controlled mechanical practices.
Table 7.10. Language practice types
Mechanical Meaningful Communicative

# Class type School type Total
Practice Practice Practice
Lesson 1 Normal 5 0 0 5
Normal urban
Lesson 2 Selective 3 2 2 7
Lesson 3 Selective Selective urban 3 2 1 6
Lesson 4 Normal 0 3 0 3
Normal rural
Lesson 6 Selective Selective rural 1 4 0 5
Total 13 15 3 31
As evident in Table 7.10, the classes in the Normal schools used the most limited
range of language practice types. In Lesson 1, only mechanical exercises involving
pronunciation drills and inventories of discrete-point language items were evident.
Lesson 4 contained only the meaningful practice type, with three reading
comprehension tasks centred on one text. Whilst the students had the opportunity
to work with a complete text, these reading activities aimed to develop receptive
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skills. There was no post-reading activity to offer students communicative
experience basing on the input from the reading. Neither of the Normal classes in
the data set engaged with communicative practice activities at all.
Lessons 5 and 6 had similar types and numbers of language practices, including
one mechanical and four meaningful language activities. Mechanical practice
included a fill-in-blank grammar exercise and a vocabulary exercise in which
students were asked to place individual adjectives into appropriate groups. The
meaningful practice activities involved text completion, substitution drills and
controlled pair-work practice based on a modelled exchange. No examples of
communicative practice tasks were found in these lessons.
Lessons 2 and 3 provided a balance of language practice with evidence of all three
types of practice, ranging from controlled to less controlled and free practice.
Evidence of communicative language practice was found in a language game (a
guessing game about appearances and personalities), and in an information-gap
task (an interaction about recipes and star signs), both aiming to simulate interaction
and information sharing and requiring a high degree of student participation.
The analysis of language practice in the classroom supports the findings in the
textbook analysis (presented in Chapter VI Section 6.2.4). The textbook analysis
revealed that meaningful language practice took up the largest proportion of space
and time in the textbook, and the classroom discourse analysis showed that
meaningful language practice was also the most common activity type at the
classroom level. However, in terms of communicative language practice, there was
a disparity between the textbook and the classroom discourse analysis. Only 10%
of the activities analysed in the lessons were communicative, whilst the textbook
analysis contained 23% of this type. In fact, communicative practice activities were
seen in only two of the six classrooms selected in the study. In other lessons, the
teachers and students could not finish all the activities in the textbooks, which
resulted in no communicative language practice activity evident in these
classrooms.
7.3.2.2. Classroom working arrangements
The language practice activities were organised individually or collaboratively in

pairs or groups. Table 7.11 reveals the prominence of individual-based activities as
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compared to those requiring collaboration. This finding corresponds strongly with
the textbook analysis.
Table 7.11. Number of individual and collaborative activities
Group
# Class type School type Individual Pair work Total
work
Lesson 1 Normal Normal, urban 4 1 0 5
Lesson 3 Selective Selective, urban 5 1 0 6
Lesson 4 Normal Normal, rural 2 1 0 3
Lesson 6 Selective Selective, rural 2 1 2 5
20 9 2 31
Across the six lessons, the amount of individual work was prevalent, accounting for
66% of the classroom arrangements. This is a clear indication that students spent
more time working on their own than interacting with their peers in pair or teamwork
tasks. For example, in Lesson 3, there were five activities that required students to
work individually, whereas there was only one involving collaborative work. Group
work was the least common arrangement, with only two group work tasks, or 6% of
the total, across the six lessons.
Pair work activities were evident in all of the lessons with three in Lesson 2 and two
in Lesson 5. However, a closer examination of these pair work activities revealed
that some produced questionable outcomes. The reason for this was attributed to
the superficial nature of the tasks, which provided no clear benefit or value in the
collaboration. For instance, in Lesson 1, the teacher assigned students to
collaborate in pairs and ‘discuss’ the word to fill in each blank in a mechanical
exercise. In reality, there was no benefit in working with a partner to complete this
exercise. The outcome was that students worked individually, mostly in silence, with
no actual pair work taking place. A similar outcome was seen in Lesson 5 where
students chose to work individually to answer reading comprehension questions
rather than collaboratively in pairs as required by the teachers. It could not be
concluded that pair work or group work activities were more conducive to authentic
communication simply because of the way the class was organised.
Another feature of the collaborative tasks was the amount of time devoted to task
accomplishment. Many were conducted in a very short time. An example is shown
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in Extract 1 from Lesson 3, in which students were asked to share information about
how to make an omelette; one minute was allocated to this task. Similarly, the time
allowed for a group work activity exemplified in Extract 2 from Lesson 6, was only
three minutes.
Spr. Exchange
T And now it’s time you share with your friends how you or your mother
make the omelette at home. Okay. Right
T So you can share with them about… the first one ingredients what you
need and the next one process. And to talk about process you can use
the words like…
…
T Okay, one minute for you to share in pairs
Work in pairs
Extract 1. Lesson 3
Spr. Exchange
T Now I would like you to work in group again … and describe a person
in our class … and the other guess…
T Understand?
SS Yes
T Now groups of four again please. You have three minutes
Extract 2. Lesson 6
In summary, the analysis of the pedagogic activities and the classroom

arrangements through which they were conducted indicated that there was a
preponderance of mechanical language practice, where students worked on their
own, and a paucity of communicative activities that stimulated meaningful
interaction between and among students. From the analysis of the textbook, it was
concluded that MOET adopted a weak version of CLT, which highlighted the need
to focus on both form and meaning in the context of classroom teaching and
learning. Such pre-communicative activities as grammatical explanations, error
correction, drills and other types of controlled practice were seen to have a valid
place in the classroom as they offered students necessary prerequisite knowledge
about language to facilitate communicative language skills. However, the evidence
here indicates that the opportunity for the students to engage in interactional
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activities was minimal, evident in the fact that four of the six lessons analysed
provided no communicative language practice tasks at all. The obvious conclusion
was that the prevalence of accuracy-based activities, coupled with an individual
mode of working, encouraged attention to form and accuracy rather than simulating
the sharing and negotiation of meaning on a genuinely communicative basis. A
closer look at the reality of classroom interactions is now presented with a view to
determining if and in what ways the learning activities resulted in communicative
language classrooms as intended by the curriculum.
7.3.3. Pedagogic relations
The pedagogic relations aspect of Martin and Rose’s classroom register equates
with the variable of Tenor in the SFL model, where Tenor comprises the roles and
relationships between and amongst the interactants in the specific context of
language use. Here the specific context was the classroom, and the focus on
pedagogic relations foregrounded the roles adopted by the teachers and by the
students in their interactions, as well as the relationships that were enacted between
the teachers and their students and also amongst the students. These pedagogic
relations were realised within the patterns of classroom exchanges between the
teacher and students and in the interactions between students, including how much
and in what ways they participated. The focus on classroom interaction also
foregrounded the language used in the exchanges, whether Vietnamese or English,
and included attention to code-switching, where the language at particular moments
changed from Vietnamese to English or vice versa.
7.3.3.1. Patterns of classroom exchanges
The data analysis revealed patterns of interactions in the classrooms consistent with
a large number of individual, mechanical language practice activities, as noted
above in Section 7.3.2. In some collaborative tasks, ‘pseudo-communicative’
exchanges among students were evident under the direct control or intervention of
the teacher. Extensive use of drills was prominent in all lessons, and genuine
communicative interactions were rare.
The most commonly occurring pattern of classroom interaction resembled the

traditional pattern of the “initiation – response – feedback” (IRF) structure first
reported in mother-tongue classes in the UK in the 1970s (Sinclair & Coulthard,
1975). This IRF pattern placed the teacher in control of the interaction as it was the
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teacher who decided “who should say what and when” (Nunan, 1987, p. 139). The
IRF pattern typically began with an initiating teacher request for information
(knowledge exchange) or demand for action (action exchange), followed by student
response(s) to the question or performance of the demanded action. The exchange
finished when the desired answer or action was forthcoming and was acknowledged
by the teacher. Exchanges such as the following from Lessons 2 and 3 were typical:
Spr. Exchange Function Role

T And the last one. Happy Initiation dK1
Nguyen Ngoc Anh please?
S2 Happy and unhappy Response K2
T Unhappy. Okay Feedback K1
You are very good
Extract 3. Lesson 2

T So now who can come here and write the Initiation A2
answers?
Trang please?
S4 [goes to the board and writes answers] Response A1
T Yeah thank you Feedback A2f
Extract 4. Lesson 3
Extract 3 is an instance of a knowledge exchange drawn from a vocabulary-revision

exercise, in which the task was to find the antonym of the given adjective. The
teacher took on the role of a primary knower (dK1), addressing a question to the
whole class whilst already knowing the answer. Student Nguyen Ngoc Anh (S2)
raised her hand and the teacher invited her to take on the role of the secondary
knower (K2). K2’s answer was correct, and the teacher confirmed the response by
repeating it with an affirmation, ‘Okay’. In this instance, the teacher’s feedback was
extended to include a positive Judgement of the student’s capacity, “You are very
good”. Based on the notation used by Berry (1981) and elaborated by Martin and
Rose (2013), this knowledge exchange follows the sequence of dK1 ^ K2 ^ K1,
equivalent to Sinclair and Coulthard’s classic three-move IRF sequence. Although
the students were able to display knowledge by answering the initiating question,
the teacher had the power to allocate turns, to evaluate the response and to close
the exchange. Extract 4 exemplifies a typical action exchange with a similar IRF
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sequence (A2 ^ A1 ^ A2). It opened with an A2 question from the teacher, asking
for a participant, immediately followed by a command to one student to complete
the task. The student went to the board and wrote an answer. The exchange ended
with a teacher follow-up move “Yeah, thank you”. It was noteworthy that this action
exchange required no spoken student language for successful completion.
The purpose of this IRF pattern was to seek a specific answer rather than to
negotiate meaning via communication and reflected a pedagogic approach in which
the function of classroom interactions between the teacher and the students was
one in which the teacher checked for information/knowledge acquisition by the
students. This traditional strategy typically produced modest language output by the
student, regularly one word or short answers. There was no spoken language
produced by the student in successfully completing the task in Extract 4, a fact
clearly at odds with the interactive, communicative principles of CLT. Another
example is described in Extract 5 where the teacher sought answers from her
students as part of a discrete-point lexical exercise. The IRF pattern was repeated
three times and could have been extended indefinitely depending on the number of
questions in the exercise:
Spr. Exchanges Function Role

T Now number 1 Initiation dK1
SS = Ceremony Response K2
T Ah very good. Ceremony Feedback K1
…
T Number 3. Gì nhỉ? [What?] Initiation dK1
SS Temple Response K2
T Ah temple. Cham temple. Feedback K1
T Now number 4. Quỳnh? Initiation dK1
S15 Waterwheel Response K2
T Waterwheel Feedback K1
Extract 5. Lesson 1
On some occasions, the IRF exchanges consisted of two moves only, in which the
teacher closed the exchange after receiving the answer she expected to hear
without providing feedback or evaluation and moved to another exchange of a
similar pattern. In other cases, the IRF pattern was expanded with follow-up moves,
to track meanings made within the preceding move by checking, clarifying, or
confirming. These exchanges usually occurred when the teachers wanted to track
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a response proposed by a particular student with the whole class (Extract 6), or to
ask for the correct answer to be proposed and then affirmed (Extract 7). In these
instances, even when the exchanges stretched beyond the three-move IRF
sequence, the initiating question constrained the type of information being
exchanged, leaving little space for students to develop ideas or engage in extended
communication.

T So… look at these pictures. Initiation A2
T Can you guess what food or what dish we Initiation dK1
are going to (…) today? What dish? Linh
Trang?
S2 Omelette. Response K2
T Omelette? Do you think so? Tracking tr
Ss Yes Response rtr
T Good job Feedback K1
Extract 6. Lesson 3

T Who is he or who is she? Initiation dK1
Lam?
S15 Is she Gam? Response K2
T Is she Gam? Right or wrong? No. Feedback K1
T Quynh Anh? Initiation dK1
S3 Is she Nhat Anh? Response K2
T Yes Feedback K1
You have done so well
Extract 7. Lesson 6
Sometimes, the exchange was stretched out over multiple moves. This typically
happened when there were no responses to the teacher questions. The students
remained silent, so that the teacher repeated the questions or provided clues, or
switched to Vietnamese as a way of clarifying the task. An example is shown in
Extract 8 in which the teacher was trying to elicit responses from the students.

T Now in… unit four we learn about the topic our Initiation K1
customs and tradition. [Switch to Vietnamese] O
bai so 4 chung ta hoc ve cac phong tuc va truyen
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thong. Truoc khi vao phan chung ta tra loi cho co
mot so cau hoi nhu sau.
T Now look at the activity 1. Look at pictures and Initiation A2
answer my question
T How many pictures are there? Initiation dK1
Ss [no answer]
T How many pictures are there? Initiation dK1
Ss [no answer]
T There are…? There are…? Initiation dK1
Ss [=] Three Response K2
T [=] Three pictures Feedback K1
Extract 8. Lesson 4
It is salient that the student body’s only contribution to this exchange was to answer
“Three”. The teacher has perhaps predetermined that the question may have been
challenging and so switched to Vietnamese for clarity. She went through several
initiation moves without any response before offering a sentence beginning which
required the single word, ‘Three’, for completion. This was a regular pattern in non-
selective classes.
Extract 9 shows a longer exchange in which the teacher provided the answer and
closed the exchange because there was no response from the class. Although the
exchange stretched over many moves, little information was exchanged. These
instances further demonstrated that the purpose of these exchanges was about the
learners responding to what the teachers expected, rather than negotiating any
information exchange as part of genuine communication.

T Nào, một bạn khác nào. Huyền nàp Initiation A2
S4 [standing up] Response A1
T Answer my question Initiation dK1
Have… Has Duong … Has Duong been well
known about … ethnic group? Yes or No?
S4 [no answer]
T Has Duong known about ethnic group? Initiation dK1
S4 [no answer]
T Bạn Dương có biết rõ về dân tộc thiểu số này Initiation dK1
không nhỉ?
S4 No Response K2
T Ah no Feedback K1
Why? Tại sao bạn biết được điều đó? Tracking tr
175
S4 [no answer]
T He hasn’t …? known…? about ethnic groups well. Initiation dK1
So? … You, ah he … and Nick… have to…?
S4 [no answer]
T Have to…? Go to...? Initiation dK1
S4 [no answer]
T Vietnam Museum of Ethnology. Initiation K1
T They want to… know… Initiation dK1
Họ muốn tìm hiểu học tập…
About…?
S4 [no answer]
T About the culture of … Ethnic groups. Initiation K1
T Okay Feedback A2
Sit down, please Initiation
S4 [sit down] Response A1
Extract 9. Lesson 1
In Extract 9, the teacher took nine turns at talk, mostly inviting and/or challenging
one student (S4) to respond. Within the entire exchange, the student stood up and
sat down on command, and in-between his/her sole contribution was to offer No to
a question asked in Vietnamese. The extract also reveals that the teacher herself
was an unconfident English user as some of her questions were grammatically
incorrect and difficult to understand.
Drills featured prominently in all lessons and was another prevailing pattern in the
classroom discourse. Extract 10 exemplifies a repetition drill in which the students
repeated the words and phrases in unison. This monotonous chanting of
decontextualised lexis was common in all six lessons.

T Now class listen and repeat Initiation A2
Choir
SS [Drill] Choir Response A1
T Choir Initiation A2
SS [Drill] Choir Response A1
T Firework Competition Initiation A2
SS [Drill] Firework Competition Response A1
T Greyhound racing Initiation A2
SS [Drill] Greyhound racing Response A1
Extract 10. Lesson 2
176
Extract 11 displays another repetition drill, this time of the whole sentence in a
lesson on comparative sentences. The teacher, having just asked students to
compare two musical genres, launched into a repetition drill. The drill was
undertaken by the whole class, then individually.

T Now class repeat Initiation A2
Opera is not as exciting as pop music
SS [drill] Opera is not …as exciting … as Response A1
T Opera is not as exciting Initiation A2
SS [drill] Opera is not as exciting Response A1
T As pop music Initiation A2
SS [drill] As pop music Response A1
T Again. The whole sentence Initiation A2
SS [drill] Opera is not as exciting as pop music Response A1
T [writes the sentence on the board]
T Now you again Initiation A2
S12 Opera is not as exciting as pop music Response A1
Other drill types included substitution drills, as exemplified in the following

exchange, Extract 12 from Lesson 5. The teacher, after explaining the structure of
the sentence, asked the students to make new sentences by replacing one or more
words in the original example. The activity was more meaningful than the previous
chanting, although still controlled by the teacher. There was no follow-up practice to
offer students additional communicative experience with this grammatical structure.

T Now can you make sentence with this form? Initiation dK1
Can you make sentence with this form?
Make sentences with ‘as adjective as’ and ‘not as
adjective as’
Ngoc please
S8 Cooking is as interesting as singing Response K2
T Yes cooking is as interesting as singing Feedback K1
T Another answer, Ngoc Anh? Initiation dK1
S17 Playing football is… as interesting as… playing… Response K2
T Playing football is as interesting as playing…? Tracking tr
S17 Volleyball Response rtr
177
In a lesson on the topic of star signs, the teacher created a sample exchange by
‘interviewing’ a student, included here as Extract 13 from Lesson 2. At first, the
interaction seemed genuine, as the teacher asked for information from the student
that she might not have known in advance. This sort of question was different from
the ‘display’ questions previously initiated in her dK1 moves.

T Now. Okay. Nguyen stand up Initiation A2
S9 [standing up] Response A1
T When is your birthday? Initiation K1
S9 My birthday is on 6 December Response K2
T Okay. 6 December. What is your star sign? Initiation K1
S9 My star sign is Sagittarius Response K2
T What does your star sign tell about your Initiation K1
personality?
S9 [reads from the textbook] My personality is Response K2
independent, freedom loving
T I am….? Initiation K1
S9 [reads from the textbook] Independent, freedom Response K2
loving and confident
T Now do you agree? Tracking tr
S9 Yes, I do Response rtr
T Is Binh Nguyen independent, freedom loving and Tracking tr
confident? The whole class?
SS Yes Response rtr
The information about the student’s birthday was new and unpredictable, but the
remainder of the text was provided in the textbook where the student ‘read’ the
answer rather than providing genuinely new information. As such it was not genuine
communication, rather a pseudo-communicative exchange.
7.3.3.2. The role of teachers and students
From all of the classroom exchanges cited it was clear that the lessons were
teacher-driven and teacher-centred. Table 7.12 reveals that every one of the
exchanges across the six lessons was initiated by the teacher. There was neither
spontaneous talk on the part of the students nor student-generated topic
nomination. There were no exchanges in which the students disagreed with the
teacher, or demanded information, or asked for further clarification, or challenged
178
the teacher – in fact, there was no genuine negotiation of meaning, which is at the
heart of CLT and the rationale for its choice as the pedagogic approach to achieve
the national goal. There was no indication that lessons such as these, which were
typical in the data set, would or could provide a pathway to communicative
competence. The evidence suggested that all the lessons were teacher dominated
and controlled, and reflected the role of the teacher at the centre of the classroom
discourse.
Table 7.12. Exchange initiations
Teacher-Initiated Student-Initiated
# Class type School type
Exchanges Exchanges
Lesson 1 Normal Normal, urban 77 0
Lesson 2 Selective 83 0
Lesson 3 Selective Selective, urban 84 0
Lesson 4 Normal Normal, rural 71 0
Lesson 5 Selective 90 0
Lesson 6 Selective Selective, rural 80 0
This dominance of the teacher was also reflected in the overall amount of time the
teacher and the students spoke, as shown in Table 7.13.
Table 7.13. Classroom talk (measured by % of the number of words spoken by teachers and students)
# Class type School type Teacher talk Student talk

Lesson 1 Normal Normal, urban 89% 11%
Lesson 2 Selective 67% 33%
Lesson 3 Selective Selective, urban 89% 11%
Lesson 4 Normal Normal, rural 95% 5%
Lesson 6 Selective Selective, rural 85% 15%
In Normal classes, the percentage of teacher talk was timed to be 89% in Lesson 1
and 95% in Lesson 4. This overwhelming amount of teacher talking time operated
at the expense of student talk, calculated at 11% in Lesson 1 and only 5% in Lesson
4. Students in Selective classes spoke a little more than their peers in Normal
classes. In Lesson 2, student talk was measured at 33%, still only equating to half
of the teacher talk time at 67%. The overwhelming amount of teacher talk pointed
to the traditional role of the teacher as a transmitter of information and knowledge,
179
rather than a facilitator who encouraged and supported student interactivity and
communication.
The roles of the teacher and the learners and their relationships were clearly evident
in the type of classroom interaction which, as discussed in Chapter IV Section
4.4.3.2, was a focus for Bernstein (1990). He distinguished between instructional
discourse which related to interactions about subject content, and regulative
discourse, which was more about the organisation or management of students so
that the instructional discourse could proceed in an appropriate way. The regulative
discourse was concerned with what he called the ‘moral regulation’ of the students,
their behaviour and their disposition to learning.
The findings from the classrooms in the study point to an overwhelming amount of
instructional discourse, with regulative discourse evident in only two of the six
lessons. Table 7.14 below provides a summary of the instructional and regulative
exchanges in each lesson. Instructional exchanges dominated and indicated that
the teacher and students understood and accepted their primary roles in the
classroom. The focus was on content knowledge, and the teacher had little need for
regulative discourse to manage the class or to maintain their focus on the content
at hand. The teacher and all of the students worked within a focus on instructional
discourse.
Table 7.14. Instructional and Regulative Exchanges
Instructional Regulative
# Class type School type Total
Exchanges Exchanges
Lesson 1 Normal Normal, urban 71 6 77
Lesson 2 Selective 83 0 83
Lesson 3 Selective Selective, urban 84 0 84
Lesson 4 Normal Normal, rural 61 10 71
Lesson 5 Selective 90 0 90
Lesson 6 Selective Selective, rural 80 0 80
As Table 7.14 shows, regulative exchanges were only found in Normal classes, with
6 and 10 exchanges in Lesson 1 and 4, respectively. This is a distinguishing feature
between Normal and Selective classes where the classroom exchanges in Lessons
2, 3, 5 and 6 were entirely instructional.
180
The regulative exchanges in Lessons 1 and 4 were principally aimed at directing
acceptably ‘good’ manners among the students, tied to the teacher expectation that
students should present no overt misbehaviour or lack of involvement. Extract 14
offers an example:
Spr. Exchange
T Now are you ready?
Ss Yes
T Yes
T Now we are going to continue unit four
T [shout] KEEP SILENT!
Ss [silent]
In this exchange, the teacher exercised her authority by commanding the students
to stop talking. The classroom immediately quietened. As the lesson unfolded, more
regulative exchanges were found where the teacher’s negative evaluation of class
behaviour was the basis of the punishment. As in Extract 15, the teacher addressed
a student who seemed to be sleeping during the lesson.
Spr. Exchange
T Thế bạn Thắng làm đến câu nào rồi ấy nhỉ?
[How many questions have Thang finished?]
S [No answer]
T Thế mà cô giáo làm cho mà vẫn gục mặt xuống là
thế nào?
[So why are you lying down on the desk?]
Extract 16 from Lesson 4 presents a long regulative exchange in which the teacher
was displeased with a student who had not participated in the lesson. The teacher
warned him about imposing a suspension from school if he persisted in this
behaviour. At the end of the exchange, the teacher was frustrated when the student
addressed her without an appropriate vocative, which was highly unusual and
considered to be disrespectful in Vietnamese culture. The exchange was mainly in
the mother tongue.
181
Spr. Exchange
T Bạn nam nào? Lấy ví dụ với indoor activity
[You please. Take an example about types of indoor activity]
S [no answer]
T Đấy có hôm nào cô đặt câu hỏi mà bạn ấy trả lời được đâu. Mà bạn ấy
chẳng bao giờ chú ý. Mà bạn ấy còn ngồi nói chuyện nữa. Mà bạn ấy đã
được nghỉ ngơi mấy ngày rồi. Hôm nay là ngày đầu tiên bạn ấy quay lại
trường đúng không nhỉ? Sau mấy ngày nhỉ?
[There is no time that you can answer my question. You never pay
attention. And talk during the lesson as well. You have been ‘rested’
(suspended) several days from school already. Is it the first day you come
back to school? How many days have you been suspended?]
SS Hai
[Two]
T Ah two days at home
(Turn to the class) Thế chúng ta có được vinh dự ở nhà như bạn ấy
không?
[Do you have that honour to stay at home like that?]
SS No
T Thế mà bây giờ bạn ấy chưa có sự chuyển biến gì cả. Bạn ấy vẫn ngồi nói
chuyện nữa. Hay là bạn ấy vẫn muốn ở nhà nghỉ ngơi an dưỡng thêm một
tuần nữa. Thế Nam có muốn như thế không hả Nam?
[Even so you show no progress. You still talk in class. Or do you want to
stay at home for several more days? Nam do you want so?]
S Không
[No]
T Ai không hả Nam?
[Who has just said ‘no’, Nam?]
S Không
[No]
T Ai không?
[Who?]
S Em không
[Me]
T Em trả lời với ai vậy? hả? Em trả lời với ai? Em trả lời với bạn em hay là
với cô? Em trả lời như thế à? Lát nữa ra chơi cô sẽ gọi lại cho mẹ em nhé.
[You answered with no addressing vocative. Who do you talk to? Do you
answer your friend or me? I will talk to your mother]
It is interesting that the exchange was conducted entirely in Vietnamese. It is

probable that the first language was chosen when regulative discourse involving a
negative evaluation was made by the teacher, especially a negative Judgement
182
about behaviour. It is important to note that in the few examples of regulative
discourse, student participation was minimal. This could be interpreted as a
universal phenomenon in which the exchange was dominated by the powerful
participant, the teacher, while the less powerful participant, the student, listened or
perhaps did not listen but remained silent. In some contexts, it may be that the
student would challenge the authority of the teacher. It is possible that the teacher
interpreted the lack of vocative in his response as a challenge to her in the context
of a student to teacher interaction. The cultural norm would be for the student to
address the teacher using the appropriate vocative to indicate the given relationship
between student and teacher. To show deviance from the culturally accepted
behaviour was noted by the teacher and she publicly rebuked the student.
All of the exchanges presented here reveal a clear demonstration of teacher

authority in regulating unwanted classroom behaviour. In all cases, the students
complied with the teachers’ directions, and no challenging behaviour was evident.
However, silence and tension were apparent in some instances, creating a
classroom atmosphere where students appeared to be tentative about speaking
publicly. In some, the students participated with a single word response.
Linguistically, it is obvious that the exchange is counterproductive to a
communicative classroom. The conclusion drawn from these exchanges was that
there were set ways in which the teachers and students interacted and all of the
participants understood and accepted these ways of interaction. The fact that one
student did not use the appropriate vocative to indicate deference to the teacher
and that the student was negatively judged by the teacher was highly unusual. The
classroom discourse unfolded in prescribed ways with teachers and students taking
up roles and relationships which enabled teaching and learning to take place along
clearly defined lines.
The predominance of the IRF exchange pattern and teacher-initiated exchanges,

along with absolute teacher authority and the overwhelming dominance of teacher
talking time provided clear evidence of the high power distance – the asymmetric
power relationships between teachers and students in the classrooms. The teachers
occupied a position of power, the traditional teacher and student roles still prevailed,
with the teacher as the dominant participant in classroom discourse and the
students as respondents and receivers of knowledge which was transmitted mainly
via an IRF pattern.
183
7.3.3.3. Classroom participation
The analysis of classroom participation identified students who were actively

engaged in classroom interactions and offered insight into levels of inclusion and
exclusion in the discourse. Student engagement within the learning environment
also revealed their relationship with the content or topic being studied.
Table 7.15 shows the rate of participation across the six lessons, determined by the
number of students who participated in classroom exchanges in relation to the total
number of students in the class. This revealed quite different levels of engagement
across the lessons, particularly between Selective and Normal classes.
Table 7.15. Classroom participation, measured by the number of students participating in classroom
exchanges
No. of student % of
# Class type School type Class size
participants participation
Lesson 1 Normal Normal, urban 21 40 53%
Lesson 2 Selective 27 48 56%
Lesson 3 Selective Selective, urban 28 47 60%
Lesson 4 Normal Normal, rural 8 37 22%
Lesson 6 Selective Selective, rural 20 40 50%
A higher level of participation was evident in the Selective classes (Lessons 2, 3, 5

and 6). Lesson 5 had the highest degree of student inclusion in classroom
interaction, with 89% of the students engaged in classroom exchanges. Lesson 4
had the lowest level of involvement, with only 8 in a total of 37 students or 22%
engaged in classroom exchanges. These two classes present a stark difference in
how the students engaged and were engaged in classroom discourse. The non-
participating students were not heard in the classroom. They did not volunteer to
answer questions, nor asked for help nor spoke up in small-group activities. The
stark reality was that they did not use spoken English at all in their English language
classes.
184
Extract 17 from Lesson 1 exemplifies a low level of engagement. There were no
responses to the teacher’s question, with the result that the teacher targeted one
particular student:
Spr. Exchange
T Look at the picture
Which ethnic group is it?
SS [no response]
T Which ethnic group is it?
SS [no response]
T Look at the picture. You please?
S1 It’s Thai.
T Ah it’s Thai.
How many kinds of Thai? Do you know?
SS [no response]
T Where do they live? You, please?
S2 […]
T So many groups. They live in many provinces. Okay.
There are three kinds of Thai people. Can you name?
SS [no response]
T Do you know? Chung ta biet la co may kieu nguoi Thai nhi? [How
many types of Thai people?]
SS [no response]
T You don’t know?
…
The aim of increasing participation is not to have every student participate in the
same way or at the same rate. Rather, it is to create an environment in which all
students have the opportunity to interact and communicate, and in which the class
explores issues and ideas from a variety of viewpoints. The premise is that
participation in English in an English language lesson is essential for spoken English
language development. The data analysis revealed that some students consistently
responded to questions and participated more than others. Those were typically
successful students. The teachers tried to engage less verbal students in
conversations by targeting them to speak. However, in the context of large class
sizes, it was not possible that all students could receive individual attention. This
resulted in minimal individual follow-up or support, especially for average and below-
average achieving students who were typically reluctant participants in the
185
7.3.3.4. Student-to-student interactions
Classroom participation was also a factor in collaborative activities such as pair work
and group work, as indicated by student interactions with each other. Interactions in
English between and among students in pair and/or group work were minimal. The
students routinely completed tasks in silence, and without monitoring, they switched
to their mother tongue. Instead of talking to each other, some wrote in their
notebooks, so they could ‘read’ their notes if addressed by the teacher. Large class
sizes made it challenging to ensure students actually participated in the target
language instead of having personal ‘off task’ mother-tongue conversations.
Insufficient class time devoted to collaborative student tasks was seen as a powerful
constraint, as for example when students were asked to work in pairs and talk about
a recipe for one minute (Lesson 3), or in groups for a guessing game for three
minutes (Lesson 6). This resulted in limited language production by the students,
both in length and complexity. Most of the students were unable to independently
produce language after a few minutes work on a collaborative activity. Extract 18
from Lesson 2 exemplifies a pair performance in which the students ‘read’ the
dialogue, rather than engaging in the prescribed conversation.
Spr. Exchange
T I want two of you Ngan and Khanh. Stand up
Now the class, listen to them
S3 S19 [standing up]
T Hoi di nao
[let’s ask]
S3 What is Adia birthday?
T When is Adia birthday?
S19 [read the textbook] It is on 15 May.
T It’s on 15 May. Okay
Now?
S3 What is her star sign?
S19 It is Taurus
T Okay. Now? Gi nhi?
What does her star sign tell about her personality?
Louder
S19 [read from textbook] patient reliable hard-working
T Okay. Sit down
186
The pseudo-communicative nature of the exchange was evident. Both Students, S3

and S19, with textbooks in their hands, ‘read’ the script, instead of producing more
natural responses. The students were not ready to independently participate in an
interaction without relying on the textbook and the teacher intervention to keep the
conversation going. In effect, in this dialogue, the teacher had six turns while the
two students had five turns in total.
Another pair work performance is presented in Extract 19 from Lesson 2 in which

S25 and S26 were asked to talk about their own star signs based on a modelled
example. It was a communicative practice activity as previously unknown
information would be exchanged. The teacher was no longer the only primary
knower (K1) as Student S26 would provide new information about him/herself.
Spr. Exchange
T Now I want another pair
Okay Phuong Mai and Nguyen Hung
Stand up
S25 S26 [standing up, each holding a textbook]
S25 When is your birthday?
S26 It is on 30 November
S25 [Reading from textbook] What is your star sign?
S26 [Reading from textbook] My star sign is [inaudible]
S25 [Reading from textbook] What does your star sign tell about
your personality?
S26 I am friendly and independent
S25 [Reading from textbook] Do you agree with this des…
T Description
S25 Description
S26 Yes, I do
T Okay
The exchange was also teacher-led, initiated by a command to the two students to
create a conversation. Although less teacher intervention was evident in the
exchange, the conversation was constrained by the modelled example and the
students ‘reading’ the questions and answers to the questions. Whilst the interaction
appeared to be authentic, it was actually more akin to a contextualised drill than a
free communicative dialogue as specified within the textbook.
187
The longest, and perhaps most successful language production was recorded in
Lesson 3, presented as Extract 20, when a student made a presentation about how
to make an omelette. Although the student still needed some help from the teacher,
he spoke without relying on the textbook. It is noted that this was the only instance
in which a student used language independently.
Spr. Exchange
T Okay, one person only
T Who can? Tuan Kiet? Can you? Be quick please
S22 [come to the board]
T Now big clap, the whole class
SS [clapping]
S22 Hello every one. Today I’m going to talk about…
T Louder
S22 I’m going to talk about … how to make.. omelette… the ingredients
are… eggs sauce and oil. First you will beat the egg (…) in a pan…
after that you …
T Put some sauce
S22 Put some sauce and finally you serve with some vegetables
T Okay, thank you
SS [clapping]
The common feature of all the exchanges was that they were neither spontaneous
nor voluntary. They were typically teacher-led interactions rather than authentic
exchanges where students negotiated meanings with the teacher or with each other.
The students were asked to perform a conversation or speak about a given topic,
which was always followed by a teacher’s A2 command. The teacher played the
role of controller whose interventions were evident when the students did ‘talk’.
Although a few instances of independent language production were observed, it was
clear that these students were amongst the high achievers in a class, raising the
concern that the interactions were dominated by the high achieving students.
7.3.3.5. The use of Vietnamese
Switching to Vietnamese as the mother tongue was evident in all lessons, but its
use varied significantly as evident in Table 7.16.
188
Table 7.16. The use of English and Vietnamese
The use of The use of

# Class type School type
English Vietnamese
Lesson 1 Normal 42% 58%
Normal, urban
Lesson 3 Selective Selective, urban 90% 10%
Lesson 4 Normal 64% 36%
Normal, rural
Lesson 6 Selective Selective, rural 95% 5%
The use of English was most evident in the two Selective schools, and then in the
Selective classes in the Normal schools where it was clearly used more than
Vietnamese. Lessons 3 and 6 were conducted almost entirely in English with only a
small amount of Vietnamese use, accounting for 10% and 5% respectively. In
contrast, the mixed ability class in the Normal school witnessed more use of
Vietnamese than English.
The use of mother tongue fulfilled a number of purposes. Besides intervening at

signs of misbehaviour or lack of involvement as part of regulative discourse, a
common purpose for code-switching was to present the Vietnamese equivalent of a
vocabulary item. In doing so, the teacher felt she was supporting student learning
by providing additional help. Extract 21 from Lesson 2 shows an exchange in which
the teacher tracked the Vietnamese meaning of two new lexical items.
Spr. Exchange
T Come on
How about this picture? What is it?
Ss Temple
T What does temple mean?
Ss Đền [temple]
T Đền [temple]
Good
T And this one?
Ss Volunteer
T Okay, volunteer
189
What does that mean?
Ss Tình nguyện viên [volunteer]
T Hoac la lam tinh nguyen. [or a volunteer]
Okay
Other functions of switching to the mother tongue were to check student

understanding, to clarify instructions, or to summarise what was taught. In Extract
22 from Lesson 4 below, the teacher was revising the use of the present continuous
tense. When there was no response to her initial question, she switched to
Vietnamese to clarify her question, making it less challenging for the students.
Switching to the mother tongue can be seen as a strategy to help students
understand the question, save time and keep the lesson going. This kind of
scaffolding was commonly provided when the students struggled to complete a task.
Spr. Exchange
T So tell me when do we use present continuous?
Ss [no answer]
T When do we use present continuous?
Khi nào chúng ta sử dụng thì này nhỉ? Cho hành động ra làm
sao?
Ss [=] đang xảy ra
T [=] đang xảy ra ở hiện tại
Yes
T For… actions… actions đang xảy ra ở hiện tại. In this dialogue
we have another use for the action in the …future but that…. is
our plan …er plan in the future…. In the future.
In Normal classes, the teachers regularly translated into Vietnamese after speaking
in English, assuming that the students would understand better if she provided the
Vietnamese translation as in Extract 23 from Lesson 1. In some cases, the teacher
asked the students to translate the task requirement into Vietnamese.
Spr. Exchange
T After reading you have to answer this question. Sau khi đọc chúng ta
sẽ …trả lời câu này. Nhưng trước khi đọc cô muốn các em đoán
trước
T Now who can guess… her writing about her family or her society?
Now guess… Chúng ta có thể đoán nào
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She… is writing about her…?
Ss [=] family
T Family yes. About her family
T And after… reading you can check. Sau khi đọc chúng ta sẽ đoán
nhé
It was very common for the students to use Vietnamese to address the teacher.
Traditionally, as noted earlier, Vietnamese students are expected to address their
teachers in a particular way and do not speak without using the appropriate vocative,
such as “Em thua co” (Miss) to begin. To address the teacher otherwise would be
considered rude and disrespectful as was noted in Extract 16 above. Whilst it is
more flexible in English language classrooms compared to other classrooms, out of
habit Vietnamese vocatives were still used to respond to the teacher. This was
evident in many exchanges, as exemplified in Extract 24 from Lesson 3.
Spr. Exchange
T Now, number 1. Number 1
Phuong?
S Em thua co number 1 match with [read from the textbook]
“Offering coupons for free chicken noodle soup for the poor in
Hanoi
T Now sit down
The last, ban Thuy?
S Em thua co la number 5 match with d
T Okay sit down
The analyses of pedagogic relations in these typical English language lessons

provided clear insights into the ways in which the new curriculum was enacted at
the classroom level. The foregrounding of how the teaching and learning took place
within the lessons pointed to the roles and relationships expected and adopted by
the teachers and the students. In this way, these analyses offered a view of the
pedagogy enacted in the classrooms. Essentially, the ways in which the teachers
and students interacted in the classroom were totally at odds with and removed from
the principles of CLT prescribed in the documents of intention. This important matter
is addressed in more detail in the following chapter.
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7.3.4. Pedagogic modalities
Pedagogic modalities encompass all of the resources which used to enable

pedagogic activities and support pedagogic relations in the classroom. In terms of
register, the pedagogic modalities refer to the variable of Mode or the channel of
communication. Traditionally, Mode in SFL simply differentiated between spoken
and written language. However, with rapid advances in technology in the 20 th
century continuing into the millennium, several new semiotic modes of
communication have been developed, collectively labelled social media. Moreover,
there has been a marked increase in the importance of visual resources in meaning-
making and SFL analysts have applied SFL principles to the analysis and
interpretation of visual images, particularly their place and function in educational
contexts. English language educators have been quick to draw on the support that
visuals can provide for meaning making in the classroom. Accordingly, the analysis
of the Tieng Anh textbook series targeted the use of image as a pedagogic
modalityfor analysis within the study.
7.3.4.1. The use of the textbook
The analysis of classroom discourse revealed that all of the lessons were textbook-
based, making the textbook the prime source of knowledge and the centre of the
teaching and learning. Commands such as “Open your books”, or “Look at page X”,
were evident in all lessons as the means whereby the teachers drew student
attention to the textbook. The analysis also showed that only one of the six lessons
covered all of the content available in the textbook. Table 7.17 presents a summary
of how much textbook content was covered in each lesson.
Table 7.17. Textbook coverage
Textbook Activities
# Class type School type % Coverage
activities undertaken
Lesson 1 Normal Normal, urban 6 3.5 58%
Lesson 3 Selective Selective, urban 5 4 80%
Lesson 4 Normal Normal, rural 6 3 50%
Lesson 6 Selective Selective, rural 6 4 67%
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There was a notable variation in textbook coverage across the lessons, ranging from
50% to 100%. These numbers indicate that the textbook provided more input than
the instruction time allowed for those activities to be undertaken. This is in line with
teachers’ comments about the heavy workload, evident in comments that they had
to ‘race’ to cover the allocated content in the textbook, or could not spend a sufficient
amount of time on communicative activities, supported by the analysis of pedagogic
activities. This was an important issue for the teachers because they believed they
needed to cover all of the content in the textbook as part of their unwritten contract.
For them, classroom teaching and learning revolved around the use of a textbook,
and it was beholden of the teachers to engage with all of the content in the book. To
not be able to do so was a matter of concern and distress, and was one criterion for
evaluation as a teacher.
Adapting the textbook was rare and was evident only in Lesson 2 and Lesson 3,
both Selective classes. The teacher in Lesson 2 began the lesson with a short warm-
up game which she had created. In Lesson 3, the teacher skipped a mechanical
activity in the textbook to save time for a pair work activity that she designed,
although the time devoted to this activity was brief. No textbook adaptation was
found in other lessons. The teachers stuck strictly to the activities as laid out in the
textbook until the bell rang for the end of the lesson.
7.3.4.2. The use of different semiotic modes
In all of the lessons, the teachers incorporated visual materials into their teaching.
As the textbook was the prime source of input, these visuals were largely sourced
from the textbook. Images were commonly used to complement vocabulary building
activities, whereby pictures were used to support the teaching of new vocabulary.
Extract 25 from Lesson 2 presents an exchange in which the teacher drew the
students’ attention to a picture of star signs in the textbook.
Spk Exchange
T Okay. Let’s come to the next part.
What can you see in the picture?
T What can you see?
Now. What can you see?
SS Star sign
T Yeah star sign
T Do you know star signs?
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SS Yes
T What does it mean in Vietnamese?
SS Cung hoang dao
T Okay
In this example, the teacher used a visual and also the mother tongue to make the
meaning clear. The use of images in the textbooks was discussed earlier in Chapter
VI Section 6.2.7. As noted in that discussion, the textbook contained functional
visuals which were essentially used as part of the learning tasks, and others which
the teachers did not use because there was no complementarity between the verbal
language and the visual image. Figures 7.2 and 7.3 show examples of textbook
images which were not utilised by the teachers.
Figure 7.2. A reading text, Lesson 4 Figure 7.3. A grammar exercise, Lesson 5
The images in Figure 7.2 minimally engaged the viewer due to their lack of
prominence in terms of size and were not referred to by the teacher. The image in
Figure 7.3, despite its prominence, was not used because it was only relevant to
one question and did not serve any function in the grammatical exercise.
Computers and PowerPoint slides were used to facilitate classroom teaching and
learning but were only found in the urban schools. The classrooms in the two city
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schools were equipped with a desktop, a projector and a pull-down screen, or with
interactive whiteboards. In the two rural schools, classrooms were poorly equipped
with no computers nor electronic devices. Even in School D, a Selective school in a
rural area, the only electronic device available for the teachers to use was a portable
disc player. Financial constraints made the textbooks the only resource for learning
and teaching English in these schools. The schools in the urban area were generally
better equipped than those in the rural area, reflecting the financial gap between
urban and rural areas. Although one stated mission of Project 2025 was to have
classrooms adequately equipped to facilitate the use of ICTs in teaching and
learning, this was not evident in all the schools and classes in this study.
Accordingly, some of the classrooms relied entirely on the visual images in the
textbook and, as discussed, some of these seemed to be included for decoration
purposes only.
Chapter conclusion
This chapter presented the realities of the curriculum reform as implemented in the
classroom. Although the vast majority of teachers in the study indicated their support
for curriculum change, they also expressed doubts and negative attitudes towards
the feasibility of the curriculum goals. In the main, their concerns were related to the
unrealistic achievement standards and also the various localised challenges
hindering curriculum implementation. The school principals shared a similar view
about the feasibility of the new curriculum for the majority of students.
The findings revealed a limited understanding amongst teachers about the core
principles of CLT, perhaps as a result of the insufficient professional training they
were offered. Insufficient professional training resulted in a feeling of isolation
among many of the teachers, evident in ongoing pedagogical confusion and even
frustration with the process of implementing the new curriculum. They were
presented with curriculum content and a prescribed pedagogy to enhance
communication, but had not been engaged in the professional development which
was crucial to its successful implementation.
The inevitable outcome was made clear in the classroom discourse analysis. The
teachers strove to cover the curriculum content presented in the textbooks, but
showed little knowledge of or feeling for the communicative pedagogy as intended.
The clear pattern of classroom discourse showed a predominance of mechanical
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practice and individual work by the students, as opposed to the communicative and
interpersonal language practice that would provide the opportunity for
communicative experiences in the target language. The prevalence of the traditional
IRF classroom exchange structure did not align at all with the communicative-based
classroom as intended and planned; this was particularly evident in non-Selective
classes. A preponderance of teacher talk, along with the number of teacher-initiated
exchanges revealed an asymmetric power relationship between the teachers and
students, clearly indicating features of a traditional, teacher-centred classroom.
Little evidence of a learner-centred classroom was found, since the students
invariably adopted the role of passive respondents. There were no instances of
exchanges where students requested information, asked for clarification, or
disagreed with the teachers. Minimal use of pair and group work also suggested a
lack of genuine interaction between and among the students. A gap in performance
between Selective and non-Selective classes was also evident. In Selective classes,
a greater rate of engagement and student talk in performance-based tasks
appeared to align more easily with communicative principles. However, even in
these classes, the interactions among students were pseudo-communicative,
involving the teacher’s direct intervention, and making the interactions little more
than contextualised drills.
All lessons were textbook-based with very few departures from the prescribed
activities. The textbook included far more content than the lessons could cover, with
the outcome that most of the lessons remained unfinished. This concerned the
teachers because one of their prime goals was to cover all of the content in the
textbook.The limited function of many of the visual images was evident as they were
not utilised for classroom teaching and learning.
In blunt terms, the findings point very clearly to a pedagogic chasm between the
intentions and the realities of Project 2025 in these English language classrooms.
The lessons analysed were not communicative by any definition; they were largely
traditional in the ways in which they unfolded. To return to comments made at the
beginning of Chapter 1, it would seem that little has changed within English
language classrooms apart from the new textbooks provided as part of Project 2025.
The roles of teachers and students were traditional with clear and accepted
asymmetric relationships in terms of status and power, in terms of who spoke and
at what point in time. In Chapter I it was proposed that there was little difference
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between the intention of the English language curriculum and the reality within the
classrooms of twenty years ago. Then intention was to prepare for the high stakes
written examination at the culmination of schooling, and the reality of the classroom
matched the intention. This is not the case now. Project 2025 has made explicit the
communicative intentions for Vietnamese citizens in coming years. Chapter VIII
offers a discussion of those intentions and the finding of unchanged realities evident
in the analysis and interpretation of the data.
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CHAPTER VIII: DISCUSSION
The discussion is centred on the significance and relevance of the findings in

relation to the research questions posed at the outset and the salient literature which
pertains to the study. The realities of the Project 2025 reform are set alongside its
intentions, and are considered with a view to informing the research questions.
As stated at the end of Chapter VII, the findings pointed very clearly to differences
between the intentions and the realities of Project 2025 in the English language
classrooms which participated in the study, at the time when the data was collected.
The evaluation presented within the study revealed a pattern of a clear difference
between what was intended in the policy and what was evident in classrooms. To
the time of writing the study in 2019 and 2020, the goal of a particular level of English
language proficiency to be achieved via a curriculum and pedagogy underpinned by
CLT had not been met. Furthermore, CLT was not evident in teaching and learning
processes and practices in any of the classrooms participating in the study.
The extension to the date for successful implementation from 2020 to 2025 is an
indication that the policy has not yet achieved its targets. However, it is important to
acknowledge what has been achieved at this point in time and the positive
contributions of this national initiative to English education in Vietnam. These include
the introduction of new communicative curricula and local textbook series at three
levels of schooling, along with the establishment of an English language proficiency
framework, new testing formats and national approaches dedicated to teacher in-
service training. The interpretation of this five year extension is that the Vietnamese
Government remains committed to the intended goals within the reform. The Project
has not been abandoned, rather the timeline has been pushed back to 2025. The
discussion in this chapter is conducted with the new timeframe in mind. If MOET
had made a decision to abandon the reform because the outcomes were not
promising and would not be delivered by the original date set, then the discussion
here would have followed a different trajectory. The study would have provided a
negative evaluation of the project and discussed all of the reasons why the reform
was doomed to fail. However, a more positive and constructive process is to
examine the gaps between the intentions and the reality and to consider changes
which might be initiated to enable the goals of Project 2025 to be achieved.
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8.1. The intentions of the curriculum reform
As participation in the globalised world occurs increasingly in and through English,

it is hard to deny the economics of English language proficiency. As part of this
global commodification of English, non-English-speaking countries have associated
English proficiency with individual and national development, and have embarked
on national planning dedicated to expanding and improving English instruction in
schooling systems (Kam, 2002; A. Kirkpatrick, 2010; Moodie & Nam, 2016; Nunan,
2003; Spolsky & Sung, 2015). As a developing country in Kachru’s (1992) global
framework, positioned as part of the Expanding Circle, Vietnam has followed this
trend. Vietnam sees the potential to develop as a nation and to improve the standard
of living and the life chances of its citizens through increased participation in the
globalised world. In recent decades, it has emerged from political and social
upheaval and isolation to take its place amongst those considered to be successful
nations. The Government has adopted the position that improving proficiency in the
English language for its people can hasten and support that success.
Project 2025 in Vietnam became the response of the Government to the pressing
economic needs for English language proficiency in the national schooling system,
coupled with the perceived poor quality of English language teaching and learning
in schools over the years. The intention was made clear with the specification of
Proficiency Level A2 as the attainment objective for lower-secondary education. To
achieve this goal, the political decision was made to write a new communicative
curriculum and to adopt CLT as the designated pedagogy to implement the
curriculum. Whilst the content of the curriculum remained relatively stable, the
adoption of CLT as the prescribed pedagogy aimed to bring about a radical change
in the teaching and learning practices and processes at the classroom level. The
intention was to transform the traditional, grammar-based, teacher-centred
classroom into an interactive, communicative and learner-centred space. This, in
time, would create a citizenry equipped to talk with, to engage with and to negotiate
with international speakers in English to achieve successful commercial
transactions. The uptake of CLT in Vietnamese schools was also closely aligned
with similar global and regional trends in moving towards a CLT-based classroom
where the overarching aim was to foster authentic, meaningful communication in
the target language (Butler, 2011; Littlewood, 2007, 2014).
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To realise these intentions, MOET initiated, planned and implemented the
curriculum reform via a top-down approach. As discussed in Chapter III Section
3.4.3, this top-down model to reform aimed to change educational practices,
processes and outcomes through the imposition of state-driven policies using
power-coercive strategies (Cummings et al., 2005; Miller, 1995). Given the socio-
political context within Vietnam, such an approach was inevitable.
8.1.1. The top-down model of reform
This top-down curriculum reform had a number of advantages and potential for
making change. Its strengths were in line with Fullan’s (2007) remark on the central
role of Government in realising educational reform:
If we are to achieve large-scale reform, governments are essential. They have the potential
to be a major force for transformation (p. 236)
The Project 2025 initiative began with a mandate for unified change, hierarchically
from MOET at the bureaucratic hub, then down through DOETs at the regional level,
into schools with the support of school principals as Government officers, and finally
to classrooms throughout the country. The expectation of the Vietnamese
Government was for a wholesale, directed, purposive and systematic change in
English education at the national level. The financial investment in the Project
enabled the development of the curriculum, textbooks, facilities and teacher training,
all of which were understood as important for the success of the reform. The unified
curriculum package, including the new textbook series and assessments developed
and provided by MOET, aimed to eliminate any confusion or burden in selecting
instructional materials on the part of the teacher. The package ensured uniformity
in scoping what students across the country should know or be able to do in order
to achieve the expected proficiency level.
However, MOET’s top-down reform, although having potential benefits as noted

above, came at a cost. The well-researched issues with top-down approaches were
manifest wherein stakeholders at one level planned and developed the curriculum
reform for those at another level to implement. This led to the classic dilemma within
top-down reform, the misalignment between policy intention and policy enactment.
Figure 8.1 shows the power lines and relationships of change agents in a hierarchy-
based model (Berlach, 2010):
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Loosely
Hierarchically formed
determined stakeholder
status interactions
relationships
Figure 8.1. Change agent relationships: top-down model
The research findings revealed three major issues with the top-down model of
reform in Project 2025, which were not well addressed and did little to resolve the
questionable aspects of this approach to curriculum change.
8.1.1.1. Collaboration among stakeholders
A major problem within the 2025 curriculum reform in Vietnam was the lack of
collaboration amongst the various stakeholders in the process of planning, shaping
and implementing the reform. This was in line with Fullan’s (2007) observation of
the two ‘divergent worlds’ involved in the complex process of curriculum change:
We have a classic case of two entirely different worlds: the policymakers on the one side,
and the local practitioner on the other. To the extent that each side is ignorant of the
subjective world of the other, reform will fail - and the extent is great (p. 99)
Fink (2003) shared a similar view that when each of these ‘divergent worlds’ was
not able to listen to or understand the realities of the other to build “better bridges of
understanding”, misalignment and loss of coherence between the policy and
practice were likely to happen (p. 105). This was true in the case of Vietnam.
Essentially, there was an absence of teacher voice in relation to the reform package,
importantly in setting the proficiency goal and the time frame for its achievement, in
the pedagogy to be used and in the type and extent of professional development
which was required for the English teachers. This lack of collaboration resulted in a
loss of shared understanding between policymakers and policy implementers in
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relation to the why, what and how of change. At the macro level, policymakers and
politicians have often been decried for their “desperate craving for a magical
solution” (Micklethwait & Wooldridge, 1996, p. 294), resulting in ambitious
overarching goals and high accountability standards. In the curriculum reform in
Vietnam, this ‘magical solution’ was the ambitious proficiency target which was
judged by teachers to be impossible to achieve in mainstream classrooms. The
‘magical solution’ was to produce communicatively competent English language
speakers via the designated adoption of CLT, a wholesale Western-imported
pedagogy with principles alien to many Vietnamese teachers, and radically different
from the traditional views of teaching and learning in the Vietnamese context. The
lack of interaction and collaboration amongst the various stakeholders in the
hierarchical system resulted in an obvious mismatch between policy intent and
enactment in the implementation.
8.1.1.2. Power relationships in curriculum policy and implementation
The top-down model operated with differences in power accorded to participating

groups. However, the power of different stakeholders in the reform process was not
merely in a linear relationship. Although the Government at the top of the hierarchy
had the power to impose change, this did not mean that the teachers at the ground
level of the system were powerless. Whilst teachers did not have the power to plan,
to shape or to regulate the curriculum reform at the level of policymaking, they held
power in the classrooms where the changes were to take place. According to Hall
and Simeral (2008), being “the field agents of educational change”, it is teachers
who determine student wins and losses, who establish the expectations within
classrooms and year levels, and ultimately who influence the success of the reform.
The findings from the study indicate that the teachers were entrenched in their
existing ways of practice, with little understanding of the principles and premises of
CLT, and were uncomfortable in its implementation. The inevitable outcome was
that the reform could only operate at a ‘surface’ level – the intended communicative,
student-centred lessons imagined at the macro level were not evident at the
classroom level. The disadvantages of the top-down model in which one group was
responsible for the policy development and another was charged with its
implementation were obvious in Project 2025.
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8.1.1.3. Preparation for the communicative curriculum
MOET’s intention of transforming traditional classroom practices into

communicative practices have not been realised to date due, in part, to the lack of
professional development made available to teachers in preparation for the required
changes. Nothing has changed in regards to large class sizes and the ongoing
washback effect of high-stakes written examinations, both of which are counter-
productive to the intended communicative curriculum. Furthermore, a gap in
assessment policies further highlights the lack of strategic planning for the
curriculum to be successfully enacted. As the findings reveal, guidance regarding
communicative testing was only made available four years after the curriculum was
piloted (MOET, 2016). This indicates a policy gap, resulting in a lack of consensus
across schools and leaving teachers unsure about how to measure student
achievement. During this period, students graduated from lower secondary school
not knowing if they had achieved the proficiency level to be ready for the upper-
secondary English program aiming towards the Level B1.
The lack of coherence and alignment between the intentions of the reform and the
realities in the local context as revealed in the study is not surprising. The top-down
model within education has been discussed at length in the literature with regards
to its reputation for mismatches between the intentions and the enactment of reform
(Fullan & Scott, 2009; Morgan, 1992; Waring, 2017). Top-down reforms, as Waring
(2017) remarked, have been appraised as “both outmoded and ill-suited” to the
challenges of contemporary educational change and have fallen out of favour in
many Western contexts (p. 540). It may be asked why MOET adopted this model to
reform despite its “long history of failure” (Hargreaves & Ainscow, 2015, p. 43).
However, it is argued here that the socio-political and socio-cultural contexts of
Vietnam ensures that centralised reform is natural and completely normalised. The
reality is that in Vietnam, the adoption of a top-down approach was inevitable.
8.1.2. The socio-political context of reform
As noted in Chapter II Section 2.1.3, Communist Party dominance and socialist

principles, including “democratic centralism” (dan chu tap trung) and “collective
leadership and responsibility” (lanh dao tap the), channelled through a controlled,
centralised management system, influence all sectors of Vietnamese society (Q.
Truong, 2013). The concentration of political and positional authority reflects the
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broad orientation of public administration and decision making (London, 2011; D. T.
Truong, 2013). Combined with the high power distance and collectivist
characteristics of the Vietnamese culture in which there is a strong need to avoid
conflict, voices of dissent or challenge are often silent in decision-making processes.
This blend of a centralised political system coupled with cultural disposition greatly
influences the governance and operation of education in Vietnam. From the earliest
period in Vietnam’s history to the present, the governance of education, as noted in
Chapter 2, has been “profoundly political” (London, 2010, p. 377). Educational
policies in Vietnam, therefore, have been historically normalised in a top-down
manner.
Whilst such top-down planning is no longer popular or acceptable in the processes

and practices of Western education, it has remained standard practice and is
culturally prevalent in Vietnam. It is not a matter of choice, but is simply ‘how we do
things’ – absolutely natural as a way of operating, of ‘doing’ education. This explains
why a top-down approach was adopted and naturally accepted for the shaping,
writing and implementation of the Project 2025 reform. This also explains the fact
that the teachers in the study expressed their support for the reform even though it
came from ‘above’ and did not involve them in the process of shaping the curriculum
they were expected to enact. It is also noteworthy that in a centralised system such
as Vietnam, educational change may not be possible without a top-down push. This
is not only because a bottom-up approach to education reform is culturally unknown,
but also because Vietnamese teachers, who work with constraints of information,
time and support, may well be unable to initiate and engage in bottom-up reform.
Grass-roots change is simply not part of the mindset of teachers.
8.2 The realities of the curriculum reform
The realities of the new curriculum implementation were reflected in the negative
attitude of the teachers towards the feasibility of the achievement target and their
fragmented understanding of CLT principles and premises. In combination with
insufficient teacher in-service training and support, these led to an overarching
sense of confusion amongst the teachers about how to create a communicative
language classroom. Unsurprisingly, the analysis of pedagogic discourse provided
clear evidence that the classroom remained largely teacher-dominated, was
textbook-based and had minimal student-to-student interactions. In their confusion
about the requirements of CLT, the teachers continued to teach as they had
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traditionally, with the outcomes as they were traditionally; communicatively
incompetent students.
8.2.1. Teacher attitude towards the curriculum reform
Educational change depends on what teachers do and think – it’s as simple and as complex
as that (Fullan, 2007, p. 129)
Significant emphasis appeared to be placed on product development (i.e. the

curriculum content and textbooks), on the legislation and on other formally
expressed changes (i.e. the decisions and guidelines), in a way that seemed to
minimise the variable ways that the teachers at the local level would respond to the
task of enacting the change. This neglect is understandable to some extent, as
noted by Fullan (2007), because people are usually “much more unpredictable and
difficult to deal with” (p. 85). Dealing with the human aspect of enforced change was
always likely to prove challenging, and the changes enshrined in Project 2025 were
no different. The human variable was the teacher, the decisive agent in the success
of the change, who would ultimately transform, or not, the intentions of the
curriculum reform into reality within each and every Vietnamese classroom.
Whilst the teachers accepted the need for curriculum renewal, they voiced negative
attitudes and concerns about the feasibility of the goals, which they considered to
be overly ambitious. As noted, one teacher in a rural school estimated that only 20%
of her students could reach the required level after the four years of the new
curriculum. The common view was that the desired Proficiency Level A2 was
achievable by high-performing students, but was too challenging for those in the
mid-range and below, that is for the majority of students. Whilst this teacher was at
the lower end of estimating overall outcomes, the general sense was that the
achievement standard was generally neither feasible nor realistic for the great
majority of mainstream students. This view was corroborated by research at the
upper secondary level, where Le (2015) described the overall goal of the reform as
“ambitious and unrealistic” (p. 196).
This raises the issue of equity in the curriculum policy. Although MOET’s curriculum
proficiency goal was seen as a concerted push for higher proficiency standards, it
failed to take into consideration the particularities of students from different
backgrounds and to differentiate among different cohorts of learners. The
establishment of a rigid ‘one-size-fits-all’ proficiency goal failed to consider the
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influences, the social determinants that students brought to school – their socio-
economic backgrounds, their ethnicity, their motivations for schooling, and their
different interests and capabilities. In reality, it seemed to be targeted at the highest
band of achievement. The data from the interviews reinforced the fact that
Vietnamese students have diverse needs for learning English, at odds with a one-
size-fits-all goal. The need for English competence was more relevant to high-
performing and urban students and in schools where there was an awareness of the
importance and utility of English. Disadvantaged and/or low achieving students did
not have the same needs because differences in economic development within rural
areas limited the demand and motivation for English competency among these
students. On this basis, H. Nguyen et al. (2018) described Project 2025 as “a biased
access policy” (p. 224), and concluded that the reform would only result in increasing
the gap between individuals, communities and regions, as well as among high and
low performing schools and students.
The Appraisal analysis revealed that the curriculum was not the only target of
evaluation. Negative appraisals were evident in the teachers’ comments about a
number of issues, including class size, classroom facilities, the students, their
parents and the teachers themselves. This highlights the fact that there were many
inter-related factors actively involved, which combined to hinder the implementation.
Again, a lack of consultation with the classroom teachers and related stakeholders
was reported to be the primary cause of the problem. It is a contemporary Western
industrialised understanding that curriculum creation is a collective and on-going
process in which the opinions and objectives of teachers, administrators,
academics, parents as well as business, industry and community groups are sought,
with improvements and amendments made as part of the process of reform
(Ditchburn, 2012; D. Macdonald, 2003). This is the model held up in Western
democracies as potentially having the best chance of success. However, as noted
earlier, the way MOET shaped the reform, although sponsored by the best intentions
of the educational authorities, failed to accommodate the voice of the teachers – the
ultimate end-users of the curriculum. This culminated in the negative attitude shown
by the teachers about the curriculum reform. The mismatch was most stark between
what MOET believed as the achievable goals and what the teachers perceived as
practical and feasible for the students in their local contexts, and equally clearly
between the prescribed pedagogic approach and what the teachers were able and
prepared for in this regard.
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8.2.2. Teacher understanding of CLT
The gap between the intention and reality of the reform was very clearly reflected in
teacher understandings of CLT as the pedagogy to deliver the new curriculum. The
findings indicated that the teachers had only a fragmented knowledge of the
principles and processes of CLT, leading to confusion about how to establish a
classroom in which communicative teaching and communicative learning were the
norm. The data analysis also revealed that the teachers generally lacked knowledge
of theories about language, about language teaching or about language learning,
all of which limited them in employing strategies that worked in their particular
classroom context.
A lack of clarity about CLT was not specific to this study. The literature abounds with
studies that found teachers to be confused about CLT. These include studies
conducted in Libya (Orafi & Borg, 2009), in Japan (Nishino & Watanabe, 2008;), in
China (Fang & Garland, 2014), in South Korea (Lee, 2014), Turkey (Kirkgoz, 2008),
in Thailand (Segovia & Hardison, 2009), and in Malaysia (Hardman, J., & A-
Rahman, 2014). Rahman (2015) in an attempt to explore teacher understanding of
CLT in Bangladesh found that English teachers who claimed to be practising CLT
in their classrooms did not have a clear idea of what it entailed. In Hong Kong and
China, Chan (2014) and Zheng and Borg (2014) found discrepancies between
teacher understanding of Tasked-Based Language Teaching (TBLT), a ‘spin-off’ of
CLT, and its principles as stated in curriculum documents. From these studies, and
from the data in this study limited teacher understanding of what exactly constitutes
CLT was a common issue.
One explanation for the clouded understanding about CLT is that at the level of
theory, CLT has had a problem of identity (Littlewood, 2014; Spada, 2007). As noted
in Chapter III Section 3.6.6, there are a dearth of texts with definitive statements
about CLT or with any single model of CLT that is universally accepted as
authoritative. CLT is not a neatly packaged ‘method’, but a ‘framework’ approach
comprising a fluid and dynamic set of ideas and principles about language teaching
and learning. This has created multiple opportunities for interpretations and has also
resulted in misconceptions because of this openness (Mitchell, 1987; Richards &
Renandya, 2002). One common misconception, one also reported by teachers in
this study, is that CLT only focuses on speaking. This finding is in line with Lee
(2014) and Zheng and Borg (2014), who reported that teacher perceptions about
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the approach were that it involved communicative work with a predominant focus on
speaking. The reason for this may be rooted in the concept of ‘communication’ since
many teachers equate this term with ‘speaking’ (Spada, 2007; Thompson, 1996).
However, CLT has never been exclusively concerned with face-to-face oral
communication. Its principles extend equally to reading and writing activities that
engage students in the interpretation, expression and negotiation of meaning
(Savignon, 2002, 2005).
The teachers in the study were clear about the need to teach grammar as a
prerequisite for communication to take place. This attention to form is well-supported
in the literature where advocates such as McDonough and Shaw (2012), Richards
(2006) and Savignon (2005) all comment that communication cannot take place in
the absence of structure. Participation in communicative events, while central to
language development, also requires some focus on form. However, this point of
view differs from a more general perception of some teachers that CLT did not
include the teaching of grammar teaching, as reported for example by Li (1998),
Savignon (2005), Spada (2007) and Thompson (1996).
The most common understanding of CLT amongst teachers in this and earlier
studies, e.g. Ahmad and Rao (2013), de Segovia and Hardison (2009) and H. Wang
(2008), is that CLT involves a learner-centred approach. However, the analysis of
classroom discourse in the study suggests that the teachers, although claiming for
learner-centred classrooms, did not enact them in practice. One explanation is that
the teachers generally had an incomplete understanding of what a learner-centred
classroom involved. A learner-centred classroom manifests co-operative and active
learning, in which students solve problems, discuss, explain, debate or brainstorm
their ideas individually, in pairs or teams, and learn from and with each other
(Schweisfurth, 2011, 2015). Learner-centredness also promotes the joint
construction of classroom discourse and encourages students to take responsibility
for their own learning (Nunan, 1988a; Tudor, 1993). It requires a change in the
teacher’s role from provider of information to a facilitator of student learning (Sikoyo,
2010). None of these criteria for a learner-centred classroom was evident in the
classroom analyses in the study. In fact, the less informed the teachers were about
the principles underpinning a learner-centred philosophy and the less comfortable
they were in engaging their students in these ways of learning, the more they were
entrenched in traditional teacher-centred ways of working.
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It is important to emphasise the deep-seated barriers to a shift away from the
traditional teacher-centred pedagogy evident in this study. Such a shift would
require a questioning and re-evaluation of ingrained beliefs and understandings
about what it is to be a teacher in Vietnamese culture. The power differential, deeply
tied to the traditional Confucian ideology of teaching and learning, determines the
role of the teacher as the embodiment of knowledge and morality, while the
complementing role of students is to obey their teachers and to work hard. Students
are not expected to interrupt, to question, to disagree, to challenge, to suggest
alternatives or to argue with their teachers (Bock, 2000; Le, 1999, 2007; T. H.
Nguyen, 2002). These culturally embedded values relating to the roles of teachers
and students do not resonate with a learner-centred pedagogy and a CLT-based
curriculum premised on constructivist and individualist philosophies inherited from
Western educational and cultural values. It was, therefore, more easily said than
done to plan for a shift from a teacher-dominated to a student-centred classroom in
the Vietnamese context. The most significant challenge and most difficult to achieve
would be the change in these deep-seated beliefs and values, which are the core of
the identity of teachers in Vietnam. Attempts to change the existing classroom
pedagogy, therefore, need to take into account these cultural values. As argued by
Elmore (2004) and Hu (2002, 2004), culture cannot simply be changed by top-down
mandates. Rather, it would require extensive and targeted professional
development, neither of which were in evidence in the study.
8.2.3. Professional development and support for teachers
Insufficient teacher professional training appeared to be a significant reason behind

the lack of knowledge of CLT principles and the capacity to enact these principles
successfully. The findings indicate that teacher in-service training, the only source
of knowledge about CLT to which the participating teachers were exposed, was
limited and insufficient both in terms of quantity and quality. Professional
development opportunities which lacked practical applications and were limited,
were the prevalent themes reported by the teachers. This lack of professional
training resulted in a feeling of isolation among many teachers in the study,
expressed in ongoing pedagogic confusion and even frustration with the process of
implementing the innovation. “Too tired” and “no one out there to ask”, as one senior
teacher put it, probably best describes the lack of professional support and the
feeling of isolation amongst the teachers.
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There was no doubt that the curriculum reform created increased emotional and
professional pressure for the teachers. Within a rapid timeframe, they were
expected to renovate their pedagogy, especially the long-held cultural perceptions
of their role, to shift from a transmitter of knowledge to a multi-role language
educator. They were challenged to develop new skills for teaching English
communicatively, to change how to assess students, to improve their capacity to
adapt the content in the textbooks and to apply modern technologies in their
teaching. None of these were taught to them as learners, as teachers in training or
as any planned part of in-service training. Within the same timeframe, these non-
native English speakers were also expected to improve their own language
proficiency to be able to model and teach communicatively in the target language.
Given the paucity of adequate professional support and training, it was neither
possible nor realistic to expect these changes to be made. Insufficient professional
training and support clearly contributed to the gap between the intentions and
realities of the reform and needs to be addressed in a planned and rigorous manner
if there is to be a successful alignment.
The teachers experienced the additional issue of increased workload. The findings
clearly indicate that the teachers experienced work overload. Teaching hours
increased as part of the reform, and these came with the standard duties for
teachers such as ensuring exam pass rates, continuing their involvement in extra-
curricular events, meeting with parents, and dealing with the demands of their
principals and central office officials. As the demographics highlight, the vast
majority of the teachers were female, at approximately 93% in this study, who were
also obliged to undertake domestic work alongside their school duties. Although the
curriculum reform, to some extent, provided opportunities for teachers to come into
contact with new ideas for their professional development, it also put a great deal of
pressure on these women who were expected to wear “too many different hats” at
home and at work (Le, 2016, p. 186). Cultural norms require the involvement of
Vietnamese women in organising and managing the family household, including the
care of children and elders on both sides of the family. The teachers consistently
reported a critical shortage of time, which also restricted their potential to develop
professionally. They also commented on the lack of professional rewards for
teachers, including payment for the additional work. While a professionally
rewarding workplace could attract and retain the best personnel, what has
happened in the roll-out of the reform to date may have had the opposite effect.
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To exacerbate an already stressful situation, low salaries have forced many
Vietnamese teachers to tutor extra classes to support their families. This has caused
them to forego opportunities to develop themselves professionally. The expansion
of the private tutoring industry, the so-called ‘shadow education’, has created an
adverse impact on the reform efforts. Moreover, many teachers were under fixed-
term contracts unable to gain a permanent contract due to a government scheme to
cut permanent positions in the public sector. Contract teachers suffered the
disadvantage of receiving lower income benefits than their permanent colleagues
with the same workload, as well as a lack of job security. It is unsurprising that few
teachers encountering these conditions had the self-motivation to engage in and
sustain effective curriculum reform.
The realities for English language teachers in contemporary Vietnam, who live with
critical shortages of information, of time, of energy, and of support, are that such
conditions impact on their motivation to initiate and enact change. Even teachers
who were enthusiastic about the reform had become disillusioned and “reverted to
the security of their previous teaching methods” (Carless, 1998, p. 355) rather than
“grow[ing] out of the conventional type of teaching” (Hamano, 2008, p. 397). The
inevitable outcome when the intended world met the real world was that a
communicative pedagogy was not in evidence at the classroom level.
8.2.4. The realities of the English language classroom
Given the clearly insufficient professional development included as part of the

reform roll-out, it is not surprising that the analysis of classroom pedagogic register
revealed that the intended shift from traditional teacher-fronted processes to
interactive, learner-centred classrooms had not translated into reality.
The analysis of pedagogic register, based on the work of Martin and Rose in their
registerial account of pedagogy, provided evidence about the prominent features of
the classroom discourse, including the configuration of pedagogic activities,
pedagogic relations and pedagogic modalities. The analysis of pedagogic activities
highlighted a predominance of mechanical practice where students worked
independently on drills or discrete point exercises. Communicative language
practice activities were rare, which is at odds with the CLT classroom. The
classrooms continued to be teacher-centred, where the teachers maintained their
roles as the controllers and transmitters of knowledge, a starkly different role to that
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of the facilitator of student learning championed within and necessary for successful
CLT. The analysis of pedagogic relations revealed a predominance of teacher talk,
in combination with the complete dominance of teacher-initiated exchanges, clear
indicators of traditional teacher-centred classrooms. Classroom interaction was
mostly pseudo-communicative rather than genuine interaction in the target
language between teachers and students, and for that matter, between students
and students. Students were unable to create independent language without a
heavy reliance on teacher input or the textbook. These practices were clearly not
aligned with a communicative language classroom. There were no obvious changes
in the classroom tenor, particularly in the patterns of classroom exchanges, or any
perceptible shift in the roles of teachers and students, in the amount of teacher and
student talk or in classroom participation. Whilst some of the teachers claimed that
they were implementing the new curriculum using CLT, there was no evidence to
support such claims. That some of the teachers believed that they were creating
CLT based classrooms, is more an indication of their lack of understanding of CLT
than of anything else.
These findings are consistent with several other research studies of Vietnamese
classrooms, for example Le (2019), Le and Barnard (2009) and H. Nguyen et al.
(2018). Similar findings were reported in other contexts, for example in Japan
(Nishino, 2011; Thompson & Yanagita, 2015), in South Korea (Jihyeon, 2009;
Moodie & Nam, 2016), in China (W. Wang, 2014; Zhang & Liu, 2014), in Turkey
(Coskun, 2011; Kırkgöz, 2008), and in Malaysia (Hanewald, 2016; Pandian, 2002).
Other systematic reviews from a range of countries in the Asia Pacific and East Asia
regions (Butler, 2011; Littlewood, 2007, 2014; Nunan, 2003; Spolsky & Sung, 2015)
have reported similar findings – that proposed and planned communicative
curriculum reforms have not succeeded as planned. Karavas-Doukas (1996)
concluded that the communicative approach had “brought innovation more on the
level of theory than on the level of teachers’ actual classroom practices” (p. 351).
Ten years later, Kumaravadivelu (2006a, p. 62) reflected that communicative
classrooms “were anything but communicative” (p. 62). And approximately a decade
later again Humphries and Burns (2015, p. 239) commented “in reality it’s almost
impossible”, when reporting on an unsuccessful attempt to introduce curriculum
innovation into the school context in Japan. The findings generated from the current
study confirm the evidence from all of these other studies: there exists a substantial
gap between the intended communicative curriculum and actual classroom practice.
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The differences between intentions and realities were more pronounced in Normal
classes. Here, the discourse analysis revealed a large amount of teacher talk, for
example at. 95% in Lesson 4, and a low class participation rate, for example at 22%
in Lesson 4. In Selective classes, there was a higher participation rate, at 89% in
Lesson 5, and a greater use of English, at 86% in Lesson 5, compared to that of
Vietnamese. There were some glimpses of CLT in Selective classrooms, but nothing
of CLT principles or processes in Normal classes. The question arises whether CLT
is more suitable for the highest achieving and motivated students in Selective
classes. CLT may not only be challenging for teachers but also challenging for the
students. They are required to draw on their repertoires of language knowledge, and
if they feel they do not have these resources, they are likely to remain quiet or retreat
into silence. One pedagogic strategy would be to scaffold (Vygotsky, 1978) – to
challenge students at a point just beyond their current capacity – whereby the
challenges are small and manageable. It does not appear as if the teachers in this
study were aware of scaffolding strategies beyond code switching into Vietnamese
which they regularly turned to faced with student lack of understanding in English.
In fact, the teachers were largely driven by the need to complete all of the textbook
tasks rather than by the needs of the students.
A consistent finding was the prevalence of the IRF classroom exchange structure
(Lemke, 1990; Sinclair & Coulthard, 1975) which is entirely aligned with a traditional
teacher-centred classroom. Whilst these teacher-led patterns of interaction had the
advantage for the teacher of maintaining control, they came at a cost, especially in
communicative language classrooms, as Van Lier (1996) commented:
… this efficiency comes at the cost of reduced student participation, less expressive
language use, a loss of contingency, and severe limitations on the students’ employment of
initiative and self-determination (p. 184-185).
In the study, this pattern of interaction limited the opportunities for the students to
extend and/or elaborate on their utterances, a fundamental requirement for a
communication-based curriculum. Kasper (2001) criticised the IRF pattern as “an
unproductive interactional format” for the lack of opportunities afforded for
“developing the complex interactional, linguistic and cognitive knowledge required
in ordinary conversation” (p. 518). The IRF sequence placed the teacher at the
centre of the classroom and maximised teacher talk and minimised student talk, and
was entirely counter-productive to the communicative language classroom (Thoms,
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2012). The teachers had complete control of the classroom interaction as they
determined who participated, and when and how much interaction took place
(Garton, 2012; J. K. Hall & Walsh, 2002; Thoms, 2012). The research data from six
classrooms produced no instances of exchanges where students requested
information, asked for clarification, or disagreed with the teacher. All exchanges
were initiated by the teachers and revealed a traditional, asymmetric power
relationship between teachers and their students, at odds with the communicative
language classroom.
The extensive use of the IRF pattern amongst the teachers suggested that the
teachers were primarily concerned with covering the ‘what’ of the curriculum – the
content as mapped in the textbooks. Le and Barnard (2009) produced similar
findings, reinforcing the fact that this is a normative practice in Vietnamese
classrooms, where teachers emphasise the reproduction of information rather than
opportunities for students to use the language for the expression, negotiation and
joint construction of meanings. The findings indicated that there was little orientation
to the ‘how’, that is to pedagogic techniques aligned with CLT principles. This was
evident in the questioning strategies most commonly used by the teachers. They
used ‘display’ questions to which they already knew the answer, and closed
questions with preferred responses which had the effect of ending the exchange.
Revisiting Extract 13, “Now do you agree?” and “Is Binh Nguyen independent,
freedom loving and confident?” were both closed questions with a preferred answer
of “yes”, which constraind the range of potential responses and closed the
exchange.

…
T What does your star sign tell about your personality? Initiation K1
[read from the textbook] My personality is
S9 Response K2
independent freedom loving
T I am….? Initiation K1
[re-read from the textbook] Independent freedom
S9 Response K2
loving and confident
T Now do you agree? Tracking tr
S9 Yes I do Response rtr
Is Binh Nguyen independent freedom loving and
T Tracking tr
confident? The whole class?
SS Yes Response rtr
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In a communicative language classroom, the aim is for a range of responses in
which students use their linguistic repertoires to express and to negotiate meanings
which to extend and enhance communication. To change the typical IRF exchange
and promote more authentic language use, different negotiation patterns involving
clarification, disagreement or those which trigger different perspectives help to
expand the exchange offering students the opportunity to use their linguistic
repertoires. Instead of the closed question “Now do you agree?” the teacher might
ask an open question, or a ‘referential’ question the answer to which she did not
know. This type of question is more aligned with features of real-life conversations,
likely to stimulate greater student engagement and authentic interaction, such as
“What would you say about Binh Nguyen?” or “How would you describe him/her?”,
or “In what ways do you think Binh Nguyen is independent (or freedom loving or
confident?)”. The teacher could then engage in more meaningful interaction and the
students are challenged to offer responses to support their appraisal of Binh
Nguyen, that he/she was or was not independent or confident. In such an example,
the students would not take on the role of a secondary knower (K2); rather they
would be the primary knower (K1) contributing new information, insights and
perspectives. The aim would be to increase their confidence and competence to
initiate an exchange by adopting the K1 role. At that point, the intended
communicative, learner-centred classroom would be possible, in which the
classroom exchange becomes more authentic and meaningful.
8.2.5. The textbook in action
As described, Martin and Rose’s work provides detail about the SFL Register
variables of Field, Tenor and Mode as they are applied to the context of classroom
discourse in the form of pedagogic activities, pedagogic relations and pedagogic
modalities and then realised in different choices from a range of sub-systems of
language. The variable of Mode is understood as the channel of communication,
that is the way or ways in which the Field and the Tenor operate within a context. In
terms of how the context is then evident within language, the variable of Mode is
manifest through textual meanings. Essentially, these textual meanings enable the
experiential and interpersonal meanings to be made appropriately within the specific
context. Experiential meanings are the linguistic realisation of Field and
interpersonal meanings the linguistic realisation of Tenor. The same model is
applied when the notion of Register is applied to specific contexts, as for example,
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in considering classroom discourse. The function of pedagogic modalities are to
enable the operation of the pedagogic activities within the pedagogic relations
inherent in the classroom. The question for the study was to consider the pedagogic
modalities used in the classrooms and how successful they were. The principal
pedagogic modality was the textbook, and the interest was in considering its
contribution to teaching and learning. All of the lessons in the data set were strictly
textbook-based, indicating its place of importance. Combined with insights from the
textbook analysis in Chapter VII, the analysis of pedagogic modalities in the
classroom discourse further revealed how the textbook was put into action. In
combination, these two analyses offered a holistic understanding of the textbook
series as the manifestation of the curriculum.
8.2.5.1. Classroom use of the textbook
The textbook series was designed to develop communicative competence via a

sequence of activities that moved back and forth between accuracy and fluency.
Students were initially provided with the opportunities to practise the language input
in controlled activities, then in less controlled and independent practice. This pattern
was described by Breen and Candlin (1987) as ‘process competence’, referring to
the capacity to draw on different realms of linguistic knowledge and to practise these
in the skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing. However, as the classroom
discourse analysis highlighted, most of the lessons remained incomplete because
the textbook required more than the allocated 45 minutes’ lesson time. The shift
from controlled, form-based activities to more independent practice did not occur.
For example, in Lessons 1, 4 and 5, approximately 50% of the textbook content was
covered. This was consistent with information from the teacher interviews in which
they commented on workload, whereby they had to ‘race’ to cover the textbook
content. The consequence was that teachers did not have enough time for time-
intensive communicative activities, resulting in diminished language output in both
spoken and written form. This also explains why communicative language practice
activities and students’ language production were scarce. In reality, the students
needed more time and practice in order to internalise the forms learnt from the
modelled examples as a precursor to independently producing language. The heavy
workload curtailed the opportunities for students to be able to translate linguistic
knowledge into communicative skills.
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The amount of individual language practice evident in the textbook analysis was at
79%, and was greater than that of collaborative work, for example discussions,
problem-solving, role plays at 21%. The clear indication was that the students had
fewer opportunities to interact with each other by dint of working through the
textbook. The classroom discourse analysis revealed a similar finding where
individual work was prevalent, and the students spent more time working on their
own than in interacting with their peers in the target language. There is a view that
pair and group work are not considered essential features of a CLT classroom since
they may be inappropriate in some contexts (Savignon, 2005; Spada, 2007;
Thompson, 1996). However, although individual work is easier to manage in large
classrooms, pair and group work have been widely accepted as the optimal
arrangements for promoting student interactions (Philp, Walter, & Basturkmen,
2010; Storch, 2001). A study by Long and Porter (1985) offered evidence that
students produced a much greater variety of speech functions in collaborative work,
which was seen as a marker of language development. The prevalence of individual
working arrangements supported traditional ways of teaching and learning, counter
to the interactive principles of CLT, and consequently did not foster English
language use as intended.
It is important to note that the textbooks were designed for adaptation by teachers
in local contexts where particular circumstances would shape the choices of tasks
and activities. The mission was to make the textbook as much of a resource as
possible with its specific use to be decided by the teacher. Teachers had the choice
to adapt an individual activity to pair work or group work, or to skip an activity to
save time for another that they found more useful and suitable to their particular
classroom. However, all of the evidence from the classrooms was that textbook
adaptation was minimal. The teachers subscribed to the tradition of attempting to
cover each and every activity in the textbook. This finding is in line with Le (2015)
who reflected that the classroom style of the teacher was “to finish the textbook
within the time limit” (p. 185). The teachers’ rationale appeared to be based on fear
of reprisal by colleagues for doing less than others, or missing activities which might
later be used in tests or examinations. Textbook adaptation is traditionally an
uncommon teaching process in Vietnam where the teachers have been accustomed
to following and teaching what is prescribed in the curriculum. There has been no
system of rewards or incentives for adaptation or creativity.
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8.2.5.2. World Englishes
Standard British English is the variety of the English language used in the textbook
series. This is also the variety used in the Tieng Anh texts at the primary school level
as reported by Dang and Seals (2018). The use of Standard British English, as
argued by Kuo (2006, p. 213), serves as “a convenient starting point” for
policymaking. However, it is not well aligned with the concept of intercultural
communication and the global co-existence of many different English language
varieties.
Given the growing number of non-native speakers of English and the related
increase in different ‘Englishes’, one obvious requirement for English language
curricula in a global world is to pay more attention to the instrumental function of
English as the language for international communication. Accordingly, students
need to be aware of and prepared for intercultural communication with speakers of
varieties of English, with different accents, and different lexical and grammatical
features. A case has been made that English language education should no longer
prepare learners for intelligibility amongst native speakers in one small part of
Kachru’s Inner-Circle (A. Kirkpatrick, 2010; Marlina & Giri, 2014; Sharifian, 2013).
Instead, what English language students need in the contemporary world is the
ability to achieve and sustain mutual comprehension in different global contexts with
a view of English as entirely and fundamentally a means of communication. A similar
point was made in Japanese research where Abe (2013) highlighted the need to
introduce a World Englishes point of view in ELT in Japan, and that students should
be exposed to accents and variations of different ‘Englishes’ rather than a segment
of Inner-Circle English only.
Although this was a relevant issue for Vietnam in developing attainable goals for the
language curriculum, MOET did not address the need for intelligibility of different
Englishes and intercultural understanding in cross-cultural communication. Neither
the curriculum nor the textbooks deal with the need for international communication.
8.2.5.3. The textbook visuals
The inclusion of a large number of visual images was a feature of the textbooks.
However, the analysis concluded that whilst some contributed functionally to
meanings necessary for the learning activities, a number of visuals had very little or
no connection to teaching and learning. Findings from the analysis of pedagogic
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modalities further indicated that some visuals were not used by the teachers. The
absence of any strategic or theoretical grounds for the selection and design of
visuals in the Tieng Anh indicated that MOET had not paid sufficient attention to the
rich meaning potential of multimodal texts, neither in the official curriculum
document nor in the textbook design. The potential of semiotic complementarity, as
discussed in Chapter IV Section 4.4.2.3, in the use of image-supported meaning
making was not well exploited. This supports research by Vu and Febrianti (2018)
in their effort to explore the function of visuals in one Tieng Anh textbook. Their
findings revealed a lack of strategic selection and design of images for teaching and
learning and corroborated recent research in the area of multimodal studies.
Accordingly, it is proposed that the selection of images in language textbooks
should be more strategically and theoretically driven to effectively aid classroom
teaching and learning, as well as to prepare language-learning students with the
ability to negotiate meanings across a range of semiotic modes (Danielsson &
Selander, 2016; Serafini, 2014).
Communication and the representation of meanings in contemporary texts often

involve more than the exchange of language alone. Images are increasingly used
not only in a complementary role to written texts but also as an independent means
of conveying meaning. It is, therefore, no longer appropriate to consider that
language development simply involves the accumulation of oral or written skills
(Unsworth & Ngo, 2014). This multimodal reality has recently become a significant
focus for literacy education research and has strongly influenced school curricula in
some countries, including Australia, England and Singapore (Royce, 1998; Serafini,
2014; Unsworth & Cléirigh, 2009; Walsh, 2009; Wolfe & Flewitt, 2010). The fact that
students routinely work with multimodal texts indicates that learning to construct
meanings from the integration of images and written language now needs to be
considered an important dimension of language competence (Unsworth & Ngo,
2014). Language textbooks need to incorporate the multimodal nature of texts and
develop an understanding of the meaning affordances contributed by language, by
images and by both complementing each other. As suggested by Vu and Febrianti
(2018), the incorporation of this multimodal reality into textbooks would not only
support students in deriving meaning from texts, from the images and the image-
language interaction in textbooks, but also prepare them to negotiate similar texts
encountered in everyday life.
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8.3. Constraints to the implementation of the curriculum
Project 2025 was developed in the context of the extensive literature on reforms in
the domain of English language teaching and learning in a range of similar contexts,
particularly in East Asia. There were no lack of cases, experiences, and lessons to
be drawn from the various attempts to adopt CLT in curriculum innovation. It might
be expected that Vietnam would reflect on both the successful and unsuccessful
attempts of the past to plan and initiate curriculum reform which would be more
contextually sensitive (Kumaravadivelu, 2001). However, it is disappointing to reflect
on the fact that many of the issues and constraints documented here were first
documented more than 20 years ago, for example by Carless (1998) and Li (1998),
and have been echoed in accounts from other contexts reported earlier in this study,
for example in Butler (2011); Coskun (2011); Humphries and Burns (2015) and
Nunan (2003).
8.3.1. Conceptual constraints
There is some inevitability in the conclusion that CLT was doomed to fail in
Vietnamese classrooms for a wide range of reasons, both theoretical and practical,
with a significant cause of the problem in the vagueness of the actual
conceptualisation of CLT itself.
The vagueness of CLT is part of its identity. As highlighted in the literature Chapter
III Section 3.6.6 and also earlier in this chapter, there is a lack of clarity about CLT,
perhaps because its principles are drawn from different sources. Littlewood (2014)
described CLT as having a “dual identity” (p. 350) because from the outset there
have been two versions: the ‘strong’ and ‘weak’, which offer different implications
for how language is best learnt and for the role of the teacher in the classroom. As
noted, CLT is not a teaching method in the sense of which the content, syllabus and
teaching routines are clearly identified and ready to be applied in the classroom
(Brandl, 2008; Richards, 2006; Richards & Rodgers, 2014; Savignon, 2002, 2005).
Rather, a value of CLT is that it is often heralded as “a generalised umbrella term”
(Harmer, 2007, p. 70) to describe the pathway towards “fluency, purposeful
communicative activities, and student-student interaction” (Bax, 2003, p. 280).
However, this laudable flexibility is challenging for teachers who are required to
obtain a solid understanding of CLT, and of theories of language, language learning
and language teaching. The teachers in this study did not articulate or demonstrate
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the professional knowledge of CLT principles and processes required to be able to
apply the pedagogy in their classrooms. This knowledge was not provided in
professional development in preparation for the reform with the result that the
teachers experienced self-doubt and isolation.
CLT has also been criticised for its lack of attention to the critical factor of local
teaching and learning contexts (Butler, 2011; Kumaravadivelu, 1993, 2006a;
Littlewood, 2014; Prabhu, 1990). It is well accepted that what works in one situation
may or may not work in another, and CLT is no exception. CLT discourse constantly
emphasises the priority to generate communication in various ways, while relegating
the context to a more secondary status. This matter was highlighted by Bax (2003)
who argued attention had to be given to the contextual variables in the particular
classroom, with the particular students in the particular country and culture as the
starting point. He argued:
Here we have the main problem of CLT – by its very emphasis on communication, and
implicitly on methodology, it relegates and sidelines the context in which we teach, and
therefore gives out the suggestion that CLT will work anywhere (p. 281).
In Vietnam, the adoption of CLT overtly prioritised the pedagogy at the expense of
the local context, where the obvious factors mitigating against the uptake of CLT
were ignored. The context of policy implementation encompasses all the elements
connected to teaching and learning, including the students and their backgrounds,
their needs, their learning styles, their strategies and their motivations. It also
includes the teachers and their qualifications, their language proficiency, their
experience and professional training, and finally the classroom conditions such as
class size and facilities, the classroom culture, that is the culturally-motivated
relationships between teachers and students and the ingrained ‘examination’ culture
inherent in Vietnamese education. The classroom context in the study was a
manifestation of all of these factors, most of which ran counter to CLT requirements
for small class sizes and a learner-centred philosophy focusing on needs, interests
and learning styles of individual students. Adoption of CLT without adaptation to its
context of implementation is one very strong reason why the uptake of CLT at a
national level has most often resulted in poor outcomes. The CLT based curriculum
reform in Vietnam is a clear case in point.
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8.3.2. Macro-level constraints
There are substantial impediments to the successful implementation of the reform,

many concerning the macro decision-making process and other societal-institutional
factors. Not the least of these is the continuing importance of written high-stakes
examinations for entry to university which have an important influence not only at
the upper-secondary level, but also much earlier in schooling. The spectre of a
‘make-or-break’ examination regime sets the tone for English language teaching
and learning, as well as for all other subject areas. The ‘examination’ culture is
normalised, is expected, and is simply ‘how we do things around here’ in Vietnam.
It is also true to say that similar cultural norms are evident in several East Asian
countries, typically in China, Japan and South Korea.
8.3.2.1. The washback effect of written examinations
The washback effects of written examinations and traditional forms of testing and
assessment were evident in the study, to the point of impairing communicative
classroom practices. The need for students to develop accuracy as a priority over
fluency in order to pass the highly competitive examinations remained the
paramount teaching and learning target. The information-centred education system
in Vietnam is strongly based on marks and ratios of examination passes as
determiners of school reputation. Teachers and school are under pressure to
produce academic students who achieve high marks and grades at school and pass
the examinations. Examination results are, therefore, of primary importance for
schools, teachers, students and parents. The incompatibility of the goals of the
curriculum reform with the processes and content of the examination culture is clear.
The ‘victim’ is communicative teaching and learning in that “only lip-service is paid
to communication” even though the communicative approach is the official
pedagogy (Le & Barnard, 2009, p. 28). This washback effect has been the norm in
a range of settings, and is especially prevalent in the Asia-Pacific, as noted in Korea
(Lee, 2014; Li, 2001), in China (Hu, 2004; W. Wang, 2014), and in Japan (Thompson
& Yanagita, 2015; Tsushima, 2012), where the examination culture is “a deeply
rooted force that substantially influences teaching practice” (Humphries & Burns,
2015, p. 240).
The strong washback effect of the written examinations cast a permanent shadow
over school education, extending down to the lower secondary level. It did not simply
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fade away even though there was a prescribed approach which placed greater focus
on generating communication, particularly oral communication. This presents a
major paradox and challenge for MOET – if the high-stakes, written examinations
remain entrenched, then their washback effect will continue to direct teaching and
learning goals and practices towards traditional, pen and paper, discrete-point
activities and away from oral communication in English language classrooms. This
must be resolved as a matter of urgency if the national needs for communicative
citizens are to be achieved.
8.3.2.2. Professional development
It is clear that insufficient and/or inappropriate professional support and in-service

training before and during the implementation of the reform has been one of the
major hurdles to its success. A similar issue was also reported by Ho and Wong
(2002); Lamie (2000); Savignon (2008), and Wang (2008) in different locations,
each reinforcing the critical importance of in-service training as a precursor to
educational change.
In the case of Project 2025, a range of workshops and short courses were organised
to prepare teachers to teach the new curriculum, indicating that, as per the
documented policy intention, some attention and effort were directed to in-service
training. However, the findings indicated uneven access and opportunities for this
professional development, as well as concerns expressed about the quality of the
training programs. One obvious conclusion was that inadequate training was in part
responsible for teachers’ insufficient knowledge and understanding of the pedagogic
principles and processes required to successfully enact the desired changes.
Although teachers are often considered to be autodidacts and active learners
themselves, it cannot be taken for granted that teachers are able to change their
pedagogic practice without a sufficient level of professional support (Hargreaves,
2002).
8.3.2.3. English is a foreign language in Vietnam
A different constraint at the societal level relates to the limited opportunities for
English use beyond the classroom. In Vietnam, where English is a foreign language,
it is not used as a means of communication and is rarely heard beyond the
classroom, English is restricted to being a school subject in the school curriculum.
Outside the classroom, students use their mother tongue to communicate; hence,
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there is little or no instrumental aim to use English as part of life in the community
(Barker, 2004; Kam, 2002). There is also variability with regard to the opportunity to
access English classes outside of formal schooling. Children of parents with the
financial means to buy qualified supplementary English classes enhance their
progress towards higher levels of proficiency (Bray, 2013; Bray & Lykins, 2012).
However, students in rural and remote areas as well as the urban poor do not have
access to such resources.
The lack of opportunities for students to use English outside the classroom is a
societal constraint and one which will not disappear in the near future. This fact of
life, a fact shared with other countries in the region, creates challenges that need to
be taken seriously as the drive towards the national English language competency
goals continues.
8.3.3. Classroom-level constraints
At a more localised level, there are practical constraints on the successful

implementation of the reform. These include large class sizes, limited classroom
resources, students with different degrees of motivation, and unconfident teachers,
all of which challenge the implementation of the reform.
8.3.3.1. Large class sizes
Large class sizes were among the most frequently mentioned impediments to
communicative classrooms in this study. Data revealed an average class size of 41
students, too large to conduct communicative activities and to ensure student
participation. Experience reported in the literature of curriculum reform suggests it
is unrealistic to expect teachers to conduct communicative lessons in over-crowded
classrooms. Overcrowded classrooms have been an ongoing problem for years not
only in Vietnam, as reported in previous studies (Le, 2011, 2015; Le & Barnard,
2009; H. H. Pham, 2007), but also in other settings, for example in Turkey (Coskun,
2011), in China (Hu, 2004; W. Wang, 2014; Warden & Lin, 2000), in South Korea
(Jihyeon, 2009; Li, 2001) and in Japan (Nishino & Watanabe, 2008). In large
classes, it is “very difficult, if not entirely impossible”, as Li (1998, p. 681) concluded,
to introduce and manage performance-based activities, which tend to be more
difficult to organise and time-consuming in overcrowded classrooms.
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Policymakers and administrators in MOET and DOET were well aware of the issue
of large class sizes. The interview data revealed that the school principals were well
aware of the reality but financially unable to intervene. The simple fact is that it was
an unrealistic expectation for communicative lessons to be conducted in such large
classes. This factor points to insufficient preparation for the implementation of a
communicative curriculum. As concluded by Fullan (2007, p. 15), insufficient
preparation involves “many more disincentives than benefits” in the implementation
of the intended change.
8.3.3.2. Poorly equipped classrooms
A lack of classroom facilities to aid teaching and learning was an additional obstacle
to change, and was particularly obvious in economically disadvantaged areas. The
classroom observations revealed that computers and access to the WWW were
absent in most of the rural classrooms. This situation is likely to be worse in remote
mountainous areas where even basic classroom furniture is not a given. Urban
classrooms are much better equipped with audio-visual facilities, including state-of-
the-art multimedia language labs in some schools. Such urban classrooms are often
equipped from the voluntary contributions of more wealthy families. Such
purchasing power is simply not available to the parents in poor rural areas.
8.3.3.3. Student motivation
Students, as the perceived beneficiaries of change, are essential participants in the

process. Although student attitudes to the curriculum reform were beyond the scope
of this investigation, the research findings did reveal that students with lower levels
of achievement and motivation were perceived as an obstacle in the move towards
the communicative curriculum. What was noticeable was the lack of motivation for
communicative competence amongst students, particularly those in the mid-range
of English language achievement. These students had limited communicative needs
in English, and needed to study English purely as a compulsory examination
subject. This finding is consistent with earlier studies, including Li (1998) and
Warden and Lin (2000). Furthermore, students in disadvantaged areas, especially
those from low-income families, consistently received limited support for learning,
and generally demonstrated less motivation for learning English. Many parents who
struggled financially were not in a position to provide additional support for their
child’s learning. This was seen by teachers to result in lower student motivation and
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less success in English compared to peers from higher socio-economic
environments in urban areas.
A narrative of lower achievement in schooling linked to lower socioeconomic status

is common in education jurisdictions across the world. In some cases, the simplistic
answer given is that poor children are generally less able. Alternatively, the
responsibility is placed with the parents and the community who are seen to be less
committed to the education of their children, or too busy to provide the appropriate
level of attention or support. It may be that lower-achieving students are less
motivated to learn than their higher-achieving colleagues. There is some evidence
for a relationship between motivation and achievement, but the nature of the
relationship is often a point for debate. In general, the relationship between
achievement and socio-economic status is contentious and a subject of ongoing
debate. It is largely a question of opinion rather than fact, with beliefs and values
holding sway over empirical evidence. The teachers in the study placed the burden
of responsibility for success and motivation on the students and on their parents,
rather than taking any reflective position about the interest level in their lessons or
the support for learning they provided.
8.3.3.4. The unconfident teacher
The study has pointed to the central importance of the English language teachers
in effecting the intended curriculum and pedagogic changes demanded by Project
2025. The findings showed that the vast majority of the teacher participants had
achieved MOET’s required levels of proficiency to teach the new curriculum. This
was a substantial development when compared to findings in a study by N. H.
Nguyen (2013), in which he reported that more than 80% of lower-secondary
teachers were underqualified in relation to their English language proficiency. In the
current study, the language competence of the teachers surveyed was assessed to
be at the appropriate level. However, the classroom analysis revealed that many
teachers remained unconfident and uncomfortable in using English to teach, despite
their appropriate level of proficiency. This finding is associated with the potential for
shared anxiety among NNSs teachers more generally whereby their language
proficiency is believed to influence professional self-esteem and confidence
(Medgyes, 2001). They may be anxious about making errors when speaking in
English, and in this way, losing the respect of their students. Earlier research noted
that these anxieties and questions of self-confidence in language proficiency had
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created feelings of inferiority and had also impacted adversely on teaching (Braine,
2005; Medgyes, 2001; Moussu, 2006). Closely related to the matter of confidence
in using English was the lack of confidence about CLT, and also in relation to
language theories and pedagogies more generally.
All of these factors in combination need to be understood alongside the clear

evidence presented of insufficient teacher training and support. In sum, these
factors constituted a serious impediment to a smooth and successful
implementation of the reform. It is evident that the teachers had ongoing pedagogic
uncertainties and confusion about implementing the changes in their classrooms.
The stress and pressure created by the shift in demands of the CLT approach to
teaching and learning were extremely important factors in inhibiting effective
change.
8.3.4. The question of ideology
A broader and more deep-seated issue in the context of Vietnam is the potential
clash between the student-centred, interactive principles of CLT and the traditional
Vietnamese classroom where the legacies of Confucian ideology are clearly in
evidence. Of particular relevance are the philosophical assumptions about teaching
and learning, and the perceived roles and responsibilities of teachers and students
in the classroom.
There is no question that CLT is essentially a contemporary Western industrialised

creation, inherently displaying the ideologies and cultural values of its origins in
Europe and the USA. When exported to non-Western locations such as Vietnam,
there is a potential conflict between its Western-based premises and the beliefs and
understandings about education in non-Western locations. In Vietnam, Confucian
beliefs and values are implicit across many areas of culture, no more so than in
education. Learning is conceptualised as an acquisition of information and
knowledge which resides principally in books. The teacher is regarded as the
possessor and transmitter of valued knowledge, and the learner is the recipient of
the teacher’s wisdom. In this way, a relationship of power difference pertains
between the teacher and the student, and the student pays due deference to the
teacher in this asymmetric relationship. Students in traditional Vietnamese
classrooms are expected to speak only when being addressed, and spontaneous
interactions are traditionally not evident or welcomed in classrooms. In this
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transmission-oriented pedagogy, there is strong teacher authority and minimal
student individuality, resulting in a teacher-centred classroom. The Vietnamese
culture values collectivism and conformity, which have shaped Vietnamese
classroom practices over many hundreds of years. This partly explains the fact that
the students preferred to stay quiet during communicative activities; not only did
they did not have the linguistic resources to draw on, but also they were not
comfortable to speak before being addressed by the teacher.
CLT inherently promotes an individualistic approach to learning. It rewards

independence and individuality, and encourages authentic interactions in the target
language as one of its core principles. CLT is constructivist-based and aims to place
the learner at the centre of teaching and learning. The prescribed pedagogy in
Project 2025 embodies an educational philosophy alien to Vietnamese culture, and
has made assumptions about teacher and student roles at odds with those which
have been ingrained within the local culture. It was bound to meet with resistance,
likely to find only limited success, even failure as was the experience in China (Hu,
2002, 2004).
In Vietnam, there is no doubt that a clash of educational values has been an

important impediment to the success of Project 2025. Relevant to this outcome is
the following comment by Elmore (2004) which gets to the importance of the major
professional development focus which will be required for success in the curriculum
change:
Cultures do not change by mandate; they change by the specific displacement of existing
norms, structures, and processes by others; the process of cultural change depends
fundamentally on modelling the new values and behaviour that you expect to displace the
existing ones (p. 11)
The cultural change implicated here relates essentially to the roles and relationships
of the teachers and learners in the English language classrooms. The intended shift
to a CLT approach marks a monumental shift for Vietnamese teachers and
students. The modelling of the changes required for success must be addressed in
the professional development programs and materials which are now crucial for
teachers. Without them, Project 2025 and any other reform in the future can only
result in limited changes, well short the magnitude targeted by the policymakers and
needed by the country.
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8.3.5. The ‘shadow’ industry
The growth of private tutoring in English goes on alongside the implementation of

the reform, as if, somehow, the two are unrelated. Students routinely subscribe to
supplementary lessons outside school hours in the hope of improving their scores
and achieving success in the end of school examinations. The prevalence of private
tutoring can be explained on two major counts. The first is rooted in the belief
ingrained in Vietnamese culture that education is the gatekeeper to individual
development and social mobility. This has put pressure on the education system to
serve as a vehicle for personal and national development, and at the same time, on
parents to provide the best educational opportunities for their children to become
high achievers, including an investment in private tuition. The second stems from
the perceived lack of high-quality school education, which has eroded trust in the
quality of public schooling and stimulated the demand for private tutoring.
In an ideal context, the new curriculum would reduce the demand for private tutoring
as it was designed to help students become independent, effective users of English.
However, the study found that private tutoring remained popular, which raises a
serious concern about the real effectiveness and sustainability of the reform. It
appears that the new curriculum has not yet banished doubts that learning within
the school curriculum alone will ensure the required achievements for current and
future needs. Given the financial investment in Project 2025, the growing popularity
of private tutoring for English is not a positive signal. Further empirical research in
the size and scope of English private tutoring within the context of curriculum
innovation would be beneficial and would provide clearer understandings about the
‘shadow education’ and its relationship to the curriculum reform.
Chapter conclusion
Project 2025 has posed unresolved challenges and dilemmas, evident in a lack of
alignment between policy and practice. The findings of the research were not at all
surprising. Fullan (2007) reflected on “the massive failure” of educational reforms,
when authorities underestimate the critical role of setting up preconditions for
change and building the local capacity for schools and teachers to be able to engage
in effective change. He concluded:
There was actually great pressure and incentives to become innovative, and this resulted in
many schools adopting reforms that they did not have the capacity (individually or
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organisationally) to put into practice. Thus, innovations were adopted on the surface, with
some of the language and structures becoming altered, but not the practice of teaching (p.
6)
Fullan’s remark appears to reveal the classic dilemma of educational reform where
change only occurs on the ‘surface’ – with little actual change at the level of
classroom practice. Particularly in the case of Vietnam, a lack of preparation for
implementing the communicative curriculum in terms of teacher capacity, classroom
facilities and the assessment system, together with the top-down model for
curriculum reform amongst other factors, has resulted in an obvious gap between
the intentions and realities of the reform. On the basis of the research findings,
some suggestions and recommendations for changes to bridge the gap between
intentions and realities are proposed in the final chapter.
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CHAPTER IX: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The study did not start with the aim to evaluate Project 2025, although it has
analysed the evaluative language used by the participating teachers about the
reform. It is noteworthy that no official evaluation of the project has yet been made
public in Vietnam, although the decision to change the end date from 2020 to 2025
is important. That decision is interpreted as the Government through MOET not
wishing to abandon the goals of the reform but accepting that 2020 is an unrealistic
timeframe in which to see success. The comments made here aim to be supportive
of that position. As a citizen of Vietnam, I am commited to the broad aims of the
reform. I strongly support the national agenda of greater participation in the global
economy as an important pathway to improved life chances and higher living
standards for all of my fellow citizens. As an English language teacher and privileged
scholarship holder, I agree with the importance of enhanced English language
communicative skills for all of the population and as a way forward. The proposals
discussed here are part of my commitment to the national effort.
These recommendations present ideas to bridge the gaps revealed in the findings
and discussed in the previous chapter, and suggest what might be done to align the
reality with the intention and the intention with the reality. Essentially, these
recommendations are premised on the understanding that major changes are
needed, both from the vantage point of policy intentions and from the vantage point
of the classroom implementation. As would be expected, these matters for
discussion and change are related and tied together so that change in one area is
most likely to have repercussions elsewhere.
The chapter also presents suggestions for further studies into other aspects and
issues of the English language educational reform for schools in Vietnam.
9.1. Major findings
The study has aimed to inform the three research questions posed at the outset, all
of which revolved around the question of policy intention of English language
educational reform in Vietnam and its uptake in classrooms. It described and
examined the intentions of the policymakers for English language teaching and
learning at the lower-secondary level, and how these intentions were manifest in
Tieng Anh, the textbook series, developed to make concrete the curriculum. It then
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provided empirical evidence of how teachers, the key implementers at the local
level, made sense of the new curriculum through an exploration of their evaluations
of the curriculum, their knowledge of the prescribed pedagogy underpinning the
change, and finally how they enacted the new curriculum through their pedagogy.
There is no doubting the need to reform English language education policies in

Vietnam to enhance students’ English capacity in the context of globalisation and
increasing socio-economic integration. Planned, developed and implemented in a
top-down manner, which is standard practice in the Vietnamese socio-cultural
context, the new curriculum for lower-secondary schools set a target of Level A2 in
English proficiency, where this level was calibrated in relation to the European
Framework of Reference for Languages (Council of Europe, 2001). Communicative
Language Teaching (CLT) with the intimation of a student-centred approach was
taken up as the designated pedagogy for classroom processes and practices.
MOET intended to bring about radical changes in classroom practice, shifting from
traditional teacher-fronted processes towards an interactive, learner-centred space.
The top-down reform process, although having some potential for making change
as noted, posed a number of dilemmas and problems arising from a lack of
collaboration between policy makers and practising teachers in the shaping of the
curriculum goals, the pedagogy and the assessment practices.
The textbook series, Tieng Anh, presented the policy for classroom implementation.
The strengths and weaknesses of the textbooks have been addressed in the study,
with an attention drawn to the lack of focus on meaning making through
multimodality and the potential to teach and learn using multimodal resources. In a
world where communication increasingly uses and relies on visual resources, it is
important that English language teachers and learners are working with images as
a source of meaning in their classrooms.
Perhaps the most important point to make about Tieng Anh is that it was designed
with the view that it would be adapted for use in classrooms. The fact that there was
little evidence of adaptation is noteworthy. It points to the culturally ingrained ways
of the teachers who felt obligated to work diligently through the book in a very literal
manner. In the minds of the teachers to not complete all of the activities and
exercises equated to a failing. This was not the intention of the textbooks, and given
the additional workload inherent in them, it was never going to be possible to work
through each and every activity. It was salutary to note that the omissions were
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generally in relation to the communicative practice activities, precisely those which
would challenge the learners in the areas of most need.
The teacher attitudes highlighted their serious doubts and concerns about the
feasibility of the curriculum goals. Proficiency Level A2 was uniformly seen to be too
high for mainstream classrooms to achieve. Barriers to the CLT curriculum were
reported by the teachers, indicating organisational and structural impediments to the
new curriculum. These exacerbated the mismatch between a communicative
pedagogy and the orientation to teaching and learning of Vietnamese teachers.
Limited understanding of CLT principles and practices pointed to insufficient in-

service training and support before and during the implementation of change, and
highlighted MOET’s lack of preparation of the teachers to enact the intended
changes. Without a major, planned and extensive professional development
program, as discussed in the previous chapter, the teaching force will remain
severely constrained in its capacity to produce independent and competent teachers
who are confident in adapting materials and strategies to match their local contexts.
The conclusion is that time alone will not align the reality with the intention. Changes
need to be made at several levels for the goal of communicative English language
users to be achieved.
The title of the thesis was chosen to bring attention to the fact that the reform was
developed and designed by one set of educational personnel, then handed to
another group to be implemented. The intentions of the reform were those of the
policymakers in the central bureaucracy; its realities were evidenced in how English
language teachers across the province implemented the reform. In Vietnam, such
an arrangement is standard practice and is perfectly normal. The socio-political
structure in Vietnam operates as a one-Party socialist system with power vested in
the central Government. The Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) takes the lead role
in all branches of society. Institutions such as education are highly centralised and
policy decisions are made by the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET).
Reflecting on this social structure from a distance, and after four years of reading
and researching in the field, it is important to state that centralised, ‘top-down’
arrangements, at least in the case of Project 2025, have come with some benefits
and probably more challenges. The stark reality is that the teachers as implementers
of the policy did not have the skills, the confidence or the understandings to
successfully make the intended changes. The socio-political system in Vietnam
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brings with it an obvious power relationship between the central bureaucracy and
the citizens across the country. All sectors of society accept and work to support the
system. The country’s English language teachers, presented with the responsibility
to implement curriculum and pedagogic reform, worked within constraints which
made achievement of its specified goals extremely difficult.
Vietnamese culture remains traditional in many of its practices. Confucian

philosophy with its clear and defined roles for adults and young people, for teachers
and learners, remains important in all educational processes. Teachers and their
learners are inducted from childhood into specific ways of behaving, unchallenged
within the socio-cultural context. Vietnam’s socio-political system works in tandem
with these cultural values to produce agreed and accepted ways of being and doing
in classrooms. In concert, they create teachers and learners who are not at all ideal
candidates for successful adoption of CLT. This must be the starting point for
successful change to enable the positive future for Vietnam envisaged in the reform.
The socio-political context nor the socio-cultural context are likely to change in the
near future, and it is incumbent on the reform to work within these contextual
frameworks. That CLT is ideologically and philosophically opposite points to the
simple fact that CLT must be adapted to work successfully in Vietnam. It is obvious
that changes will be needed to bring intention and reality into alignment so that any
official evaluation of the reform can be more positive, and steps towards greater
global participation are made. Critical questions now revolve around what to do to
intervene and bridge the gap. What can be suggested and implemented at any or
all levels? What can be changed and by whom to support the different groups of
stakeholders involved in English language teaching and learning?
9.2. The proficiency targets
The Proficiency Level A2 goal for the lower-secondary level was roundly criticised
for being overly challenging for mainstream students to attain. The teachers judged
this level of English language attainment to be too demanding for their learners. This
goal did not facilitate a positive environment for teaching and learning in the
classroom. The question arising is whether to keep or lower this proficiency level?
This is perhaps an open question to be considered by each of the stakeholder
groups. English language teaching and learning have exploded in popularity in Asia,
and it is not surprising that many countries, including Vietnam, are making focused
and determined efforts to establish cadres of competent users of English. In the
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case of the English curriculum reform in Vietnam, it is understood that the
proficiency goal was set within a vision for the future because the new curriculum is
expected to be in use for at least ten years or more. With such an expectation, this
specified proficiency level could remain appropriate for the next decade. However,
it is argued here that a vision for the future does not necessarily call for a higher
proficiency goal than the present conditions actually permit. A proficiency goal
needs to be relevant, feasible and attainable at the present time and with full
consideration of current conditions. Furthermore, a proficiency goal does not need
to remain rigid over time; it could be subject to change and negotiation over time
and in accordance with relevant contextual factors. In the current situation, it is
recommended that changes should be made in regard to the proficiency goal.
One option is to lower expectations so that mainstream students can achieve the
level. It is clear that in the current context of overcrowded classrooms, limited
facilities, the strong washback effect of written examinations, teachers and students
of different levels and capacities, the achievement of the Proficiency Level A2 is
overly demanding and largely unrealistic. Teachers need time to improve their
English language capacity to support their learners to achieve the set targets.
Similarly, improvements in the infrastructure will also take time. When the local
facilities and capacity are improved, a higher proficiency goal can be set.
Another option is to establish a flexible proficiency goal. In a real sense, there can
be no one-size-fits-all goal that can suit all “actual situations within which the
language teaching and learning will take place” (Breen & Candlin, 2001, p. 24). For
this reason, a flexible set of proficiency levels appears a practical suggestion. A
higher proficiency level could be achievable for high-performing students and
schools, where the potential and the conditions to achieve are in evidence. For
lower-performing students and schools, especially those in disadvantaged rural and
remote areas, a lower proficiency level would be more practical. However, of
importance to note is that working with a scale of proficiency goals could cause
problems, confusion and inconsistencies in implementation. The process of
‘differentiation’ would need clear, detailed guidance, and necessarily strong
leadership at all levels and at all points in the process.
Linked to the issue of the proficiency goal is the need for a compatible form of
assessment to measure the achievement of the goal, especially at the end of each
level of schooling, that is at Year 5, Year 9 and Year 12. This is of critical importance
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because when a proficiency goal is established, it must be measured to determine
whether it has been achieved by a particular proportion of students in different
schools and regions. Moreover, the form of assessment needs to be
communicatively oriented with an oral component. The assessment results could
provide concrete evidence for evaluating the feasibility of the proficiency goal and
the pedagogy, serving as a basis for adjusting and localising the curriculum goals,
content and the pedagogy. Based on the assessment outcomes, schools might
organise students in classes of similar levels of English capacity when they enter a
more senior level. This would make it easier for teachers to focus on a proficiency
goal and a pedagogy particularly adapted to a cohort of students. This is not to
widen the gap between high and low performing students, rather to find ways to
support all students on the basis of their differentiated needs and capacities.
Schools might also arrange students in classes of mixed levels, providing that they
have strategies to encourage students of different levels to improve their English
capacities. Each of the options has benefits and drawbacks. They require higher
levels of commitment and effort by individual schools and teachers to make real
improvement at the classroom level. Equally, they require understanding,
recognition and action from DOET and MOET bureaucrats.
9.3. Structural changes
Fullan (2007) made the case that large-scale, long-lasting reform will not occur if
conditions remain unchanged. This comment rings true for Vietnam at the current
time. In light of the findings in the study, it is critically important that structural
changes, particularly in class size and in assessment, should be made, or planned
to be made in order to establish the preconditions for the successful implementation
of the communicative curriculum.
Communicative teaching and learning cannot flourish in overcrowded classrooms

and in traditional classroom set-ups which are much more likely to inhibit rather than
support interaction. Smaller class sizes are essential if communicative lessons are
to be conducted. This, of course, would require more classrooms being built, better
classroom facilities and, importantly, more teaching staff. All of these require an
increased financial commitment. Increased investment in school infrastructure and
human resourcing is dependent on Government policies and priorities, and
budgetary constraints have been a major impediment to change in school
infrastructure, especially when considered on a national scale. Nevertheless,
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upgrading school infrastructure and classroom facilities must be seen as an integral
part of the intention to improve the quality of English language education. Without
changes to classroom conditions, the communicative language classroom will
remain out of reach, an intention which cannot be matched in reality.
A second structural change concerns assessment. The high-stakes national

examinations remain written-based, making it impossible and irrelevant to assess
the communicative competence of students. Adding an oral component into high-
stakes examinations would be highly desirable, but, as noted earlier, there are many
obstacles to this including how to establish an oral test for more than one million
candidates per year. However, if there is little or no attention to oral assessment as
an integral element of the examination culture, then oral competency will struggle to
be part of the teaching and learning practices in the classroom. One practical
strategy would be to give a more prominent role to mid-term and end-of-term tests
to assess oral proficiency and progress after each term of study and after each year
level. Whilst MOET has encouraged oral tests in regular assessment, it is argued
here that greater attention and focus must be paid to these oral tests as the
strongest way of encouraging students to develop oral competence. There is some
merit in considering an assessment driven curriculum.
There are several benefits of conducting class-based or school-based tests for oral
proficiency. Financially it is more feasible and cost-effective to manage a test for
students within a class or a school than for a million or more students in a national
examination. Regular testing for oral proficiency on a term by term basis would also
offer concrete evidence for assessing student progress over a period of study and
enable the provision of appropriate, individual feedback. Regular testing in this way
for oral skills would make the testing less stressful and less high-stakes in nature.
The impediment here concerns the validity and reliability of the test results, as
different teachers and schools may have different ideas and capacities to determine
standards and performance. The introduction of a process of moderation, common
in many educational jurisdictions in different countries, would address this concern.
Placing a greater focus on oral assessment is an obvious way to encourage schools
to engage with oral language and to bring spoken language to the forefront of the
teaching and learning experience. It is, therefore, crucial that the teachers are
trained in communicative language assessment, coupled with detailed guidance
and assessment benchmarks to follow.
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9.4. Implications for leadership
Across the entire education sector in Vietnam, a range of professional officers are
charged with the responsibility of improving the English language performance of
school-aged learners on a national scale. Education policymakers at the
bureaucratic centre, district administrators, school principals and teachers all have
had some role in planning, leading, managing and enacting the curriculum change.
This requires leadership at all points in the process. As argued by Le (2019) on the
importance of leadership in the implementation of curriculum change:
What is needed for enhancing teacher capacity for successful implementation of the ELT
initiative in Vietnam and in other similar contexts is a strong leadership that can orchestrate
the interaction between top-down control and bottom-up autonomy (p. 74)
Le (2019) goes on to argue that strong leadership is required to provide central

guidance and control. However, strong leadership does not necessarily mean a top-
down, centralised approach which ignores the importance of other stakeholders in
the process of making curriculum change. As noted in this study, the socio-politically
normalised model of change evident in Project 2025 has not succeeded because,
for one reason, the planning for change proceeded without the participation of
teachers as the crucial agents in the process. However, it has also been noted that
a bottom-up approach is not well suited to Vietnam. Such a process would be
culturally radical and possibly be viewed with suspicion by all parties because it
would require important shifts in cultural practices. Curriculum change or pedagogic
change have no grassroots history in Vietnam. It is not the expected or appropriate
place for teachers to drive change in this way. Nevertheless, it is critically important
to find ways to engage all the stakeholders in the process of planning and
implementing reform. This is where strong leadership is required to enable success.
Instead of blaming different parts of the system for the current lack of success of the
reform, it is incumbent on all stakeholder groups to collaborate as part of the effort
to make Project 2025 a success. This is Le’s orchestration function of strong
leaders.
The need for coordinated change through collaboration has been widely advocated
in the literature, with some consensus that strong guidance from the centre in
combination with the participation of teachers and schools can yield positive
outcomes (Fink, 2003; Hargreaves & Ainscow, 2015; Morgan, 1992). Clune (1993)
outlined a ‘coordinated decentralised’ approach rather than a ‘standardised
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centralised’ model to reform. In the same vein, Fullan (1994) noted the necessity to
combine the strengths of both the centre and the local in realising and sustaining
educational change:
Combined strategies which capitalise on the centre’s strengths (to provide perspective
direction, incentives, networking, and retrospective monitoring) and local capacity (to learn,
create, respond to, and feed into overall directions) are more likely to achieve greater overall
coherence. Such systems also have greater accountability because the need to obtain
political support for ideas is built into the patterns of interactions (p. 20)
In Vietnam, balancing these distinct and separate forces means that all
stakeholders, including the most powerful policymakers, district administrators,
school principals and teachers, all need to be involved in the change process. The
execution of the new curriculum necessarily requires collaboration and negotiations
amongst all of these stakeholders in relation to the approach to pedagogy, the
proficiency levels to be achieved, the length of time it is going to take, and the
professional development which needs to be put in place to enhance the teacher
capacity to enact the intended changes. Based on the findings here, teachers need
to have greater feelings of empowerment, of control and of certainty about the
intentions of the reform. If this happens, questions about teacher attitude, and
whether they accept or reject the change become redundant. Teachers may not
need to be concerned about understanding an imposed pedagogy, about whether it
is alien to them, or to what degree they think it works. When the meanings inherent
in the curriculum reform are shared through collaboration, it becomes unnecessary
to ask whether there is coherence between the centre and the local context. The
more that top-down and bottom-up forces are coordinated, the more likely that
educational change can be effective. Of course, this is easier said than done, as
achieving harmony between top-down and bottom-up forces is never easy,
particularly in an environment where such collaboration has no history or tradition.
Another implication for leadership is the importance of taking into account the voices
of researchers and empirical evidence drawn from classroom-based research,
which has been largely absent from or disregarded in the policymaking process.
Such research should be treated as an independent and trusted source of reference,
which can be used as a basis for improved decision-making. The role of educational
research in Vietnam requires higher value and status in the public policymaking
process, creating opportunities for academics and policymakers to work
collaboratively towards improving curriculum policies and classroom practices.
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9.5. Teacher professional development
The responsibilities for educational change rest with all of the stakeholder groups
who are part of this study. The most obvious of these are the teachers, but as the
findings indicate they are not currently well-served to succeed in enacting the policy
intentions within Project 2025. Their shortcomings in terms of the competence and
confidence to use and teach the English language has been one reason for the
limited success of the curriculum reform. Their lack of understanding of the
prescribed pedagogy in the reform has been another. Their lack of participation in
the shape and thrust of the reform yet another. Together these point to the
paramount importance of professional development as an essential area of focus to
bridge the gap between policy intention and implementation reality. Professional
development is crucial because the reform has challenged teachers not only to work
with new content but more importantly to change their core values about the nature
of teaching and learning English and to adopt new classroom practices and
processes. These ways of operating in the classroom are culturally alien to the
teachers and the evidence from classrooms is that they have not been well
understood or adopted. The teachers in the study had little idea how to go about
working within a CLT framework.
To develop the capacity to enact the mandated changes, the teachers are required
to be independent, competent and confident English language users with a
knowledge of language in relation to teaching, to learning, and to assessment.
Accordingly, the focus of professional learning for Vietnamese NNS teachers should
prioritise the following key areas:
(i) teacher competence in English language use

(ii) teacher knowledge of CLT and how to adapt CLT for the local classroom
Whilst more than 90% of the teachers had obtained the mandated level of English
language proficiency, the findings revealed that they remained unconfident and
uncomfortable using English to teach. Enhancing teacher English language
competence appropriate to the teaching of communication is a key area of
professional development. The other major focus of professional development is to
enhance teacher understandings, processes and practices associated with CLT,
and how to adapt the pedagogy to their local context. Highlighting the lack of
understanding by the teachers is not to lay the blame for failure at their feet. Rather,
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it is to stress the importance of teachers understanding in more detail what CLT
entails and how it can work in their classrooms. They are the key agents of change.
Without their positive participation the reform can only have very limited success.
9.5.1. The need to understand the nature of CLT
As argued by Rahman (2015), if the nature of CLT is not well-suited to a specific

socio-cultural context, there is little hope for real improvement to be seen in
classroom practice. Vietnam is one such socio-cultural context, and for CLT to be
successfully implemented as required in Project 2025, there needs to be a major
professional development effort at the national level. The point of emphasis is the
need to focus on a contextually-driven pedagogy rather than holding to a singular
pedagogic approach. In the context of Vietnam, it is of critical importance to adapt
the principles of CLT which have the potential to work in the diverse local contexts
in Vietnam rather than adopting it as a complete and coherent pedagogic package.
Given the points made about the incongruity between the fundamental bases of the
pedagogy in Western values of individualism and learner focus and the East Asian
values of collectivism and teacher focus, then some important adaptation of CLT will
be essential.
9.5.2. Adapting as opposed to adopting CLT
Of the ‘weak’ and ‘strong’ versions of CLT discussed earlier, the ‘strong’ version is
quite alien to Vietnamese teachers and unsuitable to the context where English is a
foreign language, and the teaching force consists entirely of non-native speakers of
the target language. It is suggested that only the ‘weak’ version has some potential
for uptake. The ‘weak’ version involves some focus on the teaching and learning of
grammar as part of the pedagogy, an approach with which Vietnamese teachers are
familiar and comfortable.
When a ‘weak’ interpretation of CLT is adopted, then the value of grammar teaching,
explanation, drill and error correction is accepted as a necessary but not sufficient
element of pedagogy. The non-communicative work is, therefore, still important and
valid. Its importance is that it provides a pathway into language use. However,
perhaps of more importance is the understanding that it is a step in a process and
not the endpoint. The goal is to use the knowledge about form and structure in the
communicative use of the language. The goal, as was the case in Vietnam in the
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past, is not merely knowledge of the form and structure of language itself. The
national imperative is for students to learn the language forms in potential contexts
of use and be provided with opportunities to use them in genuine communicative
interaction. The classification of language practice types by Richards (2006)
suggests the need to move flexibly from more to less controlled activities. The aim
is to increase the proportion of communicative language practice activities. As part
of adaptation, teachers must engage with professional learning in how to use Tieng
Anh to create activities which are communicative.
Research findings from this study and other sources (Butler, 2011; Fotos, 2005; Le,
2015) have confirmed that the culturally embedded values and roles of Vietnamese
teachers and students do not align well with a learner-centred pedagogy based in
Western cultural and educational philosophies. In particular, the focus in the latter
privileges the individual and individualism. Accordingly, it will be advantageous to
pursue a teacher-fronted approach whilst incorporating meaningful communicative
activities in the Vietnamese classroom. On this basis, it will be beneficial to set off
from familiar classroom practices, those with which teachers are more familiar and
comfortable in their roles. Mechanical practice, including drills and substitution
practices, need not be totally discarded, but rather used in combination with more
communicative practices. For example, teachers who are accustomed to controlled,
form-oriented strategies can still use these activities but gradually expand their
repertoires to more information-exchange activities that trigger interaction. In
crowded classrooms, it is possible to incorporate some aspects of the traditional
Presentation-Practice-Product (PPP) cycle with activities involving structured or free
practice depending on the level of students. In this way, teachers maintain a sense
of security and confidence, but gradually expand their use of activity types in a more
confident and consistent manner. In this way the learning starts from where the
learner is situated, in this case the learner being the English language teacher. It is
important to avoid the unrealistic assumption that teachers can move from non-
communicative practices to authentic communicative practices without extensive
professional learning over an extended period of time. Similarly, it is unrealistic to
expect teachers, accustomed to and comfortable with teacher-fronted classrooms,
to switch to a student-centred pedagogy without providing the knowledge and
understanding of the potential of a student-centred pedagogy. The need for
professional development is vital. It will be costly and will require extensive planning
and resource commitment over a period a time. The stark reality is that without a
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concerted professional development program the teachers of English will not be
able to support the communicative citizens needed for national economic well-being.
9.5.2.1. Classroom interaction
To take a linguistic perspective on the communicative need, there is a need to

generate extended oral exchanges in which students have the opportunity to take
on the role of a primary knower (K1). It is suggested that an understanding of a
functional model of language and context will be useful professional development
with the goals of making changes to the Tenor in the classroom and to the focus on
language form. Some understanding of a functional model of language will allow
teachers to understand how different exchange patterns can be used to replace
traditional IRF exchanges. As discussed earlier in section 8.2.4, the IRF pattern
realises pseudo-communicative interactions, which do not incorporate the features
of real-life conversation and are at odds with the communicative classroom. The
system of Negotiation, as described within SFL, offers the means to analyse
interaction from the vantage point of speakers adopting and assigning roles to each
other to achieve particular communicative purposes (Martin & Rose, 2007). An
understanding of Negotiation will allow the teacher to extend the student repertoire
of exchange types and speech functions. It will provide a linguistic understanding of
how to adopt and assign roles in an exchange, to add tracking and challenge moves
which engage students in extended interactions that reflect the authentic
communication patterns of everyday life.
In communicative classrooms, teachers do not rely on ‘display’ questions. As

discussed above in Section 8.2.4, the use of a ‘display’ questioning strategy and the
typical interaction pattern of IRF invites monosyllabic or very short responses.
Teachers need to be aware that the use of closed, display questions does not
encourage or stimulate language use among students. The use of ‘referential’
questions as opposed to ‘display’ questions is more likely to promote extended
student responses, increase the length and complexity of student turns, provide
opportunities for real information to be exchanged, and generally increase genuine
classroom interaction. In Extract 3 below, although a tracking move was used by the
teacher which extended the exchange beyond the three-move IRF pattern, the use
of a display, closed question ‘Do you think so?’ resulted in an automatic response
‘yes’ and closed the exchange. On reflection, there was very minimal language
output generated in the interaction.
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Spr. Exchange Role
Can you guess what food or what dish we are
T going to (…) today? What dish? Linh dK1 Initiation
Trang?
S2 Omelette K2 Response
Omelette?
T Tr Tracking
Do you think so?
S2 Yes rTr Response
T Good job K1 Feedback
Extract 3. Lesson 3
What to take from this exchange is that the teacher was interested to know if the
student knew the English word ‘omelette’. However, instead of asking a closed
question which closed the exchange, the teacher might have asked one or more
‘referential’ questions to which she did not know the answer and which potentially
encouraged more interaction. Omelettes are familiar to the students, and offer an
opportunity to engage students in sharing their personal experience. Questions
could vary and include ‘How often do you have omelette?’, or ‘Who cooks omelette
in your family’? or ‘How do like your omelette to be cooked?’ When student interests
are engaged, and they are able to bring their life experiences to the classroom
interactions, then these interactions can begin to be truly communicative, even with
very basic learners. In this way, students have the opportunity to take on the role of
the primary knower (K1) rather than the teacher, and the intended communicative,
learner-centred classroom is more likely to be enacted. The more students are
engaged in such ways of interaction, the more familiar they become with the K1 role
and develop the ability to draw on their linguistic repertoire to participate in a
communicative event. It is important to keep in mind that the goal of language
classrooms is to create opportunities that stimulate language use for the expression
and negotiation of meaning. The quantity of meaningful classroom interactions in
which students have the opportunity to use the target language with communicative
purpose must be one criterion for ‘a successful lesson’.
9.5.2.2. A focus on form and function
In the context of Vietnam, there has always been a strong focus on language form
and structure in English teaching and learning. In fact, knowledge about language
has always been held in high regard, and in the case of the written examinations
has been an important area for assessment. However, as suggested, in the context
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where the need is for oral communication, it is important that knowledge about
English language is seen as a preparatory step in the process towards using the
language. The findings from this study and others in the past make the clear point
that the second step has not been a focus or a strength of Vietnamese teachers of
English. Faced with the pedagogic challenges of the new curriculum, they have
continued to focus on language form in the traditional manner. There has been a
reliance on traditional grammar and traditional approaches to grammar as the bases
for teaching about language which has not offered any framework for
communicative use. The suggestion here is that an alternative model of language
would better serve the country and its English language teachers to work towards
communicative competence for their learners. The pathway to communication can
be via a focus on language form, if that focus on form is related to function.
The suggestion is that the functional model of language and context, as described
within SFL, would underpin CLT since CLT itself has not offered any guidance
regarding language structure or form. This links to a persistent criticism of CLT,
which is that it has lacked any theory of language to underpin its approach to
language learning.. At least in the context of Vietnam, there is a vacuum created by
the lack of any theory about language linked to language teaching and learning, and
teachers have reverted to traditional ways of teaching about language, reinforcing
a view that language learning can proceed by learning discrete aspects of structure.
In this way, there may be a focus on English pronouns or conjunctions, as separate
and distinct elements, unrelated to how they are used in communication. The
recommended alternative is to integrate elements of SFL regarding a focus on
language structure or form into the space where CLT does not offer any guidance.
This has the potential to appeal to teachers who are steeped in a form-based
understanding of language teaching. The functional model of language theorises
the notion of context whereby text is understood and interpreted within the context
in which it is created and used. It can support a weak form of CLT that promotes a
focus on language form, but dissuades teachers from reverting to traditional notions
of teaching decontextualised elements of language..
The focus on form includes different types of texts in both spoken and written modes,
providing students with the opportunity to work with coherent, meaningful stretches
of language. This moves the teachers and the students away from discrete-point,
decontextualised language practice. Recognisable dialect variations might also be
245
incorporated into spoken texts to raise awareness among students about the
proliferation of different ‘Englishes’ within authentic inter-cultural communication.
These suggestions do not require changes to the syllabus or the textbooks, but
revise and replace isolated language practice activities with texts of suitable length
and level of challenge.
9.5.2.3. Exploring multimodal texts
As noted, multimodal texts have become a feature of everyday life in mass media,
in the workplace, in the home, and also in educational contexts. The fact that
students routinely encounter an increasing array of multimodal texts indicates that
it is now becoming important to be “multi-literate” (Painter, Martin, & Unsworth,
2013). The multiliterate person possesses the skills to decode, comprehend and
construct meanings from a range of semiotic modes within multimodal texts. The
incorporation of this multimodal reality into textbooks not only supports the students
to derive meanings from the images and visual and verbal complementarities
presented in the textbook, but also prepares them for future engagement with the
range of contemporary multimodal texts. A shortcoming of the Tieng Anh series is
the lack of focus on multimodality as an important element of the curriculum.
The absence of any strategic and theoretical grounds for the selection and design
of meaning making images in Tieng Anh indicates that MOET has not yet paid
appropriate attention to the proliferation of multimodal texts or the importance of
multiliteracy. Given the importance of image as a mode of meaning in the
contemporary world, it will be useful to incorporate a focus on multimodality in
professional development programs. Kress and van Leeuwen (2006) provide a
basis for exploring the structure of meaning in various forms of texts containing
visuals or a combination of visual and verbal resources. Their visual grammar
framework, which was built on the principles of SFL, supports the strategic use of
images in textbooks. As CLT does not offer any guidance or principles of teaching
and learning in regard to images and their meaning potential, it is suggested that
the visual grammar framework based in SFL can complement a CLT approach.
This section has intended to make the case that teacher professional development
is absolutely crucial to the success of Project 2025. The question remains: how to
organise and deliver professional training and support programs in which these foci
are made relevant and practical to the needs of individual teachers?
246
The policy challenge has been enormous, and as this study has found, the challenge
has not yet been met successfully at the classroom level. Professional learning
programs are a key component of meeting the challenges inherent in Project 2025.
The shift from traditional teaching to communicative-based practice, from a teacher-
centred to a learner-centred classroom is a major transformation. Therefore, the
modelling of best practice is an essential requirement, so that English language
teachers can watch, can discuss and then challenge themselves to enact change.
Professional development programs need to embrace both theoretical and practical
aspects of classroom processes and practices so that teachers can gauge exactly
what they need to do to be successful.
The findings here and elsewhere indicate that radical changes must take place in
order for Project 2025 to have a realistic chance of success. The changes in
professional learning for teachers are vital to its success. They require planned and
ongoing support to be able to meet the challenges inherent in the curriculum reform.
The costs involved will be heavy. The changes to pedagogic practices will take time
and a considerable degree of expertise to manage. The need is for leadership at all
levels of education, including both those who envisaged the reforms and those who
are to enact the reforms.
Making changes in the practice of teaching is never an easy task, especially when
teachers are asked to teach in a way they were not taught themselves. The
recommendations proposed in this final chapter have included suggestions to bridge
the gap between the intentions and the realities reported, including suggested
changes in proficiency goals, in structures, in leadership, in classroom pedagogies
and critically in teacher professional development. Each and all of these changes
necessarily require additional input in terms of money, human and material
resources, effort and greater collaboration amongst all of the stakeholders engaged
in the reform process. As noted, some of the required changes may be easier to
make happen than others; where some may involve simply the redirection of
financial resources, others exist at the level of deep-seated cultural values and
orientations and as such will involve major changes. Most of these matters for
discussion and recommended changes are tied to one another so that change in
one area will most likely have repercussions elsewhere.
247
9.6. The need for future research
One important direction for further research is to explore cases where the curriculum
reform has been successful. It is very likely that there are a few, some, or several
cases of schools or districts where there has been success, or at least where a
smaller gap is reported between intention and reality. An investigation into the
factors enabling success will be beneficial as models for use more generally.
Another area for further studies is to explore the focus on form in the CLT classroom
to gain an understanding of optimal ways of focusing on language which are
conducive to supporting meaningful communication. The research might involve a
trial of a more functionally oriented focus on form – on both written and spoken form
– as a step to meaningful communication.
Students are the ultimate beneficiaries of successful educational change as well as

active participants in the educational change process. Their opinions, therefore,
should be listened to in the introduction and implementation of reform (Fullan, 2015).
Little attention has traditionally been paid to the learners in the process of curriculum
innovation and there is a need for studies to understand their perceptions and
learning experiences with the new curriculum.
Further research is also required in different schools, both Selective and Normal, in
different geographical locations to gain broader insights into the curriculum renewal
across socio-economic regions. Empirical evidence gained from these studies will
provide a practical, comprehensive understanding of the curriculum practices and
the local contexts across geographical and socio-economic locations. Based on this
evidence, appropriate and sufficient support and adjustment can be proposed for
improved practice at the local level.
Research on curriculum change is both compelling and exciting, as it can yield

empirically and theoretically informed findings to be used for refining and enhancing
classroom practice. Longitudinal studies will be beneficial in exploring the
effectiveness and sustainability of the curriculum reform over a longer period of time.
These studies necessarily involve assessment outcomes to determine whether
students actually improve their English knowledge and skills over a period of
instruction, and allow for a comprehensive evaluation of the curriculum reform.
248
Longitudinal research on how teachers’ attitudes and practices change will also be
a significant addition to the existing body of knowledge.
9.7. Concluding remarks
The overarching purpose of the study was to investigate the ongoing English
language reform at the school level in Vietnam. Many of the findings have concurred
with prior studies conducted in other national settings, which also highlighted
disparities between the intentions at the national policy level and realities of
classroom practices at the local level. A range of impediments to the implementation
of CLT reform was reported, some of which echoed accounts from other settings,
while some were unique to Vietnam. The study concluded that particular features of
CLT are not well suited to the context of Vietnam nor to similar nations in the Asian
region as the philosophical rationale for CLT does not align well with pedagogic
values and beliefs inherent in these socio-political and socio-cultural environments.
Seeking to achieve a system-wide reform at the level of the classroom is a complex

task. Educational change is a dynamic and on-going process which involves several
inter-related factors and constraints of various sorts. Real change involves
persistence, time, money and more human investment from all the stakeholders at
different levels across the education sector. The teachers in Project 2025 are
challenged to teach in a way that they have not been taught themselves, which is
intellectually and emotionally demanding, and, most importantly, which is culturally
strange. The implications point to the need for changes in the curriculum goal,
structure, leadership, and most particularly the need for a greatly increased level of
professional support for teachers. Many of the proposed changes are not completely
unfamiliar, and many are easy to write but very difficult to enact. However, it is only
with the necessary and sufficient preparation will curriculum reform be possible and
lead to the global economic participation required to raise the standard of living of
Vietnamese citizens.
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encyclopedia of language and social interaction (pp. 1-8). New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell.
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development. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
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children's metacognitive development. Cambridge journal of education, 40 (4), 387-399.
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269
APPENDICES
Appendix A. Teacher Survey

A1. English version
TEACHER SURVEY
This survey asks for information about your perceptions and teaching practices within the new national English
language curriculum for lower-secondary schools in Vietnam.
All information collected in this study will be treated confidentially. There will be no potential to identify any
individual respondent to the questionnaire. When you have completed this questionnaire, please press "Finish
Survey" button at the end of the page.
Thank you very much for your cooperation.
PART 1. PERSONAL INFORMATION
1. What is your gender?
Male Female Other
2. What is the highest level of formal education that you have completed?
PhD Master
Bachelor (4 years) Bachelor (3 years)
3. How long have you been working as a teacher of English?
Less than 1 year 2 - 5 years

6 - 10 years 10 - 20 years
> 20 years
4. What is your current English proficiency level?
A1 B1 C1
A2 B2 C2
270
271
PART 2. ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE NEW CURRICULUM
5. Please indicate your perception on the necessity of the curriculum renewal.
Not necessary Somewhat N/A Necessary Very necessary
6. Please indicate your perception on the feasibility of the overall goal of the new curriculum.
Partially
Overall goals of the curriculum Unachiveable Achievable
achievable
After finishing Grade 9, students achieve

A2 level of proficiency on the CEFR.
English teaching at lowersecondary

schools helps students practise and
develop their abilities to communicate
actively and confidently in English
PART 3. UNDERSTANDING AND PRACTICES OF CLT
7. What specific knowledge/skills do your students need to improve?

(You can select more than one)
Listening Speaking Reading
Writing Grammar Vocabulary
Pronunciation
8. What do you think Communicative Language Teaching – CLT involves?

A learner-centred pedagogy
A teacher-centred pedagogy
Primarily focusing on developing student communciative competence in English
Primarily focusing on grammar
Ecouraging interactions in English between teachers-students, students-students
Using only English in the classroom, and avoid using Vietnamese
Teachers select and design activities and materials suitable to the need, interest and
level of students.
Others (if any, please specify):
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
272
9. In your teaching practice, do you tend to focus more on:
grammar and vocabulary
the four skills
speaking
whatever students need for the exams
others (if any, please specify):
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
10. What factors hinder the communcative language classroom in your context?
Students’ lack of motivation to use English for communication
Teachers' low level of proficiency
Teachers’ lack of understanding of how to create a CLT classroom
Lack of teaching and learning materials and classroom resources
Limited number of instructional hours
The use of Vietnamese in class
Washback effect of examinations
No opportunities for students to communicate in English outside classrooms
Other factors (if any, please specify):
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
273
A2. Vietnamese version
BẢNG CÂU HỎI
Bảng câu hỏi này bao gồm các câu hỏi liên quan đến quan điểm cá nhân của giáo viên về mục tiêu và phương
pháp giảng dạy chương trình tiếng Anh thí điểm của Bộ Giáo dục và Đào tạo. Thông tin trong bảng câu hỏi này
sẽ được bảo mật. Thầy (Cô) vui lòng chọn phương án đúng nhất với mình hoặc trình bày quan điểm của mình
vào phần trống.
Trân trọng cám ơn Thầy (Cô)!
PHẦN 1. THÔNG TIN CÁ NHÂN
1. Giới tính của Thầy (Cô)
Male Female Other
2. Trình độ học vấn cao nhất của Thầy (Cô)
Tiến sĩ Thạc sĩ
Cử nhân đại học Cử nhân cao đẳng
3. Kinh nghiệm giảng dạy tiếng Anh của Thầy (Cô)
< 1 năm 2 - 5 năm

6 - 10 năm 10 - 20 năm
> 20 năm
4. Trình độ tiếng Anh của Thầy (Cô)
A1 B1 C1
A2 B2 C2
PHẦN 2. QUAN ĐIỂM VỀ CHƯƠNG TRÌNH TIẾNG ANH THÍ ĐIỂM
5. Thầy (Cô) đánh giá thế nào về mức độ cần thiết của việc cải cách dạy và học Tiếng Anh trong
trường THCS ở thời điểm hiện tại?
Không cần thiết Chưa thực sự cần thiết

Không có ý kiến gì Cần thiết
Rất cần thiết
274
6. Thầy (Cô) đánh giá thế nào về mức độ khả thi của các mục tiêu chung mà chương trình tiếng
Anh thí điểm đề ra?
Không thể đạt Chỉ đạt được Có thể đạt

Mục tiêu chung
được phần nào được
“Sau khi học xong Chương trình tiếng Anh THCS,
học sinh có thể đạt được năng lực giao tiếp tiếng Anh
tương đương Cấp độ A2”
“Dạy và học tiếng Anh ở THCS giúp học sinh rèn
luyện và phát triển năng lực giao tiếp tiếng Anh một
cách chủ động và tự tin, tạo tiền đề cho việc sử dụng
tiếng Anh như một công cụ trong học tập và trong đời
sống xã hội”
PHẦN 3. HIỂU BIẾT VÀ THỰC HÀNH CLT
7. Thầy (Cô) thấy kỹ năng mà học sinh của Thầy (Cô) còn yếu? (Thầy (Cô) có thể lựa chọn nhiều
hơn một phương án)
Nghe Nói Đọc
Viết Ngữ pháp Từ vựng
Phát âm
8. Theo Thầy (Cô), đường hướng Dạy Ngôn ngữ Giao tiếp (Communicative Language
Teaching - CLT) mà chương trình tiếng Anh mới yêu cầu có đặc điểm gì? (Thầy (Cô) có thể
lựa chọn nhiều hơn một phương án)
Lấy người học làm trung tâm
Lấy giáo viên làm trung tâm
Tập trung chủ yếu vào phát triển phát triển năng lực giao tiếp bằng tiếng Anh cho học
sinh
Dạy Ngữ pháp đóng vai trò chủ đạo
Dạy kỹ năng giao tiếp là chủ yếu, tránh dạy nhiều Ngữ pháp
Giáo viên chủ động trong việc lựa chọn ngữ liệu và hoạt động phù hợp với sở thích,
nhu cầu và khả năng của học sinh
Hoạt động trên lớp được thiết kế linh hoạt và đa dạng để học sinh có thể luyện tập cá
nhân, theo cặp, hoặc nhóm
Sử dụng tiếng Anh hoàn toàn trên lớp, không sử dụng tiếng Việt
Tăng cường tương tác bằng tiếng Anh giữa giáo viên với học sinh, học sinh với học
sinh
Khác (nếu có):
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_
275
9. Thầy (Cô) chú trọng phát triển kỹ năng nào cho học sinh?
Ngữ pháp và từ vựng
Bốn kỹ năng (nghe, nói, đọc, viết)
Kỹ năng nói
Kỹ năng cần thiết để đi thi
Khác (nếu có):
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
10. What factors hinder the communcative language classroom in your context? (You can select
more than one)
Học sinh không có nhiều động lực sử dụng tiếng Anh trong lớp và ngoài lớp
Giáo viên chưa tự tin với khả năng giao tiếp và phát âm bằng tiếng Anh
Thiếu cơ sở vật chất, thiết bị và tài liệu dạy, học
Sĩ số lớp đông, khó triển khai hoạt động giao tiếp và quản lý lớp
Thời lượng học trên lớp ít
Giáo viên và học sinh sử dụng nhiều tiếng Việt trên lớp
Áp lực từ thi cử vẫn tập trung nhiều vào từ vựng và ngữ pháp
Giáo viên chưa hiểu rõ về CLT và cách áp dụng vào lớp học
Other factors (if any, please specify):
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
276
Appendix B. Classroom Observation Protocol
CLASSROOM OBSERVATION
Date: __________________________________ Time: _________________________
Teacher: _______________________________ Class: ________________________
School Name:___________________________ Visit No. ______________________
Brief description of the lesson

Lesson: _______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Lesson Objectives:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Materials Used (including textbook, workbook, handouts, or PowerPoint, etc.)

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Classroom Setting (space, seating arrangements, environment, etc.)
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
277
PART A: CLASSROOM EVENTS
Student Organisation Student Modality Materials

Time Activities Content
Pair/
Class Indiv. Listening Speaking Reading Writing Other (type/source)
Group
PART B: COMMUNICATIVE FEATURES

278
Use of target language
Information gap
(the information
requested/exchanged is
unpredictable)
Sustained speech
(length of teacher and student
turns/student and student turns)
Students’ discourse initiation

(frequency of self-initiated turns by
students)
Form restriction
(Choral work, restricted or
unrestricted use of forms by
students)
279
General comments:
The teaching method(s) used
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
The role of the teacher/ students
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
The use of textbook
Does the teacher strictly follow and cover all the content in the textbook?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Are there any exercises/activities complied by the teacher using different resources?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Further notes
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
280
Appendix C. Interview Protocols
C1. Interview protocol for teachers
TEACHER INTERVIEW PROTOCOL

Interviewer: _______________________ Date: _________________________________
Interviewee: _______________________ School:________________________________
Background information
1. Which school are you currently working for?
2. How long have you been teaching English? How long have been working with the new
curriculum textbooks?
Attitudes towards curriculum innovation and theoretical principles underlying the
curriculum
1. What do you think about the necessity of the current English curriculum reform?
2. Have you read the curriculum document?
3. Do you think your students can reach A2 level of English proficiency after finishing lower-
secondary schools? Why/Why not?
Understanding of CLT
4. Have you heard about CLT?
5. What do you think CLT involves? How do you know about that?
6. What do you think about the role of grammar teaching and learning?
7. Do you think CLT is suitable to your students in your local context? Why/Why not?
Curriculum practices
1. What do you think about new Tieng Anh textbooks?

2. Do you strictly follow the textbook and always cover all textbook content? Do you use any
supplementary materials in your teaching?
3. What do you think your students need to improve (speaking, listening, reading, writing,
pronunciation, grammar)?
4. How to help the students improve their ability and motivation to speak in English in the
classroom? And outside the classroom?
5. What challenges do you face when using communicative tasks in the classroom? Do you design
the tasks yourself or use from the textbooks?
6. Do you prefer using English or Vietnamese as the language of instruction in your teaching?
Why?
7. How do you assess your students’ progress?
8. What challenges (including internal and external constraints) you face when using the new
textbooks?
281
Professional development
1. How much training do you receive every year?

2. Who deliver the training? What is the content of the training?
3. Does the training help you with what you need for your teaching?
4. Do you think you need more training in order to work with the new curriculum more effectively?
5. Do you have difficulties in your professional development?
6. Do you have any recommendations or comments about the training or workshops that your
local department of education and training should organise for teacher professional
development?
282
Appendix C2. Interview protocol for school principals
INTERVIEW PROTOCOL - SCHOOL PRINCIPAL
Interviewer: _______________________ Date: _________________________________

Interviewee: _______________________ School:________________________________
Understandings of and attitudes towards curriculum innovation
1. What do you think about the necessity of the current English curriculum reform?
2. Do you think your students can reach A2 level of proficiency after finishing lower-secondary
school? Why/Why not?
3. Have you heard about CLT, the designated pedagogy underpinning the new curriculum? How
do you know about that?
Constraints to the implementation
4. What do you think about the challenges/constraints that your school/teachers/students face
when implementing the new curriculum?
5. What do you think about the measures/ways to remove/limit those constraints?
6. Teacher professional development
7. How often teacher in-service training is organised?
8. Are there any other supports to the teachers and school facilities in order that the new
curriculum is implemented?
283
Appendix D. Ethics Approval2
2The title of the study has been changed to “English Language Curriculum Reform at the National Level: A
Case Study of Intentions and Realities in Viet Nam”.
284
Appendix E. Consent Form
285
Appendix F. Participant Information Sheet
F1. Participant Information Sheet for Teachers
PARTICIPANT INFORMATION SHEET
For Teacher
PROJECT TITLE: Project 2020 – An investigation of the principles and practices within the
Vietnamese national English language curriculum for lower-secondary classrooms.
HUMAN RESEARCH ETHICS COMMITTEE APPROVAL NUMBER: H-2017-027

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Dr. John Walsh
STUDENT RESEARCHER: Thao Thi Vu
Dear Participant,
You are invited to participate in the research project described below.
What is the project about?
This project aims to explore the principles and practices within the new national English language
curriculum for the lower-secondary level in Vietnam. This new curriculum, employing a
communicative language teaching approach, targets English communicative competence and is
expected to bring about the desired changes in English teaching and learning in schools. Since
2012 the new English curriculum has been piloted in a number of lower-secondary schools across
the country. However, there is widespread concern that the implementation of this new curriculum
might not lead to the expected increases in the targeted proficiency level among the students.
Questions to be asked include:
(i) what do the teachers think about the changes;

(ii) how will the new curriculum be actually be implemented by teachers and students in
classrooms;
(iii) is there any mismatch between the curriculum rhetoric and curriculum practices.
Who is undertaking the project?
This project is being conducted by Thao Thi Vu. This research will form the basis for the degree
of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Adelaide under the supervision of Dr John Walsh and
Dr William Winser.
Why am I being invited to participate?
As you are a teacher of English at a lower-secondary school and directly involved in the teaching
of English under the new curriculum, your information provided will be of great significance to
this project.
286
What will I be asked to do?
You will be invited to complete online questionnaires to ascertain your understanding and attitude
towards the curriculum innovation, as well as challenges you face as part of the curriculum
implementation. Based on the information provided in the questionnaires, you may be invited to
participate in an in-depth interview and asked for permission to observe your classroom teaching.
Your participation will be entirely voluntary. It is not a requirement from your school or the Division
of English Language Education.
How much time will the project take?
The time required for the questionnaire and/or interview will be approximately 15 minutes and
approximately 20 minutes respectively. These times will be explained to you and your
participation will be voluntary.
Classroom observations will be only conducted based on your permission. If you find that the
observations are resulting in any discomfort or pressure on you or your students, you will have
the right to withdraw from the research without any penalty.
Are there any risks associated with participating in this project?

It is anticipated that participation in the research will be a positive experience for the teachers. No
physical harm will come to any participants.
What are the benefits of the research project?
As curriculum and policies are designed based on senior decision makers’ views, the information
provided by participants will be of great importance for concluding whether the innovative
curriculum works in practices and whether any adjustments are needed for more effective
implementation. As the teachers are the key stakeholders in the curriculum reform and it will be
important to listen to and document their voices.
Can I withdraw from the project?
Participation in this project is completely voluntary. If you agree to participate, you can withdraw
from the study at any time.
What will happen to my information?
Participant identities will not be published during the data collection process. It will not be
necessary to make public the participation of individual teachers and their classrooms. Each
classroom teacher will be deidentified and data collected from each classroom will create a body
of information which is independent of individual teachers.
All data will be deindentified at source. The online questionnaire will be antonymous.
The data will be stored on a network computer in the School of Humanities at the University of
Adelaide.
The teachers will be able to review their own transcripts prior to the publication of the thesis.
287
Who do I contact if I have questions about the project?
Contact details of researchers:
Thao Thi Vu: School of Humanities, Department of Linguistics

Email: thao.vu@adelaide.edu.au Phone: 0420859460
Dr John Walsh School of Humanities, Department of Linguistics

Email: john.walsh@adelaide.edu.au Phone: 83135196
Dr William Winser School of Humanities, Department of Linguistics

Email: bill.winser@adelaide.edu.au
What if I have a complaint or any concerns?
The study has been approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee at the University of
Adelaide (approval number H-2017-027). If you have questions or problems associated with the
practical aspects of your participation in the project, or wish to raise a concern or complaint
about the project, then you should consult the Principal Investigator. If you wish to speak with
an independent person regarding a concern or complaint, the University’s policy on research
involving human participants, or your rights as a participant, please contact the Human
Research Ethics Committee’s Secretariat on:
Phone: +61 8 8313 6028

Email: hrec@adelaide.edu.au
Post: Level 4, Rundle Mall Plaza, 50 Rundle Mall, ADELAIDE SA 5000
Any complaint or concern will be treated in confidence and fully investigated. You will be informed
of the outcome.
If I want to participate, what do I do?
A link to the online survey will be sent to you via your email address you provide to the researcher.
Arrangements for interview will be made upon your convenience.
Yours sincerely,
Thao Thi Vu
John Walsh
William Winser
F2. Participant Information Sheet for School Principals

288
PARTICIPANT INFORMATION SHEET
For the School Principal
PROJECT TITLE: Project 2020 – An investigation of the principles and practices within the
Vietnamese national English language curriculum for lower-secondary classrooms.
HUMAN RESEARCH ETHICS COMMITTEE APPROVAL NUMBER: H-2017-027

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Dr. John Walsh
STUDENT RESEARCHER: Thao Thi Vu
Dear Participant,
You are invited to participate in the research project described below.
What is the project about?
This project aims to explore the principles and practices within the new national English language
curriculum for the lower-secondary level in Vietnam. This new curriculum, employing a
communicative language teaching approach, targets English communicative competence and is
expected to bring about the desired changes in English teaching and learning in schools. Since
2012 the new English curriculum has been piloted in a number of lower-secondary schools across
the country. However, there is widespread concern that the implementation of this new curriculum
might not lead to the expected increases in the targeted proficiency level among the students.
Questions to be asked include:
(i) what do the teachers think about the changes;

(ii) how will the new curriculum be actually be implemented by teachers and students in
classrooms;
(iii) is there any mismatch between the curriculum rhetoric and curriculum practices.
Who is undertaking the project?
This project is being conducted by Thao Thi Vu.
This research will form the basis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of
Adelaide under the supervision of Dr John Walsh and Dr William Winser.
Why am I being invited to participate?
As you are a Head teacher of the school and directly involved in the teaching of English under
the new curriculum, your information provided will be of great significance to this project.
289
What will I be asked to do?
You will be invited to participate in an in-depth interview and asked for permission to observe
classroom teaching in your school. Your participation will be entirely voluntary.
How much time will the project take?
The time required for the interview will be approximately 20 minutes. These time will be explained
to you and your participation will be voluntary.
Classroom observations will be only conducted based on your permission and the teacher’s
permission. If you find that the observations are resulting in any discomfort or pressure on you,
the teacher or your students, you will have the right to withdraw from the research without any
penalty.
Are there any risks associated with participating in this project?

It is anticipated that participation in the research will be a positive experience for the teachers. No
physical harm will come to any participants.
What are the benefits of the research project?
As curriculum and policies are designed based on senior decision makers’ views, the information
provided by participants will be of great importance for concluding whether the innovative
curriculum works in practices and whether any adjustments are needed for more effective
implementation. As the teachers are the key stakeholders in the curriculum reform and it will be
important to listen to and document their voices.
Can I withdraw from the project?
Participation in this project is completely voluntary. If you agree to participate, you can withdraw
from the study at any time.
What will happen to my information?
Participant identities will not be published during the data collection process. It will not be
necessary to make public the participation of individual teachers and their classrooms. Each
classroom teacher will be deidentified and data collected from each classroom will create a body
of information which is independent of individual teachers.
All data will be deindentified at source. The online questionnaire will be antonymous.
The data will be stored on a network computer in the School of Humanities at the University of
Adelaide. The teachers will be able to review their own transcripts prior to the publication of the
thesis.
Who do I contact if I have questions about the project?
Contact details of researchers:
Thao Thi Vu: School of Humanities, Department of Linguistics

Email: thao.vu@adelaide.edu.au Phone: 0420859460
Dr John Walsh School of Humanities, Department of Linguistics

Email: john.walsh@adelaide.edu.au Phone: 83135196
Dr William Winser School of Humanities, Department of Linguistics

Email: bill.winser@adelaide.edu.au
290
What if I have a complaint or any concerns?
The study has been approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee at the University of
Adelaide (approval number H-2017-027). If you have questions or problems associated with the
practical aspects of your participation in the project, or wish to raise a concern or complaint about
the project, then you should consult the Principal Investigator. If you wish to speak with an
independent person regarding a concern or complaint, the University’s policy on research
involving human participants, or your rights as a participant, please contact the Human Research
Ethics Committee’s Secretariat on:
Phone: +61 8 8313 6028

Email: hrec@adelaide.edu.au
Post: Level 4, Rundle Mall Plaza, 50 Rundle Mall, ADELAIDE SA 5000
Any complaint or concern will be treated in confidence and fully investigated. You will be informed
of the outcome.
If I want to participate, what do I do?
You can arrange a schedule for interview upon your convenience.
Thank you for your participation.
Yours sincerely,
Thao Thi Vu
John Walsh
William Winser
291
Appendix G. Sample Analysis
G1. Appraisal Analysis
# Appraisal language Source Target Attitude type
Inscribed
1 I am totally happy with the curriculum. Teacher A The curriculum Positive
Affect
When working with the new curriculum, I found that Inscribed
2 obviously it has more advantages over the old one Teacher A The curriculum Positive
in that it can help to develop students’ language skills Appreciation
The new curriculum is designed to develop students’ Invoked
3 language competence. Based on that aim, we focus Teacher A The curriculum Positive
on helping students practice their English skills. Appreciation
Invoked
The textbooks are designed with a corporation of the
4 Teacher A Textbooks Positive
four language skills, together with grammar.
Appreciation
Another principle is student-centeredness, which is Invoked
5 different from the old curriculum which is teacher- Teacher A The curriculum Positive
centered. Appreciation
Inscribed
However it [the curriculum] is still inferior compared
6 Teacher A The curriculum Negative
to some other programs I know.
Appreciation
I think 70 percent of the students in this school can Goal Invoked
7 achieve that level [Level A2] Teacher A achievement Negative
Appreciation
Inscribed
The biggest drawback is that it’s too long to be
8 Teacher A The curriculum Negative
covered in 45 minutes.
Appreciation
Inscribed
Furthermore, the class size is too big for all students Constraints
9 Teacher A Negative
to have chance to practice. Class size
Appreciation
It’ll be much more beneficial if there are about 15 to Inscribed
Constraints
10 20 students in one class. But for classes of more Teacher A Negative
Class size
than 40 students, it’s much more difficult. Appreciation
For weak students, I have to encourage them by
Inscribed
asking them questions in class. I also try to increase
11 Teacher A Students Negative
the amount of work groups, so that the students can
Judgement
interact with each other.
Sometimes I can’t because of limited class time, Inscribed
12 large class and the long syllabus need to be Teacher A Constraints Negative
covered. Appreciation
292
# Appraisal language Source Target Attitude type
The challenge I face is the learning environment. For Inscribed

13 schools in rural areas, there are no chance for using Teacher A Constraints Negative
English outside the classroom Appreciation
Inscribed
I meant the limited amount of English uses among
14 Teacher A Constraints Negative
the students.
Appreciation
Inscribed
15 Yes, I am happy with the new curriculum. Teacher B The curriculum Positive
Affect
Inscribed
16 I like the textbooks and visual illustrations. Teacher B The curriculum Positive
Affect
Inscribed
17 In terms of knowledge, I think it’s suitable, Teacher B The curriculum Positive
Appreciation
293
G2. Textbook analysis
Year 6 Unit 1 My New School
Summary
Mechanical Practice 15 35%

Meaningful Practice 18 40%
Communicative
11 25%
Practice
44 100%
Speaking 11 25%
Listening
1 2%
(comprehension)
Listening (integrated) [8] [18%]
Reading 8 18%
Writing 3 7%
Grammar 11 25%
Vocabulary 7 16%
Pronunciation 3 7%
44 100%
294
YEAR 6
Unit 1. My new school
# Mechanical practice Section Activity Meaningful Practice Section Activity Communicative Practice Section Activity
Are these sentences True
1 Getting Started 1a
or False
Find these expressions in
2 Getting Started 1b
the conversation
3 Pratice these expressions Getting Started 1c
Can you extend the
4 Getting Started 1d
conversation?
5 Listen and read Getting Started 2a
6 Work in pairs. Write a poem Getting Started 2b

Match with words with
7 Getting Started 3
the school things
Look around. What other
8 things do you have in your Getting Started 4
classroom?
A Closer Look 1
9 Listen and repeat 1
(Vocab)
Work in pairs. Put the A Closer Look 1
10 2
words into groups (Vocab)
Put the words into the A Closer Look 1
11 3
blanks (Vocab)
Write sentences about A Closer Look 1
12 4
yourselves (Vocab)
A Closer Look 1
13 Listen and repeat 5
(Pronunciation)
Listen and put the A Closer Look 1
14 6
words into groups (Pronunciation)
A Closer Look 1
15 Underline the sounds 7
(Pronunciation)
Write the correct word
A Closer Look 2
16 forms to complete the 1
(Grammar)
interview
Correct the sentences A Closer Look 2
17 2
based on the interview (Grammar)
295
Works in pairs. Make A Closer Look 2
18 3
questions and answers (Grammar)
Listen and underline
A Closer Look 2
19 present continuous verb 4
(Grammar)
tense
Complete sentences
A Closer Look 2
20 using correct verb 5
(Grammar)
forms
Choose the correct A Closer Look 2
21 6
verb tense (Grammar)
Read the email and A Closer Look 2
22 6a
underline verb tense (Grammar)
Compare your week with A Closer Look 2
23 7
Vy's week (Grammar)
Read and tick the
questions you think are
24 Communication 1
suitable to ask a new
friend
Work in groups. Take
25 turns to interview the Communication 2a
others using the quiz
26 Class presentation Communication 2b
Look at the pictures. What
Skills 1
27 do they tell you about the 1a
(Reading)
schools
28 Read the texts quicky Skills 1 (Reading) 1b
Find the words in the text.
29 Skills 1 (Reading) 2
What do they mean?
Read again and complete
30 Skills 1 (Reading) 3
the sentences
Skills 1
31 Talk about your school 4
(Speaking)
Listen and choose the
32 Skills 2 (Listening) 1
correct answers
Correc the
33 punctuation in these Skills 2 (Writing) 2
sentences
Correct the punctuation in
34 Skills 2 (Writing) 3
the passage
296
35 Create a webpage Skills 2 (Writing) 4
Write the words to Looking Back
36 1
match the picture (Vocab)
Match the words in Looking Back
37 2
the two columns (Vocab)
Listen and write down Looking Back
38 3
the words (Vocab)
Complete the
Looking Back
39 sentences with 4
(Gram)
correct verb tenses
Complete the
sentences with Looking Back
40 5
present continuous (Gram)
tense
Complete the text with the Looking Back
41 6
correct verb forms (Gram)
Match the questions with Looking Back
42 7
the answers (Communication)
Role play: Work in pairs. Ask Looking Back
43 8
and answer (Communication)
Project: Work in groups.
44 Project
Discuss your dream school
297
G3. Classroom Discourse Analysis
Lesson 4. Normal School. Rural district
Unit 4. Lesson 3. A Closer Look 2
SUMMARY
Total number of exchanges 90 100.0%
Teacher talks 1,715 73.1%
Student talks 630 26.9%
Teacher-initiated exchanges 85 100%
Student-initiated exchanges - -
Knowledge exchanges 66 73.3%
Action exchanges 14 15.6%
Mixed 7 7.8%
Regulative' - -
Basic exchanges (IRF) 48 53.3%
Extended exchanges (over 3 moves) 42 46.7%
The use of English 2,013 85.8%
The use of Vietnamese 332 14.2%
Total word count: 2,345
Partici
# Spk Exchange Role Phase Source
pation
… Textbook
1 S Truc is… shorter than… Chi. K2 S1 Propose
T Truc is shorter than… Chi. K1 Affirm
Okay another answer. Thao? dK1 S2 Focus
2 S Truc is taller than Tung. Propose
T Truc is taller than Chi. K1 Affirm
Okay now what about superlative? Who can
T dK1 Class Focus
make sentence with superlative. Kiet?
S It is the… K2 S3 Propose
3
T The most …? K1 Focus
S Exciting film. K2 Propose
T It is the most exciting film. Okay. K1 Affirm
T Now you? dK1 S4 Focus
S Long is the tallest…. K2 Propose
T Long is the tallest in your…? K1 Focus
4
S In your …. K2 Repeat
T Class. K1 Focus
T Okay. K1 Affirm
Today we continue know more about
T K1 Class Prepare
comparison. Let’s begin a closer look 2.
5
We learn… in the lesson… two. [write on the
T K1 Class Prepare Board
board]
T Now look at these. A2 Class Direct Manga
I have two comics…. two comics [hold two
T K1 Prepare
comics]. Yes.
6 Now what do you think about ‘detective
T Conan’? Is it interesting? Is Conan dK1 S5 Focus
interesting? Ly?
S Yes. K2 Propose
298
Now what about Doraemon? Is it Doreamon
T dK1 S6 Focus
interesting? Nga?
S Yes. K2 Propose
7
So you can say… Doraemon is as interesting
T as Conan. So you can say… [write on the K1 Class Elaborate Board
board] Conan is as interesting as Doraemon.
Now class repeat. Conan is as interesting as
T A2 Class Direct
8 Doraemon.
Ss [drill] Conan is as interesting as Doraemon. A1 Class Repeat
T Again. A2 Class Direct
9
Ss [drill] Conan is as interesting as Doraemon. A1 Class Repeat
T Thu? A2 S7 Direct
10
S [read] Conan is as interesting as Doraemon. A1 Repeat
T In Vietnamese? Vietnamese? dK1 Focus
11
S Conan … K2 Propose
T Viet Anh? dK1 S10 Focus
S Conan thu vi hon Doreamon. K2 Propose
T Thu vi hon? Ngoc? K1 Reject
12 Em thua co la Conan thu vi nhu la
S K2 S8 Propose
Doreamon.
Right. Conan thu vi nhu la Doreamon or
T K1 Affirm
Conan thu vi bang Doreamon. Yes.
Do you think pop music? Is pop music
T dK1 Class Focus
13 exciting [wrong pro]? Quynh?
S Yes. K2 S9 Propose
T How about opera? Is opera exciting? Long? dK1 Class Focus
S No. K2 S11 Propose
14 T No. Yes. K1 Class Affirm
So you can say … opera is not as… exciting
T K1 Class Elaborate
as… pop music.
Now class repeat. 'Opera is not as exciting
T A2 Class Direct
as pop music'.
Ss [drill] Opera is not …as exciting … as… A1 Class Repeat
15 T Opera is not as exciting'. A2 Class Direct
Ss [drill] 'Opera is not as exciting'. S1 Class Repeat
T As pop music'. A2 Class Direct
Ss [drill] 'As pop music'. A1 Class Repeat
T Again. The whole sentence. A2 Class Direct
16 Ss drill] Opera is not as exciting as pop music. A1 Class Repeat
T [write the sentence on the board] Board
T Now you again. A2 S12 Direct
17
S Opera is not as exciting as pop music. A1 Repeat
T In Vietnamese, Duong? dK1 S13 Focus
S Opera khong thu vi nhu nhac pop. K2 Propose
18
Opera khong thu vi nhu nhac pop hay la
T K1 Affirm
khong hay nhu nhac pop.
So when do we use as adjective as? As
T K1 Class Focus
adjective as? Hien please?
We use as adjective as to compare two thing
19 S K2 S14 Propose
and two people.
We use as adjective as to show that two
T K1 Affirm
things are similar. Yes.
And what about not as adjective as? When
T dK1 Class Focus
do you use it? Dat?
Em thua co la not as adjective as to mean
20 S K2 S15 Propose
something more or less than something.
Yes so we use to mean something more or
T K1 S14 Affirm
less than something else.
Okay, can you give me the form as as
T dK1 Class Focus
21 adjective as? Hien?
Ss S + be + as adjective as+ S K2 Class Propose Board
299
T [write the form on the board] K1 Class Affirm
Again… when do we use this form? Ngoc?
T dK1 Class Focus
When do we use this form?
S When we… K2 S8 Propose
T Show two… K1 Focus
S Show two … K2 Repeat
T Are similar or… K1 Focus
S not K2 Propose
22 T Not similar…yes… K1 Focus
in Vietnamese we call? Chung ta goi day la
T K1(ch) Focus
so sanh gi nhi?
Ss So sanh ngang bang. rch Propose
Subject as adjective as nguoi ta goi la so
sanh ngang bang dang khang dinh. If we add
T K1 S8 Elaborate
not it means so sanh ngang bang dang phu
dinh.
Now can you make sentence with this form?
T dK1 Focus
Can you make sentence with this form?
Make sentence with as adjective as and as
23 T dK1 S8 Focus
not adjective as. Ngoc please.
S Cooking is as interesting as singing. K2 Propose
T Yes cooking is as interesting as singing. K1 Affirm
T Okay, another? Huong? dK1 S16 Focus
Em thua co la gardening is as interesting as
S K2 Propose
writing.
24
T Writing? K1(ch) Focus
S Dancing. rch Identify
T Gardening is as interesting as dancing. Yeah K1 Affirm
T Another answer, Nhoc Anh? dK1 S17 Focus
Playing football is… as interesting as…
S K2 Propose
playing…
25
Playing football is as interesting as
T K1(ch) Focus
playing…?
S Volleyball. K2 Propose
You can use another adjective not
T interesting. Em co the su dung tinh tu khac K1 Class Prepare
interesting.
T Ngoc Anh? dK1 S18 Focus
26
S (…) not as small as… K2 Propose
T Duong is not as… small as… K1 Focus
S Long. K2 Propose
T Okay. K1 Affirm
T Khanh? dK1 S19 Focus
S My room is not as beautiful as your room. K2 Propose
27
Yes.. my room is not as beautiful as your
T K1 Affirm
room.
T Phuong Anh. dK1 S20 Focus
28 S Lan is as clever as Hoa. K2 Propose
T Lan is as clever as Hoa. Okay. K1 Affirm
T Now look at this CD. Look at this CD. A2 Class Prepare
Are they different? Are they different? Ngoc?
T dK1 Focus
Are they different?
S No. K2 S8 Propose
No… yes. K1 Affirm
29
T Are they the same? Are they the same?
K1(ch) Focus
Same?
S Giong nhau. K2 Propose
T Are they the same? Co giong nhau khong? K1 tr Focus
S Yes. rtr Propose
300
So you can say this CD is the same as that
T CD. [write the sentence on the board – K1 Elaborate
students take note]
Now listen and repeat. This CD is the same
T A2 Class Direct
30 as that CD.
Ss [drill] This CD is the same as that CD. A1 Repeat
T Huyen? A2 S21 Direct
31
S This CD is the same as that CD. A1 Repeat
T In Vietnamese? In Vietnamese? Bac? K1 Focus
S Dia CD nay giong nhu dia CD kia. K2 S22 Propose
T Okay dia CD nay giong nhu dia CD kia. K1 S13 Affirm
Now when do we use the same as? When
T K1(ch) Focus
do we use the same as? Duong?
32
S Em thu co la to show…simi… rch Propose
T Ah similarity. K1 Affirm
T We use to show similarity. K1 Elaborate
T Similarity? K1(ch) Focus
S Giong nhau. rch Propose
Vay khi nao chung ta su dung cai cum tu nay
T dK1 Class Focus
nhi? In Vietnamese, Duong?
33
S Em thua co la khi chi su giong nhau. K2 S13 Propose
T Ah khi chi su giong nhau. K1 Affirm
T Now can you give me the form? dK1 Focus
T This CD… is… K1 Prepare
S Subject … K2 Propose
34
T Subject 1 is… K1 Focus
S The. K2 Propose
T The same as… subject 2. K1 Elaborate
Now what do you think about pop music and
T dK1 Class Focus
opera. Are they the same? Khanh?
S No. K2 S19 Propose
35 T No they aren’t. K1 Affirm
So you can say the pop music is different
T from the opera. [write the sentence on the K1 Elaborate Board
board – the Ss take note]
Now class repeat. The pop music is different
T A2 Class Direct
from the opera.
36
[drill] the pop music is different from the
Ss A1 Repeat
opera.
T Now Kien. A2 S23 Direct
S The pop music is different from the opera. A1 Repeat
37
T Again… different from the opera. A2 Direct
S Different. A1 Repeat
So when do you use different from?
T dK1 S24 Focus
Phuong?
[read the textbook] different from to say that
S K2 Propose
two … or more things are not similar.
To show that two or more things are not
T K1 Affirm
similar.
T In Vietnamese? K1 ch Focus
38
S (…) rch Propose
Can you write the form of 'different from'?
T K1 ch Focus
Can you give the form?
S Subject K2 Propose
T [write on the board] Affirm
S Different from. K2 Propose
T Different from… subject 2. Okay. K1 Affirm
Now you make sentence…. sentences with
T dK1 S25 Focus
this form. Now make sentences. Hieu?
39
S Football… is different from… volleyball. K2 Propose
T Yes… football is different from volleyball. K1 Affirm
301
T Ngoc? dK1 S26 Focus
Em thua co la my homework is different from
S K2 Propose
40 Lan homework.
My homework is different from Lan
T K1 Affirm
homework. Very good.
Duong? dK1 S13 Focus
S City life is different from … country life. K2 Propose
41
Okay city life is different from country life.
T K1 Affirm
Okay.
T Thao? dK1 S2 Focus
S My (… ) is different from (…) K2 Propose
T Speak louder. Speak louder. A2 Direct
42 Your room now is different from your room
S K2/A1 Propose
five years ago.
Ah your room now is different from your room
T K1 Affirm
five years ago. Thank you.
Now when we understand comparison better,
T we move to exercise 1. Exercise 1. Put ‘as’ K1 Class Prepare
or ‘from’ in the gap.
43 Ly, what do you have to do in exercise 1?
T tr S5 Focus
Bai tap 1.
S Em thua co dien as hoac from. rtr Propose
T Dien as hoac from vao cho trong. K1 Elaborate
T One minute for you. A2 Direct
44
T [Ss do the exercise in their textbook] A1 Concur
Okay… now have you finished? Have you
T K1 Prepare
finished?
45 T Chi? dK1 S27 Focus
S [read the first sentence] K2 Propose
T Thank you. One you put ‘as’. K1 Affirm
T Two? Thao? dK1 S2 Focus
46 S [read the second sentence] K2 Propose
T Two … put ‘as’. Well done. K1 Affirm
T Three? Phuong Anh? dK1 S20 Focus
47 S [read the third sentence] K2 Propose
T Three put… ‘as’. K1 Affirm
T Number 4? Duy? dK1 S28 Focus
S [read the forth sentence] K2 Propose
48
T ‘Different’ not ‘difficult’. Okay. K1 Reject
T Different from. K1 Affirm
T Five, Bich Ngoc? dK1 S8 Focus
S [read the fifth sentence] K2 Propose
Now I want you when you stand up you
T A2 Direct
49 speak louder.
T So number five you put…? Em phai dung? dK1 Focus
S As K2 Propose
T Okay, as. K1 Affirm
Six? Nhu? dK1 Focus
S [read the sixth sentence] K2 S29 Propose
T Six is ‘as’ K1 Affirm
T How can you translate this sentence? K1 ch Focus
S (…) rch Propose
50
T Luon luon ban ron nhu mot chu ong. K1 Affirm
Does your mother the same with the mother
T K1 ch Focus
in this sentence?
S Yes. rch Propose
T Mothers are always busy. K1 Elaborate
T Now look at exercise 2. A2 Class Prepare
51 T Read the requirement of exercise 2. Lien? A2 S30 Direct
S [read the requirement] A1 Read
302
T So what do you have to do? tr Focus
S (…) rtr Propose
T Speaker louder. A2 Direct
S (…) A1 Propose
[T did not
Dien mot trong nhung cum tu sau day vao use the
T K1 Class Elaborate
cho trong. So I think … we can…listen (…) pictures in
the book]
Now look at the phrase ‘as narrow as’…
T K1 Prepare
narrow…
T Ngoc? dK1 S26 Focus
S Rong. [wide] K2 Propose
52
Rong? No. K1 Reject
T
Opposite rong. Opposite. K1 Focus
Ss Hep. [narrow] K2 Class Propose
T Hep. K1 Affirm
T Now you complete this passage. dK1 Direct
53
Ss [Ss do the exercise] K2
T Okay are you ready? K1 Class Prepare
54
Ss Yes. K2f
T One. Lien? dK1 S30 Focus
S (…) K2 Propose
55 T Number one you put…? K1tr Focus
S The same as. rtr Propose
T The same as.. Well done. K1 Affirm
T Two Hieu? dK1 Focus
S The same as. K2 S25 Propose
T The same as? Do you agree? tr Focus
Ss No. rtr Propose
56
T Now another idea. K1 Class Reject
T Long? dK1 S11 Focus
S Em thua co la as quiet as. K2 Propose
T Right. As quiet as. K1 Affirm
T Three... Phuong? sK1 Focus
57 S Different from. K2 S24 Propose
T Different from. Different from. K1 Affirm
Four. Duc Duy? dK1 Class Focus
58 S As narrow as. K2 S28 Propose
T As narrow as. Okay. K1 Affirm
Five? Five?
T dk1 Class Focus
Chi?
59
S Em thua co la friendly as. K2 S27 Propose
T Friendly as. Okay. K1 Affirm
And six. Six. Nga? dk1 Class Focus
60 S The same as. K2 S6 Propose
T The same as. Okay. K1 Affirm
T Now you read the whole passage. Hien? A2 Class Direct
The whole class look at the book and listen
T A2 Direct
61 to her.
S [read the whole passage] A1 S14 Read
T OK very good. A2f Praise
Now your homework… you write a passage
about the changes in village. Write a
T K1 Class Focus
passage about the changes in village…. Use
these comparison okay?
62 T What we have to do Thao? tr Class Focus
Em thua co la phai viet mot doan van noi ve
S rtr S2 Propose
su thay doi cua lang que su dung so sanh.
T Okay K1 Affirm
303
Exercise three. Look at exercise three.
[Read] 'Work in pairs… compare the two
T K1 Class Prepare
music clubs in the town Young Talent and
Nightingale'.
63 Young Talent in Vietnamese? Young Talent?
T dK1 Class Focus
Who knows? Duong?
S Tai nang tre. K2 S13 Propose
T Okay tai nang tre. K1 Affirm
T Nightingale? dk1 Class Focus
A kind of bird… this bird sing very
T beautifully… Mot loai chim… nightingale… it K1 Prepare
64 sings very beautiful. Loai nao hot rat hay?
Ss Chim son ca. K2 Propose
T Chim son ca. K1 Affirm
Okay … you work in pairs compare the two
T A2 Class Direct
music clubs in town.
Now look at the table... how many adjectives
65 T dk1 Prepare
are there? Thao?
S There are six. K2 S2 Propose
T Yeah there are six adjectives. K1 Affirm
Now you look at the first adjective… 'old'.
T dK1 Class Focus
Viet Anh?
66
S Em thua co la 'gia'. K2 S10 Propose
T Gia. K1 Affirm
T Friendly. Duy? Friendly. dK1 Class Focus
67 S Em thua co la than thien. K2 S28 Propose
T Right. K1 Affirm
T Safe? Linh? dK1 Focus
68
S An toan. K2 S31 Propose
T Large. Hieu? dK1 Focus
69
S Rong. K2 S25 Propose
T Expensive. Quynh? dK1 Focus
70
S Dat. K2 S9 Propose
T Famous. Chi? dK1 Focus
71 S Noi tieng. K2 S27 Propose
T Right. K1 Affirm
T You look at adjective ‘old’. K1 Class Prepare
How many stars has Young Talent got? How
T dK1 Focus
many star?
72
Ss Sao. K2 Propose
T How many? How many stars? Ngoc? K1tr Focus
S Two. rtr S8 Propose
T Now what about Nightingale? How many? dK1 Class Focus
S Three. K2 Propose
73 So you can compare… Young Talent is not
T as old as Nightingale…. Or Nightingale is K1 Elaborate
older than Young Talent.
Now you work in pairs and… compare two
T A2 Class Focus
clubs… two music clubs.
T Are you clear? tr Focus
74
Ss Yes. rtr
T Work in pairs not individual. A2 Class Direct
Ss [Ss work in pairs] [-> working] A1 Concur
T Now stop. A2 Class Direct
Adjective ‘friendly’. Duong? Duong and
dK1 S13 S14 Focus
Huyen.
75 Young Talent is more friendly than
S K2 S13 Propose
Nightingale.
Nightingale is not as friendly as Young
S K2 S14 Propose
Talent.
304
T Perfect yes… K1 Praise
T ‘Safe’… what about ‘safe’? Thu and Huong? dK1 S7 S16 Focus
S Young Talent is not as safe as Nightingale. K2 S7 Propose
76
S Nightingale is safer than Young Talent. K2 S16 Propose
T Yes. K1 Affirm
Last. Duy and Phuong? dK1 S28 S24 Focus
S Young Talent is larger than Nightingale. K2 S28 Propose
T Larger than Nightingale. K1 Affirm
77 Nightingale … not as large … as Young
S K2 S24 Propose
Talent.
Is. Nightingale is not… as large as Young
T K1 Affirm
Talent.
Now what about expensive… expensive.
T dK1 S10 S26 Focus
Viet Anh and Ngoc.
Young Talent … is not as…expensive as…
S K2 S10 Propose
Nightingale.
Now how many stars has Young Talent…
T have? Young Talent has how many stars? K1tr Focus
May sao nhi?
78 S Ba. rtr S10 Propose
T What about Nightingale? How many stars? tr Focus
S Young Talent is as expensive as Nightingale. K2 Propose
T Or? dK1 Focus
S Nightingale is… the same as Young Talent. K2 S26 Propose
The same as…. The same expensive as
T K1 Affirm
Young Talent.
T Now famous. Hieu and Huyen. dK1 S25 S21 Focus
Young Talent is not… as famous as
S K2 S25 Propose
Nightingale.
S Nightingale is famous… K2 S21 Propose
Famous… long adjective. Famous is long
T K1 Elaborate
adjective.
79
S Nightingale is more than Young Talent. K2 S21 Propose
Nightingale is more famous than Young
T K1 Elaborate
Talent. Now again Huyen.
Nightingale is more famous than Young
S K2 S21 Repeat
Talent.
T Okay yes. K1 Affirm
T Okay I like English. K1 Class Prepare
Do you like English, Phuong Anh? dK1 Focus
80 S Yes. K2 S17 Propose
[write on the board] Phuong Anh says I like
T K1 Affirm Board
English.
Now what about you Ngoc? Do you like
T dK1 Focus
English?
S Yes. K2 S8 Propose
81
T Yes, I do. K1 Affirm
So I can say… Ngoc can say… I like it too.
T K1 Elaborate
Ngoc can say I like it too.
So ‘too’ what does it mean? What does it
T dK1 Class Focus
mean? Duy?
S Em thua co la qua. K2 S28 Propose
82 T Qua? No. K1 Reject
In this case it is not mean qua. Lan Anh? dK1 Focus
S Cung. K2 S32 Propose
T Right… it is ‘cung’. K1 Affirm
Okay when do we use ‘too’? When do we
T dK1 Class Focus
use ‘too’? Thao?
83
I .. use ‘too’ to express agreement with a
S K2 S2 Propose
positive … statement [read from the book].
305
Yes… we use too to express an agreement
T K1 Affirm
with a positive statement.
In Vietnamese? K1ch Focus
Chung ta dung too de dien ta su giong nhau
S rch S2 Propose
o cau khang dinh.
Dung roi. Chung ta dung too de dien ta su
dong tinh o cau khang dinh. Cau trong khang
T K1 Elaborate
dinh chung ta dong y voi y kien do chung ta
dung too.
Yes. Where is too? Where does it stand?
T Where does too stand? Too dung o vi tri dK1 Class Focus
nao? Dat?
S Cuoi cau. K2 S15 Propose
T Cuoi cau la gi nhi? Hien? dK1 Focus
84 S Too at the end of the sentences. K2 S14 Propose
Yes. Chung ta dung too de bieu dat su dong
T K1 Affirm
tinh khang dinh va too dung o cuoi cau.
Too stand at the end of the sentences. So
we use too to express agreement with a
T K1 Elaborate
positive sentences… and it stand at the end
of the sentences.
Okay now you work in pairs and make
T sentences with too. You work in pairs and A2 Class Direct
85 make sentences with too.
T [Ss work in pairs] A1
T Face to face. A2 Direct
86
[Ss work in pairs]
Now stop. A2 Direct
T
Please stop. Duy and Phuong Anh. A2 S28 S20 Direct
S [holding the book] I like cooking. K2 S20 Propose
87 T You like cooking. tr Affirm
S I like it too. K2 S21
T Do you cook well? Duy do you cook well? K1ch Focus
S … Yes. rch S21 Propose
T Another, Long and Linh. dK1 S11 S31 Direct
S I like play with Duy. K2 S11 Propose
88 T You like play… play with Duy. tr Affirm
S No I don’t like. K2 Propose
T Later you will learn how to express don’t like. K1 Elaborate
T Now Dat and Nhu. dK1 S15 S29 Direct
89 S I like dancing. K2 S15 Propose
S I like it too. K2 S29 Propose
T Now you … use another verb not like. K1 Class Prepare
T [bell rings]
Next we will continue…now your homework
T … learn this structure by heart and write a K1 Class Direct
90 passage about the changes in the village.
T Thank you for your listening.
[Stand up] [drill] Goodbye teacher. See you
Ss
again.
T See you again.
306
KỶ YẾU HỘI THẢO QUỐC TẾ
DẠY VÀ HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ GẮN VỚI CHUYÊN NGÀNH
TRONG BỐI CẢNH HỘI NHẬP QUỐC TẾ: LÍ LUẬN VÀ THỰC TIỄN
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

TEACHING AND LEARNING FOREIGN LANGUAGES IN ASSOCIATION WITH SUBJECT-MATTER CONTENT
IN THE CONTEXT OF INTERNATIONAL INTEGRATION: THEORY & PRACTICE
ĐẠI HỌC QUỐC GIA HÀ NỘI
TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ
KỶ YẾU HỘI THẢO KHOA HỌC QUỐC TẾ

DẠY VÀ HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ GẮN VỚI CHUYÊN NGÀNH
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

TEACHING AND LEARNING FOREIGN LANGUAGES
IN ASSOCIATION WITH SUBJECT-MATTER CONTENT
IN THE CONTEXT OF INTERNATIONAL INTEGRATION: THEORY & PRACTICE
NHÀ XUẤT BẢN ĐẠI HỌC QUỐC GIA HÀ NỘI

MỤC LỤC
 LANGUAGE EDUCATION PROGRAMS: CURRENT PROMISING MODELS IN NORTH AMERICA

Sandra Liliana Pucci.............................................................................................................. 11
 EVALUATING ENGLISH FOR BUSINESS PURPOSES COURSES

USING NEEDS ANALYSIS - A CASE STUDY AT FELTE, ULIS
Nguyễn Lan Anh.................................................................................................................... 28
 MỘT SỐ VẤN ĐỀ LÍ LUẬN, THỰC TIỄN

VỀ ĐÀO TẠO DẠY CHUYÊN NGÀNH BẰNG NGOẠI NGỮ Ở ĐẠI HỌC
Trần Đình Bình....................................................................................................................... 41
 DẠY VÀ HỌC CHUYÊN NGÀNH BẰNG TIẾNG NHẬT

CỦA SINH VIÊN NĂM THỨ BA - KHOA NGÔN NGỮ & VĂN HÓA NHẬT BẢN
Thân Thị Mỹ Bình, Đỗ Bích Ngọc ........................................................................................... 50
 VẤN ĐỀ LỖI VÀ CHỮA LỖI TRONG GIỜ HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ

DỰA TRÊN LÝ THUYẾT GIÁO HỌC PHÁP TIẾNG ĐỨC VÀ ĐÁNH GIÁ MỨC ĐỘ YÊU THÍCH
CỦA CÁC PHƯƠNG PHÁP CHỮA LỖI THÔNG QUA KHẢO SÁT NGƯỜI HỌC
Nguyễn Thị Ngọc Diệp........................................................................................................... 61
 TEACHING DISCIPLINARY KNOWLEDGE THROUGH ENGLISH AS A MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION

Phạm Hữu Đức....................................................................................................................... 76
 LEARNING TO SEE IN COMPLEX DOMAINS: UNDERSTANDING

AND HABITS FOR PRODUCTIVE ENGAGEMENT WITH VISUAL TEXTS
Nguyễn Thanh Hà ................................................................................................................. 90
 ENGLISH FOR TEACHING: THE CASES OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS IN VIETNAM

Vũ Hải Hà.............................................................................................................................. 97
 USING DICTAGLOSS AS CLIL PRACTICE IN THE EFL CLASSROOM

Lê Thanh Hà........................................................................................................................ 108
 VIETNAMESE HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH TEACHERS’ ATTITUDES, PERCEPTIONS

AND EXPERIENCE IN CLIL
Trần Thị Thu Hiền................................................................................................................ 120
KỶ YẾU HỘI THẢO KHOA HỌC QUỐC TẾ DẠY VÀ HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ GẮN VỚI CHUYÊN NGÀNH
6 TRONG BỐI CẢNH HỘI NHẬP QUỐC TẾ: LÍ LUẬN VÀ THỰC TIỄN
 TEACHING AND LEARNING FRENCH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE (FFL)

AND FRENCH FOR MEDICAL PURPOSE (FMP) IN ASSOCIATION WITH SUBJECT-MATTER
CONTENT IN THE CONTEXT OF INTERNATIONAL INTEGRATION: THEORIES AND PRACTICE
AT HAI PHONG UNIVERSITY OF MEDICINE AND PHARMACY (VIETNAM)
Nguyễn Thị Hiền, Cao Thị Phương Dung,
Trịnh Thị Thu Trang, Trần Thị Hà Giang............................................................................... 127
 THE DISCUSSION OF HUMAN RIGHTS OF UNDOCUMENTED IMMIGRANTS

IN THE UNITED STATES UNDER OBAMA ADMINISTRATION
Hoàng Thị Thanh Huyền....................................................................................................... 138
 APPLICATION OF PROJECT-BASED LEARNING IN TEACHING COMMUNICATION SKILLS

IN ENGLISH TO ENGINEERING STUDENTS
Phan Thị Ngọc Lệ................................................................................................................. 150
 CONTENT - BASED INSTRUCTION IN TEACHING TOURISM

Nguyễn Thị Thanh Nga......................................................................................................... 160
 NHẬN BIẾT NHỮNG BIẾN CHUYỂN “TRỪU TƯỢNG”

ĐỂ TĂNG ĐỘNG LỰC DẠY VÀ HỌC TIẾNG ANH CHUYÊN NGÀNH
Nguyễn Thị Hằng Nga.......................................................................................................... 169
 INCORPORATING FLIPPED CLASSROOM MODEL AND BRAIN-BASED TEACHING

IN AN ESP CLASS: A QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Nguyễn Quang Nhật, Nguyễn Ngọc Phương Dung, Kean Wah Lee....................................... 180
 ENGLISH MEDIUM INSTRUCTION AND TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

IN VIETNAM HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS
Lê Thị Thùy Nhung............................................................................................................... 202
 USING MINDMAP IN TEACHING ENGLISH TO STUDENTS MAJORING IN TOURISM

Võ Tú Phương ..................................................................................................................... 213
 ESL TEXTBOOK EVALUATION AND ADAPTATION:

A CLOSER LOOK AT “FACE2FACE” (UPPER-INTERMEDIATE LEVEL)
Đỗ Như Quỳnh, Dương Thị Tâm............................................................................................ 234
 THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL BASIS OF CONTENT

AND LANGUAGE INTEGRATED LEARNING - CLIL IN HIGHER EDUCATION
Nguyễn Thanh Tâm.............................................................................................................. 250
 TEACHING CULTURE-RELATED COURSES: TEACHERS’ SHARING ON CONTENT

AND APPROACH
Đỗ Thị Mai Thanh, Phan Thị Vân Quyên............................................................................... 269
Mục lục 7
 CHƯƠNG TRÌNH TIẾNG ANH BIÊN PHÒNG 1

Lại Thị Phương Thảo, Lê Thị Chinh, Phạm Thu Hà
Vũ Phương Lan, Nguyễn Đặng Nguyệt Hương, Dương Hồng Anh.......................................... 277
 MULTIMODAL INSTRUCTION IN INITIAL TEACHER TRAINING: PROSPECTS AND CHALLENGES

Trần Thị Hiếu Thủy.............................................................................................................. 290
 LANGUAGE USED IN BUSINESS RESPONSE LETTERS IN TERMS OF SPEECH ACTS

AND POLITENESS STRATEGIES
Nguyễn Thị Minh Trang........................................................................................................ 303
 DẠY VÀ HỌC TIẾNG ANH CHUYÊN NGÀNH QUẢN TRỊ VĂN PHÒNG
Ở TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC TRONG THỜI KÌ 3.0 VÀ NHỮNG ĐỀ XUẤT
Trần Thị Kim Tuyến.............................................................................................................. 317
Dear Readers!
The international conference “Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages in
Association with Subject-Matter Content in the Context of International Integration:
Theory & Practice” was successfully organized at the University of Languages and
International Studies (ULIS) under Vietnam National University, Hanoi (VNU) on the 17th
November, 2018 with numerous contributions from various researchers and practitioners
around the world and along the country. The conference also marked the 60th anniversary
of the foundation of the Faculty of English, the predecessor of 3 current faculties at ULIS,
namely the Faculty of English, the Faculty of English Language Teacher Education, and
the Faculty of Linguistics and Culture of English-Speaking Countries.
As is known, teaching/learning foreign languages for specific purposes (FLSP)
emerged several decades ago, yet what FLSP really means, what its content should be
like, how it should be conducted, and, most importantly, who enjoys the best position to
teach it – the foreign language teachers who might be blamed for insufficient knowledge
of the subject matter or the subject-matter teachers whose foreign language proficiency
might be questionable, or who might not be familiar with language teaching methods,
what is more important – language or subject-matter content, etc., remain key questions
for on-going debates, particularly in countries like Vietnam. Consequently, practices vary
from one educational or training institution to another, resulting in different degrees of
effectiveness of FLSP courses. In response to problems in FLSP identified by numerous
researchers, other approaches have appeared, including, inter alia, CBI (content-based
instruction), CLIL (content and language integrated learning), EMI (English as a Medium
of Instruction), JMI (Japanese as a Medium of Instruction), or FMI (French as a Medium
of Instruction). This conference was thus organized as a forum to discuss these issues
and approaches. Due to the variety of interpretations of the concept FLSP itself, and
fascinating approaches mentioned above, we intentionally chose Teaching and Learning
Foreign Languages in Association with Subject-Matter Content as the key words for the
theme of this conference.
The conference enjoyed enormous responses, yet the constraints of the proceedings
merely allow for 25 papers to be printed out. We hereby extend our heartfelt apologies to
those whose contributions do not appear in print, but surely what all the authors presented
at the conference was valuable, as vigorous discussions that followed informative and
thought-provoking presentations throughout the conference demonstrated. Participants in
the conference, and readers of the proceedings, found, and will find useful facts, insights,
experiences and good practices concerning the vast field of foreign language teaching in
association with subject-matter content in North America, Vietnam and elsewhere in the
world, which is a true mosaic of understanding and practices.
With these in mind, we hereby are proud to present to you the proceedings of the
conference, and hope that they will be well received and enjoyed.
With highest regards and sincerest thanks!
THE CONFERENCE ORGANIZERS

LANGUAGE EDUCATION PROGRAMS:
CURRENT PROMISING MODELS IN NORTH AMERICA
Sandra Liliana Pucci1
Abstract: Second language learning is a complex process, best begun at an early age with
sustained development throughout the lifespan. Deep knowledge of an additional language
can provide numerous personal and professional advantages. Yet in the current fiscal and
political climate, at least in the United States, world language programs are often among the
first to be cut. This paper will examine various second/world language education programs in
the United States and their potential for forming multi/bilingual individuals and supporting
communities. Models which serve both native speakers of English, as well as linguistic
minority populations will be reviewed. Among models to be discussed are world language
immersion programs, transitional and developmental bilingual education programs, dual
immersion, and other alternative models. I will argue that the traditional “subject matter”
teaching of a world language does not usually lead students to advanced proficiency in the
target language, and that a “natural approach” to second language acquisition, one in which
students are immersed in meaningful, authentic, goal-oriented communication is the key to
achieving a high level of proficiency. Implications for the Vietnam context will be discussed.
Keywords: bilingualism, second language acquisition, instructional programs.
1. INTRODUCTION
We begin with a with what seems like a paradox: in the United States, Great Britain,
Canada, and Australia, native English speakers rarely become competent in a second
language (Baker and Wright, 2017). Yet these same countries have a large reserve of
linguistic resources. In the United States alone, there are over 350 different languages
spoken (American Community Survey, US Census Bureau, 2015). Furthermore, the United
States is the fifth largest Spanish speaking country in the world, largely due to heritage
and immigrant language communities in diaspora (Macías, 2014). The current number of
Spanish speakers in the country is over 41 million, according to the most recent census
(US census, 2017). Yet relatively few native English speakers ever achieve proficiency in
Spanish (García, 2014). This paper will be organized in the following manner. First, I will
discuss some background issues pertaining to bilingualism and second language learning.
Next, I will discuss the advantages of bilingualism, both cognitive and social. I will then
1
University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee.
focus my attention on different instructional programs and their target audiences. Finally,
I will draw some conclusions as to what constitutes promising models and make some
suggestions for our way forward.
2. BACKGROUND
Second language (L2) learning in a complex process. Recent research (Granena and
Long, 2012) has identified what may be ‘sensitive periods’ (SP) for the acquisition of L2
phonology, morphosyntax, and lexis/collocation. Their study tested learner groups defined
by age of onset (AO) finding that the SP closed first for phonology, with offset beginning
at about age six and closing around age twelve. The SP for lexis/collocation closed
between ages six and twelve, and finally, the data for the acquisition of morphosyntax
shows closure in learners’ mid-teens, beginning at around age six. The authors are careful
to point out, however, that the acquisition of lexis/collocation as well as morphosyntax
continues throughout the life-span, “but with explicit learning playing an increasingly
important role, as the human capacity for implicit learning, especially for implicit item
learning, gradually declines with age” (p. 336). However, there is evidence that older
learners may indeed be able to achieve native-like competence in an L2 (Birdsong and
Molis, 2001), that there is in effect, no clear “breaking point”. This would indicate that
although learners of all ages can be successful, L2 learning is best begun at an early age,
and sustained throughout the lifespan.
Fortunately, countries such as Canada and the United States have ample linguistic
resources which could be leveraged to everyone’s advantage. And these resources
are increasing. American Fact Finder (AFF) reported in 2017 (US Census, 2017) that
according to the most recent census, almost half the residents of the five largest cities in
the US spoke a language other than English at home, and this is true for one of five people
across the nation. More than sixty-six million people report speaking a language other
than English at home. Although the census reports as many as 350 languages spoken in
the US, languages with more than a million speakers in 2017 were Spanish (41 million);
Chinese (3.5 million); Tagalog (1.7 million); Vietnamese (1.5 million); Arabic (1.2 million);
French (1.2 million); and Korean (1.1 million).
So why do so few native speakers of English in the United States achieve an advanced
level of language proficiency in a second language? And why is it challenging for heritage
speakers and L2 speakers of English to maintain their heritage/mother tongues? Are they
not informed as to the advantages of bilingualism? Or are other factors at play? To address
these questions, I will first discuss some of the advantages of bilingualism, then move
onto specific educational programs in an attempt to explain this phenomenon.
LANGUAGE EDUCATION PROGRAMS: CURRENT PROMISING MODELS IN NORTH AMERICA 13
2.1. The advantages of bilingualism

The notion that bilinguals were of inferior intelligence (Saer, 1923, 1924) ended in the
60s with Peal and Lambert’s (1962) seminal study. Since then, the field has moved forward
and produced volumes of research examining the effects of bilingualism on cognition.
Bialystock’s 2017 article presents a thorough review of research into these effects. She cites,
and has conducted, research which demonstrates that bilinguals are better than monolinguals
at metalinguistic tasks, and at certain non-linguistic tasks, particularly those which require a
high level of concentration. It appears that bilinguals are more skilled at “inhibitory control”,
i.e. blocking out non-essential information when processing tasks. Overall, she summarizes
the research outcomes with children as demonstrating that “executive functioning is more
precocious in bilingual children than in their monolingual counterparts” (p. 239). In other
words, bilinguals outperform monolinguals on experimental tasks when the monitoring
demands are high. Only a few studies with young adults in their twenties found similar levels
in both bilinguals and monolinguals, perhaps due to executive functioning being at “ceiling
level” at this age, or the lack of individual variation in the samples (p.241). However, when we
examine the research with older adults, the data once again shows bilinguals outperforming
their monolingual peers. One of the most interesting bodies of research, however, shows that
the onset of dementia seems to be delayed in bilinguals. Several studies, including one which
examined the incidence of Alzheimer’s disease in 93 countries (Klein, Christie, and Parkvall,
2016) found a decline in incidence of Alzheimer’s disease with an increase in multilingualism,
even after controlling for factors such as wealth and formal education. Other researchers
have also come to similar conclusions, i.e. that greater bilingualism is associated with lower
incidence and later onset of the disease, due to the “cognitive reserve” that bilingualism affords
(Schweizer, Ware, Fischer, Craik, and Bialystock, 2012).
There are also many advantages of bilingualism in schooling. Research has found
that language learning supports academic achievement (Lindholm-Leary, 2001, 2011).
Thomas and Collier (1995, 2002a, 2002b, 2012) have conducted a notable amount of
research examining academic growth trajectories of English Language Learners (ELLs)
in various educational programs and found that overall students demonstrated better
academic performance with continued development of their home language while
learning English. Similarly, language majority students in foreign language immersion
programs and students in two-way immersion settings (see subsequent sections) tend to
have superior academic achievement than their monolingually programmed counterparts
(Bae, 2007, Lindholm-Leary, 2011).
Tochon (2009) discusses additional educational advantages. Citing Trimnell (2005),
he comments on how language learning can increase global understanding through the
development of intercultural sensitivity in order to promote peace, or even for instrumental
goals. Bilingualism can indeed increase one’s employment potential in various sectors such
as government agencies, education, scientific research, the travel industry and entertainment
(Camenson, 2001, DeGalan, 2000). Language mastery can result in significant cultural
capital (Bourdieu, 1991) as well as a type of hypercollective good (Grin, 2006).
Finally, the American Council for the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) explores
the connections between multilingualism and the development of global competence. They
state that “the ability to communicate with respect and cultural understanding in more than
one language is an essential element of global competence… developed and demonstrated
by investigating the world, recognizing and weighing perspectives, acquiring and applying
disciplinary and interdisciplinary knowledge, communicating ideas, and taking action”
(p. 1). They further discuss the need for global competence, citing issues pertaining to
the economy, diplomacy, problem-solving, the needs of diverse communities, as well as
personal growth and development.
3. BILINGUAL (AND MONOLINGUAL) EDUCATION PROGRAMS

I use the term “bilingual education” in the broad sense, as an umbrella term for all
language education programs. In the following sections I will discuss target populations,
types of programs promoting strong bilingualism and biliteracy (or not), and the societal
and educational aims of specific programs.
In the United States, we tend to conceptualize two main target populations: Those
who are native speakers of English, and those who are speakers of a minority language,
and perhaps learners of English. A third population I will consider are “heritage speakers”
(Benmamoun, Montrul, and Polinsky, 2013). These speakers are often born in the United
States, growing up speaking a language other than English at home and in their immediate
communities. I will use the “typology of bilingual education” framework developed by
Colin Baker and Wayne Wright (Baker, 2006, Baker & Wright, 2017), to classify programs
according to their target populations, goals, and ability to foster strong bilingualism and
biliteracy. Tables 1 and 2 are adapted from Baker and Wright, 2017.
Table 1: A typology of bilingual education programs (adapted from Baker & Wright, 2017)
MONOLINGUAL FORMS OF EDUCATION FOR BILINGUALS

Typical type Language of the Societal and Aim in language
Type of Program
of child classroom educational aim outcome
Mainstreaming/ Language Majority language Assimilation/ Monolingualism
submersion, structured minority subtractive
immersion
Mainstreaming/ Language Majority language Assimilation/ Monolingualism
submersion, minority with “pull out L2 subtractive
withdrawal, ESL, lessons
Sheltered English
WEAK FORMS OF BILINGUAL EDUCATION FOR BILINGUALS

Typical type Language of the Societal and Aim in language
Type of program
of child classroom educational aim outcome
Transitional Language Moves from minority Assimilation/ Relative
minority to majority language subtractive monolingualism
Mainstream with foreign Language Majority language Limited Limited
language teaching majority with L2/FL lessons enrichment bilingualism
I will first discuss programs defined as monolingual or weak. Let’s being with the
typical instructional option for speakers of the majority language, in this case English. Most
students of a world language are enrolled in traditional programs which are limited in scope.
World language classes form part of the mainstream education school schedule of two to
three times a week, with lessons lasting from 30-50 minutes. Language is the object, rather
than the medium of instruction (Tochon, 2009). Students learn about the language, and
then practice it. This is not to minimize the notable improvements in language teaching
approaches and methodologies over the last fifty years (Harmer, 2015). Indeed, approaches
have evolved from simple grammar translation methods, to behaviorist models, to the
communicative, thematic, and task-based methodologies of today (Long, 2015). However,
I would assert that it is the program design itself, offering limited exposure to the language,
which cannot promote a deeper level of acquisition, no matter how sound the teaching
methodology. Baker and Wright (2017) have defined it as a “drip feeding” method which
“makes the language a subject in the curriculum similar to science or mathematics” (p. 208).
This is very different from delivering grade-level curriculum through the medium of the
language, as I will discuss in the subsequent sections.
To add to these limitations, the opportunity to study a world language is not afforded
to all. The most recent survey of world language enrollments, kindergarten (age 5) through
high school, conducted by the American Councils Research Center (2017), in collaboration
with the American Council for the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL), concluded:
“As reported by states, foreign language enrollments account for approximately 20%
of the total school age population. A total of 11 states have foreign language graduation
requirements; 16 states do not have foreign language graduation requirements; and 24
states have graduation requirements that may be fulfilled by a number of subjects-one of
which is foreign languages. In addition to graduation requirements, other aspects of state
level education policy-as well as a portion of English language learners and dual language
immersion program enrollments-impact the overall number of language learners at the
state level (p.6)”.
With only 20% of school age children participating in language programs, we gain a
clearer perspective on the magnitude of the problem.
3.1. The education of language minority students

Language minority students, on the other hand, have a different challenge. Many of
them are English language learners who must acquire English as well as master academic
grade-level content while they are in school. Although there is a long history of advocating
for this population, including important court cases guaranteeing accommodations and equal
access (Crawford, 2004), many of these students are still enrolled in either monolingual
or weak bilingual educational programs. The monolingual contexts are primarily “sink or
swim” type programs, where the learner is mainly left to her own devices. Monolingual
programs include “ESL pull out”, structured immersion, and sheltered English programs.
There is no instructional use of the native language, and little if any mother tongue support
in the way of educational assistants. Students often do not have enough English proficiency
to gain equal access to their grade level curriculum (Ovando and Combs, 2017). There is
an extensive research base going back to the 1970s demonstrating that these programs are
ineffective both in terms of academic achievement and English language acquisition (August
and Hakuta, 1997, Greene, 1998, McField and McField, 2014, Ramirez, 1992, Rolstad
et al, 2005; For a thorough discussion of seminal research see Crawford, 2004, and for more
recent research see Baker & Wright, 2017). Furthermore, they are considered linguistically
and culturally “subtractive” as their goals are monolingualism and assimilation.
It is useful, at this point, to review some of the basic components of bilingual education, agreed
upon in the field long ago. According to Krashen (1996), the following elements are essential:
• Subject matter teaching done in the L1, without translation. This builds background
knowledge and makes English more comprehensible. Methods which use translation are
not effective-children tune out the non-dominant language, and teachers do not have to
make the input comprehensible;
• Literacy development in L1, which transfers to L2;
• Comprehensible input in English, provided through ESL and sheltered subject matter;
• Continued development of the L1.
Transitional bilingual programs work as follows: ELL students are instructed through
the medium of the mother tongue and English. When their English reaches a conversational
level, and they are reading at an acceptable level in the mother tongue, they are “transitioned”
into English. This is normally around second grade, approximately at age 7. At that point the
majority of instruction is delivered through the L2, with little if any mother tongue support
(Crawford, 2004). These programs are considered weak in terms of their capacity to foster
bilingualism and biliteracy, as their goals are English and assimilation. The mother tongue
is used as a vehicle for English acquisition, and is given no value unto itself. The L1 is not
further developed, which is considered an essential component for good bilingual education.
Many of the comprehensive studies cited above also find that these programs do not have
strong outcomes in terms of academic achievement or bilingualism. Nevertheless, transitional
bilingual programs have been found to reduce the achievement gap in reading better than
monolingual programs (Thomas and Collier, 2002, Zitlali-Morales and Aldana, 2010).
3.2. Attitudinal barriers

In sum, there is a wealth of research evidence pointing to poor outcomes for the programs
discussed above. Let’s turn our attention to possible non-empirical reasons for their continuous
practice. I would suggest that attitudinal barriers, mistaken beliefs, anti-immigrant sentiment,
and possibly racial animus are at the heart of the problem, and impede the development of
multilingualism for both language majority and minority students. In several publications,
Crawford has documented the history of language discrimination and the US “English Only”
movement (Crawford, 1992a, 1992b, 2000, 2004, and more). He documents the fear of
cultural and linguistic diversity from an educational and historical perspective. Lessow-Hurley
(2012) also describes facets of language resistance. She identifies two main phenomena:
Language parochialism and language elitism. Language parochialism is the attitude that
multilingualism is unnecessary or even harmful (p. 142). Language elitism bestows prestige
upon an L1 speaker of English who masters an L2, although that same prestige is generally
not conferred upon speakers of minority or heritage languages. As Wright and Baker (2017)
summarize “underneath ‘weak’ and ‘strong’ forms of bilingual education lie different views
about language communities, ethnic minorities, and language itself. When language is viewed
as a problem, there is often a call for assimilation and integration. Such a view most often
leads to weak forms of bilingual education with a focus on moving students to mainstream
instruction in the dominant language as soon as possible” p. 399. Furthermore, in the current
political context, in which even the President of the United States espouses monolingual, anti-
immigrant viewpoints, there is even more work to be done (The Hollywood Reporter, 2015).
4. STRONG PROGRAMS FOR BILINGUALISM AND BILITERACY

We will now turn our attention to programs with a record of fostering bilingualism
and biliteracy. Table 2 summarizes these programs.
Table 2: A typology of bilingual education programs (Adapted from Baker & Wright, 2017)
STRONG FORMS OF BILINGUAL EDUCATION FOR BILINGUALISM AND BILITERACY

Aim in
Typical type Language of the Societal and
Type of program language
of child classroom educational aim
outcome
Foreign (World) Language Bilingual with initial Pluralism and Bilingualism
Language Immersion majority emphasis on L2 enrichment, additive and biliteracy
Developmental/ Language Bilingual with Maintenance, Bilingualism
heritage language minority emphasis on L1 pluralism, and and biliteracy
enrichment, additive
Two way/dual Mixed language Minority and Maintenance, Bilingualism
language minority and majority pluralism, and and biliteracy
majority enrichment, additive
4.1. Foreign language immersion programs

Foreign language immersion programs began in Canada in the 1960s. Since then
immersion education has spread rapidly, with over 392,000 English-speaking Canadian
children enrolled in variants of these programs (Statistics Canada, 2013, 2015, cited in
Baker and Wright, 2017). In the United States a similar phenomenon has emerged, with
programs in languages such as Spanish, French, German, Korean, Hmong, Russian,
Italian, Arabic, and Mandarin. The Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL) lists 448
programs in thirty-seven states and the District of Columbia who teach all or part of their
curricula through the medium of a second language (see http://www.cal.org/resource-
center/databases-directories). These programs are targeted at students who are native
speakers of the majority language, in this case English, with little to no experience with
the target language.
Immersion programs have been built upon several precepts. First, it is assumed
that students in these programs eventually develop advanced proficiency in the target
language, over time. Second, a “natural approach” to second language acquisition, i.e.,
one in which students are immersed in meaningful, authentic, relevant communication is
the key to achieving a high level of proficiency (Krashen and Terrell, 1988). Curriculum
is delivered through the medium of the target language. It is believed that learning a
second language in immersion settings becomes “incidental and subconscious, similar to
the way a first language is acquired” (Baker, p. 247). Other important goals include grade
level appropriate academic achievement, and appreciation of the language and culture of
a diverse group.
Contrary to “submersion” programs, monolingual programs in which ELLs are
not given access to their native language, foreign language immersion is an additive,
enrichment program which does not prohibit using or harm the development of the
native language. Unlike language minority students, language majority students are not
in danger of losing their language or culture. Furthermore, all teachers are bilingual, and
though they use the target language for the majority of instruction, they understand and
are competent speakers of the children’s L1. Teachers also receive extensive training in
order to equip themselves with the methods and techniques of delivering comprehensible
content through an L2.
How effective are these programs? Many experts feel that immersion programs are the
most promising models for developing advanced speakers of a world language (Fortune and
Tedick, 2008, Tedick, Christian, and Fortune, 2011). But obviously, they are not without
their challenges. There are many conversations regarding the merits of different models
(early full immersion vs. its variants), as well as how much training immersion teachers
should receive. Another conversation has to do with learner accuracy. Research into
immersion learning has shown that students’ grammatical and sociolinguistic competence
is weaker than their discourse and strategic competence (Lindholm-Leary, 2001). Other
researchers have confirmed that the grammatical accuracy of immersion learners suffers
from “persistent shortcomings” (Harley et al, 1990, Lyster and Mori, 2008).
To ameliorate these shortcomings, Lyster and Mori (2006, 2008) have proposed
what they term “instructional counterbalance.” They suggest that immersion classrooms
inject, when appropriate, a “focus on form” into their predominantly communicative-
based pedagogy. They review a variety of classroom techniques aimed at “triggering
interlanguage restructuring” (p.147). At this point in time, immersion education has
evolved into a vibrant field of research, with a significant amount of activity.
4.2. Developmental/heritage language programs

Developmental programs are those serving language minority students, which go
beyond the previously mentioned transitional model. There is great variety within this
classification, but the goal of such programs is to maintain and/or further develop the
native language, expanding speakers’ competence and academic registers. For example,
in many parts of the United States, bilingual education is not offered beyond elementary
school (Zitlali-Morales and Aldana, 2010). Where you find innovative developmental/
heritage schools you typically find engaged language minority communities who have
advocated for the establishment of such a school (Pucci and Cramer, 2011, Pucci, 2018).
Curriculum in many of these schools aims to be truly bilingual and bicultural, with all
school personnel contributing to the linguistic and cultural mission of the school. These
schools differ from two-way or dual immersion schools, as they cater to a specific language
community, and as such have a school population heavily weighted in that direction. That
are not, and do not pretend to be “integrated schools”.
4.3. Two-Way Immersion Programs

Two-Way Immersion (TWI) schools, sometimes called Dual Language, have
language minority and language majority students in the same program. TWI has its
origins in Dade County, Florida with a program developed by the Cuban community in
the early 60s (Freeman and Freeman, 2018, Garcia and Otheguy, 1988). The overall goal
is for both groups to learn each other’s languages and cultures. They are particular in that
beyond the goals of language acquisition, they create a culture which particularly values
the language and culture of the language minority student (Lindholm-Leary, 2001). TWI
programs have rapidly expanded over the last several decades (for an overview of their
development in individual states, see Freeman and Freeman, 2018). The Association of
Two Way and Dual Language Education (ATDLE) has estimated the total number of
programs in the United States to be over 2,000 (https://atdle.org/).
Medina (2017) lists the pillars (or goals) of two-way programs as:
First, bilingualism and biliteracy, mastery of speaking listening, reading and writing,
gained through content instruction throughout the grades. Second, high academic
achievement in both languages and all subject matter, and finally, sociocultural competence
and an ability to understand other cultures.
Although there are a variety of program configurations, the primary characteristics of
two-way programs are as follows (Baker and Wright, 2017, Lindholm-Leary, 2001). First
of all, the program model requires a balanced population: English speaking (majority
language) students and an equivalent number of native speakers of the target language.
The numbers need to be balanced in order to promote equity and foster interaction among
students. Another tenant consists of the separation of languages for instruction. Although
code-switching or translanguaging are natural phenomena in bilingual communities,
in terms of instructional practice, separation appears to be preferred (Lindholm-Leary,
2001). However, these time blocks of monolingual language instruction must also be made
comprehensible and adjusted to the learners’ language levels, as well as be challenging,
interesting, and culturally relevant. This is a different issue from language allocation within
individual programs, which may differ according to model. Some programs begin with
a 90/10 ratio in favor of the target language, with a gradual move towards 50/50, while
others implement 50/50 from the beginning. The point is that English not be dominant,
as this would be to the detriment of both populations L1 and L2 speakers. Similarly,
the staff need to be overwhelmingly bilingual, and the school culture and environment
consciously and unapologetically so.
There are several things which differentiate TWI from other programs. First, the
populations. This is the only bilingual program which integrates both majority and
minority language students, who learn from each other. Second, there is a conscious
aim to promote cultural sensitivity and an inclusive community. As Baker and Wright
explain “Such schools produce children, who in terms of inter-groups relations, are
likely to be more tolerant, respectful, sensitive and equalized in status. Genuine cross-
cultural friendships may develop, and issues of stereotyping and discrimination may be
diminished” (p. 217).
TWI schools typically emerge in communities with language minority populations.
They are often the result of grassroots collaboration between communities and school
districts. In the US, it is not surprising to find many Spanish-English programs, but
there are also several other languages represented, such as Arabic, Korean, Mandarin,
Japanese, Chinese (Mandarin and Cantonese) and German. In Westminster, California, a
community housing significant populations of both Latinos and Vietnamese, the school
district is home to two TWI programs, one in Spanish, and another in Vietnamese. Both
programs have been able to count on local support and are thriving (García, 2018).
In Garden Grove, not far from Westminster, an additional TWI program in Vietnamese
was launched in the Fall of 2017, and another district in San Jose, California is in the
planning stages for a Vietnamese TWI program.
The research on outcomes of these programs is extremely positive. In a short but
comprehensive article, Collier and Thomas (2004) examined the academic trajectories of
ELL students over 18 years in Houston, Texas. Their results indicate a clear advantage for
students who participated in TWI. TWI schools also reported more professional satisfaction
and commitment among teachers and administrators. Additionally, several other studies
show that students enrolled in TWI achieve at or beyond their non-immersion peers
(Lindholm-Leary and Borsato, 2006, Lindholm-Leary and Howard, 2008, Lindholm-
Leary and Genesee, 2010, Lindholm-Leary and Genesee, 2014).
A significant longitudinal study, the first randomized study of dual immersion that I am
aware of on a district-wide scale, which tracked students through middle school, was conducted
in Portland, Oregon by RAND, and the American Councils for Education and Portland Public
Schools (2015), with a large sample (n = 27,741). The following outcomes are reported:
1. Portland Public Schools (PPS) students randomly assigned to dual-language
immersion programs outperformed their peers on state reading tests by 13 percent of a
standard deviation in grade 5 and by 22 percent of a standard deviation in grade 8.
2. Immersion-assigned students did not show statistically significant benefits or
deficits in terms of mathematics or science performance.
3. There were no clear differences in the effects of dual-language immersion by
students’ native language.
4. English learners assigned to dual-language immersion were more likely than their
peers to be classified as English proficient by grade 6. This effect was mostly attributed to
English learner students whose native language matched the classroom partner language. (p.3)
Data from this study show a direct correlation between TWI and academic
achievement. To summarize, TWI is proliferating rapidly. Although there are significant
positive research findings, continued investigation into specific language programs and
outcomes is warranted in order to increase our knowledge. In any case, the current research
base, as well as “basic research” in bilingual education and second language acquisition,
which supports the notion that ELLs’ increased development of the L1 benefits the L2,
both academically and cognitively, lends substantial support to these programs.
5. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Research over the last several decades has demonstrated positive outcomes for
what I have termed “strong” programs for bilingualism and biliteracy. Although I have
concentrated on North American contexts, these findings have implications for other
areas of the world. Furthermore, it is not only in North America that these programs,
or variations of them exist. According to Baker and Wright, 2017, Foreign Language
Immersion schools are present in Catalonia, the Basque country, Ireland, Australia, Japan,
New Zealand, Hong Kong, Singapore, Switzerland, and more (p. 233). The international
research base is also robust (see Johnstone, 2002, for a review). Although I know of no
TWI programs similar to the US context outside of North America, many international
contexts would easily lend themselves to this type of school.
It is worth considering implications for L2 learning in Vietnam, particularly for
English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) at the universities. EMI is the use of the
English language as a medium of instruction to teach academic subjects in contexts where
the L1 of the population is a language other than English (Dearden, 2014). While the
implementation of EMI and the policies and politics surrounding it are far beyond the
scope of this paper, a few insights into language proficiency issues should be addressed.
A study conducted by Do Minh Hung and Le Thi Diem Lan (2017) examined the
challenges facing content lecturers in teaching in EMI classrooms. The study collected
data from 28 content lecturers in EMI programs at a public university in Vietnam.
Although the results touch upon a number of issues, the one which clearly stood out as
most relevant to this paper, is the issue of adequate language proficiency, on both the part
of the lecturers and the students they serve. Responses indicated not only low proficiency,
but that this lack of proficiency created additional instructional and learning burdens for
all parties. The lecturers live this in terms of preparation and curriculum, and as far as the
students are concerned, their understandings of their subject matters are greatly affected.
Indeed, at our ULIS conference in November, we had a plenary session detailing
current methods in EMI, as well as several other talks regarding these programs. With
all due respect, it does not seem that more preparation, more strategies, note-taking
techniques, listening rubrics, observations, materials and so forth can make up for the
fundamental problem of insufficient language proficiency. Hung and Lan make several
excellent suggestions, mostly pertaining to the continued development of the lecturers’
English, and I take their points. But what if we had started to develop these language
abilities far in advance?
To bring this paper full circle, it would seem that a strong, additive model of L2
education implemented in the schools from an early age would be a good point of
departure. Designing sound foreign language immersion models, either full or partial,
while developing academic literacy in Vietnamese, would go far in preparing students
with the language tools and academic register in English they may need to be successful
in an EMI setting, or study abroad.
Let us recall that L2 learning is best begun at an early age and sustained throughout
the lifespan. Research-based programs implemented with an unwavering commitment
to the first language and culture, including the training of non-native instructors of
English, in conjunction with a commitment to empowerment, would take the L2 learning
experience to a new place. Furthermore, these programs need to be widely dispersed and
made available to all citizens, rather than manifesting themselves as “elite options”.
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EVALUATING ENGLISH FOR BUSINESS PURPOSES COURSES
USING NEEDS ANALYSIS - A CASE STUDY AT FELTE, ULIS
Nguyễn Lan Anh1
Abstract: Needs analysis is an essential element in designing English for Specific Purposes
courses in general, and Business English courses in particular, as information about the
learners’ needs can have an influence over the choice of teaching contents and activities. In
this study, a needs analysis was conducted as a tool to evaluate the two English for Business
Purposes courses for first-year double major students at Faculty of English Language
Teacher Education, University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National
University, Hanoi. The results from the questionnaire conducted among over 230 students
show that the teaching contents in four domains (listening, speaking, reading and writing) of
the two courses have met the students’ language needs. Nevertheless, other teaching/ learning
activities should be added to the course syllabi to better cater to the students’ learning styles
and preferences.
Keywords: Needs analysis, English for Business Purposes, English for Specific Purposes
(ESP), course design, course evaluation.
1. INTRODUCTION
The history of needs analysis in language programs can be traced back to the 1960s,
when there was an increase in the demand for language specialized programs (Richards,
2001). Since then, needs analysis has proved itself a potent device for planning, developing
and evaluating English for Specific Purposes (ESP) programs, including Business English
(BE) courses.
At the Faculty of English Language Teacher Education, University of Languages and
International Studies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, English for Business Purposes
courses were first introduced in the double major B.A. program (English language and
International Economics) in 2012. These Business English courses, namely 1A, 2A, 3A
and 4A, stretch over the first four semesters (Year 1 and Year 2), with the overall aim
of helping students improve their Business English proficiency level from the Common
European Framework of Reference (CEFR) level A2 to level C1.
1
ULIS - VNU,H; Email: anhnl1990@vnu.edu.vn.
EVALUATING ENGLISH FOR BUSINESS PURPOSES COURSES USING NEEDS ANALYSIS - A CASE STUDY AT FELTE, ULIS 29
Being a lecturer of the English for Business Purposes 1A and 2A courses, as well
as being well aware of the importance of needs assessment in designing and developing
Business English courses, the researcher is highly motivated to conduct a needs analysis
to determine if the students’ language needs are fully addressed in the current syllabi of
these two courses.
Consequently, this study aims to investigate the language necessities, lacks and
wants of the double major first-year students who take the English for Business Purposes
- 1A and 2A courses at Faculty of English Language Teacher Education, University of
Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi. In other words,
the study seeks to answer the following research questions:
1. Are the perceived business English language needs of double major first-year
students at FELTE, ULIS addressed in the English for Business Purposes course syllabi?
2. Do the teaching methods and activities in these courses match students’ preferences?
The findings of this research are expected to serve as a tool to evaluate whether the
English for Business Purposes courses - 1A and 2A can adequately cater to the students’
language needs and provide worthwhile implications for subsequent course syllabi updates.
2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
2.1. Definitions of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and Business English (BE)
Hutchinson & Waters (1987) defined ESP as “an approach to language teaching
which aims to meet the needs of particular learners” (p.21). Munby (1978) distinguished
ESP from General English (GE) in that “ESP courses are those where the syllabus and
materials are determined in all essentials by the prior analysis of the communication needs
of the learner” (p.2). Strevens (1988) in defining ESP also noted meeting the learner’s
specific needs as one of the four absolute characteristics of ESP (as cited in Gatehouse,
2001). This particular element of ESP was later included in a modified definition of ESP
by Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998) (as cited in Gatehouse, 2001). However the notion
of ESP is interpreted, it is agreeable that ESP places the learner’s needs at its center,
which then dictates its syllabus design and teaching methodology.
With respect to ESP, Business English is categorized under the umbrella term
“ESP”. In Hutchinson & Waters’ “The Tree of ELT” (1987, p.17), English for Business
and Economics is placed as one branch of ELT, together with English for Science and
Technology and English for Social Sciences. The distinction between Business English
and other subdivisions of ESP is that Business English is a combination of both “specific
content” (occupation-related language) and “general content” (general communication
skills) (Ellis & Johnson, 1994, p.3). However, as subfields of ESP, Business English
and the other branches all share the key features of needs analysis, syllabus design and
materials development (Ellis & Johnson, 1994; Čepon, 2005).
Based on the above definitions of ESP and BE, it can be seen that a central feature
underlying these two concepts is the focus of the learner’s needs. Putting specific needs
of learners at its core is what sets BE, as well as ESP, apart from GE.
2.2. Definition of needs analysis
Before discussing what needs analysis means, it is crucial to clarify what constitutes
“needs”. A classification of needs was proposed by Hutchinson & Waters (1987), in which
needs can be divided into “target needs” and “learning needs”. There are three types of
target needs: necessities, lacks and wants. Necessities refer to what learners must know to
communicate successfully in target situations. The difference between the aimed and actual
proficiency levels of the learner is called lacks. And wants are understood as the learner’s
personal view of their lacks, or in other words, what he/ she thinks he/ she must acquire to
achieve the targeted proficiency level (pp. 55-59). While target needs focus on the use of
language, learning needs take the learning situation factors into consideration (i.e. learners’
background, motivation, learning styles, environment, resources, etc.) (pp. 60-62).
According to Nunan (1988), needs analysis is “a family of procedures for gathering
information about learners and about communication tasks for use in syllabus design”
(p.73). The process of collecting information about the learner’s language learning
purposes, goals, style and preferences is called “learner analysis” (p.17). “Task analysis”
is a follow-up to “learner analysis”, in which the language skills that the learner must
acquire in order to perform communicative tasks are analyzed (p.18).
A broader definition of needs analysis can be found in “Longman Dictionary of
Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics” (Richards, Platt & Weber, 1985): “the
process of determining the needs for which a learner or group of learners requires a
language and arranging the needs according to priorities. Needs assessment makes use of
both subjective and objective information (e.g. data from questionnaires, tests, interviews,
observation) and seeks to obtain information on the situations in which a language will be
used (including who it will be used with)”.
Perhaps the most comprehensive definition of needs analysis is the one put forward by
Brown (1995), which covers all the features in the above definitions and adds a further point
- its application in curriculum development: “the systematic collection and analysis of all
subjective and objective information necessary to define and validate defensible curriculum
purposes that satisfy the language learning requirements of students within the context of
particular institutions that influence the learning and teaching situation” (p.36).
2.3. The role of needs analysis in Business English courses

As mentioned in the first section of this paper, needs analysis is an essential element
in designing ESP courses in general, and BE courses in particular. In fact, needs analysis
is considered even more important in Business English than in other ESP branches since
there can be a wider variety of learners’ needs (Dudley-Evans & St. John, 1996). So what
exactly are the aims of conducting needs analyses? In the opinion of Richards (2001), a
needs analysis can serve multiple functions in course development:
• to identify the necessary language skills learners must acquire for their occupation
(so called “necessities” by Hutchinson & Waters);
• to identify the area of difference between what learners can and cannot do (known
as “lacks” in Hutchinson & Waters’ definition);
• to indentify the group of learners that needs the most assistance in certain lan-
guage skills;
• to acquire further information regarding learners’ current problems/ difficulties;
• to determine whether learners’ needs are sufficiently catered in the current course;
• to determine the adjustments that are important in learners’ views (p.52).
Another purpose of a needs analysis highlighted by Nunan (1988) is to minimize the
mismatches between the teacher’s goals and the learner’s goals. Specifically, information
about the learner’s needs can have an influence over the choice of teaching content and
activities. Concurrently, the learner may show better appreciation and acceptance towards
the course when he/ she understands that his/ her needs are taken into account (p.80).
Needs analysis makes a significant contribution to the favorable outcome of a course
because it equips the course designers with valuable information to align the course
content with learners’ requirements (Riddell, 1991, p.73). It also acts as the cornerstone
for materials development, classroom activities design, testing and assessment, and
program evaluation (Brown, 2001, as cited in Li, 2014).
Needs analysis is instrumental in the making of all language courses, however, it
is of paramount importance in ESP courses due to the fact that in ESP, not only are
the needs of learners put into consideration, but the needs of teachers, administrators,
employers, institutions, etc. are also involved (Brown, 2006). In that regard, the findings
and implications of a needs analysis are not only of interest to course developers but
also to various stakeholders, including future learners and teachers of the course, testing
personnel, textbook writers, etc. (Richards, 2001).
To sum up, needs analysis is considered a valuable tool to set up a number of
elements in course designing, including “the criteria and rationale for grouping learners,
the selection and sequencing of course content, methodology, course length, and
intensity and duration” (Nunan, 1994, p.54, as cited in Li, 2014).
Needs analysis provides a deep insight into the true needs of not just the learners but
also of multiple stakeholders. It is a vital tool to help minimize undesirable outcomes of
a course, which, in most cases, might be the results of devising a syllabus based purely
on the course designers’ presumptions of what learners need, or what might work for
them. If high quality teaching is to be expected, then needs analysis is an integral stage
in course design that needs not be neglected. Indeed, as of now, a great matter of concern
is not whether or not to conduct needs analyses, but rather the methodology of a needs
analysis research and how its results and implications are put into application in syllabus
development (Kim, 2006).
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1. Participants
The participants of the study comprised 237 double-major students, out of the
total number of 257 students double majoring in English Language and International
Economics at Faculty of English Language Teacher Education, University of Languages
and International Studies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi. In fact, all 257 double-
major students were invited to take part in this research, however, only 237 of them
agreed to participate.
Table 1: Research participants
Double-major students Total number of students Number of students participating

in the study
First-year 83 77
Second-year 31 29
Third-year 63 59
Fourth-year 80 72
Total 257 237

A questionnaire was used as the instrument for data collection of this study. The
questionnaire consisted of 62 5-point Likert-type scale items to assess first-year students’
Business English language needs. The questionnaire items were developed based on
the teaching contents and activities in four language skills (listening, reading, speaking,
writing) covered in the two English for Business Purposes courses in order to evaluate
whether these teaching contents and activities adequately address the students’ language
needs. To enhance reliability, the questionnaire was piloted before administration and later
edited to provide clearer instructions for the respondents. The online Vietnamese version
of the questionnaire survey was sent to all 237 participants via email for convenience and
practical reasons.
4. FINDINGS AND RESULTS

The survey questionnaire included 62 items divided into four sections:
• The necessity level of various business English listening, reading, speaking, writing
skills and soft skills perceived by double major first-year students;
• Their level of confidence in performing various business English listening, reading,
speaking, writing skills and soft skills;
• Their level of interest in learning these business English listening, reading, speaking,
writing skills and soft skills;
• Their level of preferences for different learning methods and activities.
The results for each of these four categories will be presented below.
4.1. Necessity level of Business English skills

In this section of the questionnaire, 18 items representing 18 business English
listening, reading, speaking and writing skills soft skills are listed. The respondents were
asked to rate how necessary they thought each skill would be for their future jobs using
the following continuum:
Unnecessary Somewhat unnecessary Somewhat necessary Necessary Very necessary
1 2 3 4 5
The results for each item are summarized in Table 2 below.
Table 2: Necessity level of Business English skills
N Min Max M SD
A. Listening
Listen to business lectures, seminars 237 2 5 4.41 .716
Listen to speeches, talks, presentations at business conferences 237 2 5 4.16 .818
Listen to business meetings, group discussions 237 2 5 4.27 .816
Listen to business interviews 237 2 5 4.25 .777
B. Reading
Read business articles 237 2 5 4.32 .740
Read business documents, letters, emails 237 2 5 4.40 .721
C. Speaking
Make business phone calls with clients, business partners,
237 2 5 4.54 .686
colleagues
Chair, take part in business meetings, group discussions 237 2 5 4.27 .811
Conduct business negotiations 237 2 5 4.41 .757
Give business presentations (introducing company, products,
237 2 5 4.49 .687
business plan, etc.)
Socialize, network, entertain clients, partners in business contexts 237 1 5 4.47 .704
Have good English pronunciation 237 3 5 4.62 .610
D. Writing
Write CVs/ résumés 237 2 5 4.67 .606
Write order forms and respond to order forms 237 1 5 4.26 .842
Write business letters/ emails 237 2 5 4.46 .709
Write business meeting minutes, action minutes 237 1 5 3.93 .954
Write business reports 237 2 5 4.12 .845
Write business plans 237 1 5 4.07 .911
Regarding listening skills, the overall results revealed that students perceived
listening skills to be “necessary” for their future jobs (average M = 4.27), with “listening
to business lectures and seminars” as the most necessary skill (M = 4.41).
Reading skills are also considered “necessary”, with the average Mean score of 4.36,
slightly higher than that of listening skills, with “reading business articles” as the most
necessary skill.
Speaking skills received the highest average Mean score among the four language
skills (average M = 4.47). The top 3 most necessary micro skills perceived in this category
are “having good pronunciation” (M = 4.62), “making business phone calls with clients,
business partners, colleagues” (M = 4.54) and “giving business presentations” (M = 4.49).
The necessity levels of various writing skills ranged from “somewhat necessary”
to “necessary”. The highest Mean score belongs to “writing CVs/ résumés” (M = 4.67),
and the two lowest Mean scores were given to “writing business meeting minutes, action
minutes” (M = 3.93) and “writing business plans” (M = 4.07).
4.2. Confidence level in performing Business English skills

This category covers the same 18 items listed in the previous section. However, the
respondents were asked to rank their current level of confidence in performing these skills
using a different continuum:
Unconfident Somewhat unconfident Somewhat confident Confident Very confident

1 2 3 4 5
The results are displayed in Table 3 below.
Table 3: Confidence level in performing Business English skills
N Min Max M SD
A. Listening
B. Reading
C. Speaking
Make business phone calls with clients, business partners, colleagues 237 1 5 2.80 .965
Chair, take part in business meetings, group discussions 237 1 5 2.68 1.033
Conduct business negotiations 237 1 5 2.45 .984
237 1 5 3.15 .970
Socialize, network, entertain clients, partners in business contexts 237 1 5 2.75 .984
D. Writing
Write business meeting minutes, action minutes 237 1 5 2.82 1.005
Write business reports 237 1 5 2.74 .981
Write business plans 237 1 5 2.91 .900
The figures above suggested the overall impression that the students perceived
themselves as having rather low competence in all four language skills, as they believed
that they were “somewhat unconfident” or “somewhat confident” in performing these skills
(Mean scores fluctuating between 2.45 and 3.35). Among the four language skills, Speaking
was assessed as the weakest area with the average Mean score of 2.86, followed by Listening
(average M = 3.03), Writing (average M = 3.06) and Reading (average M = 3.28).
4.3. Interest level in learning Business English skills

Similar to the two previous sections, the third section of the questionnaire used the
same set of 18 items. The participants were required to rate their level of interest in learning
a number of listening, reading, speaking, writing skills on the following 1-5 scale:
Not at all interested Not very interested Neutral Interested Very interested
1 2 3 4 5
Table 4 below exhibits the results of this section.
Table 4: Interest level in learning Business English skills
N Min Max M SD
A. Listening
B. Reading
C. Speaking
Make business phone calls with clients, business partners,
237 1 5 3.63 .932
colleagues
Chair, take part in business meetings, group discussions 237 1 5 3.43 .944
Conduct business negotiations 237 1 5 3.52 1.023
237 1 5 3.69 .895
Socialize, network, entertain clients, partners in business
237 1 5 3.86 .912
contexts
D. Writing
Write business meeting minutes, action minutes 237 1 5 3.27 1.124
Write business reports 237 1 5 3.32 1.107
Write business plans 237 1 5 3.52 1.052
On the whole, the students’ level of interest in studying four language skills was
somewhere in between “neutral” and “interested”. More specifically, the students’ level
of interest in learning four language skills is inversely proportional to their level of
confidence in performing these skills. Speaking, perceived as the language skill with the
lowest level of confidence, was the area that students were most interested in learning
(average M = 3.76), while Reading, receiving the highest level of confidence, was the
least keen on language skill (average M = 3.49).
4.4. Preferences level for learning methods and activities

The last section of the questionnaire survey sought to find out students’ level of
preferences for different learning methods and activities using another 1-5 Likert scale:
Strongly dislike Dislike Neutral Like Strongly like
1 2 3 4 5
Data results are summed up in Table 5.
Table 5: Preferences level for learning methods and activities
N Min Max M SD
Learn business English through business-themed movies 237 1 5 4.26 .896
Learn business English through classroom games 237 1 5 4.19 .971
Learn pronunciation through tutorial videos with native speakers 237 2 5 4.05 .910
Learn business English through authentic materials (authentic
listening texts, authentic articles in business newspapers, 237 2 5 3.93 .843
magazines, etc.)
Learn business vocabulary with flashcards online (e.g.: through
237 1 5 3.76 1.080
website www.quizlet.com)
Learn business English through lectures, talks, seminars given
237 1 5 3.71 1.039
by business experts
Learn speaking through role-playing activities 237 1 5 3.64 1.043
Learn business English through business case studies 237 1 5 3.61 1.026
The data indicate that students most preferred learning methods and activities that
have entertainment value such as learning business English through business-themed
movies or classroom games. The use of ICTs such as learning business vocabulary with
flashcards online and learning pronunciation through tutorial videos with native speakers
was also highly appreciated by students. They tended to have a neutral attitude towards
more traditional teaching and learning methods.
5. DISCUSSION
Through the questionnaire survey, the business English language necessities, lacks
and wants of the double major first-year students taking the English for Business Purposes
- 1A and 2A courses were identified.
The participants acknowledged that all the language components (Listening, Reading,
Speaking and Writing) listed in the questionnaire were necessary for their future jobs,
which means that the current syllabi of the English for Business Purposes - 1A and 2A
courses have adequately addressed the target needs known as “necessities” (Hutchinson
& Waters, 1987) of the learners.
Regarding the students’ “lacks”, it was revealed that the majority of students
expressed their lack of confidence in using the target language skills. Hence, it is vital that
the English for Business Purposes courses 1A and 2A provide sufficient opportunities for
students to practice and enhance their business English competences. And since students
were most insecure about their speaking skills, further speaking practice in the courses
shall be required.
Between the students’ lacks and wants, a discrepancy was found in the findings.
Specifically, although the students displayed a rather low level of confidence towards
the target language skills, they only showed a moderate level of desire in learning these
skills, which means that they were not highly motivated to learn what they regarded as
necessary and important to acquire for their future jobs. Therefore, it is implied that the
course developers as well as lecturers should invest in finding more ways to motivate
the learners. Fortunately, the findings from the last section of the questionnaire open
up some worthwhile implications for the course designers and lecturers with regard to
motivational tools. It is suggested that more entertaining ICT-enhanced learning methods
and activities should be incorporated into the course syllabi as well as classroom teaching
and learning to boost student motivation.
6. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, this study into the business English language needs of double major
students at FELTE, ULIS has discovered valuable findings and implications for the
evaluation of the English for Business Purposes 1A & 2A courses. In general, all the
target language needs of the students have been covered in the current syllabi of these
two courses. Nevertheless, it is crucial that the course should not only reflect the target
needs of the students but also take into consideration their lacks and wants. Therefore,
students’ learning styles and preferences should also be given more emphasis by the
course designers and lecturers to achieve better student motivation.
Despite great efforts in conducting the research, this study still suffers from several
limitations. Firstly, due to time constraint, questionnaire was the sole data instrument
of this needs analysis, while other methods including interview and observation would
have provided a deeper investigation into the students’ needs and helped triangulate the
results, hence improving the reliability and validity of the research findings. The second
limitation belongs to the participants of the research. Although many efforts were made
to gather data from various groups of students (first, second, third, fourth year students),
more valuable findings would have been yielded if the participants had included graduates
as there might be a number of discrepancies in the perceptions of language needs between

graduates, who have already been employed, and undergraduates. Nonetheless, this has
opened up a new direction for further investigation for the researcher.
REFERENCES
1. Brown, J. D. (1995). The elements of language curriculum: A systematic approach to
program development. New York: Heinle & Heinle.
2. Brown, J. D. (2001). Using surveys in language programs. Cambridge: Cambridge University
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design. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 4(9), 1869.
3. Brown, J. D. (2006). Second language studies: Curriculum development. In K. Brown (ed.),
Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. (2nd ed.; Volume 11, pp. 102-110). Oxford:
Elsevier.
4. Čepon, S. (2005). Business English in practical terms. Retrieved December 1, 2015,
from http://espeap.junis.ni.ac.rs/index.php/espeap/article/view/165/100
5. Dudley-Evans, R. & St. John, M. J. (1996). Report on business English: A review of research
and published teaching materials. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.
6. Dudley-Evans, T., & St John, M. (1998). Developments in ESP: A multi-disciplinary
approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. In Gatehouse, K. (2001). Key issues
in English for specific purposes (ESP) curriculum development. The internet TESL journal,
7(10), 1-10.
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English for Language Teachers, Trainers, and Course Organizers. Oxford University Press.
8. Hutchinson, T., & Waters, A. (1987). English for Specific Purposes: A learning-centered
approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
9. Kim, H. O. (2006, February). Needs analysis in English for Specific Purposes revisited. In
Kate Forum (Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 6-8).
10. Li, J. (2014). Needs analysis: an effective way in business English curriculum design. Theory
and Practice in Language Studies, 4(9), 1869.
11. Munby, J. (1978). Communicative Syllabus design. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
12. Nunan, D. (1988). Syllabus design. Oxford University Press.
13. Nunan, D. (1994). The learner-centered curriculum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
14. Richards, J. C. (2001). Curriculum development in language teaching. Cambridge:
15. Richards, J. C., Platt, J., & Weber, H. (1985). Longman dictionary of Language Teaching
and Applied Linguistics. London: Longman.
16. Riddell, P. G. (1991). Analyzing student needs in designing specific-purposes language
syllabuses. Language Learning Journal, 3(1), 73-77.
17. Strevens, P. (1988). ESP after twenty years: A re-appraisal. In M. Tickoo (Ed.), ESP: State
of the Art (pp. 1-13). Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Centre. In Gatehouse, K. (2001). Key
issues in English for specific purposes (ESP) curriculum development. The internet TESL
journal, 7(10), 1-10.
MỘT SỐ VẤN ĐỀ LÍ LUẬN, THỰC TIỄN
VỀ ĐÀO TẠO DẠY CHUYÊN NGÀNH BẰNG NGOẠI NGỮ Ở ĐẠI HỌC
Trần Đình Bình1
Tóm tắt: Bài viết trình bày một số vấn đề lí luận, thực tiễn về đào tạo dạy chuyên ngành
bằng ngoại ngữ ở đại học, trong đó có dạy chuyên ngành bằng tiếng Pháp. Chương trình
đào tạo theo 3 giai đoạn: đào tạo cơ bản, chuyên ngành và thực hành nghề nhằm đáp ứng
yêu cầu của việc dạy chuyên ngành bằng ngoại ngữ cho các đối tượng khác nhau. Để đạt
được kết quả mong muốn, đường hướng giao tiếp hành động được lựa chọn giúp tiếp thu,
nắm vững kiến thức chuyên ngành, nâng cao khả năng thực hành chuyên môn của giáo viên
và sinh viên.
Trên cơ sở phân tích tình hình dạy chuyên ngành bằng ngoại ngữ ở nước ta, chúng tôi
đề xuất một số giải pháp cụ thể nhằm nâng cao chất lượng đào tạo giáo viên dạy chuyên
ngành bằng ngoại ngữ, góp phần thực hiện tốt mục tiêu của Đề án Ngoại ngữ Quốc gia là
“ ... đa số thanh niên Việt Nam tốt nghiệp trung cấp, cao đẳng, đại học có đủ năng lực sử
dụng ngoại ngữ độc lập, tự tin; biến ngoại ngữ trở thành thế mạnh của người Việt Nam...”.
Từ khóa: Dạy ngoại ngữ, chuyên ngành, đào tạo, giải pháp, lí luận, thực tiễn.
I. ĐẶT VẤN ĐỀ
Dạy ngoại ngữ, chuyên ngành bằng ngoại ngữ là một yếu tố cực kì quan trọng trong
tiến trình mở cửa hội, nhập khu vực, quốc tế, công nghiệp hóa và hiện đại hóa đất nước.
Việc dạy - học ngoại ngữ, chuyên ngành bằng ngoại ngữ ở bậc đại học, sau đại học trở
thành nhu cầu tất yếu, khách quan, là “chiếc cầu nối” kinh tế, văn hóa giữa Việt Nam với
thế giới trong bối cảnh toàn cầu hóa. Điều này đã được thể hiện rõ trong đề án “Dạy và
học ngoại ngữ trong hệ thống giáo dục quốc dân giai đoạn 2008-2020” 2 với mục tiêu
đến năm 2020 “đa số thanh niên Việt Nam tốt nghiệp trung cấp, cao đẳng, đại học có đủ
năng lực sử dụng ngoại ngữ độc lập, tự tin; biến ngoại ngữ trở thành thế mạnh của người
Việt Nam”. Theo Quyết định số 2080/QĐ-TTg của Thủ tướng Chính phủ phê duyệt điều
chỉnh, bổ sung “Đề án dạy và học ngoại ngữ trong hệ thống giáo dục quốc dân giai đoạn
1
PGS.TS, Khoa Ngôn ngữ và Văn hóa Pháp, Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ - ĐHQGHN.
2
Quyết định số 1400/QĐ-TTg ngày 30/9/2008 của Thủ tướng Chính phủ.
2017 -2025”1, đến năm 2025: “phấn đấu 100% các ngành đào tạo chuyên ngữ triển khai
chương trình ngoại ngữ theo chuẩn đầu ra và ngành đào tạo. Các trường rà soát lại việc
đào tạo ngoại ngữ theo chuyên ngành, đồng thời tiếp tục xây dựng ngoại ngữ chuyên
ngành để có thể dạy các môn chuyên ngành bằng ngoại ngữ, chủ yếu bằng tiếng Anh”.
Bài viết này trình bày vấn đề lí luận, thực tiễn và một số biện pháp cụ thể nhằm nâng
cao chất lượng đào tạo giáo viên dạy ngoại ngữ, chuyên ngành bằng ngoại ngữ trong các
trường đại học nhằm đáp ứng yêu cầu, mục tiêu của Đề án Ngoại ngữ Quốc gia.
II. CƠ SỞ LÍ LUẬN DẠY HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ, CHUYÊN NGÀNH BẰNG NGOẠI NGỮ
1. Khái niệm “ngôn ngữ chuyên ngành”

Thuật ngữ “ngôn ngữ chuyên ngành” (langue de spécialité) ra đời từ những năm
1960 của thế kỉ trước để phân biệt với ngôn ngữ chung (langue générale). Nhiều lĩnh vực
liên quan đến ngôn ngữ chuyên ngành như: biên phiên dịch, khoa học - công nghệ, phổ
biến khoa học kĩ thuật, giao tiếp giữa các chuyên gia trong nhiều lĩnh vực khác nhau,
giao tiếp hành chính, ngôn ngữ ngành tư pháp, thương mại, v.v… Cho đến nay, các nhà
ngôn ngữ, các nhà thuật ngữ, các nhà chuyên môn đều cho rằng khó phân định rạch ròi
giữa hai loại hình ngôn ngữ này. Các chuyên gia coi ngôn ngữ chuyên ngành là các văn
bản chuyên môn chứa đựng thông điệp, các thuật ngữ chuyên ngành. Các nhà ngôn ngữ
như Galisson, Coste cho rằng: “ngôn ngữ chuyên ngành được dùng trong các tình huống
giao tiếp nói, viết để chuyển tải một thông tin thuộc một lĩnh vực riêng (1976)”2. Theo
Dubois và các cộng sự: “Ngôn ngữ chuyên ngành là tiểu hệ thống ngôn ngữ gồm các
đặc tính được dùng trong một lĩnh vực riêng”3. Theo Lerat “Khái niệm ngôn ngữ chuyên
ngành gắn với ngôn ngữ tự nhiên nhằm chuyển tải kiến thức chuyên sâu”4. Theo Cabré:
“ Ngôn ngữ chuyên ngành là công cụ giao tiếp của các chuyên gia trong đó thuật ngữ là
quan trọng nhất, nó khu biệt với ngôn ngữ chung”5. Theo quan điểm của giới học thuật
Canada: “Ngôn ngữ chuyên ngành được dùng trong một lĩnh vực riêng với các phương
tiện biểu đạt riêng, gồm: các thuật ngữ, các câu thuộc về một lĩnh vực, theo phong cách,
cú pháp riêng (CISO1087.1)6. Trên thực tế, ngôn ngữ chuyên ngành không thể tách rời
ngôn ngữ chung vì cùng sử dụng hệ thống qui tắc ngữ pháp, cú pháp nhưng có các đơn vị
nghĩa, các qui tắc riêng biệt. Tóm lại, ngôn ngữ chuyên ngành là tiểu hệ thống có tính ngữ
dụng, là hệ thống tín hiệu phức tạp, bán độc lập, được dùng trong hoàn cảnh riêng biệt,
1
Quyết định số 2080/QĐ-TTg ngày 27/12/2017 của Thủ tướng Chính phủ phê duyệt điều chỉnh, bổ sung
“Đề án dạy và học ngoại ngữ trong hệ thống giáo dục quốc dân giai đoạn 2017-2025”.
2
Galisson Robert & Daniel Coste,1976. Dictionnaire de didactique des langues. Paris, Hachette.
3
Dubois, Jean, 2001. Dictionnaire de linguistique. Paris: Larousse.
4
Lerat, Pierre,1995. Les langues spécialisées. Paris: PUF.
5
Cabré, M.-T, 1998. La terminologie. Ottawa, Les Presses de l’Université d’Ottawa.
6
Rousseau, Jean Louis, 2008. Technolectes: omniprésence et foissonnement in Circuit No 98 Montréal, Québec.
MỘT SỐ VẤN ĐỀ LÍ LUẬN, THỰC TIỄN VỀ ĐÀO TẠO DẠY CHUYÊN NGÀNH BẰNG NGOẠI NGỮ Ở ĐẠI HỌC 43
phục vụ nhu cầu riêng nhằm chuyển tải thông tin, kiến thức thông qua diễn ngôn của các
chuyên gia.
Đặc điểm riêng của ngôn ngữ chuyên ngành là:
• Thường sử dụng các thuật ngữ chuyên môn trong tình huống giao tiếp nói, viết để
chuyển tải một thông điệp, một trải nghiệm, một môn học, một ngành khoa học, một kĩ
năng gắn với một lĩnh vực riêng, một nghề cụ thể.
• Thường dùng cấu trúc câu ở thể bị động, vô nhân xưng trong diễn ngôn khoa học
tự nhiên và xã hội.
• Có phong cách riêng, có hệ thống khái niệm chính xác về nghĩa, không mang tính
cảm xúc, từ vựng đơn nghĩa dùng riêng trong lĩnh vực chuyên ngành.
• Luôn đổi mới, phong phú nhờ vay mượn tiếng nước ngoài, sử dụng từ phái sinh
như tiền tố, hậu tố.
Ngôn ngữ chuyên ngành là khái niệm phổ quát chung đối với mọi ngôn ngữ trên thế
giới vì thế người ta thường nói tiếng Pháp, tiếng Đức, tiếng Nga, tiếng Trung, tiếng Tây
Ban Nha chuyên ngành mỗi khi muốn phân biệt chúng với ngôn ngữ chung. Điều này ảnh
hưởng trực tiếp đến giảng dạy ngoại ngữ và dạy chuyên ngành bằng ngoại ngữ, đến công
tác đào tạo giáo viên dạy ngoại ngữ và dạy chuyên ngành bằng ngoại ngữ.
2. Cơ sở lí luận, thực tiễn của việc dạy - học ngoại ngữ, chuyên ngành bằng ngoại ngữ
Ngoại ngữ chuyên ngành là đối tượng dạy học, nghiên cứu ở trường đại học. Mục
tiêu chính của việc dạy là truyền thụ cho người học kiến thức ngoại ngữ, kiến thức chuyên
ngành, thực hành nghề, còn mục tiêu của nghiên cứu là tìm ra các thuật ngữ chuyên ngành
tương đương giữa tiếng mẹ đẻ và ngoại ngữ; thiết kế chương trình, nội dung, phương
pháp giảng dạy hợp với mục đích, nhu cầu của người học ở mỗi cấp học, có liên hệ với
giới chuyên môn, môi trường nghề nghiệp. Việc giảng dạy ngoại ngữ chuyên ngành phải
trả lời được mấy câu hỏi sau đây: Ai dạy? Dạy cái gì? Dạy cho ai? Dạy thế nào? Điều kiện
dạy học như thế nào? Đánh giá ra sao?
Dạy - học ngoại ngữ chuyên ngành là một hoạt động đặc thù gồm các thành tố có
quan hệ và tác động lẫn nhau như: động cơ, mục đích, điều kiện hoạt động, hành động,
thao tác. Trong quá trình dạy - học, kết quả học tập phụ thuộc chủ yếu vào hoạt động của
người học. Giáo viên là người tổ chức, hướng dẫn hoạt động học, thông qua đó, người học
lĩnh hội các kiến thức, kĩ năng cần thiết để hành nghề sau khi ra trường. Muốn hoàn thành
tốt nhiệm vụ này, giáo viên cần nắm vững qui luật chung của quá trình nhận thức một
khoa học, cơ chế sinh lí của hoạt động ngôn ngữ, động cơ, mục đích của việc học ngoại
ngữ, các kĩ năng giao tiếp. Đối với việc dạy - học ngoại ngữ chuyên ngành ở bậc đại học,
sau đại học thì sử dụng sáng tạo thuật ngữ trong văn bản khoa học là rất quan trọng, góp
phần nâng cao chất lượng dạy - học ngoại ngữ chuyên ngành.
Hiện nay, sự phát triển mạnh mẽ của khoa học kĩ thuật, công nghệ, giao lưu, hội
nhập quốc tế trong nền kinh tế tri thức đòi hỏi giáo viên dạy ngoại ngữ chuyên ngành
nắm vững kiến thức chuyên ngành khoa học bằng tiếng Việt và bằng ngoại ngữ được dạy
tại trường, làm cho bài học ngoại ngữ hấp dẫn hơn, hoạt động lĩnh hội kiến thức chuyên
ngành bằng ngoại ngữ thuận lợi hơn khi người học đọc tài liệu, viết báo cáo khoa học,
tham gia hội thảo chuyên ngành, đặc biệt là viết luận văn tốt nghiệp, luận văn cao học
bằng ngoại ngữ. Giáo viên cũng cần nắm vững các phương pháp giảng dạy, đưa ra các
biện pháp giúp người học thực hiện mục tiêu, tự học trong môi trường xã hội ít có giao
tiếp hàng ngày bằng ngoại ngữ được học. Đặc biệt họ phải hiểu rõ được rằng dạy học một
ngôn ngữ là quá trình nhận thức khách quan. Khi học ngoại ngữ, người học tiến hành các
thao tác phân tích, so sánh, tổng hợp, khái quát hóa, trừu tượng hóa để rút ra tính chất chủ
yếu của đối tượng nhận thức, xây dựng thành khái niệm được diễn đạt bằng từ ngữ. Nhận
thức bản chất của ngôn ngữ, của việc dạy - học ngoại ngữ chuyên ngành như một khoa
học đặt cơ sở vững chắc cho lí luận, phương hướng giải quyết các vấn đề dạy - học ngoại
ngữ chuyên ngành.
Dạy - học ngoại ngữ chuyên ngành là giải quyết vấn đề nhận thức của người dạy và
người học. Đây là quá trình giải quyết các vấn đề dạy - học các môn học chuyên ngành
bằng ngoại ngữ ở bậc đại học.
Đào tạo sinh viên có kiến thức ngoại ngữ chuyên ngành khoa học đáp ứng đòi hỏi
phát triển của xã hội và thời đại là đề cập tới mối quan hệ giữa tiến trình giải quyết vấn đề
khoa học, dạy - học ngoại ngữ, chuyên ngành khoa học bằng ngoại ngữ.
Dạy ngoại ngữ, chuyên ngành khoa học bằng ngoại ngữ nhằm giúp sinh viên nắm
được tiến trình giải quyết vấn đề khoa học, vấn đề dạy - học ngoại ngữ chuyên ngành để
tìm ra những điểm chung, riêng theo mấy điểm chính sau đây:
• Xác định nội dung, yêu cầu, điều kiện của vấn đề;
• Tổng quan các phương pháp giải quyết vấn đề đặt ra và những vấn đề tồn tại;
• Nêu rõ các giải pháp và lựa chọn một giải pháp phù hợp với vấn đề nêu ra;
• Đề xuất giải pháp mới hoặc xây dựng kiến thức, phương tiện mới để giải quyết vấn
đề nêu ra;
• Thử nghiệm vào thực tế để đánh giá hiệu quả, bổ sung, hoàn thiện kết quả đạt được.
Mối quan hệ giữa tiến trình giải quyết vấn đề trong khoa học và trong quá trình dạy
- học ngoại ngữ chuyên ngành được thể hiện ở động cơ, mục đích, nhu cầu, năng lực giải
quyết vấn đề, điều kiện làm việc. Trong môi trường khoa học, sinh viên có nhiều thuận
lợi để lĩnh hội kiến thức ngoại ngữ, chuyên ngành. Nhiệm vụ của người giáo viên là đưa
ra các phương pháp phù hợp để họ vận dụng sáng tạo vào quá trình học tập. Dưới đây là
ba phương pháp chính:
• Giải quyết vấn đề theo kiến thức đã biết (bằng diễn dịch, quy nạp, so sánh), làm
cho việc tiếp nhận ngoại ngữ chuyên ngành của sinh viên hiệu quả hơn khi giải quyết vấn
đề học thuật trong bài học; khi tiếp nhận các thuật ngữ chuyên ngành; dịch thuật các văn
bản khoa học; làm các bài tập, viết báo cáo khoa học theo phong cách, chức năng khoa
học bằng ngôn ngữ học thuật.
• Nghiên cứu, sáng tạo từng phần áp dụng trong nghiên cứu tài liệu, vấn đề mới. Ở
đây, trực giác đóng vai trò quan trọng vì thế sinh viên cần được rèn luyện trực giác khoa
học để đưa ra một giải pháp cho vấn đề đặt ra và kiểm chứng tính xác thực bằng thực
nghiệm. Phương pháp này rất hiệu quả khi dùng các thủ pháp dạy - học ngoại ngữ chuyên
ngành, khi xây dựng hệ thống thuật ngữ chuyên ngành và nghiên cứu khoa học.
• Tổng hợp, sáng tạo trong tổ chức hoạt động nghiên cứu, học tập thông qua kiến
thức đã học.
Áp dụng hài hòa ba phương pháp này rất hữu ích trong quá trình dạy - học ngoại ngữ
và chuyên ngành bằng ngoại ngữ.
3. Tình hình dạy - học ngoại ngữ chuyên ngành ở nước ta

Ở nước ta, việc dạy - học ngoại ngữ chuyên ngành gắn liền với sự hình thành và phát
triển của giáo dục đại học. Trước nhu cầu đòi hỏi, thách thức của chính sách mở cửa, hội
nhập khu vực và thế giới từ năm 1986 và của việc thực hiện các cam kết mở cửa dịch vụ
cho các nước thành viên từ khi Việt Nam tham gia Tổ chức Thương mại Thế giới (WTO)
năm 2007. Theo thống kê của Bộ GD-ĐT, tới nay đã có 35 chương trình tiên tiến ở 23
cơ sở đào tạo; 16 chương trình kỹ sư chất lượng cao theo tiêu chuẩn của Cộng hoà Pháp;
50 chương trình đào tạo theo định hướng ứng dụng nghề nghiệp, gần 200 chương trình
chất lượng cao, hơn 500 chương trình liên kết đào tạo quốc tế với các trường đại học trên
thế giới, có năm trường đại học quốc tế tại Việt Nam là: Đại học Việt Đức, Việt Pháp, Việt
Anh, Việt Nhật, Việt Mĩ Fullbright. Con số rất ấn tượng này thể hiện rõ tầm quan trọng
của dạy học ngoại ngữ và ngoại ngữ chuyên ngành trong đào tạo đại học ở Việt Nam bởi
vì muốn theo học đại học tại các trường này phải có trình độ ngoại ngữ từ B2 theo chuẩn
châu Âu. Thực tế đã chứng minh rằng, từ năm 1994 đến nay, chương trình đào tạo đại học
chuyên ngành bằng tiếng Pháp với sự tài trợ, giúp đỡ chuyên môn của Cơ quan đại học
Pháp ngữ khu vực châu Á Thái Bình Dương ở Việt Nam (AUF), các chương trình liên
kết đào tạo đại học giữa các trường đại học Việt Nam với các trường đại học nước ngoài
theo các chuyên ngành khoa học tự nhiên, xã hội bằng tiếng Anh, Pháp, Đức, Tây Ban
Nha v.v… đã đạt được kết quả tốt, góp phần đào tạo nguồn nhân lực chất lượng cao cho
nền kinh tế Việt Nam. Sinh viên tốt nghiệp các hệ đào tạo này giỏi ngoại ngữ, có trình độ
chuyên môn tốt, tìm được việc làm ngay, trong khi đó trình độ ngoại ngữ và chuyên ngành
bằng ngoại ngữ của sinh viên nói chung còn hạn chế, chưa đáp ứng được đòi hỏi của thị
trường lao động. Việc dạy học ngoại ngữ chuyên ngành bằng tiếng Anh, tiếng Pháp tại một
số trường đại học tập trung chủ yếu vào một số ngành như: du lịch, kinh tế, ngân hàng, tin
học, luật, khoa học tự nhiên. Một số công trình nghiên cứu của giảng viên đại học trình
bày tại Hội thảo quốc gia về dạy học ngoại ngữ gắn liền với chuyên ngành tổ chức tại
Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội ngày 17/11/2018. Các bài báo cáo
tại phiên toàn thể và tại các tiểu ban nêu rõ tầm quan trọng của việc dạy tiếng ngoại ngữ
chuyên ngành chủ yếu là tiếng anh chuyên ngành ở Mĩ, Úc, Nhật Bản, Đài Loan, trong
các trường đại học ở nước ta. Các tác giả đã đề xuất nhiều giải pháp cụ thể, thiết thực
nhằm tìm ra phương pháp dạy chuyên ngành bằng ngoại ngữ phù hợp với hoàn cảnh, điều
kiện dạy học ở Việt Nam.
III. NÂNG CAO CHẤT LƯỢNG DẠY - HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ, CHUYÊN NGÀNH BẰNG NGOẠI NGỮ
Việc dạy học ngoại ngữ, chuyên ngành bằng ngoại ngữ trong các trường đại học đòi
hỏi giáo viên phải biết kết hợp dạy ngoại ngữ với nội dung chuyên môn, chuyên ngành, áp
dụng cách dạy lồng ghép, tích hợp giữa kiến thức ngoại ngữ với nội dung chuyên ngành,
chọn cách tiếp cận nội dung chuyên ngành phù hợp.
1. Đào tạo dạy ngoại ngữ, chuyên ngành bằng ngoại ngữ
Trước hết, chương trình đào tạo dạy ngoại ngữ, chuyên ngành bằng ngoại ngữ phải
dựa vào bộ chuẩn đào tạo, bộ chuẩn nghề nhằm diễn tả các hoạt động giao tiếp, các năng
lực ngoại ngữ phù hợp với vị trí việc làm. Việc dạy chuyên ngành bằng ngoại ngữ được
thể hiện bằng năng lực giao tiếp trong các tình huống nghề nghiệp cụ thể. Chất lương dạy
ngoại ngữ, chuyên ngành bằng ngoại ngữ chỉ được đảm bảo nhờ hiểu rõ điều kiện sử dụng
ngoại ngữ, yêu cầu đào tạo của nhà trường, doanh nghiệp. Năng lực ngoại ngữ, chuyên
ngành rất cần thiết để hành nghề do đó phải đổi mới, hoàn thiện phương pháp dạy chuyên
ngành bằng ngoại ngữ, đáp ứng nhu cầu mới của người học.
Đào tạo dạy ngoại ngữ, chuyên ngành bằng ngoại ngữ phải xác định chuẩn đầu vào,
chuẩn đầu ra của người học, lựa chọn cách đào tạo phù hợp với mục tiêu, nội dung đào tạo
bằng cách lồng ghép kiến thức ngoại ngữ với kiến thức chuyên ngành, đáp ứng yêu cầu
của nhà trường, doanh nghiệp. Chương trình đào tạo gồm kiến thức ngoại ngữ, kiến thức
môn học, kiến thức nghề nghiệp được trình bày dưới dạng năng lực để thực hiện nhiệm vụ
chuyên môn. Xây dựng chương trình phải gắn nội dung đào tạo với các tình huống nghề,
đặt giáo viên vào tình huống dạy thực hành ngoại ngữ, chuyên ngành bằng ngoại ngữ.
Chương trình đào tạo dạy chuyên ngành bằng ngoại ngữ gồm ba giai đoạn:
Đào tạo cơ bản → đào tạo chuyên ngành → thực hành nghề.
• Giai đoạn 1: Đào tạo cơ bản:
- Cung cấp kiến thức cần thiết để dạy ngoại ngữ, dạy chuyên ngành bằng ngoại ngữ;
phát triển tư duy phê phán, tương tác trong xây dựng kiến thức môn học, các mô hình,
trải nghiệm và quan sát thực tế; phát triển các năng lực thực hành chuyên môn bằng ngoại
ngữ; hòa nhập vào môi trường doanh nghiệp, thực tế nghề nghiệp.
- Đảm bảo trình độ năng lực giao tiếp chuyên ngành bằng ngoại ngữ trên cơ
sở nắm vững và sử dụng tốt thuật ngữ chuyên ngành trong diễn ngôn khoa học.
- Chuẩn bị giảng dạy ngoại ngữ, chuyên ngành bằng ngoại ngữ; áp dụng kĩ thuật diễn
ngôn, chiến lược, kĩ thuật đọc tài liệu chuyên ngành bằng ngoại ngữ theo nhu cầu của
người học.
• Giai đoạn 2: Đào tạo chuyên ngành
Giai đoạn này rất quan trọng giúp nắm vững kiến thức môn học, giao tiếp chuyên
môn bằng ngoại ngữ; phát triển năng lực mềm để phân tích nhu cầu, động cơ, lựa chọn
nội dung ứng với trình độ năng lực, điều kiện cơ sở vật chất, đặc tính của người học bằng
phương pháp dạy học theo mục tiêu, nhiệm vụ.
• Giai đoạn 3: Thực hành nghề
Giai đoạn này nhằm phát triển thực hành giao tiếp nghề nghiệp với ba nội dung chính sau:
- Dạy thực hành giao tiếp, diễn ngôn chuyên ngành, kĩ thuật đọc hiểu, kĩ thuật đánh
giá, soạn các bài trắc nghiệm về kiến thức môn học, chuyên ngành bằng ngoại ngữ.
- Phân tích lí thuyết tương tác lời nói, các loại hình văn bản, các loại diễn ngôn để
truyền tải kiến thức chuyên ngành, kiến thức khoa học.
- Thực tập tại doanh nghiệp để tìm hiểu hoạt động của các bộ phận trong doanh
nghiệp, cách tiếp cận văn hóa, liên văn hóa trong doanh nghiệp. Xây dựng và quản lý
tương tác chuyên môn, phân tích chiến lược giao tiếp nghề nghiệp trong lập kế hoạch đào
tạo, nghiên cứu thị trường, quảng cáo, giới thiệu sản phẩm.
Chương trình đào tạo này góp phần dạy, áp dụng kiến thức ngoại ngữ vào môn học,
vào chuyên ngành, đảm bảo đào tạo thực hành giao tiếp chuyên môn bằng ngoại ngữ trong
nhà trường, tại doanh nghiệp và ngoài xã hội, theo đường hướng giao tiếp hành động.
2. Thực hành phương pháp giao tiếp, hành động

Khi học ngôn ngữ chuyên ngành bằng tiếng mẹ đẻ, người học nắm vững ngôn ngữ,
kiến thức chuyên ngành nhờ các kĩ năng ngôn ngữ, giao tiếp, các hoạt động tự động, trực
cảm ngôn ngữ của mình. Trái lại, khi học ngôn ngữ chuyên ngành bằng ngoại ngữ, người
học phải học trước hay đồng thời, một cách có ý thức các kiến thức ngôn ngữ, kĩ năng
giao tiếp và kiến thức chuyên ngành bằng ngoại ngữ như thuật ngữ chuyên ngành, cấu
trúc hình thái cú pháp, nghĩa của chúng. Dạy học ngoại ngữ, chuyên ngành bằng ngoại
ngữ cần có các phương pháp phù hợp với nhu cầu, mục tiêu của người học có tính đến
kiến thức nền, năng lực ngôn ngữ bằng tiếng mẹ đẻ, bằng ngoại ngữ của họ. Hiện nay,
các phương pháp dạy ngôn ngữ chuyên ngành bằng ngoại ngữ như tiếng Anh, tiếng Pháp,
tiếng Trung, tiếng Nga du lịch, thương mại, luật, hành chính, khoa học kĩ thuật, v.v…
thiên về trình bày cấu trúc hình thái, cú pháp của các thuật ngữ dùng trong diễn ngôn
chuyên ngành, giới thiệu văn hóa của các cộng đồng nghề, các nhóm xã hội nói, giảng
dạy các ngoại ngữ này. Thực ra, dạy ngoại ngữ chuyên ngành chính là truyền đạt kiến
thức khoa học, văn hóa bằng ngoại ngữ, phải dựa vào phương pháp luận dạy - học ngoại
ngữ, vào phương pháp tiếp nhận kiến thức ngành khoa học bằng ngoại ngữ được lựa chọn.
Hiện nay, phương pháp giao tiếp hành động được dùng rộng rãi trong dạy - học ngoại ngữ
ở các cấp độ, đòi hỏi đầu tư đáng kể về thời gian và sức lực của người dạy, người học và
phải tuân thủ các nguyên lí sau:
- Dạy theo tình huống từ đơn giản đến phức tạp từ sử dụng các bài tập tình huống,
hỏi - đáp, “nhập vai” các nhà khoa học đến thảo luận chuyên đề tại hội thảo khoa học v.v.
- Dạy thông qua hoạt động khoa học tại nơi sản xuất, phòng thí nghiệm, tại các buổi
sinh hoạt khoa học chuyên đề, các hội thảo trong nước và quốc tế v.v.
- Dạy phong cách ngôn ngữ khoa học, giúp người học nắm vững phong cách ngôn
ngữ của các nhà khoa học khi trao đổi các vấn đề khác nhau trong cuộc sống.
- Dạy trao đổi thông tin về các vấn đề khoa học qua mạng Internet nhằm rèn luyện
các kĩ năng nói, nghe, đọc, viết, dịch của người học.
Phương pháp giao tiếp hành động này đòi hỏi người học phải nắm vững các kĩ
năng, kĩ xảo trong hoạt động lời nói, diễn ngôn khoa học, có khả năng báo cáo, thảo
luận các vấn đề khoa học tại các buổi sinh hoạt chuyên đề bằng ngoại ngữ được học,
tại các hội nghị, hội thảo khoa học. Trong quá trình dạy - học ngoại ngữ chuyên ngành,
cần kết hợp áp dụng hiệu quả các nguyên lí trên trong tiếp nhận, nắm vững, sử dụng
các kiến thức ngôn ngữ chuyên ngành bằng ngoại ngữ trong lĩnh vực chuyên môn và
trong cuộc sống.
IV. KẾT LUẬN

Dạy ngoại ngữ và chuyên ngành bằng ngoại ngữ là một quá trình kết hợp dạy ngoại
ngữ, kiến thức môn học, chuyên ngành với thực tập nghề tại doanh nghiệp và trong đời
sống xã hội. Đây là mô hình rất hiệu quả vì nó thỏa mãn nhu cầu đào tạo ngoại ngữ
và chuyên ngành bằng ngoại ngữ trong môi trường nghề nghiệp, phát huy tính chuyên
nghiệp hóa nghề dạy ngoại ngữ, chuyên ngành bằng ngoại ngữ hiện nay. Việc dạy học
ngoại ngữ chuyên ngành trong các trường đại học ở nước ta tuy đã có kết quả bước đầu
đáng khích lệ nhưng vẫn chưa đáp ứng được nhu cầu của người học và mục tiêu đề ra
trong Đề án về dạy học ngoại ngữ 2020 của Chính phủ. Do đó cần có cơ chế, chính sách
cụ thể để phát triển ngoại ngữ chuyên ngành, đặc biệt là chú trọng đào tạo đội ngũ giảng
viên dạy ngoại ngữ và ngoại ngữ chuyên ngành trong hệ thống giáo dục, góp phần tạo
ra nguồn nhân lực chất lượng cao cho thị trường lao động trong quá trình hội nhập khu
vực và thế giới.
TÀI LIỆU THAM KHẢO

1. Carmen Ş-S, 2009. La formation à l’enseignement du français spécialisé en milieu
universitaire in Synergies Roumanie n° 4 -pp. 59-70.
2. Cabré, M.-T. 1998. La terminologie. Ottawa, Les Presses de l’Université d’Ottawa
3. Dubois, J, 2001. Dictionnaire de linguistique. Paris: Larousse.
4. Galisson,R & Coste, D, 1976. Dictionnaire de didactique des langues. Paris, Hachette.
5. HAMMAMAL,M, 2016. Caractéristiques générales et spécificité des langues de spécialité
in Almutargim ‫ مجرتملا‬Volume 16, Numéro 32, Pages 7-35 no 32, janvier - mars.
6. Lerat, P, 1995, Les langues spécialisées. Paris: PUF.
7. Quyết định số 1400/QĐ-TTg ngày 30/9/2008 của Thủ tướng Chính phủ.
8. Quyết định số 2080/QĐ-TTg ngày 27/12/2017 của Thủ tướng Chính phủ phê duyệt điều
chỉnh, bổ sung “Đề án dạy và học ngoại ngữ trong hệ thống giáo dục quốc dân giai đoạn
2017-2025”.
9. Rousseau, J L, 2008, Technolectes: Omniprésence et foissonnement in Circuit No 98
Montréal, Québec.
DẠY VÀ HỌC CHUYÊN NGÀNH BẰNG TIẾNG NHẬT
CỦA SINH VIÊN NĂM THỨ BA - KHOA NGÔN NGỮ & VĂN HÓA NHẬT BẢN1
Thân Thị Mỹ Bình, Đỗ Bích Ngọc2
Tóm tắt: Bài viết trình bày nghiên cứu việc dạy và học chuyên ngành bằng tiếng Nhật với
đối tượng là sinh viên năm thứ ba tại Khoa Ngôn ngữ và Văn hóa Nhật Bản – Trường Đại
học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội (ĐHQGHN). Trên cơ sở lý luận sử dụng ngoại ngữ,
mà cụ thể là tiếng Anh làm phương tiện dạy/học chuyên ngành (EMI English as Medium of
Instruction), nhóm tác giả phân tích kết quả điều tra với 232 sinh viên năm thứ ba sau khi kết
thúc học kỳ I năm 2018-2019, và những ghi chép từ sổ tay nghiên cứu (field note) của chính
nhóm tác giả làm nghiên cứu này qua 30 buổi dạy, qua đó làm rõ thực trạng việc dạy và học
môn chuyên ngành Giao tiếp liên văn hóa bằng tiếng Nhật có gặp nhiều vấn đề khó khăn như
trình độ tiếng Nhật của sinh viên, tài liệu tham khảo, số lượng sinh viên, trang thiết bị và
phương pháp giảng dạy của giáo viên... Từ kết quả phân tích, nhóm tác giả đưa ra những đề
xuất nhằm nâng cao chất lượng dạy - học của học phần Giao tiếp liên văn hóa cũng như với
các môn học chuyên ngành tiếp theo.
Từ khóa: Tiếng Nhật, ngoại ngữ chuyên ngành, dạy, học.
1. DẪN NHẬP
Trong những năm gần đây, Việt Nam đang dần từng bước khẳng định vị thế trên
trường quốc tế nhờ tiến trình chủ động, tích cực hội nhập kinh tế quốc tế. Sự hội nhập
của đất nước mở ra nhiều khả năng hợp tác, giao dịch với nước ngoài nhưng cũng đòi
hỏi ở nguồn nhân lực có năng lực sử dụng ngoại ngữ ở môi trường làm việc quốc tế
mang tính chuyên ngành cao. Đáp ứng những đòi hỏi khắt khe về nguồn nhân lực, Khoa
Ngôn ngữ và Văn hóa Nhật Bản, Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ - ĐHQGHN đã triển khai
chương trình dạy và học chuyên ngành bằng Tiếng Nhật cho sinh viên năm thứ ba và
năm thứ tư nhằm củng cố thêm năng lực ngoại ngữ, đồng thời bổ sung từ ngữ chuyên
ngành cho sinh viên.
1
Bài viết đã được nhóm tác giả trình bày tại Hội thảo “Dạy và học ngoại ngữ gắn với chuyên ngành trong
bối cảnh hội nhập quốc tế, Lý luận và thực tiễn”, ngày 17 tháng 11 năm 2018. Bài viết đã điều chỉnh, bổ
sung những nội dung cần thiết theo góp ý hướng dẫn tại hội thảo.
2
Khoa Ngôn ngữ và Văn hóa Nhật Bản, Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, ĐHQGHN, Phạm Văn Đồng, Cầu
Giấy, Hà Nội, Việt Nam; Email: lora811@gmail.com, Email: tamaulis@gmail.com
DẠY VÀ HỌC CHUYÊN NGÀNH BẰNG TIẾNG NHẬT CỦA SINH VIÊN NĂM THỨ BA - KHOA NGÔN NGỮ VĂN HÓA NHẬT BẢN 51
Các học phần chuyên ngành được giảng dạy cho sinh viên chủ yếu vào năm thứ ba
và năm thứ tư. Học phần “Giao tiếp liên văn hóa” tại Khoa Ngôn ngữ và Văn hóa Nhật
Bản là học phần được đưa vào chương trình học kỳ I của năm thứ ba. Đây là học phần
bao hàm nhiều nội dung liên quan tới mối quan hệ mật thiết giữa văn hóa và ngôn ngữ.
Trong nghiên cứu này, chúng tôi phân tích kết quả khảo sát thông qua phiếu điều tra
của 232 sinh viên năm thứ ba (QH.2016) của Khoa Ngôn ngữ và Văn hóa Nhật Bản, học
kỳ I năm học 2018 – 2019 đối với học phần “Giao tiếp liên văn hóa” từ tuần thứ 1 đến
tuần thứ 15. Trên cơ sở phân tích định lượng và định tính, chúng tôi phân tích thực trạng,
nguyên nhân và đưa ra một số đề xuất nhằm nâng cao chất lượng dạy – học học phần này.
Giáo trình được sử dụng trong học phần này là giáo trình “異文化コミュニケーション-
Nhập môn giao tiếp liên văn hóa” của tác giả Itsuo Harasawa, xuất bản năm 2015 của
Nhà xuất bản Kenkyusha (Nhà xuất bản chuyên về các giáo trình, sách nghiên cứu trong
các lĩnh vực của các trường đại học của Nhật Bản). Đây là cuốn giáo trình cung cấp cho
sinh viên nhiều khái niệm và chủ đề văn hóa phong phú, dễ hiểu dành cho sinh viên nước
ngoài du học tại Nhật Bản.
2. VÀI NÉT VỀ VIỆC SỬ DỤNG NGOẠI NGỮ LÀM PHƯƠNG TIỆN DẠY/HỌC CHUYÊN NGÀNH
Norris (2006, p577) đã chỉ ra rằng, mục tiêu của hầu hết các ngoại ngữ được dạy trong
các trường đại học ở Hoa Kỳ được xây dựng nên bởi 3 yếu tố chính: đạt được những kĩ năng
ngôn ngữ để sử dụng cho mục đích giao tiếp chung, đặt người học vào những nền văn hoá
khác, ý tưởng khác và bồi dưỡng sự khác biệt văn hoá và trong cách suy nghĩ. Mặc dù mỗi
yếu tố được nêu ra phía trên đều là kết quả mong muốn của nhà trường cũng như là nhu cầu
chính của các sinh viên đang theo học ngoại ngữ thì trên thực tế sinh viên vẫn còn mơ hồ về
những gì mình có thể làm với ngoại ngữ khi họ đã rời khỏi lớp học. Đối với chuyên ngành
cụ thể, sinh viên cần học ngoại ngữ chuyên ngành để có thể sử dụng trực tiếp trong lĩnh vực
đặc thù, đương nhiên dựa trên những kiến thức ngoại ngữ tổng quát.
Để giảng dạy ngoại ngữ chuyên ngành thì có rất nhiều phương pháp giảng dạy khác
nhau đã và đang được áp dụng. Trong đó phải kể đến 3 phương pháp chính: Giảng dạy
ngoại ngữ căn cứ vào nội dung chuyên ngành (Content Based Instruction), Học tích hợp
cả ngoại ngữ và chuyên ngành (Content and Language Integrated Learning) và Sử dụng
tiếng Anh làm phương tiện dạy/học chuyên ngành (English as Medium of Instruction).
Trên thực tế, phương pháp EMI đã được áp dụng tại các trường đại học Việt Nam từ
những năm 2000. Tuy nhiên, việc đưa phương pháp EMI vào giảng dạy đi cùng với rất
nhiều thách thức và vấn đề, ví dụ như những vấn đề về mặt nội dung giảng dạy, chất lượng
giảng dạy, nhân lực giảng dạy… Những vấn đề này được đề cập tới rất nhiều trong các
nghiên cứu từ những năm 2000 trở lại đây.
Theo như khảo sát trong nghiên cứu của Vũ T.T Nhã và Anne Burns (2014) tại 7
trường đại học đang áp dụng phương pháp giảng dạy chuyên ngành bằng tiếng Anh đã
chỉ ra rằng việc sử dụng EMI tại Việt Nam đang gặp phải 5 khó khăn chính, cụ thể như
sau: (1) Sự thành thạo tiếng Anh của sinh viên, (2) Phương pháp học tập của sinh viên, (3)
Năng lực giảng dạy tiếng Anh của người hướng dẫn, (4) Nội dung giảng dạy và (5) Môi
trường giảng dạy và học tập. Trong các vấn đề được nêu ra trong nghiên cứu này, thì sự
nghèo nàn trong năng lực tiếng Anh của sinh viên được coi là vấn đề lớn nhất.
Từ việc xác định những khó khăn trong việc giảng dạy và học tập chuyên bằng
tiếng Anh, Lâm Quang Đông (2011) đã đưa ra một số giải pháp khắc phục như “đối với
những ngành có thể xác định được công việc cụ thể thì EOP (English for Occupational/
Vocational Purposes - tiếng Anh cho mục đích nghề nghiệp) cần được coi là chủ đạo”.
“Đối với những ngành mà công việc cụ thể khó xác định” thì “nên chú trọng EAP-tiếng
Anh học thuật với trọng tâm là kĩ năng đọc và viết một số thể loại căn bản”, “lưu ý phát
triển kĩ năng thuyết trình/ trình bày với công cụ Powerpoint”. Về từ vựng chuyên ngành,
“cần giới hạn số lượng tối thiểu và tối đa thuật ngữ chuyên ngành xuất hiện ở từng bài tạo
điều kiện cho người giảng dạy và sinh viên”.
Như vậy, EMI đã được sử dụng từ sớm ở các trường đại học Việt Nam và có nhiều
nghiên cứu về phương pháp dạy và học bằng ngoại ngữ này. Yếu tố quan trọng cho việc
hình thành phương thức giảng dạy này tại Việt Nam là hầu hết các em đã được đào tạo
EFL từ phổ thông. Khác với Tiếng Anh, Khoa Ngôn ngữ và Văn hoá Nhật Bản áp dụng
phương pháp dùng tiếng Nhật giảng dạy trong các tiết học chuyên ngành đối với sinh
viên năm thứ 3, 4 (JMI- Japanese as Medium of Instruction). Nguyên nhân là hầu hết sinh
viên bắt đầu học tiếng Nhật từ con số 0 và cần rèn luyện khả năng thực hành tiếng cơ bản
trong suốt 2 năm đầu tiên. Khoảng thời gian 2 năm là được coi là rất ngắn và khó khăn để
có thể đạt được trình độ tham dự các tiết học áp dụng phương pháp JMI với Tiếng Nhật
- ngoại ngữ được cho là một trong những ngôn ngữ khó nhất thế giới. Trong nghiên cứu
này, nhóm nghiên cứu căn cứ vào phương pháp luận Sử dụng tiếng Anh là phương tiện
dạy/học chuyên ngành – EMI, để tích hợp và phân tích việc sử dụng tiếng Nhật là phương
tiện dạy/học chuyên ngành (JMI). Theo đó, nhóm tác giả phân tích thực trạng dạy và học
tiếng Nhật với học phần giao tiếp liên văn hóa theo tiêu chí chuẩn đầu ra chương trình đào
tạo của các học phần. Tuy nhiên, ở bài viết này, nhóm tác giả tập trung phân tích dạy và
học trên cơ sở lý luận của EMI và các nghiên cứu của Vũ T.T Nhã và Anne Burns (2014),
để đưa ra khung phân tích như Bảng 1 sau đây:
Bảng 1: Dạy và học chuyên ngành bằng tiếng Nhật
Người dạy Năng lực tiếng Nhật của người dạy

Phương pháp giảng dạy
Nội dung giảng dạy
Người học Năng lực tiếng Nhật của sinh viên
Mức độ hiểu bài giảng
Mức độ hứng thú với giờ học
Cảm nhận của sinh viên về hoạt động dạy và học bằng tiếng Nhật
Môi trường giảng dạy và học tập
Nỗ lực của thay đổi trong hoạt động dạy và học chuyênh ngành bằng tiếng Nhật.
3. THU THẬP DỮ LIỆU VÀ PHÂN TÍCH THỰC TRẠNG DẠY VÀ HỌC BẰNG TIẾNG NHẬT VỚI MÔN CHUYÊN NGÀNH
3.1. Thu thập dữ liệu

Dữ liệu của nghiên cứu này là kết quả tổng hợp bảng hỏi với 232 sinh viên năm thứ ba
của khoa Ngôn ngữ & văn hóa Nhật Bản. Bảng hỏi tập trung vào các chủ đề liên quan tới năng
lực ngôn ngữ của sinh viên, mức độ hiểu bài giảng, mức độ hứng thú với giờ học, cảm nhận
về môn học, đánh giá mức trình bày của giáo viên, các hoạt động yêu thích trong lớp học và
những ý kiến, đề xuất của sinh viên với môn học. Ngoài ra, chúng tôi cũng căn cứ vào những
ghi chép của người trực tiếp giảng dạy học phần này, đồng thời là một trong những người thực
hiện nghiên cứu này theo phương pháp sổ tay nghiên cứu (Field Note). Sổ tay nghiên cứu
được thực hiện sau buổi học trong suốt học kỳ I của năm học 2018 – 2019.
3.2. Thực trạng dạy và học bằng tiếng Nhật với môn chuyên ngành
Ở phần này, chúng tôi chia làm ba ý chính là người dạy, người học và môi trường dạy
học theo khung phân tích ở Bảng 1 mục 2 nêu trên.
3.2.1. Người dạy

Về người dạy, có nhiều yếu tố liên quan nhưng để tránh tản mạn, nghiên cứu này tập
trung vào phương pháp giảng dạy của giảng viên, nội dung giảng dạy và năng lực tiếng
Nhật của người dạy.
3.2.1.1. Phương pháp giảng dạy của giảng viên

Về phương pháp giảng dạy, theo tinh thần và mục tiêu môn học cũng như căn cứ vào
tiêu chí cần thiết về năng lực đạt được của sinh viên sau 2 năm chuyên thực thành tiếng,
giảng viên đã thiết kết các giờ học bằng phương pháp giảng dạy tương tác với ngôn ngữ
sử dụng trực tiếp bằng tiếng Nhật. Hoạt động giảng dạy tương tác gồm các tiêu chí chính
như sau:
- Tranh luận
- Thảo luận
- Giải quyết vấn đề
- Công não (Brainstorming)
- Học nhóm.
3.2.1.2. Về nội dung giảng dạy

Nội dung giảng dạy của học phần này căn cứ theo đề cương môn học. Đề cương được
soạn thảo theo tiêu chuẩn chuẩn đầu ra của chương trình đào tạo, với mục tiêu của môn
học về kiến thức, kỹ năng, thái độ tóm lược như sau:
- Kiến thức:
Trang bị cho người học những kiến thức cơ bản về Giao tiếp liên văn hóa, mối quan
hệ giữa Ngôn ngữ và Văn hóa, tầm quan trọng của việc nhận thức sự khác biệt về văn hóa
trong quá trình giao tiếp, hiểu được sự tương đồng và khác biệt trong văn hóa giao tiếp
của người Nhật Bản và văn hóa giao tiếp của người Việt Nam.
- Kĩ năng:
Có kĩ năng phân tích, phân tích đặc thù văn hóa của các đối tượng giao tiếp. Có kĩ
năng so sánh, đối chiếu, tiếp nhận và dung hòa sự khác biệt về văn hóa để nâng cao hiệu
quả giao tiếp, cũng như có khả năng đối ứng, xử lí tình huống giao tiếp bằng văn bản và
lời nói trong môi trường đa văn hóa nói chung và với người Nhật Bản nói riêng.
- Thái độ, chuyên cần:
Rèn luyện cho người học phẩm chất khoan dung, cảm thông, chia sẻ, cởi mở với mọi
người và phương pháp làm việc khoa học, tạo thói quen làm việc nhóm, đồng thời chủ
động tích cực nâng cao năng lực giao tiếp, năng lực ngoại ngữ cũng như các kiến thức về
xã hội, văn hóa, ngoại ngữ và ứng xử.
Trên cơ sở đề cương môn học dựa trên chuẩn đầu gia theo quy định của Bộ Giáo
dục và Đào tạo, giảng viên linh hoạt thay đổi nội dung giờ học cho phù hợp với đa số đối
tượng sinh viên sau 1, 2 tuần học thử ban đầu.
3.2.1.3. Năng lực tiếng Nhật của giảng viên
Giảng viên được tuyển chọn theo tiêu chí tuyển dụng giảng viên quy định và đã được
xác định có đủ năng lực về ngoại ngữ và chuyên môn để tiến hành học này. Giảng viên đảm
nhiệm môn học này là người có kinh nghiệm sống, học tập, làm việc 8 năm ở Nhật Bản.
Ngoài ra, giảng viên là người có chuyên môn về môn học giao tiếp liên văn hóa, Nhật Bản
học và nghiên cứu về giáo dục song ngữ dành cho trẻ em Việt Nam sinh ra tại Nhật Bản.
3.2.2. Người học

Ở phần này, bài viết tập trung phân tích khía cạnh người học theo các nhóm từ khóa
như sau: năng lực ngôn ngữ của sinh viên, mức độ hiểu bài giảng, mức độ hứng thú với
giờ học, đánh giá mức trình bày của giáo viên và những ý kiến, cảm nhận về việc trình
bày hoạt động bằng tiếng Nhật, nỗ lực thay đổi trong giờ học.
3.2.2.1. Năng lực tiếng Nhật của sinh viên
Biểu đồ 1. Năng lực tiếng Nhật của sinh viên
Năng lực tiếng nhật của sinh viên (SV) được thể hiện như Biểu đồ 1, là kết quả
tổng hợp phiếu điều tra từ sinh viên. Theo biểu đồ này, sinh viên có chứng chỉ N1 là 1
SV(0,4%), sinh viên có chứng chỉ N2 là 59 SV (25,4%), sinh viên ở trình độ N3 là 152
SV (65,5%), sinh viên ở trình độ N4 là 18SV (7,8%). Theo kết quả này, số sinh viên đạt
trình độ nghe hiểu bài giảng chỉ là 18 người, chiếm 7,8%, và sinh viên có chứng chỉ N1
chỉ là 1 người, chiếm 0,4%. Đây là một con số ít ỏi trong tổng số 232 sinh viên của năm
thứ 3. Đặc biệt, qua tìm hiểu trên giờ học của tác giả, thì phần lớn những sinh viên này đã
có kinh nghiệm giao lưu học hỏi ở Nhật Bản theo chương trình trao đổi sinh viên 1 năm
hoặc ngắn hạn, hoặc đi du học tự túc. Kết quả này cho thấy năng lực tiếng của sinh viên
không đồng đều qua 2 năm chuyên tâm học tiếng ở năm thứ 1 và năm thứ 2. Đồng thời,
cũng chứng tỏ rằng năng lực tiếng của sinh viên chưa đủ để đọc, nghe giảng và hiểu nội
dung trong giáo trình viết bằng tiếng nước ngoài.
3.2.2.2. Mức độ hiểu bài giảng của sinh viên
Biểu đồ 2. Mức độ hiểu bài của sinh viên

Mức độ hiểu bài giảng của sinh viên được tổng kết thông qua bảng hỏi và thể hiện
như Biểu đồ 2. Theo như kết quả này, chỉ có 6 SV (2.58%) hiểu 100% nội dung bài giảng,
88 SV (37,9%) hiểu 70%, 119 SV (51%) hiểu 50% , và 18SV (7.75%) chỉ hiểu 30% nội
dung bài giảng. Theo kết quả này, số sinh viên hiểu bài giảng bằng tiếng Nhật còn hạn chế,
hơn một nửa sinh viên chỉ hiểu 50% nội dung bài giảng. Điều này thể hiện hợp lý với năng
lực tiếng Nhật của sinh viên đã trình bày ở mục 3.2.2.1. Đồng thời cũng chỉ rõ rằng, sinh
viên chưa có trình độ tiếng Nhật đủ để hiểu bài giảng nội dung chuyên ngành bằng tiếng
Nhật. Điều này cũng dẫn tới lo ngại việc sử dụng tiếng Nhật để giảng nội dung chuyên
ngành và đòi hỏi phương pháp giảng dạy của giáo viên cần có những thay đổi trong hoạt
động giảng dạy để phù hợp với năng lực ngoại ngữ của sinh viên.
3.2.2.3. Mức độ hứng thú với giờ học
Biểu đồ 3. Mức độ hứng thú của sinh viên với giờ học
Mức độ hứng thú của sinh viên với giờ học biểu thị ở Biểu đồ 3. Cụ thể, số sinh viên cho
rằng hoạt động giảng dạy của môn học rất thú vị là 71 SV (30,6%), thú vị là 53 SV (22,8%),
bình thường là 102 SV (43,9%), không thú vị là 3 SV (1,2%), không cho ý kiến là 3 SV
(1,2%). Theo kết quả này, hơn 50% số sinh viên cho rằng giờ học hấp dẫn, thú vị và gần 50%
có ý kiến rằng giờ học ở mức trung bình. Những ý kiến chia sẻ của sinh viên cho giờ học thú
vị bao gồm các hoạt động trải nghiệm thực tế văn hóa như mặc áo Yukata của Nhật, được giao
lưu với các sinh viên người Nhật, được trải nghiệm món ăn của các vùng miền, việc sử dụng
hình ảnh và ví dụ thú vị trong giờ học, các hoạt động nhóm, bổ sung nhiều khái niệm mới và
thấy được sự khác nhau về văn hóa của Việt Nam và Nhật Bản, được trình bày ý kiến của bản
thân về nhiều vấn đề... Như vậy, phần lớn các ý kiến cho rằng trải nghiệm văn hóa và tiếp xúc
trực tiếp với người bản địa có sức hút lớn trong giờ học. Điều này được các bạn cho rằng vừa
là cơ hội trải nghiệm văn hóa vừa là cơ hội để rèn luyện năng lực ngoại ngữ.
Bên cạnh những ý kiến trên, cũng có những sinh viên cho rằng giờ học sử dụng kiến thức
hàn lâm bằng tiếng Nhật khó hiểu, mong nói chậm lại và có giảng giải thêm bằng tiếng Việt,
hoặc có sinh viên đề nghị các slide trình chiếu phải có cả hai ngôn ngữ là tiếng Nhật và tiếng
Việt, hoặc sử dụng hình ảnh, video nhiều hơn vì giờ học quá dài và nội dung khó...
3.2.3.4. Cảm nhận của sinh viên về việc sử dụng tiếng Nhật trong hoạt động dạy học
Biểu đồ 4. Cảm nhận về việc sử dụng tiếng Nhật trong dạy học
Khi được hỏi cảm nhận về việc sử dụng tiếng Nhật trong hoạt động dạy và học môn
chuyên ngành thì hầu hết các sinh viên đều có phản hồi tích cực. Cụ thể như Biểu đồ 4.
Theo đó, có 223 SV (96,12%) cho rằng việc sử dụng tiếng Nhật trong hoạt động dạy và
học chuyên ngành có ý nghĩa trong việc củng cố và trau rồi kiến thức tiếng Nhật cũng như
từ vựng. Chỉ có 5 trường hợp sinh viên trả lời là không có ý nghĩa và có 5 SV không trả
lời cho câu hỏi này. Như vậy, có thể nói hầu hết sinh viên nhận thức được tầm quan trọng
của việc dạy, học bằng tiếng chuyên ngành và hưởng ứng giờ học dù có nhiều bạn chưa
hiểu hết nội dung bài giảng. Theo chia sẻ của các bạn, thì việc được nghe tiếng Nhật ở
môn học chuyên ngành giúp các bạn không bị mai một những kiến thức đã học ở 2 năm
đầu vì từ năm thứ ba trở đi, sinh viên không còn các giờ học tiếng hàng ngày. Việc nghe
giảng và phát biểu bằng tiếng Nhật tại các môn chuyên ngành cũng giúp các bạn mài giũa
khả năng tư duy bằng tiếng Nhật như chia sẻ dưới đây của một sinh viên.
“Trong giờ học em được nghe cô nói tiếng Nhật, việc này khiến em quen với tiếng
Nhật hơn cũng như cách nghĩ, cách tư duy bằng tiếng Nhật của em được mài giũa” (Trích
dẫn nguyên văn từ những ý kiến, đề xuất của sinh viên).
Về một số ý kiến cho rằng việc sử dụng tiếng Nhật trong giờ giảng không có ý nghĩa
nội dung bài học khá khó, cụ thể như sau:
“Cô nên dùng tiếng Việt vì nội dung bài học khá khó, nếu cô nói tiếng Nhật quá nhiều
thì sẽ không hiểu, tài liệu bằng tiếng Nhật là đủ rồi. Cô nên cung cấp, thiết kế bài giảng
theo hướng mở rộng, đưa thêm nhiều ví dụ, thông tin... Hoặc từ những trải nghiệm của
chính cô” (Trích dẫn nguyên văn từ những ý kiến, đề xuất của sinh viên).
Những chia sẻ chính đáng và hết sức trân trọng của các sinh viên trên cho thấy các
sinh viên thực sự nghiêm túc trong quá trình học tập, mong muốn có một giờ học ý nghĩa
thu hút và thuyết phục. Những ý kiến chia sẻ của sinh viên cũng giúp giảng viên nỗ lực
thay đổi hoạt động dạy học nhằm mang lại giờ học hiệu quả, đồng thời tăng cường, củng
cố năng lực tiếng Nhật trong các giờ học của học phần giao tiếp liên văn hóa. Cụ thể như
giảng viên đã điều chỉnh việc sử dụng từ ngữ chuyên môn, sử dụng từ ngữ tiếng Nhật dễ
hiểu, slide trình chiếu có bổ sung thêm tiếng Việt, định nghĩa và ví dụ được dịch thêm
tiếng Việt, tăng cường các hoạt động trải nghiệm, tăng cường các hoạt động giao lưu
với sinh viên bản địa, mời chuyên gia tới giảng nội dung chuyên sâu... Tuy nhiên, ngoài
những yếu tố chủ quan trên đây, còn có cả những yếu tố khách quan ảnh hưởng đến chất
lượng của hoạt động dạy và học của học phần này, đó chính là yếu tố môi trường.
3.2.3.5. Môi trường hoạt động dạy học

Có nhiều yếu tố khách quan ảnh hưởng tới hoạt động dạy và học. Tuy nhiên, trong nghiên
cứu này, chúng tôi tập trung phân tích yếu tố tiêu biểu là số lượng sinh viên và cơ sở vật chất.
1) Số lượng sinh viên
Số lượng sinh viên của 4 lớp học cụ thể như Bảng 2 sau:
Bảng 2. Số sinh viên tham gia học phần
STT Tên lớp Số SV Ghi chú

1 Lớp 1 71 SV năm thứ ba
Tổng cộng 232
Với số lượng SV trong một lớp đông như trên, khó có thể bố trí các hoạt động nhóm
hiệu quả cũng như có thể sâu sát tới từng SV. Số lượng SV đông cùng với trình độ tiếng
Nhật không đồng đều như phân tích ở mục trên (Mục 3.2.2.1) là một trong những yếu tố
ảnh hưởng tới chất lượng của hoạt động dạy và học của học phần này.
2) Trang thiết bị dạy học
Tình trạng loa kém chất lượng, máy chiếu hỏng hoặc mờ, trục trặc trong các giờ học
thường xuyên xảy ra. Theo thống kê từ sổ ghi chép nghiên cứu của chính tác giả, sự cố về
loa là 6/15 tuần, sự cố máy chiếu không trình chiếu được là 5/15 tuần.
“Thứ 2 (1~3)1: Máy chiếu hỏng không dùng được lần 3, sĩ số SV 65/71. Học sinh sử
dụng điện thoại tra từ mới cho nội dung bài mất quá nhiều thời gian ⇒ không đi hết nội
dung bài”. (Theo sổ ghi chép nghiên cứu ngày 3 tháng 9 năm 2018).
Tình trạng này được khắc phục ở nửa sau của học kỳ nhưng máy chiếu mờ và chất
lượng kém khiến cho những SV ngồi cuối lớp không thể nhìn thấy nội dung trên slide
1
Đây là ký hiệu cho các buổi học của 4 lớp học mà giảng viên sử dụng để ghi chép vào sổ tay nghiên cứu. “1~3” là
tiết học.
trình chiếu. Điều này cũng được chính SV bày tỏ nguyện vọng trong mục “ý kiến, đề xuất
với giảng viên” của câu hỏi điều tra.
“Em mong được cải thiện về mic và máy chiếu ạ. Mic rè và máy chiếu mờ lắm ạ”
(Theo “ý kiến, đề xuất với giảng viên” trong bảng điều tra).
4. KẾT LUẬN VÀ ĐỀ XUẤT

Từ việc phân tích thực trạng của hoạt động dạy và học sử dụng tiếng Nhật với môn
học chuyên ngành giao tiếp liên văn hóa, học kỳ I năm học 2018 – 2019, nhóm tác giả
đã đúc kết một số vấn đề tồn đọng trong hoạt động dạy và học sử dụng tiếng Nhật. Đó là
các vấn đề nổi trội về năng lực tiếng Nhật của sinh viên chưa có lượng từ vựng cũng như
kiến thức nhất định để nghe, hiểu và bắt kịp nội dung giảng dạy chuyên sâu bằng Tiếng
Nhật. Đồng thời, nghiên cứu cũng chỉ ra rằng giảng viên chưa có sự điều chỉnh phù hợp
trong việc thiết kế giờ giảng, lựa chọn từ ngữ chuyên ngành khi sử dụng tiếng Nhật để
giảng dạy chuyên ngành. Vấn đề về số lượng sinh viên quá đông cũng như cơ sở vật chất
cũng là một trong những nguyên nhân ảnh hưởng tới chất lượng của hoạt động giảng dạy
bằng ngoại ngữ.
Đề cập đến giải pháp khắc phục khó khăn trong giảng dạy chuyên ngành nhưng sâu
hơn với vấn đề đọc hiểu tài liệu tiếng Anh chuyên ngành, Nguyễn Thanh Tâm (2016) đã
đề xuất một số biện pháp như sau: (1) Về phía người dạy: Cần “trang bị cho sinh viên
kiến thức về một số kĩ năng trong quá tình đọc hiểu như đọc lướt, đọc quét, dự đoán…”,
“tổ chức giờ học đọc tiếng Anh theo 3 giai đoạn Pre-reading, While-reading và Post-
reading”, “điều chỉnh và thiết kế hệ thống bài tập” cũng như “thường xuyên thay đổi
phong cách và phương pháp giảng dạy”. (2) Về phía người học, cần xây dựng thói quen
“đọc sách”, “đọc sách có hiệu quả”, “ghi chép từ chuyên ngành”, “ghi chép khoa học”...
Những biện pháp khắc phục với việc đọc hiểu tiếng Anh chuyên ngành trên không
phải là dễ dàng với đối tượng ngôn ngữ là tiếng Nhật. Đặc biệt đối với những người mới
học tiếng Nhật được 2 năm và phần lớn còn đang ở trình độ Sơ - Trung cấp như sinh viên
năm thứ ba trong nghiên cứu này. Vì vậy, để khắc phục tình trạng dạy và học bằng tiếng
Nhật với các môn chuyên ngành, chúng tôi xin đưa ra một số đề xuất như sau:
+ Củng cố năng lực, kiến thức tiếng Nhật cho sinh viên ngay từ những năm đầu tiên
học tiếng Nhật. Tăng cường kiến thức từ vựng cho sinh viên.
+ Tăng cường các hoạt động đọc hiểu để mở rộng kiến thức xã hội, kiến thức văn
hóa và nâng cao khả năng đọc hiểu ngay từ năm thứ 2 học tiếng Nhật. Khuyến khích sinh
viên đọc nhiều các tài liệu trong thực tế để nâng cao kiến thức nền cũng như sự hiểu biết
trong các lĩnh vực khác nhau.
+ Môn học tiếng cơ sở cần kết hợp với các môn học chuyên ngành, tìm những chủ đề
gần gũi, tương đồng với các môn học chuyên ngành để sinh viên có thể sớm có nền tảng
từ vựng, kiến thức về môn chuyên ngành đó. Từ đó tạo nền tảng vững chắc cho năm thứ
ba khi tiếp xúc với các nội dung chuyên sâu.
+ Tăng cường trao đổi với sinh viên về nội dung môn học, tạo điều kiện cho sinh viên
có thể trao đổi ý kiến và giải đáp thắc mắc.
+ Cải thiện tình trạng cơ sở vật chất, bố trí số lượng sinh viên mỗi lớp học hợp lý.

Tiếng Việt
1. Lâm Quang Đông (2011). “Tiếng Anh chuyên ngành-một số vấn đề về nội dung giảng dạy”.
Tạp chí Ngôn ngữ & Đời sống, 11 (193), tr.27-30.
2. Nguyễn Thanh Tâm (2016). Đọc hiểu tài liệu tiếng Anh chuyên ngành - khó khăn và giải pháp.
http://huc.edu.vn/doc-hieu-tai-lieu-tieng-anh-chuyen-nganh-kho-khan-va-giai-phap-1583-
vi.htm.
Tiếng Anh
3. Cam Ngo & La Velle Hendricks (2018). “Teaching Content Using English as a Medium
of Instruction at Universities in Vietnam: Issues and Solutions”. Journal of Research and
Development, Vol 6, tr. 1-3.
4. Emerson, R. M., Fretz, R. I. and Shaw, L. L. (1995). Writing Ethnographic Fieldnotes.
London: The University of Chicago Press.
5. Le Duc Manh (2012). “English as a Medium of Instruction at Tertiary Education System in
Vietnam”. The Journal of Asia TEFL, Vol. 9, No. 2, tr. 97-122.
6. Nha T.T. Vu & Anne Burns (2014). “English as a Medium of Instruction: Challenges for
Vietnamese Tertiary Lectures”. The Journal of Asia TEFL , Vol.11, No. 3, tr. 1-31.
VẤN ĐỀ LỖI VÀ CHỮA LỖI TRONG GIỜ HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ
DỰA TRÊN LÝ THUYẾT GIÁO HỌC PHÁP TIẾNG ĐỨC
VÀ ĐÁNH GIÁ MỨC ĐỘ YÊU THÍCH CỦA CÁC PHƯƠNG PHÁP CHỮA LỖI
THÔNG QUA KHẢO SÁT NGƯỜI HỌC
Nguyễn Thị Ngọc Diệp1
1. ĐẶT VẤN ĐỀ
Mắc lỗi là một điều dễ hiểu trong việc học nói chung và học ngoại ngữ nói riêng và
đây cũng được xem như một phần tất yếu của cuộc sống. Tuy nhiên, bất cứ người nào
cũng mong muốn tránh được lỗi, bởi việc mắc lỗi thường gây ra những những cảm xúc
tiêu cực, tạo sự phiền phức hoặc làm người học mất đi sự tự tin, từ đó đánh giá tiêu cực
về bản thân. Kast - một nhà giáo học pháp người Đức - đã nhận định: “Việc mắc lỗi trong
quá trình học là sự thật hiển nhiên, nhưng học được thông qua lỗi mới chính là điều khôn
ngoan nhất” (Kast, 1999:168). Tuy nhiên, không phải ai cũng nhận thức được rằng, ngay
cả trong khi học ngoại ngữ, thì việc học từ lỗi sai cũng vô cùng quan trọng. Hans- Jürgen
Krumm (1990) cho rằng, mắc lỗi cũng chính là sự may mắn trong quá trình học ngoại
ngữ, từ đó người học ngày càng hoàn thiện khả năng của mình. Tuy nhiên, lỗi sai cũng
gây ra những hệ quả không mong muốn, đó là làm gián đoạn quá trình hiểu và tiếp nhận
thông tin. Trong hầu hết các bài tập hoặc các bài kiểm tra đánh giá người học, lỗi sai
thường gắn với kết quả bài làm thấp và những nhận xét tiêu cực. Chính vì vậy, việc chữa
lỗi được xem là vô cùng cần thiết và là cách để ngăn chặn việc mắc lỗi trong những lần
kế tiếp. Tuy nhiên, chữa lỗi sẽ làm tăng hay giảm hứng thú cũng như hiệu quả học tập của
người học và chữa lỗi như thế nào để đạt hiệu quả cao nhất cũng như cách chữa lỗi nào
được người học mong đợi nhất là những vấn đề được thảo luận và nghiên cứu nhiều trong
giáo học pháp ngoại ngữ nói chung và giáo học pháp tiếng Đức nói riêng trong những
năm gần đây.
Mục đích của bài nghiên cứu này là nhằm đưa đến một cái nhìn tổng quát về vấn đề
lỗi và chữa lỗi trong việc học ngoại ngữ, đặc biệt là trong bối cảnh học ngoại ngữ tại Việt
Nam. Trong đó, bài nghiên cứu chỉ ra các khái niệm về lỗi, phân loại lỗi, các nguyên nhân
mắc lỗi thường gặp, các phương pháp chữa lỗi trong văn nói và văn viết. Bên cạnh đó,
1
Khoa Ngôn ngữ và Văn hóa Đức, Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội.
dựa trên kinh nghiệm giảng dạy của bản thân cũng như thông qua khảo sát một nhóm
người học tiếng Đức tại Khoa Ngôn ngữ và Văn hóa Đức, Trường ĐHNN – ĐHQGN, tác
giả đưa ra một bảng đánh giá mức độ yêu thích (theo quan điểm của người học) của các
phương pháp chữa lỗi đã được đề cập. Phương pháp chính được sử dụng trong bài nghiên
cứu là hệ thống lý thuyết, mô tả, lý giải, khảo sát ý kiến, thống kê, đánh giá, phân tích kết
quả, kết hợp các phương pháp nghiên cứu định tính và định lượng.
2. KHÁI NIỆM “LỖI”
2.1. Định nghĩa

Đứng trên quan điểm chung trong nghiên cứu giờ học ngoại ngữ cho đến nay, Corder
(1973) nhận định rằng, “lỗi” là một phần không tránh khỏi trong quá trình học và mọi
người học đều có thể mắc lỗi. Trong việc học ngoại ngữ, lỗi được xem như một sự vi
phạm các nguyên tắc của ngôn ngữ được học và vì vậy là hiện tượng không được mong
đợi trong quá trình học (Kleppin, 2001:986). Tuy nhiên, trong khuôn khổ các công trình
nghiên cứu về giáo học pháp có chú trọng đến yếu tố tâm lý học, các tác giả đều cho
rằng, sự vi phạm các chuẩn mực của ngôn ngữ đích không nên được xem là lỗi trong quá
trình học ngoại ngữ, mà đó là tín hiệu cho thấy, người học đã đạt được một trình độ nhất
định tương ứng với những gì mà họ thể hiện. Trong trường hợp này, lỗi có một vai trò
của người đưa tin. Cụ thể, lỗi cho thấy người học có thể và chưa thể làm gì, những kiến
thức nào đã được tiếp nhận đủ và kiến thức nào cần bổ sung (Heyd, 1991:229). Nói cách
khác, lỗi mà người học mắc phải là câu trả lời về kết quả và hiệu quả của việc học ngoại
ngữ và ở góc độ nào đó, lỗi là điều cũng được mong đợi (Cauneau, 1992:61). Mặc dù còn
nhiều tranh cãi về việc lỗi có là hiện tượng được mong đợi hay không, Kleppin cho rằng,
lỗi nhất thiết phải được sửa, vì lỗi không chỉ đơn thuần được xem là một hiện tượng tự
nhiên khó tránh khỏi trong quá trình học ngoại ngữ (Kleppin, 2001:986). Để trả lời được
câu hỏi, việc chữa lỗi nên diễn ra như thế nào, thì người học và người dạy học ngoại ngữ
trước tiên phải hiểu thế nào được gọi là lỗi.
Mặc dù lỗi được xem là hiện tượng dễ hiểu và xuất hiện trong hầu hết mọi lĩnh vực
của đời sống, song không thể chỉ dùng một cụm từ hay một câu để định nghĩa về lỗi.
Thông thường, lỗi được xem như một sự biến thể hay một sự vi phạm nguyên tắc nào đó.
Kleppin đã nêu ra danh mục định nghĩa về lỗi gắn với các nguyên tắc nhất định. Theo đó,
lỗi được xem như:
- Sự vi phạm hệ thống ngôn ngữ đích (ngôn ngữ được học như ngoại ngữ);
- Sự xa rời các quy tắc ngữ pháp trong ngôn ngữ đích;
- Sự vi phạm các quy định về ngôn ngữ trong ngôn ngữ đích;
- Diễn đạt những điều mà người tiếp nhận văn bản và/hoặc người bản ngữ không hiểu;
VẤN ĐỀ LỖI VÀ CHỮA LỖI TRONG GIỜ HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ DỰA TRÊN LÝ THUYẾT GIÁO HỌC PHÁP... 63
- Sự vi phạm quy tắc ngữ pháp được đề cập trong giáo trình dạy học;
- Là điều mà giáo viên nhìn nhận như lỗi;
- Là sự diễn đạt không phù hợp với tình huống;
- Là hiện tượng mang tính tương đối, ở nhóm người học này với mục đích này là lỗi
nhưng ở nhóm người học khác tương ứng với mục đích và bối cảnh khác lại không quá
nghiêm trọng (Kleppin, 2003:19).
Trong các định nghĩa về lỗi sai có thể dễ dàng nhận thấy có sự giao thoa, trùng lặp,
tuy nhiên các định nghĩa cũng thể hiện những tiêu chí và định hướng khác nhau trong
việc xác định thế nào là lỗi. Điểm chung có thể rút ra là mỗi sự vi phạm hoặc xa rời các
nguyên tắc của ngôn ngữ đích đều được xem như là lỗi. Bên cạnh đó, lỗi cũng là một khái
niệm tương đối, vì nó phụ thuộc vào từng tình huống và bối cảnh nhất định (Hüllen/ Jung,
1979:145). Để xác định lỗi trong việc sử dụng ngôn ngữ, người ta dựa vào nhiều tiêu chí
đánh giá khác nhau. Theo đó, các tiêu chí đều lấy việc đảm bảo các quy tắc và chuẩn mực
của ngôn ngữ đích làm thước đo. Các tiêu chí này được xây dựng dựa trên nhiều cách tiếp
cận, tuy nhiên có 5 tiêu chí cơ bản và được chú trọng nhiều nhất trong việc xác định lỗi
khi sử dụng ngôn ngữ.
Tiêu chí chính xác có liên quan đến tính nhất quán đối với các tiêu chuẩn ngôn ngữ
và quy tắc ngữ pháp hợp lệ của ngôn ngữ đích cũng như tính nhất quán với tất cả các quy
tắc khác và những điều được xem là hợp lệ của một hệ thống ngôn ngữ (Kleppin, 2003:20).
Tiêu chí dễ hiểu hướng đến mục đích là ngôn ngữ nói và viết của người học ngoại
ngữ được người tiếp nhận sắp xếp và hiểu một cách rõ ràng. Trong đó, cần phải thừa nhận
rằng, trong hội thoại bằng ngoại ngữ giữa người học ngoại ngữ với nhau có xuất hiện
những yếu tố đặc biệt. Những yếu tố đó có thể sẽ không xuất hiện trong hội thoại giữa
người học ngoại ngữ và người bản ngữ. Như vậy có thể thấy, phương thức giao tiếp ở
những hình thức khác nhau sẽ xuất hiện những đặc điểm khác nhau. Trong giao tiếp bằng
ngoại ngữ giữa những người học ngoại ngữ với nhau có thể xuất hiện những cấu trúc đã
được đơn giản hóa cũng nhưng những sự vi phạm chuẩn mực ngữ pháp. Những yếu tố đó
có thể không bị người tiếp nhận thông tin xem là lỗi (Kleppin, 2003:20).
Tiêu chí phù hợp với bối cảnh văn hóa có liên quan tới các thói quen hay những
phong tục tập quán trong văn hóa của ngôn ngữ đích. Nếu một văn bản nói hoặc viết vi
phạm những yếu tố truyền thống này, thì cũng có thể bị xem là văn bản mắc lỗi. Việc sử
dụng những từ ngữ không tuân theo phong tục và tập quán trong văn hóa ngôn ngữ đích
có thể làm nảy sinh những vấn đề liên quan đến tiêu chí phù hợp với bối cảnh văn hóa
(Kleppin, 2003:21).
Tiêu chí phù hợp với quan điểm người dạy được xem là tiêu chí đánh giá lỗi mang
tính chủ quan. Theo đó, tiêu chí chú trọng đến các chuẩn mực và quy tắc được coi là đúng
khi xét theo quan điểm của người dạy học. Ví dụ, trong việc giảng dạy ngữ pháp thì các
yếu tố cá nhân của người dạy thường ít xuất hiện, tuy nhiên trong việc diễn đạt thì mỗi
người dạy lại có những thói quen và xu hướng sử dụng ngôn ngữ riêng. Chính vì vậy, việc
người dạy xác định lỗi của người học là không giống nhau, điều đó phụ thuộc vào các xu
hướng sử dụng ngôn ngữ của người dạy. Nói cách khác, nếu văn bản nói hoặc viết của
người học không được sự chấp nhận của người dạy, thì có nghĩa là văn bản đã mắc lỗi.
Trong trường hợp này, việc thay đổi giáo viên trong một lớp học có thể dẫn tới việc một
số cách diễn đạt đã được học và được cho là đúng theo quan điểm của giáo viên cũ lại bị
cho là sai và cần phải sửa theo cách đánh giá của giáo viên mới.
Tiêu chí linh hoạt và hướng tới nội dung bài học cũng có vai trò quan trọng trong
việc xác định lỗi của người học. Tiêu chí linh hoạt cho thấy khả năng nhận định lỗi tương
ứng với nội dung bài học. Với tư cánh là người nắm vững nội dung và mục đích bài học,
giáo viên cần hiểu đối với từng bài học và nội dung học cụ thể thì vấn đề gì nhất thiết bị
xem là lỗi. Ví dụ, không phải tất cả các lỗi đều ảnh hưởng đến những nội dung đang đề
cập trong bài giảng, vì vậy giáo viên có thể cân nhắc trong việc xác định lỗi và chữa lỗi.
Tiêu chí hướng tới nội dung bài học chú trọng tới mục đích của giờ dạy và năng lực nhận
biết lỗi của giáo viên. Theo đó, giáo viên là người nhận biết lỗi nào là nghiêm trọng, lỗi
nào ít nghiêm trọng hơn trong mối tương quan với mục đích giờ dạy (Kleppin, 2003:22).
Nhìn chung, các tiêu chí chính xác, dễ hiểu và phù hợp với bối cảnh văn hóa đều
được xem là thước đo khách quan khi nhận định lỗi. Trong khi đó, tiêu chí phù hợp với
quan điểm người dạy, linh hoạt và hướng tới nội dung bài học lại mang tính chủ quan.
Bên cạnh đó, việc xác định lỗi cần phải dựa trên yêu cầu của bài tập, ví dụ bài tập yêu cầu
người học đưa ra những nội dung và hình thức biểu đạt ngữ pháp nào và dựa vào tuýp
người học (người học có xu hướng phát biểu nhiều sẽ dễ mắc nhiều lỗi hơn những người
học ít phát biểu). Kleppin đưa ra khái niệm “lỗi vô hình”, những lỗi có thể xuất hiện ngay
cả trong văn bản hoàn toàn không mắc lỗi ngữ pháp và có vẻ như phù hợp với tình huống.
Tuy nhiên, nội dung trong văn bản đó không thực sự là điều mà người học muốn diễn
đạt hoặc người học đã bỏ đi một số nội dung do hạn chế về mặt diễn đạt hoặc sợ mắc lỗi
(Kleppin, 2003:19,20).
2.2. Phân loại lỗi

Việc phân tích cũng như phân loại lỗi dựa trên nhiều công trình nghiên cứu, trong đó
cách phân loại phổ biến và phù hợp về mặt khoa học nhất là phân loại lỗi dựa trên các yếu
tố về ngôn ngữ học. Các yếu tố này bao gồm yếu tố về cú pháp học, hình thái học, ngữ âm
học, ngữ dụng học, từ vựng học, ngữ nghĩa học và yếu tố nội dung. Ví dụ, các lỗi về phát
âm và lỗi chính tả được xếp vào lỗi ngữ âm và hình thái, các lỗi về đặt câu được xếp vào
lỗi cú pháp, các lỗi liên quan đến bối cảnh giao tiếp thuộc vào lỗi về ngữ nghĩa. Lỗi ngữ
dụng học xuất hiện khi việc sử dụng từ tạo ra một phong cách văn bản không phù hợp
hoặc vị phạm các yếu tố văn hóa như phong tục, tập quán. Nếu người học diễn đạt những
nội dung sai thực tế hoặc không phù hợp với yêu cầu đề bài thì có thể được xem là đã mắc
lỗi về nội dung (Kleppin, 2003:42).
Cách phân loại lỗi thứ hai là phân loại dựa trên hiệu suất biểu đạt và năng lực ngôn ngữ.
Các lỗi về hiệu suất biểu đạt thường xuất hiện bởi nhiều yếu tố tâm lý như căng thẳng, lo âu,
hồi hộp, sợ hãi, xao nhãng hoặc do thói quen diễn đạt. Những lỗi này có thể không xuất phát
từ việc thiếu năng lực và kiến thức ngôn ngữ của người học và vì vậy người học thường dễ
nhận ra những lỗi này và có thể tự sửa những lỗi đó ngay trong quá trình diễn đạt. Ngược
lại những lỗi về năng lực thường xuất phát từ một lỗ hổng kiến thức và vì thế người học
không dễ dàng tự nhận ra khi mắc lỗi. Nói cách khác, lỗi này xuất hiện do người học chưa
nắm vững hoặc hiểu sai kiến thức. Loại lỗi này liên quan trên kiến thức ngôn ngữ của người
học hoặc trong một số trường hợp, nó xuất phát từ việc người học sử dụng những cấu trúc
và cách diễn đạt chưa được học (Kleppin, 2003:41).
Cách phân loại lỗi thứ ba là phân loại dựa trên tiêu chí làm cản trở giao tiếp hoặc
không làm cản trở giao tiếp tùy theo mục đích của bài học. Theo đó, những lỗi sai làm
cản trở giao tiếp có thể dẫn tới việc người tiếp nhận thông tin không thể hiểu được thông
tin đang tiếp nhận. Trong khi đó, văn bản chứa những lỗi không làm cản trở giao tiếp vẫn
thực hiện đúng chức năng truyền tải ý nghĩa mặc dù trong đó có tồn tại một số vi phạm
về ngữ pháp. Kleppin cho rằng: “Các lỗi làm cản trở quá trình giao tiếp có thể được hiểu
là những yếu làm câu văn hoặc diễn đạt trở nên khó hiểu [...]. Trong khi đó, những lỗi
không làm cản trở giao tiếp vẫn cho phép người tiếp nhận thông tin hiểu ý nghĩa của văn
bản. Tuy nhiên, xét về tiêu chí ngữ pháp, thì đây bị được xem là lỗi” (Kleppin, 2003:42).
3. CÁC NGUYÊN NHÂN GÂY LỖI THƯỜNG GẶP

Việc giải thích được vì sao người học mắc lỗi sẽ cho phép người dạy soạn ra giáo án
phù hợp và lựa chọn phương pháp giảng dạy hiệu quả, từ đó hạn chế tối đa việc mắc lỗi
của người học. Thông qua việc phân tích các nguyên nhân gây lỗi, người dạy có thể hệ
thống hóa được những nhóm lỗi điển hình mà người học mắc phải, từ đó có thể xác định
mục đích và trọng tâm cụ thể của từng bài học (Lewandowski, 1991:65). Dựa trên giáo án
đã soạn, người dạy có thể cân nhắc và lựa chọn những bài tập phù hợp.
Việc phân tích nguyên nhân gây lỗi trong quá trình học ngoại ngữ cần phải dựa trên
các cơ sở lý thuyết. Trong đó, việc thực hiện các giả thuyết tương phản liên quan đến việc
giải thích các lỗi đóng một vai trò quan trọng, tập trung vào ảnh hưởng từ ngôn ngữ mẹ
đẻ của người học ngoại ngữ. Khác với giả thuyết tương phản, giả thuyết nhận dạng đề cập
tới sự chiếm ưu thế của lỗi trong nội hàm ngôn ngữ đích, có nghĩa là ngay trong việc sử
dụng ngôn ngữ đích, người học đã mắc lỗi và lỗi này không xuất hiện do ảnh hưởng của
ngôn ngữ khác. Dựa trên giả thuyết liên ngôn ngữ, Kleppin cho rằng, trong quá trình học
ngoại ngữ, người học sản xuất ra một hệ thống cấu trúc đặc biệt (hệ thống liên ngôn ngữ),
hệ thống đó thể hiện các đặc điểm của ngôn ngữ mẹ đẻ, ngôn ngữ đích cũng như các dấu
hiệu ngôn ngữ độc lập riêng biệt (Kleppin, 2001:989). Sự kết hợp của nhiều quá trình đa
dạng trong việc học ngoại ngữ và các chiến lược học tập xác định tính linh hoạt và biến
động trong hệ thống cấu trúc liên ngôn ngữ nói trên.
Dựa trên các giả thuyết đã nêu có thể kết luận rằng, lỗi được gây ra bởi nhiều yếu tố,
trong đó có yếu tố tác động của ngôn ngữ mẹ đẻ hoặc các ngôn ngữ khác đã học (sự giao
thoa ngôn ngữ), các yếu tố trong chính bản thân ngôn ngữ đích, các yếu tố liên quan đến
chiến lược giao tiếp của người học. Ngay cả chiến lược học tập, hình thức tổ chức giờ học
ngoại ngữ, các yếu tố cá nhân như căng thẳng hoặc sợ hãi, các yếu tố văn hóa xã hội cũng
có thể dẫn đến mắc lỗi (Kleppin, 2001:989). Một lỗi có thể không xuất phát từ một yếu
tố duy nhất và được gây ra bởi nhiều yếu tố, vì vậy quá trình phân tích lỗi cũng phải lấy
nhiều cách tiếp cận làm thước đo.
Trong các yếu tố nêu trên, thì sự giao thoa ngôn ngữ được xem là nguyên nhân gây
lỗi quan trọng nhất và được nghiên cứu nhiều nhất (Götze,1986:58). Theo đó, người học
có xu hướng áp dụng các quy tắc của ngôn ngữ mẹ đẻ vào ngôn ngữ đích, bởi họ không
nhận ra hoặc không hiểu được sự khác nhau về một phạm trù nào đó giữa hai hệ thống
ngôn ngữ, ví dụ phạm trù ngữ pháp hay từ vựng. Diehling và Hirschfeld định nghĩa sự
giao thoa ngôn ngữ là“quá trình và kết quả của việc chuyển giao các đặc điểm và quy tắc
của ngôn ngữ mẹ để sang ngôn ngữ khác (ngoại ngữ)” (Diehling/Hirschfeld, 2001:181).
Ví dụ, trong khi đặt câu tiếng Đức, hiện tượng một học sinh người Việt luôn để động từ
ngay sau chủ ngữ mà không quan tâm đến đó là loại câu gì trong ngữ pháp tiếng Đức có
thể được xem là một lỗi ngữ pháp xuất phát từ sự giao thoa ngôn ngữ, bởi trong tiếng Việt
động từ thường đứng ngay sau chủ ngữ.
Nguyên nhân gây lỗi tiếp theo là quá trình đơn giản hóa cấu trúc, theo đó người học
có xu hướng làm đơn giản các cấu trúc phức tạp và các hiện tượng ngôn ngữ khó trong
ngôn ngữ đích để giúp cho việc diễn đạt trở nên dễ dàng hơn. Tuy nhiên, việc đơn giản
hóa này quá trình tự phát và không dựa trên nguyên tắc ngữ pháp nào, nói cách khác, quá
trình này cũng bị xem như sự vi phạm các quy tắc ngữ pháp của ngôn ngữ đích. Ví dụ,
một người Việt Nam học tiếng Đức có xu hướng bỏ các đuôi tính từ, động từ… để làm
đơn giản hóa cấu trúc và làm cho việc diễn đạt được trôi chảy thì đó cũng được xem là
hiện tượng mắc lỗi do quá trình đơn giản hóa (Kleppin, 2003:33).
Quá trình quy tắc hóa cấu trúc cũng được xem như một nguyên nhân gây mắc lỗi
trong việc học ngoại ngữ. Theo đó, một hiện tượng ngôn ngữ bất quy tắc được người học
chuyển thành có quy tắc hoặc thành ngữ bản địa hay cách diễn đạt mang tính địa phương
được sử dụng thay cho ngôn ngữ chuẩn đang được học. Điều này được thể hiện rất rõ
trong việc sử dụng các động từ có quy tắc và bất quy tắc, trong đó người học có xu hướng
chia toàn bộ các động từ bất quy tắc ở dạng có quy tắc (Kleppin, 2003:33). Ví dụ, động từ
bất quy tắc gehen (đi) ở quá khứ được chia là gehte (có quy tắc) thay vì ging (bất quy tắc).
Kleppin mô tả quá trình đồng hóa cấu trúc là quá trình chuyển giao cách dùng từ
ngữ của sự vật, sự việc này vào sự vật, sự việc khác mà không tạo ra nghĩa hoặc không
có sự tương thích. Đây được xem là nguyên nhân tiếp theo gây ra lỗi (Kleppin, 2003:37).
Ví dụ, quá trình đồng hóa khái niệm Sport treiben (luyện tập thể thao) sang Musik treiben
(luyện tập âm nhạc) bằng cách sử dụng chung động từ treiben (luyện tập). Tuy nhiên,
trong trường hợp này động từ treiben không tương thích với Musik (âm nhạc), vì thế cách
dùng từ này bị coi là sai.
Ngoài những lý do nêu trên, thì lỗi có thể xuất hiện do những yếu tố cá nhân như sức
khỏe (sự mệt mỏi), cảm xúc (không có hứng thú, hồi hộp), năng lực học tập và tinh thần
học tập. Liên quan đến các yếu tố văn hóa, xã hội có thể nhắc đến các khía cạnh như sự
sẵn sàng hay cách cư xử lịch sự trong giao tiếp. Đây là những yếu tố có thể tác động đến
hiệu quả học tập của người học (Henrici, 1986:68).
Trong trường hợp lỗi do bài học gây ra, nguyên nhân của lỗi có thể được quy cho
giáo viên hoặc tình huống lớp học. Theo đó, lỗi có thể xuất hiện khi một hiện tượng hoặc
quy tắc cụ thể không được người học biết đến, do đó người học không có khả năng tránh
được lỗi một cách chủ động. Ngoài ra, lỗi có thể xuất hiện do tính chất bài học. Cụ thể,
người học bị ảnh hưởng bởi một quy tắc đang được đề cập trong bài học và áp dụng quy
tắc đó một cách ngẫu nhiên vào các hiện tượng chưa học. Điển hình cho nguyên nhân gây
lỗi này là ảnh hưởng của những bài tập được thực hiện một cách tích cực trong giờ học
vào các hiện tượng khác chưa được đề cập tới (Kleppin, 2003:37). Ví dụ, người học đang
luyện phụ âm xát /r/ trong từ grau (màu xám) và tự động áp dụng quy tắc phát âm phụ âm
xát vào phụ âm /r/ trong từ er (anh ấy), mặc dù /r/ trong er không phải phụ âm xát.
4. CÁC PHƯƠNG PHÁP CHỮA LỖI TRONG VĂN NÓI VÀ VĂN VIẾT
Khi người học mắc lỗi, mỗi người dạy có cách phản ứng và xử lý khác nhau. Nói
cách khác, lỗi có thể được bỏ qua, bị từ chối (thông báo không hiểu) hoặc được sửa chữa.
Việc chữa lỗi được thực hiện thông qua quá trình can thiệp của giáo viên, trong đó giáo
viên đưa ra một sự hỗ trợ diễn đạt hoặc một gợi ý thích hợp.
4.1. Tổng quan về các phương pháp chữa lỗi

Việc sửa lỗi thường diễn ra thông qua một tín hiệu kém đồng tình của người tiếp nhận
thông tin với nội dung mà người học đã diễn đạt. Thông thường dấu hiệu này xuất phát từ
phía giáo viên, tuy nhiên, trong một số trường hợp, dấu hiệu này cũng đến từ chính người
học hoặc đến từ những người học khác khi tiếp nhận thông tin. Wulf (2001) đề cập đến
các dạng thức chữa lỗi sau:
- Tự chữa lỗi hoàn toàn (self-initiated self-repair): Người học tự nhận thấy lỗi sai của
mình và tự sửa lỗi mà không cần sự giúp đỡ từ bên ngoài.
- Tự chữa lỗi có trợ giúp từ bên ngoài (other-initiated self-repair): Người học không
tự nhận ra lỗi sai mà phải nhờ vào tín hiệu từ người khác, tuy nhiên người học có thể tự
sửa lỗi của mình sau khi nhận được tín hiệu.
- Chữa lỗi một phần từ bên ngoài (self-initiated other-repair): Một người khác thực
hiện quá trình chữa lỗi, mặc dù người học đã tự nhận ra lỗi của mình.
- Chữa lỗi hoàn toàn từ bên ngoài (other-initiated other-repair): Một người khác thực
hiện quá trình chữa lỗi, người học không tự nhận ra lỗi của mình (Wulf, 2001:114).
Như vậy, các hình thức chữa lỗi dựa trên hai yếu tố: người học có tự nhận ra lỗi của
mình hay không và phương án đúng do chính người học hay một người khác đưa ra. Tâm
lý học tập cá nhân và các yếu tố liên quan đến mỗi bài học nên được giáo viên xem xét
trong quá trình chữa lỗi. Giáo viên có thể tự đặt ra các câu hỏi chẳng hạn như: Liệu việc
chữa lỗi có khuyến khích hay làm giảm động lực của người học? Bài học có nhằm vào
ngữ âm hoặc kỹ năng đọc không? Người học đang học ở cấp độ nào? Trong những khóa
học dành cho người mới bắt đầu, các lỗi phát âm nên được chú trọng, bởi những lỗi này
hầu như không thể sửa chữa được ở giai đoạn sau. Trong khi đó, ở các cấp độ cao hơn,
yếu tố nội dung văn bản được cho là quan trọng hơn ngữ âm học.
Liên quan đến cách thức chữa lỗi, có thể chia việc chữa lỗi thành 2 hình thức cơ bản:
chữa lỗi trực tiếp và chữa lỗi gián tiếp. Hình thức chữa lỗi trực tiếp được thực hiện thông
qua việc giáo viên chỉ đích danh lỗi sai của người học. Ví dụ, người học nói Sie ist sehr
schon (Cô ấy đẹp), trong đó từ schon bị nói sai, từ đúng trong trường hợp này phải là schön.
Bằng cách chữa lỗi trực tiếp, giáo viên chỉ ra Es heißt nicht schon, sondern schön (Không
phải schon mà là schön). Thông qua đó, người học nhận diện được một cách trực tiếp và
nhanh nhất lỗi nằm ở đâu. Ngược lại, nếu một giáo viên nhắc lại đầy đủ câu nói của người
học theo dạng thức đúng nhưng không chỉ rõ lỗi sai nằm ở đâu thì có thể xem như giáo viên
đó đã áp dụng hình thức chữa lỗi gián tiếp. Ví dụ, giáo viên nhắc lại Ja, sie ist sehr schön
(trong đó từ schon đã được thay thế bằng schön). Mỗi hình thức chữa lỗi đều có những ưu
và nhược điểm. Việc chữa lỗi gián tiếp giúp cho quá trình giao tiếp có chủ đích trong giờ
học không quá bị gián đoạn bởi quá trình chữa lỗi, tuy nhiên lỗi không được chỉ ra hoặc
giải thích một cách rõ ràng. Vì vậy, hình thức này phù hợp hơn với người học ở trình độ
cao. Ở trình độ sơ cấp, giáo viên cần chú trọng truyền đạt cho người học những đặc điểm cơ
bản của ngôn ngữ đích, vì vậy việc chữa lỗi trực tiếp sẽ đem lại hiệu quả cao hơn (Kleppin,
2003:98). Điều này thể hiện rất rõ trong quá trình giảng dạy ngữ âm, trong đó những lỗi sai
cơ bản trong phát âm cần phải được chỉ ra và sửa một cách trực tiếp.
4.2. Các phương pháp chữa lỗi trong văn nói

Từ trước đến nay, trong việc dạy và học ngoại ngữ, việc chữa lỗi trong văn viết vẫn
được xem là quan trọng nhất và giữ vị trí trung tâm. Tuy nhiên, trong những năm gần đây,
vấn đề chữa lỗi trong văn nói ngày càng được coi trọng và nghiên cứu một cách kỹ càng,
từ đó có thể đưa ra những tư vấn về phương pháp chữa lỗi trong văn nói. Việc nghiên cứu
cách chữa lỗi trong văn nói xuất phát từ thực tế là tiến trình bài giảng và việc thiết kế nội
dung bài tập chịu ảnh hưởng tương đối lớn từ hoạt động nói của người dạy và người học.
Trong giờ học ngoại ngữ, việc chữa lỗi trong văn nói có một đặc điểm riêng biệt, khác với
việc sửa chữa theo nghĩa thông thường. Việc chữa lỗi đánh dấu một quá trình, trong đó
người học phát ra nội dung mình muốn diễn đạt thông qua những gợi ý hoặc đề xuất của
giáo viên và việc chữa lỗi của giáo viên tập trung hoặc định hướng hành động của người
học (Kleppin, 2001:990,991). Có nhiều khái niệm khác nhau về cách thức chữa lỗi trong
văn nói, tuy nhiên mọi quá trình chữa lỗi này đều tuân theo một mô hình rõ ràng và rành
mạch. Trong khuôn khổ lý thuyết về chữa lỗi trong văn nói thì việc chữa lỗi là một bước
phát sinh trực tiếp từ phản ứng của giáo viên đối với một lời nói sai của người học. Nói
cách khác, những diễn đạt sai là cái cớ dẫn tời việc chữa lỗi và yêu cầu một sự điều chỉnh
phù hợp từ giáo viên. Trong đó, hình thức chữa lỗi trực tiếp xác định rõ ràng lỗi cần sửa
(giáo viên trực tiếp chỉ ra lỗi sai, đưa ra phương án đúng và yêu cầu người học nhắc lại),
ngược lại hình thức chữa lỗi gián tiếp không chỉ đích danh lỗi mà thường chỉ mang tính
chất ngầm định hoặc gợi ý. Trong cả hai trường hợp này, người chữa lỗi trực tiếp hay gợi
ý chữa lỗi được xem là người đề xuất việc chữa lỗi dành cho người nói, người đó có thể
là giáo viên hoặc bạn cùng học.
Nói cách khác, việc chữa lỗi thường liên quan đến một nỗ lực điều chỉnh của người
nói, trong đó người đối thoại cùng hoặc người nghe đóng vai trò của người phản biện.
Sau nỗ lực chữa lỗi thành công, việc đánh giá quá trình chữa lỗi thường được đưa ra, ví
dụ, giáo viên xác nhận việc người học đã tự chữa lỗi (chữa lỗi chủ động) sau tín hiệu chữa
lỗi gián tiếp từ giáo viên hoặc người học nhắc lại câu nói theo phương án đúng mà giáo
viên đưa ra (chữa lỗi thụ động) sau tín hiệu chữa lỗi trực tiếp từ giáo viên. Cũng trong giai
đoạn này, việc lý giải vì sao phải chữa lỗi có thể được đưa ra, thông thường việc lý giải
này liên quan đến việc xác định các nguyên nhân gây lỗi (Storch, 1999:315). Tuy nhiên,
trên thực tế, mô hình chữa lỗi này có luôn diễn ra như vậy hay không còn phụ thuộc vào
từng bối cảnh cụ thể. Theo đó, việc chữa lỗi cần phải được diễn ra theo một quy trình,
trong đó hiệu quả học tập được đặt lên trên hết (Storch, 1999:316). Nhiều nhà nghiên cứu
trong lĩnh vực giáo học pháp cho rằng, đối với những câu nói hoặc diễn giải ngắn, giáo
viên không nên làm gián đoạn quá trình nói của người học thông qua việc chữa lỗi. Thay
vào đó, giáo viên có thể liệt kê một số lỗi nghiêm trọng mà người học đã vi phạm và đề
cập đến chúng vào một thời điểm thích hợp khác. Trong trường hợp các lỗi xuất hiện liên
tiếp bắt nguồn từ sự thiếu chủ động trong diễn đạt của người học thì giáo viên nên chữa
lỗi thông qua việc nhắc lại lời nói của người học theo hình thức đúng. Nếu lỗi xuất phát
từ việc người học thiếu kiến thức ngôn ngữ, thì quá trình sửa lỗi phải dựa trên lý thuyết
ngôn ngữ, cụ thể là, song song với việc chữa lỗi, giáo viên cần nhắc lại các mô hình và
quy tắc trong ngôn ngữ mà người học chưa nắm được.
Quá trình nghiên cứu thực nghiệm về chữa lỗi trong văn nói ở nhiều tình huống giảng
dạy khác nhau sẽ cho ra những kết quả khác nhau. Tuy nhiên trên thực tế đã có sự nhất
quán trong việc áp dụng các mô hình chữa lỗi và các tài liệu hướng dẫn dựa trên việc quan
sát giờ học. Ví dụ, sự đề cập đến lỗi một cách có ý thức trong thực tiễn giảng dạy đã được
khuyến khích và có thể xem đó là việc tạo động lực cho quá trình chữa lỗi. Ngoài ra, trong
nhiều trường hợp, giáo viên nên thực hiện việc chữa lỗi phù hợp với nội dung bài học.
Giáo viên cũng cần chú trọng thực hiện việc chữa lỗi có ý thức thông qua các biện pháp
nhất định, cho phép người học tự nhận ra lỗi của mình và tự sửa lỗi. Các biện pháp giúp
cho người học tự chữa lỗi gồm nhiều loại khác nhau, trong đó có hình thức gợi ý phi ngôn
ngữ. Những ưu điểm của biện pháp này là ngắn gọn, tiết kiệm thời gian, rõ ràng hơn và
không gây ảnh hưởng nghiêm trọng đến tương tác giảng dạy. Bên cạnh đó biện pháp này
có thể được áp dụng một cách linh hoạt và hướng vào người học. Tuy nhiên, giáo viên cần
tiến hành thảo luận trước với người học về các phương pháp chữa lỗi, qua đó giáo viên
nắm được mong muốn và nhu cầu của người học để lựa chọn hình thức chữa lỗi thích hợp
(Kleppin, 2001:991,992).
4.3. Các hình thức chữa lỗi trong văn viết

Trong quá trình chữa lỗi ở văn bản viết, Schmidt (1996) khuyến khích việc giáo viên
chữa lỗi trực tiếp trên văn bản và cho rằng các chỉ dẫn gián tiếp về lỗi viết bên lề văn bản
chỉ đúng trong một số trường hợp, ví dụ: nếu người học đã học hiện tượng ngôn ngữ tương
ứng (Schmidt, 1996:338). Ngược lại, Storch (1999) cho rằng, người học học được rất ít từ
những lỗi được sửa trực tiếp bởi giáo viên, bởi quá trình này không cho phép người học tự
sửa lỗi. Chính vì lý do này, khả năng tự sửa lỗi nên được xem xét cẩn thận và giáo viên chỉ
nên sửa những lỗi mà người học không thể tự sửa (Storch, 1999:318, 319). Kleppin (2001)
phân chia quá trình chữa lối trong văn viết thành hai dạng thức. Một mặt, giáo viên gạch
chân hoặc đánh dấu các lỗi đơn giản mà người học mắc phải. Mặt khác, đối với những lỗi
phức tạp hơn, giáo viên gạch chân lỗi và tiến hành ghi chú loại lỗi đó ví dụ lỗi từ vựng, lối
ngữ pháp, lỗi nội dung…, qua đó người học có thể tự chữa lỗi (Kleppin, 2001:990). Về cơ
bản, giáo viên nên sử dụng các dấu hiệu sửa lỗi đã được giáo viên và người học thống nhất
với nhau, như vậy người học có thể biết được loại lỗi nào mình đã phạm phải, đặc biệt nếu
một số loại lỗi lặp lại liên tục (Butzkamm, 2000:73). Nói cách khác, việc sử dụng các dấu
hiệu chữa lỗi thống nhất trong lớp học là điều được khuyến nghị, qua đó có thể thấy, việc
giáo viên thực hiện việc chữa lỗi một cách có chủ ý là điều mà người học mong đợi, từ đó
người học có thể tiếp tục học từ lỗi đã mắc và hoàn thiện kiến thức mình đã có. Từ thực tế
này có thể thấy rằng, việc thảo luận về các lỗi còn tồn tại trong văn viết đóng một vai trò
quan trọng trong việc học ngoại ngữ. Tuy nhiên, do giới hạn về thời lượng của một buổi học
và vấn đề thời gian nên việc chữa lỗi bài viết thường được thực hiện như một bài tập về nhà.
Như đã đề cập ở trên, lỗi là hiện tượng có hiệu ứng tích cực giúp chuẩn đoán cấp độ
ngôn ngữ của người học đồng thời khuyến khích việc học từ lỗi, đó là lý do tại sao việc
chữa lỗi và đưa ra phản hồi cũng như tư vấn dựa trên lỗi là quá trình lặp đi lặp lại gắn với
mỗi nội dung bài học. Để việc chữa lỗi và học từ lỗi phát huy hiệu quả, giáo viên nên giao
cho người học nhiệm vụ thống kê lỗi và các loại lỗi đã mắc phải dựa trên các văn bản viết
của người học cũng như các dấu hiệu chữa lỗi của giáo viên. Một loại bài tập khác có thể
được áp dụng là bài tập chữa lỗi, trong đó các văn bản bị lỗi, ví dụ các bài viết tự do, được
sử dụng làm tài liệu. Người học phải xác định các lỗi trong đó và thảo luận về nguyên
nhân gây lỗi hoặc các vấn đề tương tự.
5. ĐÁNH GIÁ MỨC ĐỘ YÊU THÍCH CỦA CÁC PHƯƠNG PHÁP CHỮA LỖI THÔNG QUA KHẢO SÁT NGƯỜI HỌC
5.1. Đối tượng và nội dung khảo sát

Để xác định nhu cầu và ưu tiên của người học trong việc chữa lỗi, bài nghiên cứu
đã tiến hành khảo sát ý kiến (theo hình thức khảo sát online) 50 sinh viên khóa QH2017
tại Khoa Ngôn ngữ và Văn hóa Đức, Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, ĐHQGHN về các hình
thức chữa lỗi được ưa thích.
Tại thời điểm tiến hành khảo sát (tháng 9 năm 2018), sinh viên QH2017 đã học xong
hai học kỳ thực hành tiếng đầu tiên, đạt trình độ tiếng Đức A2 và đang thực hiện học phần
tiếng thực hành tiếng tiếp theo là học phần tiếng Đức 3A, 3B, 3C để đạt trình độ tiếng
Đức B1. Có thể nói, trong suốt thời gian học thực hành tiếng, sinh viên đã làm quen với
cách thức giảng dạy nói chung và cách thức chữa lỗi nói riêng của nhiều giáo viên, qua
đó sinh viên đã có thể có được cái nhìn tổng quát về các hình thức chữa lỗi trong văn nói
và văn viết mà các giáo viên đã áp dụng. Sinh viên đã có thể hình dung phần nào hiệu quả
của các phương pháp chữa lỗi này đối với sự tiến bộ của bản thân cũng như xác định hình
thức chữa lỗi nào được cá nhân mong đợi nhất và vì sao.
Các câu hỏi khảo sát được đưa ra bao gồm:
I. Hình thức chữa lỗi trong văn nói
1. Bạn mong muốn được chữa lỗi vào thời điểm nào?
a. Ngay trong quá trình nói (giáo viên có thể làm gián đoạn lời nói của học viên).
b. Sau khi kết thúc quá trình nói (giáo viên không nên làm gián đoạn lời nói của học viên).
2. Bạn mong muốn nhận được hình thức chữa lỗi nào?
a. Giáo viên chỉ đưa ra tín hiệu hoặc gợi ý về lỗi mắc phải, học viên sẽ tự chữa lỗi
đã mắc.
b. Giáo viên trực tiếp chữa lỗi bằng cách đưa ra phương án đúng và học viên nhắc lại
lời nói theo phương án đúng mà giáo viên đưa ra.
II. Hình thức chữa lỗi trong văn viết
a. Giáo viên sửa lỗi trực tiếp vào bài viết bằng cách gạch bỏ và ghi phương án đúng
vào bài viết.
b. Giáo viên gạch chân câu hoặc từ có lỗi và không ghi kèm ghi chú nào.
c. Giáo viên gạch chân câu hoặc từ có lỗi và ghi chú ký hiệu về loại lỗi mắc phải ví
dụ A (lỗi diễn đạt), G (lỗi ngữ pháp), R (lỗi chính tả)...
5.2. Kết quả khảo sát

Câu hỏi 1:
Bạn mong muốn được chữa lỗi vào thời điểm nào?
a. Ngay trong quá trình nói (giáo viên có thể làm gián đoạn lời nói của học viên).
b. Sau khi kết thúc quá trình nói (giáo viên không nên làm gián đoạn lời nói của học viên).
Có 68,1% số sinh viên được hỏi lựa chọn phương án b, cụ thể là giáo viên không nên
làm gián đoạn lời nói của học viên mà thay vào đó nên tiến hành việc chữa lỗi sau khi học
viên đã kết thúc bài nói của mình.
Có 38,1% sinh viên cho rằng, giáo viên có thể làm gián đoạn lời nói của học viên và
chữa lỗi ngay trong quá trình học viên nói.
Như vậy có thể thấy, gần 2/3 số sinh viên phản đối việc giáo viên ngắt lời người học
để phục vụ cho quá trình chữa lỗi. Lý giải cho lựa chọn này, có thể thấy thực tế là đa số
người học cảm thấy việc nói của mình kém trôi trảy hoặc mất đi mạch suy nghĩ trong quá
trình nói cũng như phải chịu những áp lực trong quá trình thực hiện văn nói nếu bị gián
đoạn bởi quá trình chữa lỗi của giáo viên. Lời khuyên đối với giáo viên trong trường hợp
này là nên ghi lại lỗi mà người học mắc phải và chữa lỗi một cách tổng thể sau khi học
viên kết thúc bài nói. Nhược điểm của quá trình này là giáo viên cần có thời gian để ghi
chép và tổng kết, đôi khi có thể bỏ sót một số lỗi của học viên.
Câu hỏi 2:
a. Giáo viên chỉ đưa ra tín hiệu hoặc gợi ý về lỗi mắc phải, học viên sẽ tự phát hiện
lỗi đã mắc.
b. Giáo viên trực tiếp chỉ ra lỗi, đưa ra phương án đúng và yêu cầu học viên nhắc lại
lời nói.
Có 71,4% sinh viên cho rằng giáo viên nên trực tiếp chữa lỗi bằng cách đưa ra phương án
đúng và học viên chỉ nhắc lại nói lời theo phương án đúng mà giáo viên đưa ra.
Có 28,6% sinh viên cho rằng giáo viên chỉ nên đưa ra tín hiệu hoặc gợi ý về lỗi mà
người học mắc phải, người học sẽ là tự phát hiện lỗi của mình. Mặc dù theo quan niệm
của nhiều nhà nghiên cứu giáo học pháp, việc chữa lối gián tiếp - chữa lỗi thông qua gợi ý
cần được khuyến khích trong quá trình dạy và học ngoại ngữ, thì trên thực tế không phải
người học nào cũng cho rằng đây là cách chữa lỗi ưu việt. Thay vào đó, dựa trên con số
trên, có thể thấy có gần 2/3 số người học được hỏi lựa chọn cách chữa lỗi trực tiếp - chữa
lỗi bằng cách trực tiếp đưa ra phương án đúng để người học nhắc lại. Thực tế này xuất
phát từ việc sinh viên chưa sẵn sàng tư duy một cách chủ động về lỗi mà thường tỏ ra bị
động mỗi khi mắc lỗi, sự trợ giúp của giáo viên sẽ làm giảm tải gánh nặng cho sinh viên
và sinh viên có thể biết chính xác lỗi mà mình mắc phải. Ưu điểm của phương pháp này là
giáo viên có thể chỉ đích danh lỗi và cung cấp cho sinh viên ngay phương án đúng, nhưng
nhược điểm là không phát huy được sự chủ động và tư duy của sinh viên, và việc sinh
viên có thể học được điều gì từ lỗi của mình hay không là điều không chắc chắn.
Câu hỏi 3:
Bạn mong muốn nhận được hình thức chữa lỗi nào?
a. Giáo viên sửa lỗi trực tiếp vào bài viết bằng cách gạch bỏ và ghi phương án đúng
vào bài viết.
b. Giáo viên gạch chân câu hoặc từ có lỗi và không ghi kèm ghi chú nào.
c. Giáo viên gạch chân câu hoặc từ có lỗi và ghi chú ký hiệu về loại lỗi mắc phải ví
dụ A (lỗi diễn đạt), G (lỗi ngữ pháp), R (lỗi chính tả)...
Có 66,7% sinh viên được hỏi mong muốn giáo viên sửa lỗi trực tiếp vào bài viết bằng
cách gạch bỏ và ghi phương án đúng vào bài viết.
33,3% sinh viên được hỏi cho rằng giáo viên chỉ cần gạch chân câu hoặc từ có lỗi và
ghi chú ký hiệu về loại lỗi mắc phải.
0% sinh viên lựa chọn phương án giáo viên gạch chân câu học từ có lỗi và không ghi
kèm ghi chú nào.
Như vậy, cũng giống như việc chữa lỗi trong văn nói, đa phần sinh viên mong muốn
nhận được sự phản hồi trực tiếp từ giáo viên và muốn biết ngay phương án đúng mà giáo
viên đưa ra. Việc chữa lỗi không kèm theo ghi chú là phương án mà không sinh viên nào
lựa chọn. Điều này khá dễ lý giải, vì bản thân sinh viên thường rất khó tự nhận biết lỗi
của mình, đặc biệt với các lỗi liên quan đến hiện tượng ngôn ngữ mà sinh viên chưa nắm
vững hoặc chưa được học. Một phần nhỏ sinh viên vẫn đề cao việc chữa lỗi kèm theo ký
hiệu, có thể xem đây là giải pháp trung hòa nhất, sinh viên có thể nhận ra lỗi đã mắc nằm
ở đâu nhưng đồng thời vẫn có thể tự chữa lỗi của mình.
6. KẾT LUẬN
Có thể nói, lỗi là phạm trù khá quen thuộc trong việc học nói chung và việc dạy và
học ngoại ngữ nói riêng. Lỗi là điều khó tránh khỏi và cũng có thể được xem là căn cứ để
xác định năng lực và những tiến bộ của người học. Việc định nghĩa và phân loại lỗi dựa
trên nhiều khía cạnh và tiêu chí khác nhau. Lỗi không xuất phát từ một nguyên nhân duy
nhất mà có thể xuất phát từ nhiều nguyên nhân khác nhau liên quan đến các quá trình biến
đổi cấu trúc hoặc các lý do cá nhân. Gắn với mỗi hình thức diễn đạt là một số các hình
thức chữa lỗi đặc trưng, tuy nhiên, về cơ bản có hai hình thức chữa lỗi cơ bản là chữa
lỗi trực tiếp và chữa lỗi gián tiếp. Theo kết quả khảo sát, đa phần người học ưu tiên việc
chữa lỗi trực tiếp bởi đây là hình thức giảm tải được gánh nặng về tư duy cho người học
và là hình thức đưa ra chính xác nhất phương án đúng cho mỗi lỗi mắc phải. Nói tóm lại,
việc giáo viên hiểu và nhận định đúng về lỗi có vai trò quan trọng trong việc quyết định
phương pháp chữa lỗi của giáo viên, qua đó nâng cao chất lượng dạy và học ngoại ngữ
trong bối cảnh hiện nay.

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und Schüler. Ismaning: Max Hueber.
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TEACHING DISCIPLINARY KNOWLEDGE THROUGH ENGLISH
AS A MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION
Phạm Hữu Đức, PhD1
Abstract: There are many global views regarding merits of English as a medium of
instruction (EMI) in education at school and college level (Dearden, 2014). English is now
being used as a language of scientific knowledge to display the technological advancement
of many countries in the world. This paper illustrates the process of how English is used
at the International University – Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City. As an
interdisciplinary university, the International University is the first public university in Vietnam
that uses English as the primary language in teaching and researching. The investigation
focused on student admission, teaching and researching, and students’ course completion
and graduation. The data were collected from the survey of the competency assessment test
to take students into the university, teaching students general English and English for specific
purposes, students’ feedback at the end of disciplinary courses and students’ graduation
theses, lecturers’ writing articles for international and domestic journals. The results showed
how lecturers used English, how students acquired their knowledge of academic disciplines
through their satisfaction with the way English was deployed and showed how successful
English was used in teaching disciplinary courses and doing research. This study may serve
as the reference to an EMI model for English-medium institutions in Vietnam to accelerate
the acquisition of knowledge that are indispensable for the development of the country.
Keywords: article, competency assessment test, disciplinary knowledge, English as a
medium of instruction (EMI), feedback, general English.
1. INTRODUCTION
According to Maiworm and Wachter (2002, 2008), English as a medium of
instruction (EMI) courses and programs has been offered in higher education institutions
in the world, across East and Southeast Asia (cited in Kirkpatrick, 2017), and especially
in Vietnam since 1986 when teaching and learning English began to play an important
role (Vu & Burns, 2014). The reason for the development of EMI courses and programs
in Vietnamese universities is to encourage the English-speaking environment to make
sure that students who have undertaken the whole or part of their degrees in domestic
1
Department of English, International University, Vietnam National University HCMC; Email: phduc@hcmiu.
edu.vn. Home address: L B 12.14, Khu dân cư Lexington, 67, Mai Chí Thọ, Phường An Phú, Quận 2, TP HCM
TEACHING DISCIPLINARY KNOWLEDGE THROUGH ENGLISH AS A MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION 77
universities with EMI courses and programs or twinning programs can find jobs after
their graduation in the context of globalization when many foreign companies are doing
foreign direct investment in Vietnam. This has required a certain level from the teaching
staff and the student’s involvement to meet the increasing demand of the provision of
EMI courses and programs. Therefore, English has become the academic lingua franca
of these courses and programs leading to the inevitable factor that English will somehow
become the language of education’ (Coleman, 2006).
With the launch of the National Foreign Language Project 2020, the teaching and
learning of foreign languages associated with specialization in the context of international
integration using theory and practice has been taken into consideration. The purpose of
this study was to find out the effectiveness of teaching disciplinary knowledge through
EMI at the International University - Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City (IU-
VNU HCMC) from students’ enrolment, the teaching and learning, lecturers’ researching,
to students’ course completion and graduation through the evidence from the competency
assessment test, students’ feedback at the end of courses including English courses
(general English and academic English), disciplinary courses, students’ graduation theses,
and lecturers’ writing articles for international as well as domestic journals. This study
only covers some aspects of the implementation of EMI at a domestic university, where
the question of whether EMI will lead to Englishisation will not be discussed. This study
could be used as the basis for reference to enhance the development of EMI in higher
education institutions throughout the country.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
The literature review in this study discusses the use of EMI in the world including
the countries in Europe, the countries in the East and Southeast Asia, and Vietnam at
the macro-level (national policy), meso-level (university document) and the micro-level
(actual stakeholders).
2.1. Experiences of EMI in the world
2.1.1. English-medium teaching in European higher education

According to Coleman (2006), English is becoming the language of higher education
in the global context since globalization influences both language use and the economics
of higher education. English emerges as a world language to be used in economic, political
and strategic alliances, through scientific, technological and cultural cooperation, and
through mass media and in many other areas. The reason for the use of EMI in higher
institutions has been due to the fact that there is an urgent need to teach courses and
programs in content and language integrating learning (CLIL), internationalization,
student exchanges, teaching and researching materials, staff mobility, graduate mobility
and the markets in international students.
2.1.2. Experiences of EMI in Asian Countries

Malaysia, the Philippines, Japan, Hongkong, China and South Korea are the countries
where EMI is currently developed strongly (Kirkpatrick, 2017). EMI policy in Malaysia
has been introduced and implemented at one public university in Malaysia at three
levels: the macro-level (national policy), the meso-level (university documents), and the
micro-level (actual stakeholders). It was found that there was no explicit reference to
EMI policy as such in any of the documents. At the national level, the current National
Higher Education Action Plan makes no explicit statement about the policy of medium
of instruction education. The document notes that the use of English is to be encouraged,
especially in science, mathematics and technical subjects and urges universities to
strengthen their students’ English proﬁciency to meet ‘the goals for a quality workforce
needed by the country, and for the internationalization of the universities. At the meso-
level, university documents indicate the policy on language instruction in teaching and
learning. The policy also states that when there are international students in the classroom,
EMI becomes the priority.
In the Philippines, there are about 90 private universities and they are all EMI
universities. Perhaps the most prestigious university in the Philippines is The University of
the Philippines at Dilman, a state university (Kirkpatrick, 2014). Japan is also developing
international education. The Japanese Government has introduced the Global 30 Project to
attract international students to Japan to study in one of 30 universities. The best universities
in Japan are now offering degree programs in English. The aim of the Global 30 project
was to attract 300,000 international students. In China, a lot of universities are offering their
programs through English. Many local universities are seeking to grow their international
student numbers by increasing their EMI programs. In Hong Kong, the government’s aim
is for its citizens to be trilingual (in Cantonese, Putonghua and English) and biliterate (in
Chinese and English). This praiseworthy policy, however, is undermined by the fact that six
of the eight government-funded universities are English medium. According to Byun, Chu,
Kim, Park, Kim, and Jung (2011), in South Korea, the EMI policy for universities went into
effect in early 2000. Since then, EMI policy has a great effect on teaching, learning and
other aspects of tertiary education. The outcome evolves and the prospect for EMI policy to
get the results of internationalization is still a long way ahead.
2.2. Experiences of EMI in Vietnam

Since the Doi Moi (renovation) changes in state policy in 1986, Vietnam has
opened up its economy to the world and developed relationships particularly with the
West. English language teaching and learning has gained in status with much impact on
language planning and policy. As English becomes increasingly prominent, there has been
the need for language proficiency, resulting in a great number of programmes with EMI
(Dang, Nguyen, & Le, 2013). EMI programs have been developed in many universities in
Vietnam which come in existence along with other Asian higher institutions where EMI
programs are being implemented (Nguyen, Walkinshaw, & Pham, 2017). With the purpose
to increase their income, universities in developing economies including Vietnam adopt
strategies to improve educational quality to attract local and international students, enhance
institutional ranking and regional and global competitiveness. These strategies consist of
internationalising education and developing partnerships with high-ranking universities
in the advanced countries, particularly those in English-speaking countries (Nguyen,
Hamid, & Moni, 2016). Therefore, the reasons for EMI development in Vietnam are also
related to content and language integrating learning (CLIL), internationalization, student
exchanges, teaching and researching materials, staff mobility, graduate mobility and the
markets in international students. The typical example is the case of the International
University - Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City (IU-VNU HCMC). Its
prominent features of teaching and researching through the implementation of EMI make
it a very successful model of EMI.
Introducing EMI has been a key element of these strategies. IU-VNU-HCM, one
of the seven member universities of VNU-HCM, was established in December 2003 by
the decree signed by the Prime Minister to be a platform to promote the reform of higher
education in Vietnam. According to Decision No. 260/2003/QD-TTg, IU was set up to
become the first public university in Vietnam that uses English as the primary language in
teaching, studying and researching. The focus has been on offering academic majors that
are aligned with the growing demand for human resources in such fields as economics,
management, science, and technology. IU has over 7,000 students, 170 faculties and 211
staff members as of March 2018 (https://www.hcmiu.edu.vn/language/en-US/Dai-hoc-
Quoc-te-International-University). IU-VNU HCMC is now on the path of integration at
the macro-level, the meso-level and the micro-level with the countries having advanced
education. To achieve this goal, the EMI policy including the curricula of IU must be
recognized in the region and in the world. This requires that IU should implement the
learning and the practice simultaneously in the process of constant construction and
adjustment of the training programs.
In terms of training, the departments and the schools in IU have continuously referred
to the training programs of the partner universities to develop their own programs to meet
the international standards of training and to be consistent with the work environment, the
needs of enterprises and Vietnamese society. During the operation, IU organizes regular
surveys to consult learners and industries, referring to the updated programs to adjust the
curricula and develop new training programs to meet the changing needs of reality. IU
has so far offered the education of disciplines recognized by the partner universities as
shown in Table 1:
Table 1: The list of training programs with IU degrees
No. Major Number of Accredited by

credits
Bachelor’s degree
1 Information 143 Binghamton University, Rutgers University,
Technology University of Nottingham, University of the West of
England, University of Auckland
2 Business 138 University of Houston, University of Nottingham,
Administration University of the West of England, Auckland University
of Technology, University of New South Wales
3 Biotechnology 140 Binghamton University, University of Nottingham,
University of the West of England
4 Electronic 144 Binghamton University, Rutgers University, University of
Engineering & Nottingham, University of the West of England, University
Telecommunications of Auckland, University of New South Wales, Asian
Institute of Technology
5 Industrial Systems 143 Binghamton University, Rutgers University
Engineering
6 Biomedical 144
Engineering
7 Aquatic Resources 138
Management
8 Food Technology 139
9 Banking & Finance 138 University of Houston, University of Nottingham,
University of the West of England, Auckland University of
Technology, University of New South Wales
10 Civil Engineering 142
11 Financial Engineering 141
& Risk Management
12 Biochemistry 138
13 Control Engineering 144
& Automation
14 Logistics & Supply 139 Reutlingen University
Chain Management
Master’s degree
15 Business 50 University of Hawaii at Manoa, North-eastern University
Administration
16 Biotechnology 45
17 Information 50
Technology
Management
18 Electronic 45
Engineering
19 Industrial Systems 45 Munich University
Engineering
20 Biomedical 45
Engineering
21 Applied mathematics 45 (research
methodology 1)
42 (research
methodology 2)
Doctoral degree
22 Biotechnology 135
(Report from the Office of Academic Affairs, IU– VNU HCMC)
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. How does the application of EMI at IU affect and lecturers and students in teaching
and learning disciplinary knowledge?
2. Do lecturers receive enough training and professional development to help them
in teaching their content subjects through EMI?
3. What are the beliefs of lecturers and students to EMI?
3. METHODOLOGY
The reason for IU to be chosen in this study is that it is one of the member universities
of VNU- HCM and is the first public university in Vietnam to apply EMI. Having
undergone many difficulties in many aspects at the beginning stage, IU has always made
continuous efforts to achieve the best quality of education as well as the most professional
and dedicated faculties and staff members. The vision of IU is to become research-oriented
and excel in teaching in combination with basic research and good applied research
to effectively serve the development of the city and the country. 15 years has seen IU
achieve a certain position in the educational system and is known to the society as one
of the prestigious universities of high educational quality in Vietnam’s higher education.
The investigation of IU’s EMI program on meso-level (institutional level) and on
micro-level (individual level) were described through the collected data of the four sources:
1) the competency assessment test, 2) students’ feedback at the end of English courses
(general English and academic English), and disciplinary courses, 3) students’ graduation
theses, and 4) lecturers’ writing articles for international as well as domestic journals.
1) As for the competency assessment test (CAT), the points were given on the decimal
scale with the highest being 10, and the lowest being zero.
2) Students’ feedback as an evaluation at the end of English courses (general English

and academic English) and disciplinary courses was reflected on the written questionnaire
using Likert scale on a five-point scale: 1) strongly disagree, 2) disagree, 3) uncertain, 4)
agree, 5) strongly agree. The lowest point earned in the evaluation for a lecturer was 1
(strongly disagree) and the highest point earned was 5 (strongly agree).
3) The assessments for students’ graduation theses in the two academic years: 2015-
2016, and 2016-2017 ranged from above average, fair, good, very good and excellent.
4) The numbers of lecturers’ publications were collected from 2008 to 2017 with the
average for each lecturer with a doctoral degree, the average of ISI or Scopus publications for
each lecturer with a doctoral degree, and the average for each lecturer without a doctoral degree.
4. RESULTS
4.1. The CAT

The CAT is a valid and reliable test that measures knowledge and skills required for
admitting freshmen. The CAT at IU is developed for the purpose of determining students’
levels entering each discipline. The special feature of IU CAT is that it is administered in
English, which can test the disciplinary knowledge as well as English ability. For example,
competencies that describe the knowledge required for each category (e.g. Category
1: math, English) require test takers to answer questions in English on exam papers.
IU CAT development process begins with a competency analysis of students’ need to
enter university. The competency analysis serves as the basis, and the test development
follows a cycle that includes producing a test practice blueprint, preparing test items, and
administering the test. The results of IU CAT in the last two academic years (2015-2016
and 2016-2017) are displayed in Tables 2A and 2B.
Table 2A: The results of IU CAT in 2015-2016
Points No. of students Percentage of No. of students Percentage of
earning points students earning earning points in students earning
in a math test points in a math test an English test points in a math test
From 1 to 2 (>1 and < 2) 0 0 6 0.34
From 2 to 3 (>2 and < 3) 1 0.06 102 5.73
From 3 to 4 (>3 and < 4) 8 0.45 151 8.49
From 4 to 5 (>4 and < 5) 47 2.64 222 12.48
From 5 to 6 (>5 and < 6) 177 9.95 267 15.01
From 6 to 7 (> 6 and < 7) 722 40.58 367 20.63
From 7 to 8 (>7 and < 8) 624 35.08 358 20.12
From 8 to 9 (> 8 and< 9) 180 10.12 260 14.61
From 9 to 10 (> 9 and < 10) 20 1.12 46 2.59
TOTAL 1779 100 1779 100

Table 2B. The results of IU CAT in 2016-2017
Points No. of students Percentage of No. of students Percentage of

earning points earning points earning points in students earning
in a math test in a math test an English test points in a math test
From 1 to 2 (>1 and < 2) 0 0 0 0
From 2 to 3 (>2 and < 3) 0 0 5 0.26
From 3 to 4 (>3 and < 4) 2 0.1 21 1.1
From 4 to 5 (>4 and < 5) 31 1.62 53 2.78
From 5 to 6 (>5 and < 6) 143 7.49 122 6.39
From 6 to 7 (> 6 and < 7) 368 19.29 237 12.42
From 7 to 8 (>7 and < 8) 637 33.39 397 20.81
From 8 to 9 (> 8 and< 9) 604 31.66 580 30.4
From 9 to 10 (> 9 and < 10) 123 6.45 493 25.84
TOTAL 1908 100 1908 100
4.2. Feedback at the end of disciplinary courses and programs

End-of-course student evaluations are frequently used to evaluate university faculty
teaching. However, employing final student feedback has been found to be instrumental
in informing faculty about instructional quality and improving student learning outcomes.
This study examined and compared the results of the evaluation at the institutional level
and the individual level in each department and each school of IU. The final test student
feedback survey in departments and schools of IU, and of untenured and tenured lecturers
was gathered from 612 students over two years for courses taught at 11 departments
and schools of IU. Results indicated that the final test student feedback offered insights
for IU faculty. In addition, when the faculty make instructional changes based on the
data, students’ responses improve since the fact that both lecturers and students possess
background knowledge of disciplinary areas can facilitate the use of EMI. Based on
the statistics of student feedback through the evaluation, the most important question
of which this study focused on was: “Is the course helpful (including knowledge, skills
and improvement of attitudes towards study and work, etc.), the study had the following
results in Table 3.
Table 3. Individual’s average evaluation score and university’s average score
Academic year 2016-2017
Individual’s average University’s average

No. Department / School
evaluation score score
1 Biomedical Engineering 4.44 4.32
2 Bio-Technology 4.37 4.32
3 Business Administration 4.28 4.32
4 Civil Engineering 4.53 4.32

5 Computer Science & Engineering 4.24 4.32
6 Electronical Engineering 4.28 4.32
7 English 4.32 4.32
8 Industrial Systems Engineering 4.32 4.32
9 Mathematics 4.22 4.32
10 Physics 4.39 4.32
11 Political Economy 4.19 4.32
(Report from the Center for Quality Management, IU– VNU HCMC)
4.3. Students’ graduation theses

A bachelor’s thesis is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic
degree presenting the author’s research and findings. The required complexity or quality
of research of a bachelor’s thesis can vary by university or program, and the required
minimum study period may thus vary significantly in duration. For many undergraduate
degree students, a significant element of the final year study is an independent learning
project. While these projects may vary greatly in scope and nature (e.g. a large-scale
written assignment or an extended essay; the design and production of some type of
artefact, e.g. writing a software program), most undergraduate theses share some main
characteristics.
•First, the learner determines the focus and direction of their work based on the
proposal submitted by students to keep to the right track.
•Second, this work is carried out on an individual basis, usually with some tutorial
and direction provided by the lecturer in charge.
• Third, there is a substantial research component to the project, requiring the
collection of primary data and/or the analysis of existing/secondary data.
• Finally, learners will have more engagement with the chosen subject than they do
the standard coursework assignments reports, with the work consequently expected to be
more in-depth.
Table 4A. Statistics of students who have graduated with theses as part of their fulfilment
of bachelor’s program - Academic year 2015-2016
Statistics of students who have graduated with theses as part of their fulfilment
of bachelor’s program
Excellent Very good Good Fair Above average Total
No. of students 1 90 399 20 169 679
Percentage 0.15 13.25 58.76 2.95 24.89 100

Table 4B. Statistics of students who have graduated with theses as part of their fulfilment
of bachelor’s program - Academic year 2016-2017
Statistics of students who have graduated with theses as part of their fulfilment of bachelor’s
program
Excellent Very good Good Fair Above average Total
No. of students 3 128 95 236 150 612
Percentage 0.49 20.92 15.52 38.56 24.51 100
4.4. Lecturers’ writing articles for international and domestic journals
Disseminating research and growing the knowledge base in a university is important

for university management and university policy development. Scientific writing in
disciplines underpins research, as the results of research are of much use if they are
distributed for student and peer reference and implementation. Thus, the ability for IU
lecturers to write, and to have the time to write, is important in translating their knowledge
into empirical research for findings. Many academics agree that writing for publication is
one of the most difficult aspects of the process of research to improve lecturers’ knowledge
in teaching. All the data utilized in this study emanated from the Office of Research and
Development at IU as can be seen in Tables 5A and 5B.
Table 5A. The statistics of IU lecturers’ publication from 2008 to 2017
Type of publications 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 (*) 2017
Papers in international 41 46 51 67 78 108 110 132 131 125

journals
Papers in international 35 39 41 41 51 53 74 78 73* 81
journals in ISI (+ *Scopus)
Papers in domestic journals 9 8 6 13 13 56 49 79 60 48
Papers in international 25 10 35 62 52 90 86 193 164 107
conference proceedings
Papers in domestic 18 10 21 17 17 45 14 32 14 15
conference proceedings
Other types of publications, 0 0 0 0 0 9 6 17 9 9
editor for conference
proceedings, author of
books, or chapter(s) of a
book, etc.
Total (papers) 93 74 113 159 160 308 265 453 378 304
(Report from the Office of Research & Development, IU– VNU HCMC)
Table 5B. Average percentage of publication per lecturer
Year 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Average percentage of 1.5 1.1 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.3 1.2 1.4 1.4 1.2
publication per lecturer with a
doctoral degree
Average percentage of ISI 1.3 0.9 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
publication per lecturer with a
doctoral degree
Average percentage of 1.5 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.1 2.2 1.7 2.6 2.0 1.7
publication per lecturer at IU
(Report from the Office of Research & Development, IU– VNU HCMC)
5. DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study was to examine the evidence from IU CAT, student feedback
as an evaluation at the end of English courses (general English and academic English),
disciplinary courses, students’ graduation theses, and lecturers’ writing articles for
international as well as domestic journals. In doing so, the study addressed the following
questions mentioned earlier in the paper.
For the first question: “How does the application of EMI at IU affect and teaching
staff and students who use English as a foreign language in teaching and learning
disciplinary knowledge?”, it was answered with the results of IU CAT from Tables 2A
and 2B in the math test (earning from 5 to 10 points: 96.85% and 98.28 % in 2016 and
2017, respectively) and in taking the English test (earning from 5 to 10 points: 72.96%
and 95.89 % in 2016 and 2017, respectively), which can pave the good way for EMI
development at IU. It is possible that students have met the requirement of IU CAT since
IU CAT has been designed and administered in such a way that can improve students’
ability in taking the tests. Moreover, the effective application of EMI at IU is supported
by the English programs: general English, and academic English as displayed in Table 6.
Table 6. IU English Language Pathway
STAGE 1 STAGE 2
SEMESTER 1 SEMESTER 2 SEMESTER 3 SEMESTER 4
Levels IE1 IE2 AE1 AE2
- Integrated Reading - Integrated Reading - Listening & Note- -Effective
Skills & Writing & Writing taking presentations
focused - Integrated Listening - Integrated Listening - Academic writing - Academic
& Speaking & Speaking 1 writing 2
Entry > = 35 > = 61
Completing
score < 35 Completing Completing
AE1
range IE 1 IE 2
Intensive English Academic English
Intensive English (IE) focusing on TOEFL iBT test-taking strategies. The IE

Program, including IE1 and IE2, equips students with the English competence to pursue
their majors taught entirely in English. The program also includes the English for Specific
Purposes (ESP) to facilitate students’ learning in their major programs. Academic English
(AE) focuses on academic study skills. The AE Program, including AE1 and AE2, is
for students who have completed IE2. This program provides comprehensive instruction
and practice in academic writing (essays and thesis development), listening and note-
taking, and presentations. The application of the language programs at IU (Table 6) and
the survey from the evaluation at individual level and institutional level has proved that
the successful implementation of EMI at IU.
For the second research question: “Do lecturers receive enough training and
professional development to help them in teaching their content subjects through
EMI?”, the survey data from the evaluation showed in Table 3 that the scores to evaluate
lecturers ranged from 4.19 to 4.44 at the individual level and maintained 4.32 at the
institutional level. Moreover, IU has established a writing center modelled after that
in the US universities, where students and lecturers (who have the need to have their
papers revised before submitting them to journals for publication). The writing center
provides the revision to research papers (lectures’ articles and students’ graduation theses
at undergraduate and graduate levels) regarding research format and language use. The
main function of the writing center is to support IU students who want to improve their
English writing skills. Students meet one-on-one with the tutors on a weekly basis at the
students’ convenience and receive feedback on writing issues that need improvement.
For the third question: “What are the beliefs of lecturers and students to EMI?”, The
data from the report of the Office of Research and Development can be seen in Tables 4A
and 4B, where 679 students’ graduation theses were assessed as excellent (0.15), very good
(13.25%), good (58.76), fair (2.95), and above average (24.89%) in 2016; and 612 students’
graduation theses were assessed as excellent (0.49%), very good (20.92%), good (15.52%),
fair (38.56%) and above average (24.51%) in 2017. The beliefs of lecturers and students
to EMI were also consolidated with the positive results presented in Tables 5A and 5B,
where the average percentage of publication per lecturer at IU ranged from 1.5 to 1.7 for the
years 2008 to 2017. There has been an increasing pressure on individuals to publish their
works from IU perspective to increase the number of publications to attract more students
to come to the university. At IU, research papers published in international journals (in
ISI or Scopus) are important to illustrate the nature of research being undertaken and the
development of a particular field or area of expertise. This usually brings prestige to the
university. Publication is also of great importance to individuals for career advancement.
In order to write papers, both the knowledge of lecturers’ subjects and the ability of using
English to write are required, thus consolidating the application of EMI.
In other words, the development of EMI courses and programs at IU is successful

due to the following issues that have been taken in consideration.
1. EMI is somehow a good thing which has been implemented as widely as possible
at IU, with consideration for the situation on the ground regarding key issues such as the
relative language proficiency of lecturers and students, the availability of adequate and
appropriate materials and the overall feasibility of the policies being implemented with
stakeholders consulted about the top-down policies.
2. In many cases, it is clear that lecturers and students do not have the levels of
proficiency in English to teach and learn content subjects in English. However, the
appropriate application of EMI can lead to the successful implementation of a teaching
method as lecturers and students alike have the good background knowledge when
students enter the university through IU CAT.
3. The lecturers who have received any training/professional development can prepare
themselves for teaching their content subjects through English though it takes time to
have a systematic training or development of staff to combine language proficiency and
content knowledge offered. In this case, IU is a typical example.
The application of EMI at IU has limited the use of mother tongue and put English
in place. However, to be good at English does not mean “to be English” (Pillai, 2018). IU
policy recognizes and encourages the use of the linguistic resources of both lecturers and
students in teaching and learning disciplinary knowledge through English as a medium
of instruction.
6. CONCLUSION
The increase in EMI courses and programs is inevitable but the implementation of
these courses and programs still needs to be done if the EMI policies are to be carried
out successfully. Language education policies need to be developed at the national level
as IU was established according to the Prime Minister’s decision. These policies need
to be coherent and consistent at three levels: macro-, meso-, and micro- that involve the
university itself and stakeholders in language development. The issue is that how it can
be sure that the levels of English proficiency of both lecturers and students are qualified
enough to be able to handle the teaching and learning of content subjects through EMI.
If lecturers and students can use their linguistic resources in teaching and learning tasks
through EMI, the use of native languages other than English is less in order to help
students learn more knowledge through English in a similarly native environment or help
to prepare them for any possible future study abroad as in the case of IU. Therefore, it can
be ensured that if teaching staff and students receive adequate training and development
both in English itself and disciplinary knowledge, the teaching of content subjects
through English will be very successful. However, the interference of mother tongue still
sometimes happens. This does not mean that “Englishisation” will be the target, but the
use of English as an academic lingua franca is well received. It is essential that the use
of English as a lingua franca is acknowledged and supported in all settings. It is hopeful
that future research will deal with the issue that the implementation of EMI which can be
successful from the macro-level to micro-level will lead to “Englishisation”.
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14. www.hcmiu.edu.vn/language/en-US/Dai-hoc-Quoc-te-International-University
LEARNING TO SEE IN COMPLEX DOMAINS: UNDERSTANDINGS AND HABITS
FOR PRODUCTIVE ENGAGEMENT WITH VISUAL TEXTS
Nguyễn Thanh Hà1
Abstract: English language teaching often makes use of visual images to either decorate
the text and stimulate interest, explain or clarify the written or spoken words and aid
comprehension, or as prompts to elicit language use. In all of these uses, visual images
have a subservient role to words and are positioned in a straightforward, unproblematic
relationship with words. However, images are rich, complex texts with much unacknowledged
power and potential. Many authentic materials, including advertisements, cartoons, graphic
novels, illustrated books and articles, make use of such power and potential to create
impact. In addition, knowledge visualization comes with questions about representation and
interpretation. Therefore, in courses where English is the medium of instruction to study
complex contents such as culture, communication, or history, learning to see becomes an
essential capacity for effective, aware and generous learners. Drawing on insights from
cultural studies and illustration studies, this paper outlines some possible ways to see the
relationships between words and images, and then demonstrates some uses of images in
teaching and learning in the context of English as the language of instruction.
Keywords: visuality, complexity, word-image relationship, English as medium of instruction
(EMI), knowledge representation
“A picture is worth a thousand words”

- Proverb
“A word is worth a thousand pictures”2
“Provide some example or visual aids to help us visualize the terms better”
“More visual aids for better understanding”
“I wish that teacher will add more visual aids during the lecture because I’m kind of
person who is better at remembering images than letters.”
1
Lecturer; Division of Literature and Intercultural Communication; Faculty of Linguistics and Cultures of
English Speaking Countries, ULIS, VNUH
2
This quote is sometimes attributed to Elie Weisel. However, as it is a straightforward reconfiguration of the
popular original proverb, it’s probably fair to acknowledge that others have independently come up with it.
LEARNING TO SEE IN COMPLEX DOMAINS: UNDERSTANDINGS AND HABITS FOR PRODUCTIVE ENGAGEMENT... 91
“The teacher should add more pictures to the slides instead of using words only.”
My Vietnamese undergraduate students wrote the comments above in their midterm
reflections on their experience with the course Intercultural Communication we were
having. Majoring in English Language Teacher Education, they have spent many years
learning English in order to pass the university entrance exam and then a majority of their
undergraduate curriculum further practicing their English skills and taking courses on
English language teaching. Intercultural Communication is among a few courses that use
English as the medium of instruction to teach contents not directly related to teaching.
The course has a reputation of being difficult because it involves a number of abstract and
complex concepts (such as culture, identity, ethics) and theories (such as those regarding
identity development, relationship, and cultural adaptation). In their reflections, most
students mentioned having difficulty with abstract concepts and, as quoted above, quite a
few expressed a desire for “visual aids”, which they believed will help them understand
these terms better. While I sympathize with their struggles, I realize their comments point
to two common assumptions about visual images and words: that images are easier to
understand than words, and that there is a straightforward, uncomplicated, equivalent
relationship between words, images and understanding1. These comments also point to
the power of visual images: they’re engaging and compelling.
In this paper I aim to consider the use of images in English teaching, then review some
possible relationships between seeing and knowing, and, finally, offer some suggestions
regarding learning to see. Scholarship dealing with visual materials has been such an
incredibly rich and vibrant area in numerous disciplines that in order to speak and write
intelligently about it I will have to devote at least my whole career. Therefore, rather than
providing a comprehensive overview, my goals are modest: to look carefully at a few
interesting instances of image use in order to inspire myself, and maybe my colleagues
and students, to participate more thoughtfully in this challenging, necessary process of
learning new tools and new insights about the complexity of the social, visual world. The
three types of relationship discussed here do not cover all the possibilities but serve as
departure points for thinking.
1. VISUAL AIDS IN A VISUAL WORLD

Visual materials, including real objects, drawings, photographs, diagrams and charts are
common in the English classroom. Doff (1988), for example, emphasizes that “visuals can be
used at any stage of the lesson” (p. 80), to introduce new language or a topic, to practice, or to
review; visuals could help keep students’ attention and get them to focus on meaning.
1
Both of these assumptions have been questioned thoroughly by scholars in visual and cultural
studies, among others.
In my observation, visual aids in the language classroom are often used in three
main ways: to decorate the text and stimulate interest; to explain or clarify the written or
spoken words and aid comprehension; and as prompts to elicit language use. In all of these
uses, visual images have a subservient role to words and are positioned in a relatively
straightforward, unproblematic relationship with words. To teach the word “dog”, for
example, a teacher may use a drawing or a photograph of a dog; the word “run”, an image
of someone running.
It may be important to note that in many cases, a certain degree of socialization
and contextual clues are needed for a learner to understand that this image is supposed
to correspond to one idea and not another. Abstract concepts and adjectives often prove
very difficult to illustrate. In general, however, visuals are there to make things easier, to
assist. In addition, since the goal is to study language, the image is often not looked at
very carefully.
The visual turn in literacy research and cultural studies and other fields has
complicated the way we think about literacy and images. As Fendler (2017) emphasizes
“Images require their own special frameworks and strategies of perception and analysis.
If we read images with the same literacy skills as we use to read words, we will not be
able to see what images are and what they do” (p. 751). In the next part of this paper, I
will describe three cases where images present interesting, complex issues that demand
specific strategies for perception and analysis.
2. WHEN SEEING IS KNOWING, THE CASE OF SCIENTIFIC ILLUSTRATION

In our learning, reading, and viewing experience we have all encountered scientific
illustration. Images from biology or physics textbooks may come to your mind. In
scientific illustration, seeing is knowing. An illustration of a fish or a plant tells us what
it looks like on the outside. Anatomic illustrations reveal to us what things look like from
the inside. Diagrams and charts simplify for us what happens over a long time or across
a wide distance. In the early days, many scientists were also artists who could capture the
natural world in vivid details. That practice has become less dominant with the advance
of photography (Rose, 2016) as the camera is able to capture reality objectively as it is
and at a faster speed.
It is important to note that even in this straightforward relationship between seeing
and knowing, certain understandings of conventions are necessary, including artistic
conventions (such as linear perspective) and domain-specific conventions. One example
is the principle of maximizing information. Following it, an illustration of a plant may
show that it has both flower, green fruit and ripe fruits. In reality, it may never happen, but
we don’t see that image as deceiving; we see it as informative.
Another kind of convention in illustration the use of line work that clearly outlines
the boundary of objects. According to Miller (1978, as cited in Mishra, 1999), anatomical
illustrations that use bold graphic outline and even a special color for organs may give the
false impression that organs in the chest are easily distinguishable.
The unsuspecting student plunges into the laboratory carcass expecting to find these
neat arrangements repeated in nature, and the blurred confusion which he actually meets
often produces a sense of despair. The heart is not so clearly distinguished from its vessels
as the textbook implies, and at first sight, the vessels are practically indistinguishable
from one another. (p. 177)
As we can see, in this mode of presentation, images are functional and trustworthy,
even though they may be imperfect. Knowledge and image exist in an equal relationship.
3. WHEN SEEING MAY PREVENT KNOWING, THE CASE OF ADVERTISING AND MEDIA LITERACY
In 2014, the lingerie company Victoria’s Secret promoted its new product, a bra
called Body, with an online and in-store advertisement that juxtaposed the line “The
perfect “body”” with images of a line-up of young, tall, slim, conventionally beautiful
supermodels wearing the product.
The advertisement swiftly sparked outrage, including a change org petition requesting
the company to apologize and change the “irresponsible”, “unhealthy” and “unrealistic”
marketing (Black, Kountourides & Ferris, 2014., para. 1-2). The petition gathered almost
33,000 signatures before it was closed as the online advertisement retracted. Victoria’s
Secret changed the words into “A body for everybody” and put it back online but made
no public apology (Bahadur, 2017). Critics found the change encouraging but less than
perfect because the visual in the advertisement still features a narrow and unrealistic
standard of beauty. Gabriella Kountourides, one of the founders of the petition, was
quoted saying “The advert is kind of ironic because it says for ‘every body’ and yet it’s
just one kind of body. We would love to see them incorporate more girls and bodies,
and have everyone there” (Sanghani, 2014). Some other companies have responded with
just that, including fashion retailer JD Williams (Lynch, 2014) and American underwear
brand Dear Kate (Sanghani, 2014), with advertisements that feature women of diverse
races, shapes, and sizes.
Arguments put forward by Black, Kountourides and Ferris (2014) are familiar to
those interested in media literacy in general, and the impact of advertising in particular.
They wrote in their petition:
Every day women are bombarded with advertisements aimed at making them feel
insecure about their bodies, in the hope that they will spend money on products that will
supposedly make them happier and more beautiful.
All this does is perpetuate low self-esteem among women who are made to feel that
their bodies are inadequate and unattractive because they do not fit into a narrow standard
of beauty. It contributes to a culture that encourages serious health problems such as
negative body image and eating disorders. (para 1-2)
In this perspective, images are seen with cynicism. While acknowledging that
images are compelling, proponents of this view warn us that images can be deceitful and
manipulative. In fact, the thoroughly constructed world of media could even prevent true
knowledge of what is really going on in real life. At one level, everything on the screen
has been made to appear a certain way and not everyone can find themselves represented.
On the other hand, advertising often constructs certain narratives in which their products
are the solution to human problem and unhappiness. Even when we know that these
images are artificial, we may still be affected by them. Critical engagement and activism
in this vein, therefore, ask us to be analytical and knowledgeable. As we look at images,
we also need to ask who is making it, for what purpose, with what techniques and so on.
4. WHEN SEEING IS DISCONNECTED FROM KNOWING, THE CASE OF POSTMODERN MEDIA

On June 12, 2018, photographer John Moore took a picture of a 2-year-old Hoduran
girl as she and her mother were stopped by U.S. Border Patrol after crossing the U.S. –
Mexico border. In the picture, the girl in a bright red sweater and red shoes was crying in
the dark, looking up at what seemed to be her mother being searched by a Border Patrol
agent. The adults stood tall over her out of frame. The emotional picture quickly became
viral and the face of the new Zero Tolerance policy by the Trump administration. It was
used as the cover photo for a Facebook campaign that fundraised over 20 millions USD
for legal fees to reunite immigrant children separated from their parents at the border. For
its July 2018 cover, Time pulled the crying girl out of the original photo and set her face-
to-face with a looming president Trump with the text saying “Welcome to America”. In
its cover reveal tweet, Time introduced it as “A reckoning after Trump’s border separation
policy: What kind of country are we?” (Time, 2018).
One complication was that the girl was not ultimately separated from her mother as
confirmed by her father and a Border Patrol agent (Dwyer, 2018). Many, including press
secretary Sarah Sanders, have used this as an example of bias against Trump’s policy.
In its correction to a story containing the image, Time confirmed that the two were not
separated but taken away together. However, Edward Felsenthal, Time’s editor-in-chief
stood by the decision to use the image on the magazine’s cover, explaining:
The June 12 photograph of the 2-year-old Honduran girl became the most visible
symbol of the ongoing immigration debate in America for a reason: Under the policy
enforced by the administration, prior to its reversal this week, those who crossed the
border illegally were criminally prosecuted, which in turn resulted in the separation of
children and parents. Our cover and our reporting capture the stakes of this moment. (as
cited in Dwyer, 2018, para. 18)
In the usual paradigm where factual accuracy is valued above anything else, the
decision above by Felsenthal could seem problematic. However, this case speaks to another
reality of the post-modern media where images circulate, get adapted, changed, remixed
and gain a life of their own. The actual truthfulness of its content become separated from
its use; the face value of an image becomes its meaning, and the relationship between
seeing and knowledge becomes uncertain and unstable.
5. A CRITICAL APPROACH TO LOOKING AT IMAGE

In this section, I rely heavily on Gillian Rose’s (2001, 2016) Visual Methodologies:
An Introduction to Researching with Visual Materials. She summarizes her critical
approach to visual images as one that “thinks about the agency of the image, considers the
social practices and effects of its circulation and viewing, and reflects on the specificity
of that viewing by various audiences, including the academic critic” (2016, p. 22). She
emphasizes that engaging with images does not necessarily mean discovering its truth
but engaging in a process of informed interpretation. In addition, while methods are
helpful, “the most exciting, startling and perceptive critics of visual images don’t in the
end depend entirely on a sound methodology” but they also “depend on the pleasure,
thrills, fascination, wonder, fear or revulsion of the person looking at the images and then
writing about them. Successful interpretation depends on a passionate engagement with
what you see” (2001, p. 4).
In her model, there are four different sites where meanings are made, including
production, the image itself, circulation, and audiencing. In each of these four sites, there
are three aspects to consider, including technology (any tools or apparatuses that are used
to create, transmit, circulate or view images), composition (the specific qualities of an
image), and the social (a range of relationships, institutions and practices connected to an
image). Where these sites and aspects intersect are specific questions that could guide our
interaction with an image. For example, if we are interested in the image itself, we could
consider its visual effects, its composition and its meanings. If the focus is on audiencing,
it is helpful to ask how and where the image is shown, in what relation with other texts
in time or in space, and how it is interpreted differently by whom and for what reasons.
Although Rose’s suggestions focus on research, the same ideas could be beneficial for
those of us who interact with complex images when learning and teaching complex contents.
REFERENCES
1. Bahadur, N. (2017, December 6). Victoria’s Secret “perfect body” campaign changes slogan
after backlash. Huffington Post. Retrieved from https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/11/06/
victorias-secret-perfect-body-campaign_n_6115728.html
2. Black, F., Kountourides, G., & Ferris, L. (n.d.). Apologise for, and amend the irresponsible
marketing of your new bra range “Body.” Retrieved October 14, 2018, from https://
www.change.org/p/victoriassecret-apologise-for-your-damaging-perfect-body-campaign-
iamperfect
3. Doff, A. (1988). Teach English trainer’s handbook: A training course for teachers. Cambridge
University Press.
4. Dwyer, C. (2018, June 22). Crying toddler on widely shared “Time” cover was not separated
from mother. NPR. Retrieved from https://www.npr.org/2018/06/22/622611182/crying-
toddler-on-widely-shared-time-cover-was-not-separated-from-mother
5. Fendler, L. (2017). Apertures of documentation: reading images in educational history.
Paedagogica Historica, 53(6), 751–762.
6. Lynch, A. (2014, November 3). JD Williams responds to Victoria’s Secret’s “perfect body”
ads. Metro. Retrieved from https://metro.co.uk/2014/11/03/plus-size-clothing-brand-jd-
williams-hits-back-at-victorias-secrets-perfect-body-ad-campaign-4932617/
7. Mishra, P. (1999). The role of abstraction in scientific illustration: Implications for
pedagogy. Journal of visual literacy 19(2), 139-158.
8. Rose, G. (2001). Visual methodologies: An introduction to the interpretation of visual
materials. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications Inc.
9. Rose, G. (2016). Visual methodologies: An introduction to researching with visual materials.
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications Inc.
10. Sanghani, R. (2014, November 6). Victoria’s Secret changes “perfect body” ads after internet
outrage. Retrieved from https://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/womens-life/11213078/
Victorias-Secret-lingerie-advert-changed-from-perfect-body-after-internet-storm.html
11. Time. (2018, June 21). TIME’s new cover: A reckoning after Trump’s border separation
policy: What kind of country are we? https://ti.me/2JVINI1 [Tweet]. Retrieved from https://
twitter.com/TIME/status/1009764707346075649
ENGLISH FOR TEACHING:
THE CASES OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS IN VIETNAM
Vũ Hải Hà 1
Abstract: While much has been explored in the realm of ESP (English for specific purposes),
little has been discussed about ESP in the field of teaching in general, and English language
teaching in particular. As for the latter, it has been often assumed that competence in general
English (GE) also ensures competence in classroom English; hence, teacher training in
Vietnam has laid too much emphasis on GE at the cost of overlooking the other. Reporting
and comparing the quantitative and qualitative data from the two case studies in Vietnam
(n1=488, n2=113), this paper argues otherwise. In light of the communicative competence
framework, it suggests that many school teachers of English were indeed struggling with
classroom communication in terms of discourse, linguistic, sociolinguistic and strategic
competence. Therefore, this paper calls for ETP, or English for teaching purposes, to be
attended to in teacher training in Vietnam.
Keywords: English Teaching, English language teachers, Vietnam.
1. INTRODUCTION
The emergence of English for specific purposes (ESP) could be traced back to the
1960s with the mounting criticisms of general English language teaching regardless of
learners’ practical concerns (J. C. Richards, 2002, p. 28). Predicated on the practical
command (as opposed to the academic mastery) of English, ESP is characterized by the
considerations of learners’ needs. Therefore, its approaches to English language teaching
have underlined the preparation for learners to complete a specific task or set of tasks they
are supposed to implement in real life. Since then, ESP has been a major trend in English
language teaching with a wide range of courses catering for the needs of learners pursuing
different professions and career tracks.
From the discussion above, it follows that ESP in the field of teaching in general
and English language teaching in particular refers to the ability to use English to teach
school subjects, including English itself. Indeed, much has been debated about the use
of English (L2) to teach English as a foreign/second language (EFL/ESL), especially
1
University of Languages and International studies, VNU.
Email: havh@vnu.edu.vn.
in its contestation to the use of mother tongue (L1). Canagarajah (2003, pp. 127-143)
provided a useful review of conflicting views regarding the use of L2 as the medium of
instruction in the EFL/ESL classroom. Early SLA perspectives, such as the contrastive
linguistic hypothesis, structuralist linguistics and behaviorist psychology, consider L1 as
tainting the acquisition of L2 and hence endorsed the use of L2 only in the classroom.
The interlanguage model in the 1970s foregrounded the agency and autonomy of learners
in the L2 acquisition process for the first time, yet considered L1 as the culprit of many
fossilized errors in L2. Nowadays, it has been more widely accepted that L1 can also
promote the acquisition of L2 by reducing the degree of language stress and culture
shock, and the transfer of cognitive/academic and literacy-related skills across languages.
L1 and L2 interactions are no longer substitutionary (in which L2 takes over the place
of L1) or parallelistic (whereby L2 is a separate code). Quite the opposite, L1 is seen
as “a pedagogical resource” for students to negotiate their textbooks and materials, for
teachers to manage the classroom, shift between role relationships and genres of talk,
give elaborate instructions. The use of L1 is deemed “spontaneous and unconscious”,
sometimes “compulsory” and “healthy developments that counteract the colonial and
alien associations English holds in many periphery communities” (ibid., p.130-136).
This paper does not contest the use of L1 in the classroom, but argues that L2 plays
a significant part in the English language classrooms in Vietnam. In a country where
English remains a foreign language (Phan, Vu, & Dat, 2014), rarely do the students have
the chance to communicate in English outside the classroom (Le, 2012). Therefore, the
English employed by the teachers in classroom communications not only adds to the
exposure but also becomes a source of authentic and active interaction and negotiation of
meanings. This is even of greater significance in an educational context where teachers are
revered as role models, and communicative language teaching is promoted for a stronger
emphasis on communication in English (Phan, 2009).
Along this line of argument, this paper raises the more technical question of whether
the teachers are capable of using L2/English to communicate in their English language
classroom. In other words, the main concern of this paper is not whether they should,
but whether they could teach English using English or not. Reporting and comparing
the results from two case studies, the paper calls for the need to develop ESP in English
language teaching, or English for (English language) teaching purposes.
English for the specific purpose of teaching has been foregrounded by Hughes,
Moate and Raatikainen (2007) under the name of “classroom English”, which they
define as vital expressions and structures for a teacher to properly conduct his or her
teaching practices in the language itself. From a functional perspective, this language
ENGLISH FOR TEACHING: THE CASES OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS IN VIETNAM 99
repertoire could be specified into English for classroom management, lesson progression,
instruction giving and so on (Table 1). Similarly, Cengage Learning and ETS (Freeman,
Katz, Drean, Burns, & Hauck, 2012) classifies these expressions and structures into the
broad categories of English for classroom management; English to conduct a lesson;
and English to give assessment and feedback. These classifications are summarized and
juxtaposed to foreground certain correspondence in Table 1.
Table 1. Specifications of English for teaching
Cengage Learning and ETS

Hughes et al. (Hughes et al., 2007)
(Freeman et al., 2012)
1. Classroom management 1.1. Managing the physical environment
1.2. Managing the learning environment
1.3. Managing creative classroom activities
2. Lesson conduct 1.1. Progressing through the lesson
1.2. Giving instructions
1.3. Using classroom resources
1.4. Teaching listening, speaking and pronunciation
1.5. Teaching reading, writing, vocabulary and grammar
3. Assessment and feedback 1.1. Giving oral feedback
1.2. Giving written feedback
However, what is missing in the specifications above is this language repertoire does
not necessarily ensure successful classroom communication in English. In other words,
knowing these expressions and structures does not necessarily entail the ability to use
them effectively for teaching purposes. Therefore, this paper embraces a more complex
understanding of English language for teaching purposes, in which the teachers must go
beyond knowing the expressions and structures to actually use them for communicative
purposes. This necessarily foregrounds a communicative approach to ESP, also a
widely-endorsed approach in English language learning and teaching in Vietnam to
date (Chowdhury & Phan, 2008; Kieu, 2010; Le, 2012; Nhan & Lai, 2012). In this
approach, the main purpose of English language learning is to develop communicative
competence which includes linguistic competence (i.e., grammar knowledge and lexical
knowledge), discourse competence (i.e., textual knowledge); sociolinguistic competence
(i.e., sociocultural knowledge); and strategic competence (i.e., metacognitive strategies)
(Canale, 1983). As for the topic under study, these competences could be further elaborated
and characterized as in Table 2.
Table 2. Communicative competence in EGP and ETP
Communicative What it means in EGP What it means for ETP (English for teaching
competence (English for general purposes) purposes)
linguistic grammar knowledge and lexical the accuracy and the range of grammar, lexical and
competence knowledge of English pronunciation features and resources demonstrated
by the teachers in their classroom communication
discourse textual knowledge the ways teachers select, sequence, arrange words,
competence structures, sentences and utterances in their
classroom communication
sociolinguistic sociocultural knowledge teachers’ sociocultural knowledge as manifested in
competence their classroom communication
strategic metacognitive strategies the coping strategies employed by teachers to repair
competence breakdown in communication in the classroom
The needs for ETP in general and for developing different communicative
competences in classroom English in particular have also been highlighted by Richards
(2010), who proposes 12 indicators of what a teacher should know and be able to do
in an English language classroom. Among them, he underlines the abilities to maintain
use of the target language in the classroom, give explanations and instructions in the
target language, and use appropriate classroom language. As these abilities correspond
well the competences characterized in Table 2 above, it suggests that ETP should not be
reduced to the memorization of classroom expressions and structures, but the competence
in using these expressions and structures appropriately in terms of language, discourse,
sociolinguistic contexts and communicative strategies.
In Vietnam, there have bene a few studies and limited attention to developing ETP.
Most recently, the National Foreign Language Project 2020, a nationwide project with
significant and far-reaching impacts on English language learning and teaching in Vietnam,
has radically transformed English language teacher education and training throughout the
country. A range of influential policies and diverse training courses have been provided to
improve the language competence of English language teachers nationwide; nevertheless,
the project has laid more emphasis on the development of general English language
proficiency rather than ETP. While it mandates that English language teachers at primary
and lower-secondary schools are expected to achieve Level 4 on the Foreign Language
Competence Framework for Vietnam (equivalent to CEFR B2); and English language
teachers at upper-secondary schools to achieve Level 5 on the framework (equivalent
to CEFR C1), there is little mention of the teachers’ competence of English language in
the classroom. It raises the critical question of whether the former has been assumed to
encompass the latter, and whether ETP has been properly identified as vital competence to
develop in teacher training in Vietnam or not. In other words, it is unclear if teachers who
are qualified in terms of EGP are able to use ETP effectively in their classrooms. This is
an enquiry this paper aims to address by reporting the two case studies below.
3. METHODS
This paper is not a primary research, but reports data collected from two case studies
conducted in 2014 and 2017 on the same topic of classroom English competence of
English language school teachers in Vietnam.
In the 2014 study, Vu (2014) studied 488 school teachers from different educational
levels and provinces representing different socio-economic areas in Northern Vietnam
(Table 3). The sampling was convenient (Dörnyei & Taguchi, 2010), whereby the teachers
were asked to translate common classroom expressions and structures from Vietnamese
into English. These expressions and structures were selected on the basis of different
classroom functions they represent (See Table 4). The data was mainly quantitative and
analyzed according to the different types of linguistic mistakes, principally lexical and
grammatical ones.
Table 3. Participants in the 2014 study
Level
Primary
Lower-secondary Upper-secondary Total
Hanoi 78 98 91 267
Thai Binh 31 18 37 86
Province
Tuyen Quang 17 16 11 44
Dien Bien 28 35 28 91
Total 154 167 167 488
Table 4. Questionnaire items in the 2014 study
Corresponding
Question item
Possible equivalents in English classroom functions
(to translate into English)
(cf. Table 1)
1. Ta điểm danh nhé. I’ll just check who’s here. 2.1.
I have to take/check attendance.
I’ll mark/take/check the register.
I’m going to call your names/the roll.
2. Lan, em có thể ngồi dịch vào Can you make enough room for Nga to 1.1.
cho Nga ngồi cùng với không? sit here too?
3. Bây giờ hãy làm việc trong Now get into groups. Three students in/to 1.2.
nhóm 03 người. each group.
Now I’d like you to work in three.
Now could you work/get into/make/form
groups of three?
4. Trong trò chơi này, đội nào In this game, the first team with/to score 1.3.
ghi 10 điểm trước sẽ thắng. ten points wins.
5. Đừng nói to đáp án mà hãy Please don’t shout out. Put your hand up/ 2.5.
giơ tay nếu em biết. raise your hand if you know the answer.
6. Tuấn, phát phiếu bài tập này Tuan, (can you) pass these handouts 2.3
cho các bạn cho cô. to the class/ pass … round… / pass …
along/ take one and pass the rest on for
me (?)
7. Hãy cất sách đi và lấy một tờ Put away your book and … 2.2.
giấy trắng ra. … Take/get out a piece of paper/a blank
sheet/A piece of paper out.
8. Câu đó chưa đúng lắm. Có ai That wasn’t quite right/ was almost right. 3.
biết lỗi ở đâu không? You made a small mistake/a little slip on
this. Just a minor mistake/error.
Did anyone notice the mistake? What’s
wrong with this sentence? Is there
anything to correct/that needs correcting?
9. Còn ai muốn bổ sung ý mà Have you got anything to add (to what 2.4.
Thành nói không? Thanh said)?/ Any other contribution to
what Thanh said?
10. Đừng lẫn hai từ này với Don’t get these two words confused/ 2.4.
nhau. Hãy nghe cô phát âm này. muddled/mixed up.
Listen to/pay attention to my
pronunciation.
11. Hãy chép những câu trên Copy/write down these sentences on the 2.5.
bảng vào vở. blackboard.
In the 2017 study (Vu, 2017), the methods of data collection and analysis were
quite the opposite. Although the scope of this study was much smaller by focusing
on a province in the North of Vietnam, it explored the data in depth by videotaping
113 teachers during their teaching practices. To be specific, these teachers were
recorded during their micro-teaching sessions in a EFL teaching methodology course.
Nonetheless, the sampling managed to involve teachers from different socio-economic
areas as Table 5 manifests.
Table 5. Participants in the 2015 study
City Rural Remote/ Mountainous

Primary (n=31) 11 17 3
Lower-secondary (n=43) 19 18 6
Upper-secondary (n=39) 14 20 5
The qualitative data were then transcribed and analysed thematically (Boyatzis, 1998)
according to different aspects of communicative competence, as opposed to linguistic
competence only as in the 2014 study. The methodological differences between the two
studies are summarized in Table 6 below.
Table 6. Research methods of the two case studies
2014 study 2017 study

Site & scope 488 teachers from 04 provinces 113 teachers from 01 province
Data collection Questionnaire Classroom observation
Data analysis Quantitative data analysis Qualitative data analysis
Targeted competence & Linguistic competence Linguistic competence, discourse
Themes competence, sociolinguistic competence
& strategic competence
4. MAIN FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
As the elaborations on each study have been provided elsewhere (see Vu, 2014; Vu, 2017),
the following discussion would compare and underline the similar and different themes
in the findings of two studies above.
4.1. Problems with the linguistic competence of classroom English
Analysis of the data in the 2014 study (Table 7) reveals that below a quarter of
the surveyed teachers could provide proper translations of common expressions and
structures in the classroom, and around half of them failed to express certain ideas (e.g.
utterance #2 & #12). A closer investigation reveals that on a scale of 1-10 where these
utterances were marked independently yet consistently by different raters, the highest
score by a participant was 8.8 (equivalent to 11.5/13 correct answers); and lowest being
0.0 (equivalent to no correct answer at all). The average score (n=488) was 3.4 (equivalent
to 4.5/13 correct answers).
Table 7. Main findings of the 2014’s study
Utterance Correct (%) No answer(%)

25,8 24,2
10,5 41,6
4,9 23,7
9,6 16,6
22,5 10,2
11,3 20,7
19,3 20,3
13,7 19,7
10,9 32,6
13,1 32,4
19,3 9,4
4,1 45,5
25,2 12,3
When the scores of these teachers of different levels of education were compared
using Kruskal-Wallis Test and Mann-Whitney Test, no difference of statistical significance
was found (Figure 1). Given the fact that school teachers at different levels of education
also have different levels of EGP competence, they seem to have little correlation with
their competences in ETP. In other words, regardless of their varying EGP competences,
the teachers might all as well struggle with their English in the classroom.
Primary Lower-secondary Upper-secondary

Figure 1. The participants’ scores at different teaching levels (2014 study)
The 2017 study provided further insight into the kinds of linguistic mistakes a teacher
often made in the classroom. As can be seen from Table 8, each teacher made around
47 mistakes on average during his or her 15-to-30-minute microteaching session. The
most common types of mistakes were pronunciation (mp=32.8), followed by grammar
(mg=12.6) and vocabulary (mv=5.8).
Table 8. Types and frequencies of linguistic mistakes (2017’s study)
Grammar Vocabulary Pronunciation Total

N 1432 655 3,706 5,341
Average (n/113) 12.6 5.8 32.8 47.2
In terms of pronunciation, the omission of word stress, the mispronunciation of

consonant sounds (especially stops (/p/, /k/, /t/), fricatives (/s/ /ʃ/) and affricates (/tʃ/, /dʒ/)
were most common. As with the case of Vietnamese people in general, these pronunciation
mistakes could be attributed to the transfer from L1 to L2, where the teacher tended to
assimilate pronunciation features in Vietnamese to those in English (Vu, 2017).
As for grammar, the most common mistakes involved subject-verb agreement and
missing plurals, which could also be attributed to the L1-L2 transfer as these grammar
features are marked in English yet remain unmarked in Vietnamese. This transfer became
even more noteworthy as 96% of the pronunciation and grammar mistakes made by the
respondents (Table 8) were likely to be associated with it.
Regarding lexical mistakes, they were most rampant when the teachers were
organizing creative classroom activities or progressing through different parts of the
lesson (cf. Table 1). As for assessment and feedback, fewer problems with accuracy were
recorded, but the range of vocabulary seemed particularly limited as they rarely went
beyond generic terms such as “Good”, “Very well” and “Excellent”.
4.2. Other competences of classroom English

While the 2014 study did not provide data on other competences in the communicative
approach to classroom English, plenty of insights were offered in the 2017 study.
Discourse competence: Examining the ways teachers selected, sequenced, arranged
words, structures, sentences and utterances, the 2017 study noted that most teachers
actively employed linking devices for the cohesion of their communication in English.
On the other hand, few teachers paid attention to the larger discourses beyond the single
classroom activity and largely relied on the textbooks for structuring the lesson. Their
rigid and inflexible use of the textbooks suggests that a powerful discourse-as-power-
relations (Canagarajah, 2003) had developed in the classroom beyond the discourse-as-
text. In other words, the textbooks largely predetermined the ways teachers could select,
sequence, arrange activities and even what they could say during the lesson.
Sociolinguistic competence: While the language and register deemed appropriate
for a formal classroom context were aptly used by most of the teachers observed, three
sociolinguistic issues with their classroom English competences could be identified. First,
there was an overemphasis on formal language at the cost of more informal one in daily
communication in the classroom. This overuse of formal expressions might interfere with
creating a more active, casual and friendly atmosphere in the classroom. Second, the
complexity of language was questionable for specific groups of learners, especially when
many teachers tended to use to complex than their students’ levels. Finally, the talking
time of many teachers were often so long that it did not only take up the talking time of
students, but also limited meaningful and active interactions in the classroom.
Strategic competence: As recorded in the observations, the most common teacher’s
technique when breakdowns in communication occurred was to switch back to Vietnamese,
especially when giving explicit language instruction of language, or the checking of
students’ comprehension. While code-switching was a convenient way-out, it reveals
their lack of variety in the techniques for correcting communication breakdown. Instead
of interacting with classroom resources or with the students meaningfully to negotiate
meaning, improve comprehension and motivate their students to use the target language
authentically, these teachers conveniently resorted to L1. By so doing, they precluded
many opportunities for the students as well as for themselves to communicate in the target
language and hence, did little to improve communicative competence of both parties.
5. CONCLUSION
The two case studies conducted in 2014 and 2017 revolved around the same topic of
classroom English competence of English school teachers in Vietnam, yet with different
scopes, sizes and approaches to data collection and analysis. While the former focused on
the data in breadth, the latter provides in-depth analysis on the problems the teachers had
when using English to teach English itself. In both studies, weaknesses were identified in
terms of linguistic competence, whereby the teachers had difficulty with pronunciation,
grammar and lexical resources when communicating in the language they are teaching.
The 2017 study went on to elaborate on other competences, in which there were both
strengths and weaknesses. Overall, the teachers struggled with the discourse competence
in the larger discourse of planning and structuring their lessons in a meaningful way.
They also used language in certain fashions that might not be socioculturally appropriate.
Finally, there was a lack of diversity in their techniques for dealing with communication
breakdown; hence, resorting the L1 become an easy avoidance of, rather than solution to,
their struggle with L2.
These findings strongly suggest that despite their levels of EGP competence, which
were supposed to be around B2-C1 on the CEFR, the teachers had significant difficulties
with their English in the classroom. Therefore, the needs for ETP in training curriculum
becomes essential, as this provides the first and immediate needs and communication
contexts for these teachers as well as their students to deal with on a day-to-day basis.
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doi: https://doi.org/10.25073/2588-1159/vnuer.4115
USING DICTAGLOSS AS CLIL PRACTICE IN THE EFL CLASSROOM
Lê Thanh Hà
1. INTRODUCTION
Regarded as an innovative approach to language learning, Content and Language
Integrated Learning (CLIL) involves an additional language to be used for the learning
and teaching of both content and language (Mehisto et al. 2008: 9). CLIL has been proved
to lead to remarkable results in learning with social, linguistic, and cognitive benefits
for students (Pavón Vázquez and Ellison 2013). CLIL can increase learners’ skills in
problem-solving (Marsh 2007) and make considerable changes in the brain (Blakemore
and Frith 2005, in Van de Craen et al. 2007). CLIL also helps enhance the quality of
educational programmes (Baetens Beardsmore 2001, in Pavón Vázquez and Ellison
2013), motivates learners and reduce their anxiety (Arnold 2011). In terms of linguistic
competence and content-based vocabulary, as cited in Pavón Vázquez and Ellison (2013),
CLIL enables learners to improve their linguistic levels (Lasagabaster 2008) and increase
their vocabulary acquisition (Marsh 2007).
Thanks to these proven advantages, CLIL has been adopted in a large number of
European countries at primary and secondary level (Eurydice 2006). Several Asian
countries, for example, Malaysia in 2003 (Yassin et al. 2009), Indonesia in 2006 (Floris
2013), Thailand also in 2006 (Suwannoppharat and Chinokul 2015), Hong Kong in 2009
(Leung 2013), have taken measures to adopt CLIL in their national education curriculum.
In Vietnam, since the introduction of the “open door” policy and the Economic Renovation
in the late 1980s, English has become of greater importance (To 2010) and English
teaching and learning of all levels from nursery to tertiary education has received much
public attention and effort. National Foreign Languages Project under the Ministry of
Education and Training (MOET) has therefore included the implementation of CLIL in
the national formal education system (Linh 2016).
However, there still exists a large number of ‘misconceptions’ about CLIL in Vietnam
on the part of teachers themselves (Nhan 2003, in Linh 2016) while adopting CLIL in
their teaching practice. A common approach of presenting content-based vocabulary and
language form to students would be using materials mainly in course books. However,
coursebook-based materials, as a matter of fact, could be demotivating as they are not
USING DICTAGLOSS AS CLIL PRACTICE IN THE EFL CLASSROOM 109
always relevant to Vietnamese students especially in terms of topic coverage and the
contexts in which the specialized vocabulary is set. As a teacher attempting CLIL practice
into her classroom, the researcher would then supplement the materials by giving her
students more personalized examples to provide more suitable contexts for the target
content-based vocabulary and the language form of the lesson. However, as they were
often short examples, they were not effective enough for the students to develop adequate
comprehension of how the vocabulary items are put into actual use as well as the form,
meaning and use of the target language. The students then later failed to use the content
and language in their productive skills. Therefore dictagloss lessons were introduced by
the researcher into her classroom to cover topics of the students’ interest and give them
more opportunities to work with both the content and language productively.
Dictagloss or dictogloss is defined as a language teaching technique in which students
work in groups and summarize a target language text (Richards & Schmidt 2009).
Dictagloss can take different variations depending on the way teachers themselves organize
the activity but the students’ task basically is to prepare and present in groups a summary of
a text read by their teacher, using their own notes they were taking while listening to their
teacher. Dictogloss activities help encourage students to focus on grammatical structures in
a communicative way (Ellis 2003), integrate the four language skills of listening, reading,
speaking, and writing in one lesson (Wajnryb 1990), and support less confident students
as they are to join their groups as part of the dictagloss procedure (Gibbons 2002). More
importantly to the researcher’s teaching context, dictagloss gives students opportunities to
be engaged in both the language and content itself. In other words, dictogloss offers a useful
way of presenting new factual information to students (Gibbons 2002).
This study is aimed at examining the use of dictagloss in CLIL lessons for a group of
pre-intermediate EFL learners. The students experienced the dictagloss activities in their
lessons with materials directly related to a content-based subject. They were involved in
collaborative language production tasks introduced in the lessons to encourage them to
experiment the use of content-based vocabulary and deepen their understanding of the
target language form of the lessons.
2 . THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Dictagloss, also referred to as both “dictocomp” and “grammar dictation” (Thornbury,
2006:64), is “a form of dictation in which students hear a complete short text, and then
reconstruct it from memory” by working individually, in pairs/groups to compare their
versions of texts and negotiate necessary changes (Wajnryb 1990). While there are many
types of traditional dictation-based language learning activities, dictagloss as a task type
is distinct in both procedure and objectives (Wajnryb 1990). Core theoretical principles
underlying dictagloss include noticing, interaction and metacognition.
Noticing refers to focusing learners’ attention on target language that they are exposed
to (Thornbury 2006). It is thought to operate as a necessary condition for processing and
acquisition to happen (Kuiden and Vedder 2005). During dictagloss, learners’ attention
is drawn to language form; learners may use their output as a way of trying out new
language structures to see what works and what does not. This helps them notice their
grammatical weaknesses and strengths and then they try to overcome these weaknesses
when attempting to co-build the text.
Interaction in a collaborative dialogue provides learners with learning opportunities;
this happens when exchanges have communicative importance and consist of crucial
linguistic information (Mackey 2012). Dictagloss promotes collaborative work as it
encourages learners to notice the gap in their interlanguage and to reflect on their own
output (Soler and Safont-Jorda 2012). Collaborative language production tasks encourage
learners to deepen their awareness of linguistic patterns and tendencies: this may trigger
cognitive processes, generating new linguistic knowledge and consolidating existing
knowledge (Ransdell and Barbier 2012).
Metacognition, or the act of “thinking of thinking” (Anderson 2002:3; Vandergrift and
Goh 2012:360), refers to “the ability of learners to control their thoughts and to regulate
their own learning”. There are properties in a learning task that will encourage learners
to engage in certain types of language use and mental processing that are beneficial for
acquisition. Ransdell and Barbier (2012) highlight the role of metacognition in dictagloss,
suggesting that verbalization of problems in contexts in which learners are engaged in
meaningful interaction may help promote learners’ understanding of the relationship
between form and meaning. The collaborative writing activity in dictagloss may have a
positive effect on the acquisition of second language knowledge since these activities lead
to a greater metacognitive awareness.
Wajnryb (1996) summarizes the activity as follows:
• A short dense text is read (twice) to learners at normal speed.
• As it is being read, the learners jot down familiar words and phrases.
• Working in small groups, learners pool their battered texts and strive to recon-
struct a version of the text from their shared resources.
• Each group of students produces its own reconstructed version, aiming at gram-
matical accuracy and textual cohesion but not at replicating the original text.
• The various versions are analysed and compared and the students refine their own
texts in the light of the shared scrutiny and discussion.
She also proposes that there are four key stages of a dictagloss lesson: preparation,
dictation, reconstruction and analysis and correction.
Preparation
• Students are prepared for the text with a lead-in aimed at activating interest in the
topic and stimulating some anticipation of what they will hear.
• Unknown vocabulary or vocabulary that difficult to infer is pre-taught.
• Teacher tells students what they should do at each stage of the procedure.
• Learners are organized into groups before the dictation begins.
Dictation
• The teacher dictates for the first time. Learners only listen and “allow the words
to wash over them” and get a global feeling for the whole passage.
• A second dictation occurs, with students writing down content or information
words that will help them to string together the text in the later reconstruction stage.
It should be noted that the text should be dictated at normal spoken speed and should
not be broken up into isolated word units. Another point for consideration is that the
pauses between sentences should be slightly longer than usual.
Reconstruction
• The learners, in groups, pool their notes and work on their version of the text
through a ‘scribe’ or a group secretary. When it is complete, the groups check for gram-
mar, textual cohesion and logical flow.
• The teacher monitors the activity but does not offer any actual language input, al-
though s/he may point out minor peripheral errors that are likely to impede the final error
analysis. This will help the learners to focus on the main point of the lesson.
Analysis and Correction
There are different ways to conduct this session:
• Groups will board the first sentence of their texts, which will be analysed, before
moving on to the second sentence of each group.
• Mini whiteboards or iPads can replace the board.
• Each text can be photocopied and the class can examine them.
• The original text is shown on the projector and scrolled forward sentence-by-
sentence after all the reconstructed texts have been examined.
Value To Learners
Wajnryb (1990) highlights the following ways that dictagloss can be of value to learners:
• Learners are allowed to experiment with language (i.e. to try out their hypotheses and
then receive more data about language). The immediate source of feedback they get from the
error analysis and correction stage offers them opportunities to adjust their understanding of
how the target language works. They therefore learn through active involvement.
• Students have the opportunity to both expand their understanding of what options
are available to them in the language, and also to consolidate their understanding of which
options are the most suitable later on.
• Dictagloss gives learners what they may want or need (i.e. opportunities for ac-
curacy practice in communicative contexts).
• Learners are motivated as in dictagloss, the role of the teacher is focused on meet-
ing their individual needs.
• Learners enjoy learning “by doing, by trying out the language, by being actively
engaged in tasks that have been carefully designed to generate specific language patterns”.
• Learners are valued as individuals and as members of a group. Collaboration in a
group allows individual contributions, which are then incorporated into the group effort. The
final text is analysed on the basis of group’s version therefore reduces stress on each learner.
• Being able to work independently without the teacher’s help, learners therefore
develop greater autonomy.
In summary, dictagloss and its procedure can offer a possible solution to situations in
which teachers need more contexts for the language form and vocabulary to be set in and
more opportunities for students to try out the new language items on their own while they are
experiencing the stages of dictagloss. As the texts employed in dictagloss procedure would feature
specific content-based language, they can serve as a teaching focus of the lesson. Furthermore, it
is possible to select texts which reflect students’ interests and meet syllabus requirements.
3. THE STUDY
In this study, dictagloss lessons were introduced in CLIL lessons to a group of
fifteen second-year students who were at pre-intermediate level with the frequency of one
dictagloss lesson every week during the second half of a fifteen week semester. Totally
seven dictagloss lessons were given to the students whose major was Mathematics.
The time allocated for these lessons were scheduled for teaching integrated skills in
the students’ English intensive programme. The researcher chose this time allocation to
introduce dictagloss activities as she thought these class hours fit the nature of dictagloss
which is meant to integrate the four language skills in one lesson.
After the researcher had spent the first half of the semester working with the group,
she observed a significant number of grammatical errors such as word order, word choice,
word forms, and use of inappropriate tenses. This was evident in their in-class writing where
they used their content-based vocabulary and grammatical patterns in a number of writing
tasks. She often used error correction codes while checking their writing, leaving her students
to correct their errors as homework. As a result, they were able to develop some ability to
analyse and correct their own writing errors, which helped them become more prepared for
the analysis and correction stage of the dictagloss lessons which their teacher was going to
introduced them to. Using dictagloss activities is particularly suitable as they meet the need for
teaching integrated skills as well as building on the students’ emerging self-correction ability.
In class, the group worked well together in pairs and groups, freely entering into discussions.
The aim of this study was to examine the use of dictagloss in Mathematic major-based
lessons for a group of pre-intermediate EFL learners. The research questions that guided
the study are: (1) How did students perceive their engagement in the dictagloss lessons? (2)
How did the students work with the content and the language during the dictagloss lessons?
A questionnaire was developed for the students to complete anonymously after each
lesson. The questionnaire asks for the students’ feedback about the dictagloss lessons
introduced to them. After each lesson the researcher took notes on the content words
the students heard, how they used these words for reconstructing a text as well as the
mistakes they made, and how they identified and corrected these mistakes. The researcher
later compared her notes with her students’ response to the questionnaire.
The students went through the four stages of preparation, dictation, reconstruction, and
error analysis and correction in their dictagloss lessons based 7 selected texts directly related
to their Mathematic major. The texts chosen for dictagloss varied in length, but were around
50 - 70 words. This length is recommended for dictagloss activities for pre-intermediate
students (Wajnryb 1990). Each lesson took one class hour which lasts 50 minutes. The
objective of each dictagloss lesson was that the students could reconstruct a text read by
their teacher and were able to identify and correct most of the errors generated in their
reconstructed text. The procedure for each dictagloss lesson takes the following stages.
Stage and Aim Procedure Interaction Timing
Preparation - Students watch a short video clip/visual aids to T-Ss 10 min
- To arouse students’ answer some given questions for understanding
interest in the topic general ideas about the topic.
- To pre-teach - Students compare their answers with a partner. Ss-Ss
some content-based - Check with the whole class.
vocabulary to prepare - Raise some discussion questions related to the topic. T-Ss
for the dictagloss text. - Students discuss in pairs for chain speaking
- To organize students in activity (Teacher puts students into 2 lines, facing T-Ss
groups and set up the task each other. Once the students have finished with
their partner, move them for another round)
- Present some content-based vocabulary items.
- Explain what Students are going to do in T-Ss
the dictagloss procedure and ask some ICQs T-Ss
(instructions checking questions)
- Arrange Students in groups of 3 or 4 T-Ss
Dictation - Explain what Students are going to do when first T-Ss 3

- For the students to get listening. They are just to listen to understand the
a global/understanding meaning of the text without taking notes.
of the text. - Ask Ss to get their paper and pens ready but put T-Ss
- For the students to their pens down.
write down words that - Dictate the first time. Students listen only. T-Ss
they remember to help - Dictate the second time for Ss to note down. T-Ss
with the reconstruction Ask them to pay due attention to content-based
stage. vocabulary items.
- Students make notes of what they have heard/ T-Ss
remembered.
Reconstruction - Ask Students first to compare their notes and Ss-T 15
- For the students to discuss how the words are connected to what they
work on their own, then heard. Ss-Ss
together as a group to - In groups, Students try to use the words they
rewrite the text, using have noted down to create a text which is closest in
the words they have meaning to the original text without the need to be
remembered. exact word-by-word. Ss-Ss
- Circulate to make sure the students are using
the content-based vocabulary items in their
reconstructed version.
Analysis and - Divide the board into 4 parts for each group to T-Ss 20
Correction send their representative to the board and write on
-For the students to their part of the board.
identify and correct their - Invite a student from each group to write their
own errors reconstructed text on the board. T-Ss
- Elicit Students to analyse sentence by sentence
together. Focus Students attention on the use of the
vocabulary items and grammatical patterns in their text. T-Ss
Recap - Ask Students what skills they needed to do this Ss-T 2
To revise what Students activity successfully (listening, speaking, writing,
needed for this type of reading critically to check for errors).
activity - Ask Students what other things that helped them Ss-T
rewrite the text successfully (working in groups,
discussing with partners, exchanging ideas and
knowledge of vocabulary and grammar)
Findings
Data collected
Lesson 1 Lesson 2 Lesson 3 Lesson 4 Lesson 5 Lesson 6 Lesson 7
Questionnaires 15 15 14 15 13 15 13
Observation notes √ √ √ √ √ √ √
In response to the first research question of the study, on average around 93% the
students participating in the lessons and the survey thought the choices of text were
suitable for them and the topic coverage was relevant to their major. They did not find it
difficult to write down the content words from memory. About 86% of the students could
recall the words from memory with little difficulty only. And 100% of the students agreed
that they could practice using all the English language skills in the dictagloss procedure.
And above 90% of the students shared their opinions on the importance of teamwork in
completing the activity, especially in discussing with their team to rewrite the text. They
also found it useful to be aware of the mistakes they had made and then to be able to correct
their own group’s mistakes. An interesting finding is that the more they got familiar with
the dictagloss procedure, the more they would like to do this activity in their next lesson.
In the first lesson 80% would like to try the dictagloss lesson again but this percentage
increased to more than 90% in the next lessons. They thought it was interesting to connect
the content words with the grammar patterns introduced in the lessons. They also found
it comfortable to work with their group members to rewrite the text without the direct
pressure from their teacher to be grammatically correct. They agreed that the teacher’s
eliciting questions helped them become more alert of the mistakes and the contribution
of all the team members as well as their class members assisted them in spotting the
mistakes and then finding out options to correct the mistakes.
Addressing the second research questions, the teacher’s observation notes show that
the students were able to work with both the content and language without any major
difficulty, which she thought was attributed partly to the clear instructions and instruction
checking questions she gave to her students. She asked them to pay due attention to the
content-based words in the first listening so that they could recall from their memory
later in the next step. Then their attention was drawn to language form to connect these
words. Working in their group helped the students learn from each other in terms of
each individual’s grammatical strengths. They seemed to develop the sense of which
grammatical pattern sounded correct to them and which did not. The weaker students
were aware of their own areas which need improvement. Working in groups could help
them bridge each other’s ‘gap’. The students discussed with their group members to ‘try
out’ new language without the fear of taking risk at their own cost. They could improve
the textual cohesion of their own output and deepen their awareness of linguistic patterns
and tendencies through reconstructing the text and then revising the reconstructed text.
The students managed to correct most of the mechanical mistakes about prepositions,
verb tenses, articles, word form at word phrase level. However, as far as the clause and
sentence level is concerned, the students needed more eliciting questions and cues from
their teacher to form grammatically correct patterns.
During the first three lessons, the students in all the five groups could recall 70% -
80% of the key vocabulary items and have no actual problems reproducing the sentence
structures included in the texts. These structures were meant to be of or below the students’
levels because the teacher wanted the students to focus on the vocabulary items rather than
the sentence structures when they first became accustomed to the dictagloss procedure.
In the next three lessons, the students were able to recall 80%-90% of the vocabulary
but had more difficulty restructuring the sentences as more complex sentences structures
were introduced in the text (e.g, group 1, 2, and 5). In the last lesson which was a review
lesson, all the groups managed to recall at least 85% of the vocabulary and to reproduce
most of the sentence structures already presented in the semester. Only group 2 had some
problems using past verb tenses.
4. CONCLUSION
Adopting a content-driven approach, dictagloss lessons could offer students pressure-
free opportunities to experiment content vocabulary items and language patterns, to
practice all the skills in a lesson with meaningful context related to their major. The
students in this study experienced the four stages of dictagloss lessons of preparation,
dictation, reconstruction, and error analysis and correction. The students’ attention is
drawn to content and language form at the same time. Their group working helped them
become more aware of each group member’s weaknesses and strengths, more supportive
of each other while identifying and correcting their own ‘product’.
Further research could address issues of applying dictagloss lessons in large classes
and/or for longer duration to observe more significant differences in students’ reproduction
of the content-based vocabulary and language patterns. Dictagloss procedure may as well
be considered in teaching writing skills and dictagloss texts could also be adapted in
teaching young learners.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Anderson, N. (2002). ‘The role of metacognition in second language teaching and learning.
ERIC Digest. Available at http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/ERIC-ED463659/pdf/ERIC-
ED463659.pdf retrieved 1/5/2015.
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Appendix 1: Student Feedback Questionnaire

On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 = not at all, 2 = only a little, 3 = to some extent, 4 = rather much,
5 = very much) please circle one number that bests describes what you think.
1. How did you like the choice of text in the lesson today? 1 2 3 4 5
2. After your teacher read the text, was it difficult for you to 1 2 3 4 5
write down the content words from memory?
3. The idea of the activity is for students to use all the four areas 1 2 3 4 5
of skills together (listening, writing, speaking, reading). Did
you use all the skills?
4. Do you think that working as a team was important to 1 2 3 4 5
complete the activity?
5. Was it useful for you to discuss with your team to rewrite the text? 1 2 3 4 5
6. Was it useful for you to know the mistakes and correct them? 1 2 3 4 5
7. Would you like to do this activity more often in class?
Yes (why?)
No (why?)
Appendix 2: Observation Form
Do any students seem
Are all the learners Are the learners
Lesson Stage to have difficulty with
engaged? enjoying the activity?
the activity?
Preparation
- introducing the topic via
the authentic video
- discussing the topic
- pre-teaching vocabulary
Dictation
- first listening
- second listening
- note taking
Reconstruction
- comparing notes
- working in groups to
reconstruct the text
- checking the text for
grammar, textual cohesion
and logical sense
Analysis and Correction
- identifying errors
- correcting errors
VIETNAMESE HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH TEACHERS’ ATTITUDES,
PERCEPTIONS AND EXPERIENCE IN CLIL
Trần Thị Thu Hiền1
Abstract: This study aims at finding high school English teachers’ attitudes, perceptions
and experience in Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) in Vietnam. Survey
questionnaires and in-depth interviews have been chosen as the main data collection
instruments of the study. The results show that a large numbers of Vietnamese high school
teachers of English neither have thorough understanding of CLIL nor CLIL teaching
experience. High school teachers, however, are willing to explore this education approach.
They also express their desire in getting to know, participating and implementing CLIL
training programs as a part of their professional development.
Keywords: CLIL, high school teachers, professional development, training program
I. INTRODUCTION
Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) was originally credited to
David Mash, a multilingualism & bilingual educational researcher in 1994 (Coyle et al.
2010). This methodology is related but distinctive from language immersion or content-
based instruction (Marsh, 2002). Ball (2006) stated that CLIL is an umbrella term that
covers “learning through any language that is not the first language of the learner”.
To be more precise, CLIL is a “dual-focused educational approach” in which a foreign
language is used for the learning and teaching of content and language with the objective of
promoting both content and language mastery to a certain level (Marsh and Langé, 2000).
This definition obviously proves that CLIL not only involves the teaching of content
through language but indicates the importance of language used in teaching content.
Specifically, CLIL educators should note that during their students’ learning process, the
content drives language learning and the language is a vehicle to learn content.
Although CLIL has emerged in the world for more than 20 years and developed
rigorously in Europe from the late 1990s (Coyle et al., 2009), it is still a new approach
in Vietnam. Some people may argue that the teaching of STEM has been promoted
much in Vietnam recently. This interdisciplinary and applied approach, however, is
1
University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi.
Email: hienesp@gmail.com.
VIETNAMESE HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH TEACHERS’ ATTITUDES, PERCEPTIONS AND EXPERIENCE IN CLIL 121
actually integrates the four specific disciplines - Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics into a cohesive learning paradigm based on real-world applications rather
than the integration of content and language learning domains.
The working committee of the National Foreign Language (NFL) Project, formerly
known as Project 2020, has recognized the significance of this methodology and taken
great efforts to promote it in both research and teaching practice in schools along the
country (Government, 2008: 2017). In summer 2018, in order to expand and encourage
CLIL application, the NFL project and the University of Languages and International
Studies, Viet Nam National University, Hanoi conducted a study in six provinces in the
North of Vietnam. This research is necessary as it aims at finding out how high school
English teachers think, perceive and undergo in CLIL. The results of the research will,
to some extent, provide a critical analysis of the teachers’ view on CLIL and bring the
authorities a close look to better plan a strategic development of CLIL in Vietnam.
II. METHODOLOGY
1. Research methods
The study employed a mixed method, a combination of both qualitative
and quantitative methods. Qualitative method is applied in both the early and the
later phases of the research. It involves collecting qualitative information from the
researcher and the participants. In the later phases, quantitative method is employed
to count and define the English teachers’ attitudes, perception and experience in
CLIL in the context of high school in Vietnam.
2. Data collection instruments

The study has been conducted in six provinces in the North of Viet Nam with the
participation of 300 high school English teachers. Survey questionnaires and in-depth
interviews have been employed as the main data collection instruments of the study.
The survey questionnaire comprises of four parts including:
- Part 1 (questions 1-6) aims at gathering general information about participants
such as their teaching experience, places of teaching and living, their qualifications, their
English proficiency level ad their experience in professional training programs.
- Part 2 (questions 7-33), seeks for information about high school English teachers’
attitudes, perception and experience in CLIL.
- Part 3 (questions 34-43) focuses on evaluating the readiness of the schools surveyed
and the preparation of the authorities and managers for CLIL implementation in a wider
scope in the near future.
- Part 4 closes the questionnaire with seven questions numbered 44 through 50 asking
for the high school teachers - participants’ opinions and suggestions on CLIL materials
development and training programs.
Findings from questions in Part 2 of the survey would be the focus of this paper.
In-depth interview questions have been designed and asked by the researchers who
have been trained carefully about the aims, objectives of the research and interview
techniques. The questions and answers made and delivered during the interviews would
help clarify the findings from the survey questionnaires.
III. Findings and discussion
1. Participants’ general information

As mentioned previously, the survey was conducted with the participation of 300
high school teachers of English from different provinces. Their working and living places
are illustrated as follows:
Figure 1: The participants’ living and working places
Among 300 teachers participating in the research, nearly half of the teachers (46.3%)
have taught English for 3-5 years. Just 4% of the teachers have served in their positions
for more than 20 years; the others, namely, novice teachers with under two-year working
experience account for 11.7% while the number of teachers with 6-10 years and 11-20
years of English teaching makes up 21.3% and 16.7% respectively. In total, 79.3% of the
teachers have been teaching English 3-10 years. This is a good signal to predict that CLIL
would be welcomed among the teachers with the first phase of their career development.
In terms of qualifications, a majority of teachers hold a teaching degree with 59.3%
from universities and 40% having M.A while just nearly 1% of them graduated from
colleges. The results, however, showed that only 67.3% of the participants rated their
English proficiency level at C1. A third of them (32.7%) thought that they needed more
time to move from their current level of B2 to C1 level regardless the fact that all teachers
are required to be at C1 level of English proficiency to be qualified for teaching English

to high school students after the standards set by the Ministry of Education and Training.
Interestingly, the interview later stated that both of these teachers and their managers
were all confident about their ability to deliver English lessons well in their institutions.
When asked if they have ever participated in a CLIL training program, only 9.3% of the
teachers said that they have, to some extent, joined a training program but just in one or two days.
In addition, these programs are mostly about teaching Science and Mathematics in English.
However, it is positive to see that 27.7% of the teachers “know something” about CLIL.
Figure 2: The teachers’ knowledge of CLIL
2. High school teachers’ attitudes, perceptions and experience in CLIL

According to the survey, 20.7% of the teachers have experienced in teaching CLIL.
However, the in-depth interview later disclosed that these teachers actually joined in
helping the subject-teachers in teaching the subjects. Specially, they helped the subject-
teachers either translate the terms from Vietnamese into English or find the suitable
reading texts to let the students get to know more about the subjects.
Main task Supporting task
Figure 3: The teachers’ experience in teaching CLIL

Although just a small number of the teachers have known or experienced CLIL, most
of them are willing to know more and work with this approach in the future as just 24 out
of 300 teachers (8%) stated that they are not willing to join in CLIL work in the future.
Fortunately, the follow-up interview showed that these teachers have taught English for
about 20 years; namely, they are familiar to old teaching methods and thus, resist to change.
In the sense of CLIL perceptions, the surveys and interviews searched for the teachers’
opinion on its general benefits, benefits in developing learners’ content and language, teacher
requirements, preparation time, CLIL materials, supporting policies, etc. Interestingly,
CLIL is regarded neither “very useful” nor “very useless” in the teachers’ view. Answers
to the three other options of CLIL general benefits reflected the teachers’ aforementioned
understanding of CLIL as 63% of the teachers thought that CLIL is “useful” while 8% of
them believed that CLIL is “useless” and 29% of them expressed no idea. In addition, when
asked if CLIL helped develop both content and language, nearly 75% of the teachers agreed
whereas about one fourth of them either disagreed or did not show their views.
Amazingly, even though 73.7% of the teachers shared the same opinion that CLIL
is suitable for every level. They, when asked separately which level CLIL should be for,
said differently. In particular, a majority of the teachers (74.3%) thought that CLIL should
be applied in pre-school and primary school levels. 55.3% of the teachers was certain of
the suitability of CLIL to Higher education and just 24% of the teachers aligned CLIL
to secondary levels (including both lower and upper-secondary schools). This result, yet,
seems to conflict with the teachers’ attitude when stating the learners’ language proficiency
to best obtain CLIL. In that question, they said that in order to work well in CLIL approach,
the learners’ language proficiency should be at B1 level. Children at kindergartens and
primary schools, conversely, are out of the situation. The subsequent interview helped
clarify the participants’ view as follows: “CLIL is suitable for pre-school, primary school
and higher education levels as at the first schooling stage, children mostly work with the
terms’ definition and concept rather than their content and scope while at higher levels
the learners need to be at B1 to better read and understand the content reading texts and
lessons”. As a matter of fact, CLIL can be applied to all levels from pre-school to higher
education but the application is varied at different levels.
Along with their perceptions and willingness toward CLIL, the teachers also
expressed their awareness of requirements related to the implementation of CLIL. They
all said that a crucial factor in the success of a CLIL program is the support from the higher
levels, namely, the school managers, Department of Education and Training, Ministry of
Education and Training as well as other interconnected authorities and the government.
Without the sustaining policies and supports from the higher bodies, the teachers and their
self-efforts would not make significant changes in a large scale or “make it a trend” as
they responded in the interviews.
Furthermore, 97.3% of the teachers agreed that it took time to prepare a CLIL lesson and
66.3% of the teachers considered a close cooperation between the language and the subject
teachers a must for the success of a CLIL lesson. Importantly, there should be an overtime policy
for CLIL preparation, teaching and working policy between the language and subject teachers.
With regard to CLIL training and professional development, 60.7% of the teachers
held that in order to teach well in CLIL approach, they needed to be trained with language
proficiency and teaching methods. More than that, 65.7% of them supposed that knowledge
of the subject should be provided to CLIL teachers. These teachers maintained that
both language and content teachers could be trained to carry out CLIL lessons but from
different perspectives. To be specific, language teachers should be offered short courses
with basic knowledge of the subjects and they could work on the early stage of teaching
CLIL to help the learners with key concepts and definitions of the subjects. In contrast,
the subject teachers should be trained to achieve at least B2 level of language to deliver
the subjects in deeper aspects. In the long terms, CLIL should be in charged by the subject
teachers as it is more feasible to help subject teachers reach B2 level in their language
competency than to train the language teacher to become professionals in the subject
fields. Besides, whether starting from either the role of a language teacher or a subject
teacher, 60% of the teachers asserted that CLIL teachers should be able to evaluate and
develop CLIL materials. Noticeably, in the next question, 56% of the teachers believed
that CLIL required new teaching materials regardless the fact that in the previous question
they affirmed that CLIL teachers needed to be capable of evaluating and developing CLIL
materials. The succeeding interview stated that what the teachers meant in their mind
about evaluating and adapting ability is to apply on CLIL materials only.
IV. CONCLUSION
In general, findings from the questionnaires and the interviews have shown that
CLIL is still an unpopular approach among high-school teachers in Vietnam. Although
a part of the teachers surveyed, to some extent, have some knowledge of CLIL, what
they have known about CLIL is still unsystematic and lies on the surface of the concept.
What is more, their CLIL knowledge is sometimes untrue to its nature. Obviously, the
survey shows that there are still many aspects to be concerned to implement CLIL in
Vietnam including teachers and learners’ language proficiency, knowledge of the subjects,
language and subject teacher cooperation, teacher training and policies among others.
These facts should be taken into consideration by future course designers and authorities
who are in charge of teachers’ professional development to better fulfill the framework
for the professional development of CLIL teachers (Marsh et al., 2010). Above all, it is
optimistic to know that the teachers are willing to know more about CLIL and to grab it
in the future. Hence, it is definitely feasible to see the bright future of CLIL in Vietnam in
the next stage of our educational system.
REFERENCES
1. Ball, P. (2006) Defining CLIL Parameters. Retrieved from http://www.onestopenglish.com/
clil/methodology/articles/ June 2012.
2. Coyle, D. Holmes. B. and King, L. (2009) Towards an Integrated Curriculum: CLIL National
Statement and Guidelines, London: The Languages Company.
3. Coyle, D., Hood P. and Marsh, D. (2010) CLIL: Content and Language Integrated Learning.
4. Marsh, D. (2002) CLIL/EMILE- The European Dimension: Actions, Trends and Foresight
Potential, Brussels: European Commission.
5. Marsh, D. & Langé G. (2000) Using Languages to Learn and Learning to Use Languages.
Jyväskylá: UniCOM, University of Jyväskylä on Behalf of TIECLIL.
6. Marsh, D., Mehisto, P., Wolff, D., Frigols-Martin, M. (2010) The European Framework for
CLIL Teacher Education, Graz: European Centre for Modern Languages (ECML).
7. MOET (2014). Missive 792/BGDĐT- NGCBQLGD on the Guidelines to implement
Competency Framework for English Teachers in General Education.
8. Viet Nam Government (2008). Decision 1400/QĐ-TTg on the Approval of the Project
entitled “Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages in the National Education System,
Period 2008-2020”.
9. Viet Nam Government (2017). Decision 2080/QĐ-TTg on the Approval of the Adjustment
to Project entitled “Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages in the National Education
System, Period 2017-2025”.
TEACHING AND LEARNING FRENCH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE (FFL)
AND FRENCH FOR MEDICAL PURPOSE (FMP) IN ASSOCIATION WITH
SUBJECT-MATTER CONTENT IN THE CONTEXT OF INTERNATIONAL
INTEGRATION: THEORIES AND PRACTICE AT HAI PHONG UNIVERSITY
OF MEDICINE AND PHARMACY (VIETNAM)
Nguyễn Thị Hiền, Cao Thị Phương Dung,

Trịnh Thị Thu Trang, Trần Thị Hà Giang1
Abstract: The paper aims to (1) present some theoretical questions about teaching and
learning foreign languages in association with Subject-Matter Context under a Francophone
point of view, (2) to illustrate these theories by describing the actual situation of practising
CLIL (content and language integrated learning) in Teaching and Learning French as a
Foreign Language (FFL) and French for Medical Purpose (FMP) in association with
medical disciplines at Hai Phong University of Medicine and Pharmacy. The paper finally
concludes with some recommendations to be taken.
Keywords: CLIL, French as a foreign language, French for medical purpose.
1. INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, learning a language in general, and a specialty language in particular,
is becoming more and more necessary for both students and professionals. In Vietnam,
in the field of medicine, for historical, cultural and academic reasons, French plays an
important role in the transmission of knowledge and scientific cooperation. French was
the language of instruction in the faculties of medicine, and continues to be so in medical
French courses, and medical courses taught in French, as part of the Francophone teaching
program at some medical universities in Vietnam, including Hai Phong University of
Medicine and Pharmacy. How are these courses conducted using the CLIL (content and
language integrated learning) approach? What are the problems to be solved and what are
the solutions?
1
Hai Phong University of Medicine and Pharmacy; tran.thg@gmail.com.
2. THEORETICAL QUESTIONS ABOUT TEACHING AND LEARNING FFL AND FMP IN ASSOCIATION WITH
SUBJECT-MATTER CONTEXT
French as a Foreign Language (FFL), French for Specific Purposes (FSP), and
Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) are often misleading concepts. What
do these acronyms mean and what are their differences? First of all, the acronym FFL
(FLE in French: Français Langue Etrangère) means a disciplinary field born of the
awareness of the differentiation between “mother tongue” and “foreign language”, in
the 1960s. According to the Dictionnaire de didactique du français (Clé Internationale,
2006), “French is thus a foreign language for all those who, not recognizing it as their
mother tongue, enter a more or less voluntary process of appropriation, and for all those
who recognize it or not as their mother tongue and are taught by non-native speakers.”
(Cuq et al., 2002: 150). For FFL, French is a discipline like any other, and not a language
through which knowledge is transmitted. In the teaching methods of FLE, it’s “general
French” which is taught, intended for non-specialized audiences, adults or children, and
whose content is limited to the different themes of everyday life.
The FSP - French on Specific Purposes (in French FOS: Français sur Objectifs
Spécifiques), meanwhile, is intended for specialized audiences. The Dictionnaire de
didactique du français (Clé Internationale, 2006) defines it as follows:
“French for Specific Purposes (FOS) was born out of a concern to adapt the teaching
of French as a foreign language to adult learners wishing to acquire or improve skills in
French for a professional activity or higher education. [...] (Its objective is) “the access to
language skills in duly identified situations of professional or academic communication”
(Cuq et al., 2002: 109-110).
Originally, it developed in Latin America in the 1970s as “Français instrumental”,
and then became “Français de spécialité” before being known as FOS during the 1980s.
It is a name borrowed from English “English for specific purposes”. According to Richer
(2008), the characteristics of the FOS which distinguishes it from the FLE concern
four elements, including the learners, the language to be acquired, the teacher and the
methodology. Concerning learners, according to Mourlhon-Dallies (2008), there are
several types of public such as professionals, students in the process of specialization,
immigrants wishing to integrate into professional life in France. These audiences want to
learn specific French and not general French because of their professional goals and limited
time for learning. The notion of “langue de spécialité” has been replaced by “discours de
spécialité” by researchers in the field following the finding of the specificity of use and
not the language (Nguyen Van Toan 2015: 78). Thus, the objective of learning the FOS
becomes the specialized discourse. As for the teachers of the FOS, they have 4 features
of particularity compared to the teachers of FLE. On the one hand, according to Richer
TEACHING AND LEARNING FRENCH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE (FFL) AND FRENCH FOR MEDICAL PURPOSE (FMP)... 129
(2007), they find themself in a particular situation during their professional practice, they
must design him pedagogic material. On the other hand, they “have little time relative
to the importance of the program to ensure” and “the heterogeneity of their public often
requires them to resort to various methodologies and approaches for a better acquisition
by their learners”. (Nguyen Van Toan, 2015: 79). Regarding the methodology, the FOS
has undergone significant evolutions, ranging from the borrowing of methodological
currents from the FLE to “post-communicative approaches such as the (inter)actional
approach, corpus-based learning, discursive” (Richer 2008: 22-23).
Unlike FLE and FOS, CLIL (in English: Content and Language Integrated Learning)
is a teaching approach that focuses mainly on the discipline itself:
“Content and language integrated learning (CLIL) is a generic term and refers to
any educational situation in which an additional language and therefore not the most
widely used language of the environment is used for the teaching and learning of subjects
other than the language itself.” (Marsh & Langé 2000: iii)
According to this definition, the CLIL approach aims at transmitting knowledge via
a foreign language, and not necessarily through the one most practiced in the world (for
example the case of English). Indeed, between the language and the content of specialty is
tied an indelible link, one could not exist without the other in this integrated approach. In
fact, language teaching is not the only goal of CLIL, it is integrated harmoniously with the
content. The mastery of the language of specialty makes it possible to better apprehend the
content and the mastery of the content promotes the learning of the language. According to
Wolff (2010), the CLIL approach is rarely used in higher education, except in the studies
where the content is related to the language itself, such as English or French studies. He
also adds that language is often learned separately and not in integration with the content
because the lack of teachers with sufficient language skills to teach a subject in a foreign
language. However, this researcher says that some studies have shown the effectiveness
of the CLIL approach at the university level (Wolff 2010: 5). By citing the work of Marsh,
Marsland & Stenberg (2001: 17) on the five main reasons why it is advantageous to
introduce the CLIL approach in an academic context, he adds a sixth one:
“According to them these reasons involve the development of 1. Pragmatic knowledge
and skills 2. Interpersonal skills 3. Intercultural communication 4. Quality of learning
and teaching in the content field 5. Employability. 6. (I would like to add a sixth one:
multi-perspectivity, i.e. to be able to look at one’s own academic subject from different
perspectives).” (Wolff 2003:5)1
1
The pagination of this citation was the one of the online version of Wolff’s article, for more details, please
consult the bibliography, pp.136-137.
In short, the names of the currents of teaching specialized French are certainly varied,
but the border between these appellations is not very clear. There is always a legacy of
inheritance that can be passed from one name to another, despite the transformations,
changes or adaptations that have been put in place to improve the quality of teaching /
learning at every step of the history. As for the CLIL approach, it plays an increasingly
important role in university education in the age of globalization, since it provides
students with a solid intellectual and linguistic background in order to better integrate
into the world of international work. Co-operation between subject and language teachers
is essential in order to carry out this teaching, from the creation of the teaching program
to its implementation.
3. PRACTISING CLIL AT HAIPHONG UNIVERSITY OF MEDICAL AND PHARMACY (VIETNAM): ACTUAL

SITUATION AND DIDACTICAL PROPOSITIONS.
3.1. Learning and Teaching context

Unlike the French departments where this language is taught as a major specialty,
in non-specialist language universities, it is a compulsory subject but does not occupy
a priority place in university education. At the Hai Phong University of Medicine and
Pharmacy, French is taught through two different courses: the 2 years course for students
in the standard curriculum and the 6 years course for students enrolled in the Francophone
university program (in French FUF: Filière Universitaire Francophone). General French
is taught during the first three semesters and medical French in the fourth semester, which
makes a total of two academic years out of six for students in the standard curriculum. As
for the curriculum of the FUF program, in addition to the similar courses taught by their
fellow students in the 2 years program, they also have supplementary French courses and
medical courses in French, i.e CLIL courses until their sixth and final year of university.
At the end of the fourth year of studies, that is to say the eighth semester, the students
will have to reach the level B1 (CEFRL1) and they are encouraged to attend the level B2
at the end of the fifth year, that is to say the tenth semester.
It is important to clarify the two cases of French teaching in the Haiphong University
of Medicine and Pharmacy. Firstly, it’s the teaching of medical French (a branch of FOS)
ensured by French teachers from the department of foreign languages, and secondly,
the CLIL courses ensured by medical teachers from several departments of the same
university. However, all these two cases are hybrid teachings. Indeed, in the courses of
FOS - French medical, certain contents are new for the students, they do not study only the
linguistic contents on the medicine such as the medical terminology, the studies of texts on
1
CEFRL : Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
medical themes but through all these contents, they acquire the specialist knowledge. For
example, by working on a reading comprehension activity with a text on the respiratory
system as a teaching aid, the students discover at the same time the functioning of the
latter and the medical terminology which concerns it, etc. As for CLIL courses where
the teaching of medical subjects should theoretically be conducted in French, because
of the level of language of students as of the teachers themselves, and because of the
lack of pedagogical training of medical teachers, courses are also held in Vietnamese.
Thus, all these two types of teaching do not correspond exactly to the official definition
of FOS and CLIL, but they still have many of their characteristics. If the FOS course
is supposed to focus on the linguistic knowledge of the specialty area, the CLIL course
aims to pass on knowledge through the language. In all of these two cases in question,
the specialty content and the language play more or less an important role. However, the
content-language distribution varies according to each respective case: the “language”
part is more important in the FOS courses and on the contrary, the “content” part is more
important in the CLIL courses.
Regarding the pedagogic documents, the manual “Le français médical” is used for
FOS courses, and the manuals of medical subjects in French (for example the manual
entitled “Cours de médecine interne pour les étudiants francophones en 4è année” written
by Dr. NGUYEN Thi Dung - a teacher of the Department of Internal Medicine) are
used for CLIL courses, both written by the university’s teachers themselves. If there are
enough French-speaking medical teachers at the University of Medicine and Pharmacy in
Haiphong, not all of them will be able to dispense medical courses in French, because of
the language level, or lack of availability, or lack of interest for this particular teaching.
Students therefore have different courses each year depending on the availability of
Francophone specialty teachers: some promotions have courses in immunology, others in
internal medicine or gynecology and obstetrics, etc.
It is also necessary to underline the great effort that must be made by students to
continue these CLIL courses, taught as part of the lessons of the FUF program previously
piloted by the AUF. In addition to a busy schedule of theoretical and clinical classes
throughout the day, with night guards at the hospital, students enrolled in FUF must take
evening classes and pay additional tuition fees. Few are those who “survive” until the end
of the sixth year - at which point they will have to acquire the B2 level in language and
support the final dissertation of medical studies in French.
In this academic context where medicine is the main field of study, the whole operation
of the establishment revolves around this specific core. Indeed, clinical disciplines such
as internal medicine, surgery, gynaecology-obstetrics, paediatrics, etc. are privileged
compared to other disciplines classified by the institution in the category of “basic
sciences” such as mathematics, informatics, foreign languages, physical education, etc.
Students, meanwhile, give more time and attention to clinical disciplines to the detriment
of the latters. This teaching context is far from being a facilitator for French teachers
such as teachers of medical subjects in French. Interviews with them have shown that
they face difficulties in practicing their profession. Indeed, on the one hand, medical
French teachers work not only with a non-language specialist public, but must at the same
time adapt to it in order to teach them specialty French in their own field of medicine,
which is a double challenge. If the profession of French teacher in general is more and
more devalued because of the omnipresence of English, and of Chinese and Japanese
- two languages now in vogue in Vietnam, to be a French teacher in a non-specialist
institution demands from the teacher a great passion and a constant effort to continue his
job. On the other hand, for teachers of medical subjects in French, their difficulties consist
of insufficient mastery of the foreign language of the students and of themselves. It is
difficult to teach and learn a science subject totally in French when teachers and students
have difficulty in understanding and speaking in this language. Most of the time, they use
mother tongues to deal with this gap.
3.2. Difficulties in practising CLIL at HPUMP

Whether it is to teach medical French or to teach medical subjects in French, teachers
encounter difficulties in the practice of their profession, largely related to the academic
environment to which they belong professionally.
• The lack of motivation among some students choosing to learn French and in French
The lack of motivation among students could be a major obstacle. At the Hai Phong
University of Medicine and Pharmacy, while some students show a strong taste for
French, others do not really have any interest in this language. This observation is similar
to that of Pascaline Faure:
“Finally, if medical students have rarely experienced failure in their previous course,
they show at best a very limited interest in foreign languages and at worst a certain
disgust. Many, even some of the best in their discipline, are at odds with English and have
not kept very pleasant memories of courses taught in high school. It should be added that
the teaching programs of medical subjects are extremely important. [...] It goes without
saying that, for undergraduate and graduate students, languages are minority subjects
and, even if they are aware that they will need them, they prefer medical subjects and
therefore have very little time to devote to them.” (Faure 2012: 150)
This lack of motivation among non-language students, particularly those at the Hai
Phong University of Medicine and Pharmacy, is linked to several factors. First, they have
a very busy schedule compared to students from other fields, plus a few night guards
per week at hospital. Their duration of study is longer and the entrance examination for
medical studies requires a tedious preparation work. They therefore have very little time
for learning a foreign language. Secondly, most of them came from rural areas where
the conditions for teaching / learning languages in secondary education were not ideal.
Finally, the motivation to learn French and medical courses in French depends on each
student’s vision of his or her respective needs: some people think they do not need to use
French in the future, or they do not know yet what is the use of French on their studies or
professional life, or to learn French if it is only an obligation to complete their studies, etc.
Elisabeth Crosnier explains more:
“It would be interesting to know to what extent the existence or absence of career
plans, career prospects, relatively targeted (LANSAD1) or more open (LEA2), influence
the behavior of learners. A survey of 600 fourth year students (PCEM3 2 at DCEM4
3) at Toulouse’s two medical universities brings unexpected results: the motivation for
learning medical English comes mainly from students’ perceptions their professional
needs (extrinsic motivation of reason and long term).” (Crosnier 2011)5
Would it be necessary to help students, from their first academic year, to acquire
the skills and savoir-vivre of this new period of their life at the same time as academic
knowledge? (through a guide, an internship, a meeting, etc. for example) These skills
could help them overcome difficulties and succeed in their studies.
• Lack of training and communication with other institutions providing CLIL courses
While there are many training courses for language teachers, there is no training for
those who wish to improve their skills or become specialized language teachers, as pointed
out by Brudermann and Poteaux (2015), citing researchers Causa and Derivry (2013):
[...] at the same time, it should be pointed out that there is currently no specific
training for Lansad teachers in France, which seems paradoxical, especially considering
that in France about 90% of university students, when they study languages, are not
language specialists” (Brudermann & Poteaux 20156)
Indeed, specific training for French teachers and those who teach medical courses
in French does not exist not only in France, but also in Vietnam. In the case of French
1
LANSAD: LANgue pour Spécialiste d’Autres Disciplines (Language for Specialist of others disciples)
2
LEA: Langue Étrangère Appliquée (Applied Foreign Language)
3
PCEM: Premier Cycle d’Études Médicales (First Cycle of Medical Studies)
4
DCEM: Deuxième Cycle d’Études Médicales (Second Cycle of Medical Studies)
5
Crosnier, E. (2011), “LEA/LANSAD : Convergences/Divergences”, Cahiers de l’APLIUT [Online],
Vol. XXVII N° 1 | 2008, published online on 30th August 2011, retrieved on 11th July 2018. URL : http://
apliut.revues.org/1513; DOI: 10.4000/apliut.1513
6
This citation was taken on paragraph 14 of the free online version of Brudermann & Poteaux 2015’s
article, available at https://journals.openedition.org/dms/1003
teachers at the University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Haiphong, this is an educational

and professional isolation. They have only some ongoing training that is offered and
accessible. On the one hand, unlike colleagues from language specialist universities,
they do not have a permanent connection to the various professional networks of the
world of language sciences, especially of FOS and CLIL. On the other hand, their work
environment does not require a professional dynamic. In fact, if the colleagues teaching
clinical disciplines must carry out at least one scientific study per year as the main author,
the teachers of foreign languages and other disciplines called “basic sciences” do not have
this obligation. Moreover, they are no longer obliged to pursue doctoral studies - which
are required by their doctor colleagues. This particular context diminishes their self-
confidence and their motivation to communicate, to train, to aim “higher” scientifically.
As the years go by, their creativity and scientific productivity may be lost progressively.
Concerning French subject teachers, who are often practitioners at the same time, the lack
of training in medical pedagogy and language improvement courses are two main factors
that constitute their difficulties. The quality of teaching and learning would be better if
they could benefit from specific and ongoing training, and if they could participate in
more research colloquia in the areas in question.
• Limited teaching/learning conditions:
The teaching materials used in the medical French courses as well as the CLIL courses
are mainly boards, chalks and manuals. Teachers rarely use e-learning, PowerPoint or
other software to teach, because of the lack of classrooms equipped with projectors or
internet connection. In addition, the number of students in a class (about 35 or 40) and the
limited weekly schedule reserved for the courses (1 to 2 courses; 1,5 h per course) figure
among the difficulties for teaching and learning in Hai Phong University of Medicine and
Pharmacy. Concerning evaluation, there are two exams each semester which are mid-
term and final exams. Yet, these exams focus mainly on the French medical terminology,
reading and translation competences; they do not include oral exams. Therefore, they do
not allow us to evaluate communication competences of learners.
• The gradual decline of students choosing to learn French and medical courses
in French
If the number of students opting to learn English at university remains stable
over the years, this is not the case for French. English has become the lingua franca
of communication, commerce and science in this age of globalization. Medicine is no
exception. New inventions and medical techniques are becoming more common in English-
speaking countries thanks to their economic powers and the large budget earmarked for
research. Scholarships, fellowships and internships are increasingly coming from English-
speaking countries. As a result, medical students prefer to choose to learn English for
their professional future, which leads to a drop in the number of French students in the
institution in question. There are three categories of students who learn French: either
they have already learned French in high school and wish to continue it at university, or
they like French language and culture and want to discover it, or they are classified in the
French section because they did not acquire a sufficient level of English in the entrance
test at the beginning of the first year. It is a linguistic policy of the university that aimed at
ensuring the number of hours of work required for French teachers, maintaining French
classes as a result of its long Francophile tradition and thus contributing to the diversity
of languages. This situation puts French teachers in a precarious job because their career
is not really sustainable and valued.
3.3. Didactical propositions

Faced with many challenges that are constantly increasing, especially in today’s
globalized world, what new skills do the French and CLIL teachers need to acquire in
order to improve their work, grow professionally? From the research works of authors
such as Pascaline FAURE (2014), and personal reflections, we think it is beneficial for
these teachers to build the following skills:
- Academic competence: it is a matter of self-training, to engage in research and in
the design of training programs and pedagogic materials adapted to the public of learners.
- Relational competence: to build a professional network of specialized teachers, to
increase exchanges with professionals in the field of specialty, and to optimize pedagogical
support with students.
- Psychological competence: to value one’s job, to manage professional stress.
In order to improve their teaching, the French teachers could make an observation in
a hospital service, establish contacts with professionals, and consult authentic documents
in French to master the situations of medical communications. The CLIL teachers could
enrol pedagogic and French courses to perfect their pedagogic and linguistic levels.
Otherwise, it is necessary that the University direction:
- increases the weekly schedules for medical French and CLIL courses. Thus, students
have more time to learn theoretical content and to practice their communication skills in
different medical situations.
- organizes small classes with the appropriate number of students.
- motivates students by giving them opportunities to work with native teachers and
to participate in university francophone events.
According to Pierre Frath, teachers and university direction must also pay attention
to the personal interest of the students by giving them “the possibility of obtaining a good
grade at the end of the semester, the hope of having their efforts rewarded, and the possibility
of enrolling the levels. in the language reached in the Diploma Supplement “ (Frath 2012)
CONCLUSION
Teaching with the CLIL approach at a medical university requires teachers to have
a dual skill in didactics and medicine. Certainly, the French teachers could not master
the medical knowledge at the same level as a doctor, but having fundamental knowledge
is necessary to ensure the quality of their teaching in the language of specialty. As for
teachers of medical subjects in French, being original practitioners, it is essential for
them to improve their knowledge, pedagogy and language of specialty. Faced with
many challenges of the profession in the era of globalization and the omnipresence of
English, these teachers must go to self-valuation, self-training with the help of readings,
observations, exchanges professionals. Finally, it goes without saying that in the academic
world, teaching must pace with research. It is the latter that will allow the teachers to
master their discipline, improve their teaching and develop fully in their profession.
Note: The translation of the citations from French into English has been made by the
authors of this article.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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URL : http://dms.revues.org/1003; DOI: 10.4000/dms.1003
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le supérieur : diversification des cours pour les étudiants et absence de formation appropriée
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10.4000/asp.1154
THE DISCUSSION OF HUMAN RIGHTS OF UNDOCUMENTED IMMIGRANTS
IN THE UNITED STATES UNDER OBAMA ADMINISTRATION
Hoàng Thị Thanh Huyền1
Abstract: From 2005 to 2010, the number of detainees doubled from nearly 200,000 to
400,000. The Obama government has continued the project initiated by Bush president and
during his administration he is reported to have deported more than 2.5 million unauthorized
immigrants. To many people’s surprise, he is the president who has deported the largest number
of unauthorized immigrants. He is even called as the “deporter in chief” by some newspapers.
My paper aims to look at the detention and deportation procedures in America from the Human
Rights framework. The violations of human rights in these procedures are vast and scattered at
the same time, but I intend to explore the violations in Border States such as Arizona, Texas and
New York. I do not attempt to go into details of the poor treatment and the prison-like conditions
in detention centers. Neither do I want to sketch an overview of all human rights violations to
the undocumented immigrants. Instead, I plan to address some key questions about immigrants’
rights: what rights do they have? What rights are they deprived of? What is underneath their
right deprivation? Before going to the discussion of rights, I plan to spend some space for the
overview of the history as well as definitions of detention and deportation.
Keywords: Human rights, undocumented immigrants, illegal aliens, detention, prison industry,
state sovereignty.
1. INTRODUCTION
The data from World Bank shows that in the half of last century, the number of
international migrants increased by 200%. By 2010, the number of people who lived
outside of their country of birth exceeded 213 million, making up 3% of the world
population. The mass movement of people around the world in the 21st century goes
hand in hand with the immigration problems in Europe and the USA. The United Nation
Development Program reports that 11.5 million people are counted as the undocumented
immigrants in the USA. The age of migration is also the age or migration control (Wong,
2015). For a long time the USA has approached immigration issue by criminalizing illegal
immigrants: putting them into detention and proceeding to remove them.
Private detention has been discussed by scholars as a booming industry. Private
prisons in 2011 detained nearly half of the detainee populations. As the trend to get over
1
Khoa Ngôn ngữ và Văn hóa các nước nói tiếng Anh. University of Languages and International studies, VNU;
hth2712@gmail.com
QUYỀN CON NGƯỜI CỦA DÂN NHẬP CƯ BẤT HỢP PHÁP Ở MỸ 139
fiscal challenges without using much tax money, in the 1980s, US government started
doing with private corporations. “The prison industrial complex is an interweaving of
private business and government interests” (Goldberg, Eve and Evans, 2009). After the
terrorist attack in September 11th, 2001, illegal immigrants have been treated as the carriers
of risks and the Bush government tried various ways to identity, detain and deport them.
The government has been rationalized their stricter control over non-citizens by enforcing
the fear of crime and the fear of terror. “Fear of crime is a great selling tool for a dubious
product” (Goldberg, Eve and Evans, 2009). From 2005 to 2010, the number of detainees
doubled from nearly 200,000 to 400,000. The Obama government has continued the
project initiated by Bush president and during his administration he is reported to have
deported more than 2.5 million unauthorized immigrants. To many people’s surprise, he
is the president who has deported the largest number of unauthorized immigrants. He is
even called as the “deporter in chief” by some newspapers.
My paper aims to look at the detention and deportation procedures in America from
the Human Rights framework. The violations of human rights in these procedures are
vast and scattered at the same time, but I intend to explore the violations in Border States
such as Arizona, Texas and New York. I do not attempt to go into details of the poor
treatment and the prison-like conditions in detention centers. Neither do I want to sketch
an overview of all human rights violations to the undocumented immigrants. Instead,
I plan to address some key questions about immigrants’ rights: what rights do they have?
What rights are they deprived of? What is underneath their right deprivation? Before
going to the discussion of rights, I plan to spend some space for the overview of the
history as well as definitions of detention and deportation.
Border control and the protection of sovereignty

The first official statement of the modern idea of sovereignty was made by Jean
Bodin (1529-1596), (quoted by Galina, 2010). According to him, the existence of
sovereignty was needed in the interests of the community. Bodin found that sovereignty
as “indivisible and inalienable” (quoted by Galina, 2010). For Bodin, government cannot
exist without sovereign power because without sovereignty, there will be anarchy. So
sovereignty is the prerequisite for the existence of government. The idea of border control
and sovereignty became more common with the emergence of nation-states in the late 19th
century. Wilsher (2012) posits that the liberal states in the 19th century did not show much
concern about regulating “the border”. With the centralization of power, states exercised
different techniques to identify and regulate migrants. States have the power to “determine
who could enter and remain through the impositions of law requiring the representation
of passports and other documents” (Wilsher, 2012). Likewise, Ngai (2004) contends that
the Western concept of sovereignty is associated with the concept of territorial nation-
state and the ways nation-states regulated immigration. “Rigid border controls, passports,
and the state restrictions on entry and exit became the norms for governing emigration
and immigration” (Ngai, 2004). The border, since the appearance of nation-states, has
had a special meaning to the country’s sovereignty. The border is to distinguish between
neighboring countries, and to set the line between friend and foe. Wilsher (2012) also
believes that the borders mark the division between “identity and otherness”, symbolize
“solidarity and security”, “law and order”, and remind of military confrontation. Bosworth
(2015) seems to agree with Wilsher in this. According to her, they are the “means by which
we know ourselves. She believes that immigrants are “ambiguous figures, strangers” and
their uncertain status “the source and price of our security”. The control over border is
considered by the states as inextricably bound to national security matters. Then, the
protection of sovereignty is tightly related to the control over border and immigration.
Ngai (2004) also attaches sovereignty with nationalism. The nation-state could
proclaim their absolute rights to “self-perseverance” by deciding who should be excluded
and who should be included. Ngai illustrated this by referring to the Supreme Court
ruling that immigration law affects the US control’s foreign affairs, so the Congress has
“absolute power over it”. The nationalists feared that the influx of immigrants would pave
the way for foreign invasion.
Mass immigration is at the core of the foundation of the nation-state in the USA.
The history of immigration in the US, according to Wilsher (2012) is one of the “defining
stories of the modern world”. It is common knowledge that immigrants has created
America as it is today. The rise to the position as the leader of the world and as a global
hegemony has happened thanks to the contribution of immigrants. The paradox is that the
creation of the nation is related to the free movement of people who came to the new land
and settled down, but the fact is that immigration to the country is restricted.
The age of immigration is also the age of immigration control. They are like two
sides of a coin. Wong (2015) states that the authority over immigration control, which
include the decisions to exclude whom, to admit whom is closely tied to state sovereignty.
The state has the rights to manage the movement of people in its territory. It can decide
on “matters of entry, exit, nationality and expulsion” (Arendt, quoted by Wong, 2015).
The concept of immigration detention and deportation
Unauthorized immigrants, illegal immigrants, illegal aliens are all the words referring
to the persons who are present in the territory of the United States without permission
or authorization. Coutin (2010) explains that immigrants become illegal because they
infringe on US territory. Illegal immigrants cannot receive benefits and rights such as
legal citizens. They are denied employment, welfare benefits, in-state tuition, and access
to public universities. These exclusionary practices place immigrants outside of the nation
even though they are physically in the territory of that nation.
Immigration detention is defined as “the holding in detention of individuals suspected

of illegal entry, unauthorized arrival, visa violations, and those subject to procedures for
deportation and removal” (Wong, 2015). The detainees are free to leave that country and
go back to their country, but they are not free to move around in the country they enter
illegally. In that sense, their liberty is deprived. They lose their personal liberty because
restriction over personal liberty was “a necessary part and parcel of immigration control”
(Wilsher, 2012). Dotty and Wheatley (2013) argues that the massive detention of illegal
aliens marks who are physically present but not “legitimate members of the population”.
Dotty and Wheatley mentions the distinction made by Foucault between “the population”
and a “multiplicity of individuals”. The later phrase refers to those who are not part of
the population, those who “disrupt the system” and thus must be controlled appropriately.
For undocumented immigrants, whether they are detained or not, “illegality” disciplines
most aspects of their life.
Deportation is defined by Peutz and Genova (2010) as the mandatory expulsion of
“aliens” from the “physical, juridical and social space of the state”. They postulate that
like detention, deportation is the means of protecting state sovereignty from people who
disrespect and violate the boundaries of “the nation”. What is more, according to them,
deportation is the response of “a regime” that produces and normalizes the notions of
sovereignty, citizenship, public health, national identity, cultural homogeneity, racial
purity, and class privilege. They also note that deportation is not a local and peculiar
response, but a global reaction to the human’s transnational movement and the unified
attempt to control the freedom of movement claimed by many people.
Ngai (2004) also stresses that illegal immigrants are constituted with the possibility
of being removed or deported. The threat is posed by the state power to detain and remove
illegal immigrants. “The threat remains in the temporal and spatial lag that exists between
the act of unlawful entry and apprehension of deportation (if in fact, the illegal alien is
ever caught)”.
Illegal aliens who cross borders and get caught are kept in detention, waiting for
deportation. Undocumented immigrants, if identified, are kept in detention facilities, waiting
for deportation. Bosworth (2014) states that the detention facilities allow the state to collect
documentation to admit or expel newly arrived immigrants, while “cordoning off those who
may be removed or deported”. In Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, Foucault
(1979) presented how confinement functions as tool for social control. Although the aim of
detention is not to punish, the theory laid out by Foucault can be helpful. Dotty and Wheatley
(2013) looks at immigration detention at the framework of the economy of power. Dotty
and Wheatley (2013) understands that for Foucault, the economy of power in the immigrant
detention system displays many tactics. “The warehousing of undocumented immigrants
is consistent with Foucault’s conceptualizations of how power functions in society”.
She elaborates that in the process of managing the immigrants, state power thrives. The
issue of management the immigration issue becomes an important part of statecraft, from
which some groups of people gain power and influence while the other gain none.
The state prisons, local prisons and private prisons are made use of to contain detainees.
A clear distinction is made between criminal prisoners and detainees: detainees are not
dangerous prisoners. However, being held in prison facilities, detainees are considered
the same as prisoners, “dangerous and undeserving” (Boswoth, 2014). Prisoners have to
serve their time because they commit a crime and the time they serve functions to help
them reintegrate later when they are released. On the other hand, detention does not aim to
reintegrate. Detainees are unwelcome and deportable. Prisoners maintain their status as part
of the community when they are in prisons, detainees “cannot belong” (Bosworth, 2014).
Mountz, Coddington, Catania and Loyd (2012) state that detention and deportation
function as a tool to regulate immigration by ways of exclusion. The detention and
deportation of migrants, according to them, is justified by the fear of the unknown. Migrants
can threaten citizens because their identity is unclear to the state. Their strangeness can
allow them to do anything that can endanger national security. Detention then exclude
the strangers, and contain them in the controlled zone. Inside the detention facilities, the
migrants become knowable; their identities are fixed. However, their identities are figured
out in the sense of detainment and deportability. At the same time, “detention works
to contain migrant bodies though confinement, remoteness and persistent surveillance”
(Mountz, Coddington, Catania and Loyd, 2012). Detention centers are in remote areas,
which distance detainees from their family and legal support. Detention facilities can be
on islands, rural areas. The design of the detention centers also functions to disconnect
detainees from outside world: fences emphasize the separation. These authors in their
article also present an interesting finding: detention centers are to confine detainees and
prevent them from free movement but their detention is attached to mobility because they
keep being moved around between different centers. Scattering and transferring detainees
among detention centers disconnect them from the world and make them invisible
(Mountz, 2012). On the other hand, detention centers also construct a body of “collective
threats”. Their collective identity as a danger becomes more visible when they are kept
in detention centers.
2. DISCUSSION OF RIGHTS
2.1. Deprivation of rights

In the aftermath of World War I, many people were forced out of their birth place
and became stateless. In that refugee crisis, Arendt (1951) observed the relation between
the Human Rights and the protection of the state. She analyzed that people who were
without a government enjoyed no human rights because they lived in the state of complete
lawlessness. The French Revolution had mentioned the Rights of Man but attached it
with national sovereignty. The Rights of Man are inalienable because no authority or no
government is needed for its protection. “The people’s sovereignty was not proclaimed
by the grace of God but in the name of Man”. The Rights of Man in the Enlightenment
secularism chose Man himself as the ultimate goal and source of the equality of rights. Yet,
Arendt contended that the problem with the Rights of Man, as the refugee crisis in Europe
has shown, is that they cannot be exercised without a government, a state sovereignty.
Only citizens of a wealthy and strong country could enjoy “Inalienable human rights”.
She came to the realization of the existence of a right to have rights. Only man with the
protection of a government could have a right to rights. As she stated “The world found
nothing sacred in the abstract nakedness of being human”, the Rights of Man cannot
operate without a political sphere.
In the conversation about the subject of the Rights of Man, Ranciere goes further than
Adrent to conclude that “the Rights of Man are the Rights of those who have not the rights
that they have and have the rights that they have not”. Although Ranciere takes into account
the cases of poor and unpoliticized people even with a national community, he agrees
with Adrent in the abstraction of Rights of Man. Even though Human Rights norms have
been recognized on the international scale, their enforcement is still national, depending
on state sovereignty. Maher (2002) and Donnelly (2013) both argue that the International
Human Rights norms have been used mostly by state as a reference framework in their
relation with its citizens. Donnelly (2013) describes them as “supervisory mechanisms”
while Maher (2002) uses the phrase “standards for state obligations”.
The rights of undocumented immigrants are the exemplar of the abstraction of the
Rights of Man. Maher examines the violations of political and social rights of undocumented
immigrants. The concept of undocumented immigrants cannot be construed without the threat
of deportation and many employers are well aware of this. Maher reports cases of workers
who have to work for low wages because their employers threatened to expose them to the
INS. They cannot organize strike to demand for more labor rights in fear of being exposed.
Immigration literature has shown that migration exists as a pattern and is spurred by the
relationship between the receiving and sending states, not only by the individual pursuit of
great economic opportunities. The post-Fordist industrial South Western states now just require
people to do manual entry-level jobs and immigrants seem perfectly fit for those jobs. There
are jobs that are dominantly done by immigrants and then become “immigrant jobs”. People
get used to the 3D (dirty, dangerous, demeaning) jobs that are often done by immigrants. In
addition to labor rights, undocumented immigrants also have limited rights to healthcare and
education. The 1996 federal welfare reform denied noncitizens most forms of assistance such
as educational loans, unemployment compensation and housing assistance.
California was the first progressive state to give rights to undocumented immigrants in
2015. The LA times was proud of their own state when commenting that those rights and
protection are “unprecedented”. The undocumented immigrants can have access to in-state
intuition and driver licenses in California. Despite that fact, Governor Brown acknowledged
that their actions were urged by the stall by the Congress in immigration reform. He added
that their victory was nothing without national reform. In fact, California is one the few
states with high population of immigrants that advocate for the rights of undocumented
immigrants. Arizona passed the bill SB1611 in 2011. The passage of that bill would mean
that the birthright citizenship to children of undocumented immigrants is denied, parents
need to show their legal residence document if they want to enroll for their school in public
schools, undocumented immigrants’ driver licenses are not authorized, undocumented
students cannot attend state college or any kind of funding aids, and hospitals are required
to inquire about the patients’ legal status. The sponsors of the bill tried several times to pass
these anti-immigration laws in an attempt to push back what they called “an invasion”.
Although these laws have come up against a lot of controversy and court hearings, they send
a very clear message: undocumented immigrants should be deprived of all social and political
rights. This is, as Maher (2002) describes, “a political culture in which universal personhood
continues to be subordinated to citizenship as the basis for rights”. The binary division
into citizens and aliens rests on the notion of contract and property. The undocumented
immigrants are portrayed and imagined as lawbreakers, criminals, trespassers who have
their rights deprived because they violate the law, and the contract.
Not only do they have limited access to education and healthcare, undocumented
immigrants in the US have also experienced other basic rights violation in the detention
and deportation procedures. Senate Bill 1070, which was passed in 2010 in Arizona,
mandates traffic police to stop drivers and ask for immigrant documents. Basically, police
can stop anyone whom they suspect as an illegal alien. If that person does not have any
documents to prove his legal presence, he or she will be held to wait for the INS to
come and detain them. Senate bill 1611 even requires schools and hospitals to report their
illegal immigrant students and patients to the authority and anyone who knows about
illegal resident to inform the authority, or else they will be punished. In upstate New York,
even though there is no such law, there is evidence that police stopped undocumented
immigrants in a parking lot when they were going grocery shopping and inquired about
their documentation. These immigrant workers were then detained and deported. What
is noteworthy is that in most of these cases, the people who are stopped are Hispanics.
As Ngai (2004) observes that Hispanics in general and Mexicans in particular are made
“iconic illegal aliens”, Hispanics or Mexicans are characterized by their illegal status and
their exclusion from the national community. The passage of these laws have allowed
legal racial profiling since the police have been reported to determine who to stop by
their skin color and their appearance. Many Hispanics legal residents are stopped for
documentation as well. The aforementioned part has proved that US immigration law is
infamous for its racial history when its selection of who to include and exclude has been
based on race. The act of racial profiling by the police is just the continuation of its long
discriminatory history.
These undocumented immigrants do not have rights to residence and to work. When
they stay illegally and work without permission, they transgress the law and may be held
for criminal punishment. Yet, Arendt (1951) made an interesting point: if the stateless
people are captured and detained, it is the chance for them to regain some human equality.
By that Arendt meant stateless people are invisible and receive no equal treatment like
citizens, so they become an anomaly. In the case of undocumented immigrants, their
detention marks their transformation from invisibility into visibility and also the chance
to gain of human equality even though that may be the exception to the norm.
2.2. Freedom of movement and deportation

When we think of freedom of movement, what comes to our mind is the liberty to
move and settle on new lands, as humans of many generations have done. The United
Nations which was founded in 1948 and its Universal Declaration of Human Rights
proclaim the freedom of movement as the basic right of Man. However, Genova (2010)
points out that that kind of freedom cannot be implemented without limitations and
restrictions. He states that although Arendt considered the freedom of movement as the
most “elementary” and “prototypical” right of human beings, that basic freedom has
been subject to political neglect and only existed in theory. Maher (2002) agrees, adding
that migration has caused significant challenges to the nation-state and international
system implementation of rights. While the nation-state prioritizes exclusive political
memberships for its citizens, international waves of migration “creates deterritorialized,
transnational communities”, ethnically diverse population and “internal distinctions in
terms of legal statuses and rights”.
Deportation, as discussed above, is the manifestation of the state sovereignty on
human mobility. Genova posits that deportation has become a global regime which deploys
the concept of “citizenship and alienage, belonging and deportability, entitlement and
rightlessness”. The freedom of movement, according to him, the life in barest essential
condition. The ability to move freely is critically important to human life because it
provides and guarantees basic human power, in which the formulation of social life is
rooted. Genova also contends that the ability to move and to labor is what distinguishes
between naked human life (human existence as a species) and a distinct form of human
way of life. Undocumented immigrants’ life as a life in its bare form has to sustain itself by
labor. Detention and deportation enforced by the state power attempt to remove this bare
life out of the territory and obstruct their livelihood. The bare life has been characterized
as the threshold “where the relation between the living being and the sociopolitical order
is substantiated”, and where the state decides the fate of living men and women “within
its normative order”.
2.3. Inside immigration detention center

Two biggest private prison corporations in the US are Corrections Corporation of
America (CCA) and the GEO Groups. The smaller but noteworthy private prisons are
Asset Protection and Security Services L.P, and Ahtha Technical Service Incorporated.
Both Corrections Corporations of America (CCA) and GEO Group receive around ten
percent of their revenue directly from US Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE)
(Dotty and Wheatley, 2013). CCA opened the first private immigration detention centers
in Houston, Texas in 1984 (Dow, 2004). And it is the largest corporation in private prison
industry. In 2009, 44 facilities were owned and operated by CCA and 21 facilities were not
owned but managed by CCA. GEO group is the second largest private prison company in
the United States. Now GEO group operates 65 corrections and detention facilities in the
United States. In fiscal year 2012, CCA and GEO are recorded to have gained the annual
revenues of $1,8 billion and $1.5 billion.
The criminalization of immigrants, the process which has turn immigrants into dangerous
and imminent threats, has been used many scholars and critics when they discuss the way US
government handles immigrant problem. After September 11th, immigrants were determined
as potentially risky groups. The process of incarceration of immigrants is accompanied with
the privatization of prison. This privatization of private prisons and detention centers has been
prompted by neoliberal belief that governments need to cut tax spending on building and
managing new public prisons. Another reason, proposed by Dotty and Wheatley (2013) is the
“attrition through enforcement”. The philosophy is that if undocumented immigrants find life
in the US extremely harsh, they will leave this country. The private detentions have benefited
from this argument. The government seems willing to give detainees to them and seems to
have no intention of controlling the prison conditions strictly.
The government’s lenience can account for the poor treatment to detainees in detention
facilities. The LA Times keeps reporting the cases of migrant children who attempted to
cross the border and were arrested. These children are held in detention facilities for
family, which are more like prisons. According to LA Times statistics, amily detention was
expanded in 2015 into three centers, two in Texas and one in Pennsylvania, after 66,000
families were caught crossing the border. Contrary to what government officials described
as short term and humane detention, Texas detention centers are deemed by Raul Grijalva
as “very moving, and very very depressing-and for our country, very embarrassing”.
CARA, a project that provides free pro bono legal services for these families, criticized
these detention centers for the lack of medical services for sick children.
Another problem with immigrant incarnation is the constant transfer of detainees to

remote detention facilities far away from the original detention facilities which are near
their place of residence. The Human Rights Watch Group has particularly to the problem
caused by the transfer on the detainees’ rights. The Human Rights Watch statistics show
that in ten years from 1999 to 2008, there were 1.4 million detainee transfers. Although
transfers are necessary and common in private detention facilities to reduce overcrowding
and deal with medical needs, Human Rights Watch group report also shows that many
transfers are unnecessary and costly. These transfers interfere in the communication
between the detainees and their attorney. The US laws give detainees certain rights, one
of which is the right to by represented by attorney in court hearings. Being moved away
suddenly and unable to inform their attorney, the detainees may have difficulty later in
retaining their relationship that they have built with the attorney. Many attorneys have
expressed their concern over the disruption in meeting with their clients who are hundreds
or thousands of miles away, and the distance between the key witness and evidence
and the detainees. Most of them have a scheduled “bond hearing”, which examines the
lawfulness of the detention but the ICE policy of transferring often delays those hearings.
“In addition, transferred detainees are often unable to produce the kinds of witnesses
(such as family members or employers) that are necessary to obtain bond, which means
that they usually remain in detention”.
2.4. State of exception

Arendt (1951) brought up the notion of the state of exception. According to her,
people who live outside the state legal recognition need the protection for their rights
from an outside body. They are the anomaly and need exceptional administration. It is
not that undocumented immigrants do not have any rights at all. Different immigrant
advocacy groups have utilized various right claims in their groups. DREAMERS recourse
to nationalism in their claim to US citizenship. And their deferral of deportation was
successfully passed by Congress. Other groups use the amount of money paid through tax
by undocumented immigrants as the evidence for contribution and then worthiness to be
naturalized. CARA provides free pro bono legal services for detained families in Texas
facilities. Immigration advocates fought for the rejection of Senate Bill 1611 in Arizona.
Senate Bill 1070 which was passed in 2010 now seemed to back down since September
2016, when police officials are required to stop drivers if they have any other suspicion,
not just illegal residence. Grass-root Immigrant rights groups can manage to protest for
undocumented immigrants’ rights with some extent of success despite their statelessness
and lack of International intervention from any Human Rights agency.
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report/2009/12/02/locked-far-away/transfer-immigrants-remote-detention-centers-united-states
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APPLICATION OF PROJECT-BASED LEARNING
IN TEACHING COMMUNICATION SKILLS IN ENGLISH
TO ENGINEERING STUDENTS
Phan Thị Ngọc Lệ, Ph.D1
Abstract: There is no doubt that English is of great significance to engineering students

in academic life where having good communication competence is a must for them to deal
with most of theories in engineering taught in English. The purpose of the present study
is to shed light on application of project-based learning in teaching English as a foreign
language to engineering students in Vietnam National University. A total of 21 Engineering-
majored students in the Fast-tracked program participated in a project designed on the basis
of project-based learning. The findings from the project combined with the questionnaires
given at the end of the semester help the researcher come to the conclusion that project-
based learning is an ideal teaching method since it enables engineering students not only
to improve significantly their oral and written communication skills but also to apply the
content knowledge in their major in the English language course. It is hoped that this study
can provide researchers and teachers with useful implication for using English as a medium
of instruction in sciences related subjects.
Key words: project-based learning, engineering students, communication skills.
1. INTRODUCTION
According to Riemer (2007), engineering graduates require an ever-increasing
range of skills to maintain relevance with the global environment of the new millennium.
Therefore, in order to gain success in the global arena, it is necessary for engineering
graduate to acquire a sufficient level of communication skills which are considered to be
a valuable career enhancer. At present, it can be seen that Vietnam National University
has made a great effort to train engineering students to perform their future professional
activity in compliance with the global engineering standards. All engineering students,
especially in Fast-tracked programs are enabled to learn in authentic contexts including
English classes, electronic learning courses, conferences…which persistently require
them to use English as a foreign language (EFL) to pursue educational, research, and
professional interests.
1
University of Languages and International Studies, VNU; Email: lehang6778@gmail.com
APPLICATION OF PROJECT-BASED LEARNING IN TEACHING COMMUNICATION SKILLS IN ENGLISH... 151
Being appointed as the teacher for first-year engineering students for two semesters of
this year 2017 – 2018, the researcher had a chance to approach and teach English to them.
During this time, some specific problems related to writing and speaking were identified.
It can be seen that in most cases, students did not know how to communicate effectively in
English, especially when questioned about their professional interests and career. It seems,
therefore, necessary that engineering students should be given a method that helps them
to promote their own interest in their professional knowledge and interests. Consequently,
the researcher really wanted specific actions to be implemented so that the changes could
be brought out and solutions could finally come up with to solve the problems. There is no
doubt that the application of problem-based learning in engineering curricula is regarded
as one of the most efficient ways to enhance students’ learning, and it has been considered
to be an effective way to prepare students for professional careers (Litzinger et al., 2011;
Jollands et al., 2012). Lu (2007) stated that students who participate in activities focused
on problem-based learning are more proactive, communicate better, know how to work
in groups, and stand out as top professionals due to their practical application of their
acquired knowledge to a solve a professional problem.
The desire in improving the situation in EFL class for engineering students has
inspired and urged the researcher to accomplish the present study entitled “Application
of Project-Based Learning in Teaching Communication Skills in English to Engineering
Students” in the hope of making my students have a progress in English learning, which
ultimately leads to their competence in their professional career in the future.
2. CONTENTS OF STUDY
2.1. Theoretical Background
2.1.1. Definition of Project-based learning

In terms of definition, several studies have revealed some main aspects of project-
based learning. Following are three main viewpoints supported by the researcher.
One early definition for project-based learning was given by Adderley et al. (1975).
For them, project-based learning involves five distinct aspects: (i) resolution of a problem
that can be proposed by the students themselves, though it is not required to be; (ii)
initiative to solve the problem comes from the students and requires integration of a
range of educational activities; (iii) delivery of a final product, coherent with the initial
problem; (iv) the solution for the problem will usually be handled as a project and (v)
changing the role of the instructor from an authoritarian position to a consultant position.
More recently, Thomas (2000) mentioned five core criteria for project-based learning:
(i) centralization – fundamental strategy to the development of activities; (ii) existence of
a “driving” question; (iii) necessity of a constructive investigation – by the students; (iv)

incentive to autonomy and (v) realism – focusing on problems related to students’ reality.
Sharing some similar ideas with two above researchers, Powell & Weenk (2003)
considered project-based learning to involve students working in teams to solve concrete
problems using the theory in practice. Furthermore, the students also need to delegate
tasks for each group member and integrate the different pasts into the final project.
From the above definitions, the researcher can come to the conclusion that project-
based learning is an active learning method which aims to engage students in acquiring
knowledge and skills through real-world experiences and well-planned activities.
2.1.2. The role of project-based learning in teaching English as a foreign language

Extensive research has already been done in the area of the influence of project-
based learning on EFL classes. Almost all researchers have agreed on the fact that project-
based learning can enable learners both to develop communication skills and practice the
content knowledge in professionally oriented contexts.
First, Tudor (1996) emphasized one advantage of project-based learning in an English
language classroom in the transfer of responsibility for the management of learning
from teacher to learners. According to Kloppenborg & Baucus (2004), learning through
project-based learning is helpful for learners because they exhibit their abilities to plan,
manage, and accomplish projects through their content knowledge and language skills.
Besides, project-based learning is regarded as student-centred since students are driven
by the need to create an end-product which brings them opportunities to develop their
confidence and independence in learning EFL (Fried-Booth, 2012).
It can be seen from these above opinions that project-based learning is a dynamic approach
to teaching in which students explore real-world problems and challenges, simultaneously
developing cross-curriculum skills while working in small collaborative groups.
2.2. The study
2.2.1. Background
The study included 21 undergraduate students, 20 males and 1 female, majoring
in Engineering and Technology of Fast-tracked program and enrolled in an EFL course
at University of Engineering and Technology, Vietnam National University during the
2017-2018 academic year. All students were first-year students with an average age of 18.
Project-based learning in a form of a field-trip project was offered to students with
several aims following: (i) to enlarge the learners’ vocabulary knowledge to help them
apply content knowledge in the field of study and language skills; (ii) to develop their
motivation and self-confidence in using EFL with the great emphasis on speaking and
writing skills.
2.2.2. Implementation of the field-trip project

The project occupied three weeks of an EFL course’s time with four classes in
a week in addition to the learners’ individual work outside the classes. The field-trip
project named as “Video production and showcasing” required students to introduce the
university or a specific department or a club or a specific activity at university related to
engineering and technology. It was divided into five main stages each having its particular
goal to be achieved.
The first stage named “Planning your field-trip” included a number of tasks
performed by the students as followings:
1. Working in groups to choose the most suitable subtopic for their group.
2. Compiling reading sources related to their university, majors, some activities
related to engineering and technology held at university.
3. Preparing the outline for a scene script including content, general description
about the mail topic, script, performers…
Once the students were aware of their topic and how to implement it in English, they
could move to the second stage of the project work named as “Writing a detail script”.
The learners were asked to write a detailed script for their group. A series of tasks was
offered to the students to do before they presented their final drafts of detailed scripts.
First, the students were introduced to an authentic sample of a detailed script and got
familiar with its sections. Second, they worked in groups to discuss content of each scene
in the script and assign tasks among members for each scene including acting, movie
recording, directing, inserting slide instructions, editing the final production. In this
step, the division of work must ensure that all team members must appear and perform
presentation in video (3-5 minutes per member). Finally, the learners were advised to
prepare some supplementary materials and equipments for their performance.
At the third stage “Implementing the product”, the students coordinated to implement,
improve the product including 1 video on the topic of selection with the presence of
all members. In the video, the students could create an imaginary situation to give an
overview and narrate the characteristics of the place/ activity/ technological products at
university. Interviews could be conducted with some visitors asking about their feelings
and they were required to use English to present in the video.
The fourth stage of the project named as “Discussion and reflection guideline”
allowed teachers to answer the students’ questions, give suggestions on the scripting and
content of the groups. Furthermore, the students were introduced to the sample reflection,
and talked more specifically about the structure and content of the reflection.
Finally, there were four video presentations at “The field-trip report Day” held at the
end of the course. The students were graded based on the following two criteria including
Presentation Group and Group Reflection. It is worth mentioning that peer assessment
was encouraged at this stage in addition to writing comments on peers’ videos which is
thought to be a vital component of EFL learning.
The products of each group were assessed by the lecturer as well as the students in
accordance with the selected criteria. They are as follows:
1. Products submitted by the group
+ Field-trip Video (Audio quality, image, title, content, layout, link)
+ Field-trip Reflection (presentation, layout, linkage, language used)
2. Presentation (Oral Presentation)
+ Contents: (Include all required fields: content of field-trip, preparation phase,
difficulties encountered, points of interest, benefits of fieldtrip implementation)
+ Delivery: slides, full members, confidence and cooperation, connection with
viewers.
+ Layout presentation: Organization
+ Q & A: Is the question right?; Does it attract the attention of the audience?
According to the conditions of the contest, the group with the highest average score
was chosen to be a winner of the project work.
2.2.3. Research Questions

On meeting the purpose and objectives of the research, the study concentrates on the
three following research questions:
1. What is the result of the application of project-based learning in teaching
communication skills in English to engineering students?
2. What is the attitude of engineering students to the application of project-based
learning in teaching communication skills in English?
3. What are the main difficulties that engineering students encounter when
implementing project work?
2.3. Methodology
From the nature of the study subject and research purposes, this study uses the
following research methods.
In terms of the first research question, Statistical method consisting of inference

statistics and descriptive statistics was used. Descriptive statistics was applied to data
collection, summarization, calculation, and characterization of the main results of the
groups’ products and presentation. Inferential statistical method was used for data
collection from the preliminary analysis of the results from the groups’ products and
presentations, leading to the estimation of the effectiveness of project-based learning to
EFL classes.
As regards the second and third research question, Questionnaire method was
used. Likert scale was adopted to reveal the participants’ attitudes and behaviors. The
participants only had to select the number that was closest to their opinions; therefore,
even not very enthusiastic ones could feel comfortable to answer all the questions. Further
information was obtained through the open-ended questions, which is believed to provide
the researcher with more helpful and reliable data.
2.4. Results and Discussions
2.4.1. Research question 1: What is the result of the application of project-based learning in teaching
communication skills in English to engineering students?
The products of each group were assessed by the lecturer as well as the students
in accordance with the selected criteria. The grading of each fieldtrip Project work was
illustrated in the Table 1 below.
Table 1. Grading of Field-trip Project Work
Fieldtrip video Reflection Oral Presentation Total score

Group No Final grade
(40%) (30%) (30%) (max 10 pts)
1 8.7 8.3 9 8.7 Good
2 8.5 7.8 8.4 8.3 Satisfactory
3 9.3 8.8 9.5 9.2 Excellent
4 8.6 8.7 9.0 8.8 Good
The findings (see Table 1) allowed the researcher to come to the conclusion that the
engineering student’s field-trip projects on the topic of “Video production and showcasing”
were performed at a good level and generally got positive evaluation from the teacher
as well as the peers. Specially, one out of four groups received the “excellent” grade,
whereas two groups got the “good” and the remaining one was graded “satisfactory”. It is
noted that the results of each section ranged in a small margin, so it enabled the researcher
to conclude that all engineering students in class made a progress and there were not
many differences in the performance of students.
2.4.2. Research question 2: What is the attitude of engineering students to the application of project-based
learning in teaching communication skills in English?
A total of 21 engineering students were participated in the project-based learning
(PBL), in which 20 were boys and only 1 was girl. To get the feedback from the students
about some aspects of project-based learning, they were asked to fill in a questionnaire
including 10 closed-ended questions.
Table 2. The attitude of students toward project-based learning
Item of questionnaire Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly

(%) (%) (%) (%) Disagree (%)
Continuation of PBL in subsequent 8 (38.1) 11 (52.4) 2 (9.5) 0 0
courses
Satisfied and motivated with PBL 10 (47.6) 7 (33.3) 4 (19.1) 0 0
As can be seen clearly from Table 2, 90.5% (38.1% and 52.4% were strongly agreed
and agreed, respectively) students gave their consent for the continuation of PBL in
subsequent courses and 80.9% showed their agreement that project-based learning made
them feel satisfied and motivated in their English learning. Few students were uncertain
in their reply to the question whether they wished to continue carrying out project in the
next courses or not.
Table 3. The attitude of students toward group dynamics and team-based learning
Item of questionnaire Strongly Agree (%) Neutral Disagree Strongly
Agree (%) (%) (%) Disagree (%)
Development of group 5 (23.8) 10(47.6) 6 (28.6) 0 0
dynamics in PBL
Building collaboration from 9 (42.9) 7 (33.3) 5 (23.8) 0 0
team-based learning in project
One positive result from the questionnaire is that students were inclined to use
group dynamics and team-based learning in project. From Table 3, it can be seen that no
students denied the role of PBL in developing the group dynamics and collaboration in
team working.
In terms of the perception of students on enhancement of knowledge and different
skills, most of the students found that the project really helped them expand their own
knowledge in which the project was based with 85.8 % showing strong agreement and
agreement. All students admitted to improve their communication skills, their self-
confidence in using English as well as some skills in making use of technology like
designing power point presentations and making videos, which is considered very vital
for engineers’ professional training. All the data were illustrated in Table 4 below.
Table 4. The attitude of students toward enhancement of knowledge and different skills
Item of questionnaire Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly
Agree (%) (%) (%) (%) Disagree (%)
Enhancement of knowledge in which 9 (42.9) 9 (42.9) 3 (14.2) 0 0
the project was based
Enhancement of self-confidence in 12 (57.1) 9 (42.9) 0 0 0
using English in PBL
Enhancement of communication 10 (47.6) 11 0 0 0
skills by PBL (52.4)
Enhancement of vocabulary relevant 7 (33.3) 10 4 (19.1) 0 0
to their field of study (47.6)
Enhancement of video making skills 17 (80.9) 4 (19.1) 0 0 0
Enhancement of presentation skills 15 (71.4) 5 (28.6) 0 0 0
2.4.3. Research question 3: What are the main difficulties that engineering students encounter when
implementing project work?
Although almost all engineering students considered project-based learning as
productive for the development of their professional field, when being asked to tick some
suggested challenges from the questionnaire the students marked a number of difficulties they
encountered when implementing the project. The results were presented in the chart below.
Chart 1: Difficulties of students in implementing project work
The factor that should be paid most attention is that lacking English vocabulary
relevant to students’ field of study caused 57% of students having trouble in their project
implementation. Besides, it is followed by the difficulty of brainstorming and assigning
tasks, which made it hard for students to write a detailed script. This difficulty accounted
for 33% of students. Not many students found it difficult to prepare the reflection after
the fieldtrip (14%), especially only 5% of students had trouble caused by pressure in
presenting their projects in English in front of class. This difficulty holds the smallest
proportion among the suggested problems in the table.
3. CONCLUSION
This research was conducted with subjects who are all the first-year students majoring
in engineering and technology. The findings from fieldtrip work and questionnaires given
to students at the end of the semester were presented with tables and charts. All being
considered, the results of this exploratory study highlighted the necessity and feasibility
of project-based learning in teaching communication skills in English for second year
students at University of Engineering and Technology, VNU. In the first place, the study
allowed us to conclude that the application of project-based learning has a positive
effect on the development of the students’ EFL proficiency in implementing fieldtrip
related to their engineering activity. Besides, the project work brought many benefits to
engineering students because it could create such learning contexts where students can
both practice a variety of communication skills and apply the content knowledge in the
field of their study in a meaningful way. As the study moved into investigating some
difficulties students encountered during the project, it can help the researcher draw some
lessons in teaching methods. More preparation should be done by the lecturer before each
group starts to carry out their project as this would enable them to gain more vocabulary
relevant to their field and use them in real life contexts. Besides, the lecturer should
spend more time introducing script writing sample to students, give them more guidance
in preparation of writing and reading skills to acquire, analyze information, which was
required to make a video presentation and compile a reflection after the fieldtrip. If further
research is allowed, the researcher hopes to conduct a large survey with more cooperative
and representative respondents for more precise and reliable findings.
REFERENCES
1. Adderley, K., Ashwin, C., Bradbury, P., Freeman, J., Goodlad, J., & Greene, D., Jenkins, J.
R. & Uren, O. (1975), Project methods in Higher Education, Guilford: Society for Research
into Higher Education.
2. Fried-Booth, D.L. (2012), Project work, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
3. Jollands, M., Jolly, L., & Molyneaux, T. (2012), “Project-based learning in post-secondary
education: theory, practice and rubber sling shots”, Higher Education 51(2), pp.287-314.
4. Kloppenborg, T. J., Baucus, M. S. (2004), “Project management in local nonprofit
organizations : Engaging students in problem-based learning”, Journal of Management
Education 28, pp.610-630.
5. Litzinger, T. A., Lattuca, L. R., Hadgraft, R., & Newsletter, W. (2011), “Engineering
education and the development of expertise”, The Journal of Engineering Education 100(1),
pp.123-150.
6. Lu, S. Y. (2007), “A scientific foundation on collaborative engineering”, International

Academy for Production Engineering 56(2), pp.605-634.
7. Riemer, M. J. (2007), “Communication skills for the 21st century engineer”, Global Journal
of Engineering Education 11 (1), pp.89-100.
8. Powell, P., Weenk, W. (2003), Project-Led Engineering Education, Ultrecht: Lemma
Publisher.
9. Thomas, J. (2000), A review of research on project-based learning, San Rafael: Autodesk
Foundation.
10. Tudor, I. (1996), Learner-centredness as Language Education, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
CONTENT-BASED INSTRUCTION IN TEACHING TOURISM
Nguyễn Thị Thanh Nga1
Abstract: Recent years in the tourism system of Vietnam have witnessed increasing the demand
of the market for an international tour guide. However, the teaching of tourism English cannot
meet the demand of the market. When some universities started offering specialization courses
in English or other languages, the problem of matching objectives of the courses with the aim
of improving English language competence. The article depicts the situation of the School of
Hospitality and Tourism at Hue University, where using of Content-Based Instruction. It
organizes teaching activities according to subject content, which can stimulate the students’
interest and internal motivation, improve the students’ autonomous learning ability and
teaching effect and cultivate the students’ vocational ability and teamwork spirit.
Keywords: content-based instruction, foreign languages, teaching tourism English.
1. INTRODUCTION
Embedded with a vision to “Build School of Hospitality and Tourism – Hue University
to be the high quality and renowned establishment for tourism, education and academic
research, a prestigious provider of tourism-related science and technology services, incubator
for qualified tourism work force that meets international standard”, School of Hospitality
and Tourism (HAT) – Hue University specializes in high quality education services,
academic research and dynamic international cooperation, with regards to rich history
and strong foundation of Hue University – “to be one of the largest regional universities,
a leading center of tourism education and research, as well as cultural exchange in the
Central region”. Located in Hue, the city of festival tourism, HAT provides practice-oriented
courses using dynamic work integrated learning methods. Center for Practice and Corporate
Partnership makes in-class case studies interesting and enjoyable. The partnerships with
established education institutions and local businesses give students hands-on, real-life
experience through internships and field visits. These have made students’ study a unique
and distinguished experience. HAT offers students boundless opportunities for high quality
education in tourism and in turn provides a skilled workforce for the industry. It plays a
crucial role in boosting the competitive advantages of the tourism industry, contributing to
tourism development in Central region – Highlands and Vietnam.
1
School of Hospitality and Tourism, Hue university
nguyenthithanhnga19791@gmail.com
CONTENT-BASED INSTRUCTION IN TEACHING TOURISM 161
In parallel with the increase of international tourist, teaching tourism in English

started popularity. With the start of commencing the specialization courses in English,
mostly at the Department of School of Hospitality and Tourism, there was a search for
efficient methods in combining field-related competences with the English language
competencies. Content-Based Instruction (CBI) could serve as a starting point, so it
was used in some courses. In our paper, we tried to analyze the situation at the Faculty
of Tourism, with specific attention to the educational objectives and results. Moreover,
we would like to introduce the task-based syllabus design which takes an essential role
contributed to the successful of the courses.
2. CONTENT-BASED INSTRUCTION (CBI)

The definition of Content-based Instruction and its theoretical basis go as follows.
Content-based instruction arose in the western world in the 1960s. During its development
process, different scholars at home and abroad defined this concept differently. According
to Richards & Rodgers (2001), “Content-based instruction is a method using in second
language teaching. It advocates class organization should be based on the content or
information which needs to be obtained by students, rather than based on linguistics or
other kinds of teaching syllabus”. The content-based instruction is a kind of teaching
concept rather than teaching method. It insists that the direct goal of the study is the
learning of content rather than the mastering of the language.
Following to Krashen’s theory of Second Language Acquisition and Input Hypothesis
Theory, content-based instruction provides foreign language learners with a real and
meaningful language environment, and helps them to organize class activities on the basis
of the topic’s content. Krashen believes that the “sheltered subject-matter teaching” is the
most effective method for foreign language teaching. It means students should learn through
a real, meaningful language context, and through the meaning construction method.
Savichuk (2010) insists that CBI has become increasingly popular as a means of
developing linguistic ability in a great variety of educational contexts. The philosophy
of this methodological paradigm aims at encouraging students to learn a new language
by using it from the first class as a real means of communication. Using content-based
instruction not only in language teaching, but also reversely, in teaching different courses
in foreign language focuses on what is being taught through the language. Language
becomes the medium through which something new is learned. Students learn the foreign
language while using it to learn new content in Tourism, Economics, etc. The language
being learned and used becomes taught within the context of the content.
A brief discussion of each follows, we have deeply understood about the concept of
CBI. Firstly, CBI removes the arbitrary distinction between language and content. The
second, it reflects the interests and the needs of the learners. Third, it takes into account
the eventual uses of the learners will to make use of the foreign language. It exposes
the learners to authentic materials and tasks. Fourth, it offers optimal conditions for
second language acquisition by exposing learners to meaningful, cognitively demanding
language. Last but not least, the most important thing in conducting specialization courses,
will promote their motivation. Students will be able to use more advanced thinking skills
when learning new information. This approach is very student-centered as it depends
entirely on the students’ ability to use the language.
3. MODELS OF CONTENT-BASED INSTRUCTION

Prototype models of content-based instruction differ in design and implementation
depending on a multiplicity of factors among which educational setting. The level and
nature of instruction are of primary relevance. CBI models are commonly applied in
foreign language settings, whereas others are more typical in second language contexts.
The varying degree of emphasis put on either language or content that underlines each
particular program affects the nature of the model in substantial terms, generating a
continuum which places “content-driven” models at one end and “language-driven
models” at the other extremity. This continuum is envisioned by Met (1999:7) as follows:
Figure 1: Content-based language teaching.
Content-driven Language-driven
Total Partial Sheltered Adjunct Theme-based Language Classes with Frequent Use
Immersion Immersion Courses Model Courses of Content for Language Practice
(Source: A Continuum of Content and Language Integration. Met (1999:7))
Although the amount of and emphasis on language and content variability in the models are
showed above, all paradigms incorporate both components in a systematic and integral manner,
with existing individual peculiarities depending on the objectives of the course or program, the
target student population, and the particular idiosyncrasy of the instructional context.
The immersion paradigm is one of the most carefully researched language teaching
models in primary – and sometimes secondary – education (Cumming, 1987; Genesee,
1987; Johnson & Swain, 1977). Referring to ESL programs in the US, for instance, it has
been reported that immersion children at early educational stages “consistently perform at or
above grade level scholastically, are on par with their monolingual peers in English language
development, and by the end of the elementary school, become functional bilinguals” (Snow,
2001:305). Variations of immersion programs developed over the years differ with respect
to the amount of time the second/foreign language is used for instruction and the grade in
which the program commences: additionally to early immersion courses, there are numerous
programs labeled as “middle” or “delayed” immersion, and “late” immersion – starting at the
end of elementary education or the beginning of the secondary level.
A basic definition of the model states that “A sheltered content-based course is taught in
a second language by a content specialist to a group of learners who have been segregated or
“sheltered” from native speakers” (Brinton, Snow& Wesche, 1989:15). Although a primary
goal of the model is accelerating the development of language abilities for students to reach
the course aims, it has to be kept in mind that the overall purpose of sheltered courses is
facilitating content learning rather than language learning, so this model constitutes one of
the most content-driven paradigms within the general framework of CBI.
Adjunct courses have mainly been implemented at the university level, although
some experiences of its effectiveness at secondary school level have been reported as
well (Wegrzecka-Kowaleski, 1997). Although the adjunct model intends to connect a
purposefully designed language course with a regular academic course, the targeted
audience is students who are enrolled in the regular content course, but lack the necessary
language competence to progress successfully in the subject-matter proficiency unless
some additional aid is provided. Both the regular discipline and the adjunct classes share a
common content basis. Although they vary in the particular focus of instruction: whereas
the content instructor focuses on academic concepts, the language teacher emphasizes
language skills using the academic content as the background in which the language
learning process is contextualized. Thus, the adjunct courses work as support classes for
regular subject matter courses and, according to different authors (Snow& Kamhi-Stein,
1997) offer excellent opportunities to develop the academic strategies necessary to cope
with real academic content.
Theme-based models probably constitute the most popular and widely used prototype
of CBI at all levels of instructions and in both second and foreign language settings. In the
theme-based model, courses are autonomous. They are not parallel to other discipline courses
as in the adjunct model. Theme-based offer a strong language-oriented projection, and allow a
high degree of flexibility in terms of content selection, curricular organization and procedural
application. This leads to a lack of complexity for implementation that is viewed as highly
positive, since teachers – who are language teaching specialists rather than subject lectures -
operate independently, and no organizational or institutional adjustments are required.
The syllabus in theme-based courses is organized either around different topics
within a particular discipline, or including a number of individual issues associated with
a relevant general theme or content area. In both cases, as Snow points out, “Themes are
the central ideas that organize major curricular units selected for their appropriateness
to student needs and interests, institutional expectations, program resources, and teacher
abilities and interest” (Snow,2001:307). Thus a standard theme-based course would
consist of a number of subunits focused on different topics should be specific aspects or
different perspectives of the general theme. In general terms, topics should be arranged to
provide maximum coherence for a thematic unit, and to generate a range of opportunities
to explore both content and language. Each course is, in short, a sequence of topics linked
together with the assumption of a coherent overall theme.
4. CONTENT INTEGRATION IN TEACHING TOURISM

In teaching courses in the field of Tourism and Economics in English, there are many
things that can be considered as “content”. The most important thing is that what you are
teaching or discussing in English must be the course-related, not the language-learning
related. Discussions about current news, case-studies, statistical data, indicators all valid
“content” options. There is a need for integration of the content and the foreign language.
Stoller. F. L. (2002) states 8 practices that allow for natural content integration:
1. Extended input, meaningful output, and feedback on language and grasp of content.
2. Information gathering, processing, and reporting.
3. Integrated skills (using reading, writing, speaking and listening in natural classroom
activities).
4. Task-based activities and project work, enhanced by cooperative learning principles.
5. Strategy training (to produce more met cognitively aware, strategic learners).
6. Visual support (i.e. Images, graphic organizers, language ladders etc.).
7. Contextualized grammar instruction.
8. Culminating synthesis activities (knowledge is displayed in writing and orally).
Finkelstein and others (2010) propose the following logic model in content based
economic instruction.
(Source: Society, Integration, Education. Proceedings of the International Scientific Conference, 2017)
Figure 2: Logic model in content-based economic instruction
5. THE APPLICATION OF CBI AT SCHOOL OF HOSPITALITY AND TOURISM

After commencement of some courses in English, like Marketing in Tourism,
Research methods in Tourism, Destination Management, Hotel Management and English
in Tourism, CBI became a very efficient tool for the teaching staff. Different methods were
used in, for instance, in “English in Tourism” courses, mostly in seminar classes. There are
5 seminars in this course which is related to Destination Management, Transportation, Tour
guide, Hotel, and Restaurant. One seminar which is related to Destination management
will be implemented as follows:
1. Students are divided into 5 groups, 5-6 persons in each. 3 ideas for discussion are
distributed. For example: - Introducing a tourism destination – tourism product/services.
After 30 minutes, one student per group has to make a speech in English, showing
5 arguments at least, that defend the idea of the discussion. Points are given according to
the presentation manners, reliability of arguments, theoretical knowledge, aware of the
current market situation etc.
2. Analysis the policy of destination management and the roles of key-players.
Students are asked to make their presentation in the group. The teacher can compare
all these presentations and introduce a case study about the destination management. How
can they develop their destination and promote its effective.
3. The latest data on market shares or marketing strategies or new tourism products
of a destination is found from the web. Groups will prepare information and present
their view of the situation, characteristics of products, measures they would implement to
increase the share.
Students can ask other group questions. Hottest discussions, as predicted, were
among of student groups.
Analyzes in the form of post-course questionnaires and grades in exams showed that
using content-based methods in teaching “English in Tourism” course (partly in English,
mostly seminars) led to:
- Better coverage of course contents
- Improved English skills
- Improved presentation skills
- Increased motivation of students
- Introduction to latest data
- Improved critical thinking
- Lack of sufficient English could be balanced by active involvement in group works.
6. CONCLUSIONS
Content-based instruction is a kind of teaching mode, which combines language
learning and content learning. This paper explores the application of this teaching mode in
tourism English listening and speaking course. Common methods and features of content-
based instruction include the following aspects: Immersion, Theme-Based Instruction,
Sheltered Subject Matter Instruction, and Adjunct Instruction (Hao Li-Na, 2011). The
divisions of content-based instruction methods are in accordance with the diminishing
attention on content and the increasing attention to the language. As to the question of
choosing proper models for actual teaching practice, the answer should be furious with
specific circumstances. Li Li-Li did a research about the Application of CBI in the Jewish
American Literature Course in 2015. She underlines only the expedient, flexible patterns
which do not stubbornly follow the specific requirements of one particular method can
truly implement the concept of content-based instruction, and tends to achieve better
teaching effects.
The teaching philosophy of this content-based instruction is to apply tourism
professional content as English language learning, which helps the students to create a
real working environment, complete the tasks while comprehensively using language and
tourism knowledge, improve the students’ ability in the real working environment with
effective communication. It is an effective teaching mode of learning tourism knowledge
and improving English language ability of listening and speaking.
One of the most important features, among current issues in CBI is the innovative
trend to incorporate other teaching practices into content-based instruction: interesting
experiences are reported, among others, for integrating project work (Stoller. F. L; Grabe;
and W. A. Six, 1997), making use of graphic devices (Short, 1997), and incorporating
technology and, very particularly, the internet into the content-based classroom (Kasper,
2000; Crane 2000; Luzón 2002).
In our work we made a short overview of the rationale and experiment of using CBI
in Tourism courses taught at the School of Hospitality and Tourism, Hue University. In our
experience, analysis of the process underlines the most attractive benefits of CBI as follows:
- CBI totally supports both learner and the teacher in delivering the content in the
most real-life context;
- CBI allows learners to acquire specialized, brings better communicative skills as
well as foreign language competencies by group works;
- CBI takes the learner is the centered objectives and brings the contents stimulate
learners for better knowledge; they motivate and create interest, so allow reaching
educational aims of the course.
- Learners can make closer connections between foreign language and economic
knowledge.
- CBI offers a greater flexibility and adaptability in the curriculum can be deployed
as per the learners’ interest.
- Information search and re-evaluation of those resources help learners in developing
valuable critical thinking skills.
REFERENCES
1. Andrade, M. S., & Makaafi, J. H. (2001). Guidelines for establishing adjunct courses at the
university level. TESOL Journal, 10(2/3), 34-39.
2. Brinton, D., Snow, M. A., & Wesche, M. (1989). Content-based second language instruction.
New York: Newbury House.
3. Briton, D., Snow, M. A., & Wesche, M. B (2003). Content Language Instruction. University
of Michigan Press.
4. DAI Qing-ning & LV Ye. Content-based Instruction and Its Prototype Program Models [J].
Foreign Language Teaching, 2004 (4): 16-20.
5. Finkelstein, N., Hanson, T., Huang, C. W., Hirschman, B., & Huang, M. (2010). Effects of
Problem Based Economics on High School Economics Instruction. Final Report. NCEE
2010-4002. National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance.
6. Grabe, W., & Stoller, F. L. (1997). Content-based instruction: Research foundations. In M.
A. Snow, & D. M. Brinton (Eds.), The content-based classroom: Perspectives on integrating
language and content (pp. 5–21). NY: Longman.
7. HAO Li-na. Design of Higher Vocational College English Curriculums based on Theme-
based Content Teaching Mode [J]. Journal of Language and Literature, 2011 (11).
8. Johns, A. M. (1997). English for specific purposes and content-based instruction: What
is the relationship? In M. A. Snow & D. M. Brinton (Eds.), The content-based classroom:
Perspectives on integrating language and content (pp. 363-366). White Plains, NY: Longman.
9. Krapp, Hidi, & Renninger (1992). The Role of Interest in Learning and Development.
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hilldale, NJ.
10. Krashen, Stephen D. Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Prentice-Hall
International, 1987.
11. Krashen, Stephen D. Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. Prentice-
Hall International, 1988.
12. Lee & Van Patten (1995). Making Communicative Language Teaching Happen. McGraw-Hill.
13. LI Li-li. Application of CBI in the Jewish American Literature Course [J]. Heilongjiang
Researches on Higher Education, 2015 (2).
14. Prabhu, N.S. (1984). Procedural syllabuses. In T.E. Read (Ed). Trends in language syllabus
design. Singapore: Singapore University Press/RELC.
15. Richards J.C. & Rodgers, T.S. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge
University Press, 2001.
16. Savichuk, V. (2010). Linking Profession and Language: Content-Based Instruction in English
for Specific Purposes to Hospitality and Tourism Students. Volyn National University,
Ukraine.
17. Society. Integration. Education. Proceedings of the International Scientific Conference.
Volume I, May 26 th -27 th, 2017. 208-215
18. Stoller, F. L. & Grabe, W. A Six—T’s Approach to Content-Based Instruction [G]. // In Snow,
M. A. & Brinton, D. M. (eds). The Content-Based Classroom: Perspectives on Integrating
Language and Content. New York: Longman, 1997.
19. Stoller, F. L. (2002). Content-based instruction: A shell for language teaching or a framework
for strategic language and content learning? Retrieved from http://www.carla.umn.edu/
cobaltt/modules/strategies/Stoller2002/stoller.pdf
20. Stoller, F. L. (2002). Promoting the acquisition of knowledge in a content-based course. In J.
Crandall & D. Kaufman (Eds.), Content-based instruction in higher education settings (pp.
109-124). Alexandria, VA: TESOL.
21. Stryker & Leaver (1993). Content-Based Instruction in Foreign Language Education:
Models and Methods. Georgetown University Press
22. Wegrzecka-Kowalewski, E. (1997). Content-based instruction: Is it possible in high school?
In M. A. Snow & D. M. Brinton (Eds.), The content-based classroom: Perspectives on
integrating language and content (pp. 319-323). White Plains, NY: Longman.
NHẬN BIẾT NHỮNG BIẾN CHUYỂN “TRỪU TƯỢNG”
ĐỂ TĂNG ĐỘNG LỰC DẠY VÀ HỌC TIẾNG ANH CHUYÊN NGÀNH
Nguyễn Thị Hằng Nga1
Tóm tắt: Bài viết là kết quả của một nghiên cứu trường hợp về chính chúng tôi - giảng viên dạy
tiếng Anh chuyên ngành (TACN) 8 năm cho đối tượng sinh viên ngành Khoa học môi trường.
Với kinh nghiệm về học, dạy, biên soạn sách, biên soạn chương trình, phiên dịch và nghiên cứu
khoa học... chúng tôi đã chú tâm quan sát và phản tỉnh lại toàn bộ lịch sử học, dạy và sử dụng
TACN để rút ra kinh nghiệm dạy - học cho bản thân. Những bài học này không chỉ dừng lại ở
quá khứ mà đã không ngừng chuyển biến chúng tôi cho đến tận bây giờ, và ngay cả trong công
việc hiện tại. Bên cạnh các biến đổi thông thường là không ít những biến đổi “trừu tượng”
đáng giá cho chính người dạy và người học, đáp ứng xu hướng đổi mới giáo dục thời kì cách
mạng công nghiệp 4.0. Đó là: 1) xây dựng thói quen đọc, 2) nuôi dưỡng tình yêu với khoa học,
3) tăng cường tư duy ngôn ngữ, 4) bài học về nghĩ lớn làm nhỏ, 5) cách nhìn đa chiều và quan
điểm hài hòa, 6) tư duy sáng tạo để giải quyết mâu thuẫn và phát triển. Thông qua nghiên
cứu này, chúng tôi mong muốn tìm tiếng nói chung từ các đồng nghiệp, những người học và
người sử dụng TACN, cùng tiếp tục tăng cường thực hành cách học tập và giảng dạy phản tỉnh
(reflective) để thu gặt được nhiều thành quả hơn, tạo thêm nhiều động lực hơn.
Từ khóa: Tiếng Anh chuyên ngành, tư duy ngôn ngữ, giảng dạy phản tỉnh.
SENSE “INVISIBLE” TRANSFORMATION TO INTRINSICALLY MOTIVATE ESP LEARNING AND TEACHING

Abstract: This is a case study of and by an ESP teacher with 8 years in English for
Environment science. We have observed and reflected professional tasks through out ESP
courses including learning, designing syllabus, writing textbooks, researching... to explore
practice- oriented lessons for ourselves which did not end when we stopped ESP, but have
non- stop transformed us so far and even in the current job. In addition to common predictable
changes, there is also “invisible” transformation at which new trends of 4.0 education aim.
They are: 1) Build up reading habit 2) Nurture love for science 3) Enhance linguistically
thinking 4) Practise Think globally, act locally 5) Multi-dimentional and Harmonized mind
6) Think creatively to solve problems for development. We share our research to look for
common opinions from teachers, learners and users in general, so that the community of
ESP users continuously practise reflective learning and teaching with more achievements
and more motivation.
Keywords: Reflective learning and teaching, ESP, linguistically thinking.
1
Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội.
1. MỞ ĐẦU
Theo chuyên gia nghiên cứu về khoa học môi trường, cơ hội thay đổi không chỉ đến
từ các sự kiện sâu sắc như chiến tranh hay cách mạng mà đơn giản là đến từ sự tiến hóa
trong nhận thức (Peter, 1969). Cách đây 20 năm, sự kiện một giảng viên ngoại ngữ rất
thiếu kinh nghiệm như chúng tôi đảm nhận thêm một chuyên ngành mới và đòi hỏi phải
am hiểu lĩnh vực môi trường để dạy cho các sinh viên chuyên ngành không đáng so sánh
với cách mạng của nhân loại, nhưng nó là sự kiện đủ sâu sắc như một cuộc cách mạng
cho cá nhân chúng tôi. Do vậy, nó đã mang đến những cơ hội. Nhìn lại toàn bộ quá trình,
học tập và giảng dạy TACN không những tạo ra kết quả “trực quan” như cải thiện kĩ năng
ngôn ngữ, kiến thức khoa học môi trường mà còn tạo ra không ít những biến đổi “trừu
tượng” quí báu. Có được những thành tựu trên là do chúng tôi đồng thời đã nỗ lực thực
hành phương pháp giảng dạy phản tỉnh (reflective teaching).1
2. NỘI DUNG
Theo TSKH Phạm Đỗ Nhật Tiến, “đặc trưng cơ bản của giáo dục dưới tác động của
cách mạng công nghiệp 4.0 là mở, suốt đời, tương tác, cá thể hóa, chuẩn bị những con
người canh tân và sáng tạo. Những người làm công tác giáo dục ngoại ngữ cũng có thể
góp phần thay đổi lớp học của mình theo hướng mới. Do vậy, trong số khá nhiều biến đổi
“trừu tượng” đã diễn ra, chúng tôi chọn lọc trình bày những nội dung tương ứng các đặc
trưng đã nói trên, bao gồm: 1) xây dựng thói quen đọc, 2) nuôi dưỡng tình yêu với khoa
học, 3) tăng cường tư duy ngôn ngữ, 4) bài học về nghĩ lớn làm nhỏ, 5) cách nhìn đa chiều
và quan điểm hài hòa, 6) tư duy sáng tạo để giải quyết mâu thuẫn và phát triển.
Sáu nội dung chi tiết thuộc kết quả nghiên cứu này sẽ được trình bày theo trật tự từ
(1) đến (2) hoặc đến (3) (nếu có). Các mục số (2) và (3) là những thành tích nội tại, sẽ giúp
cá nhân tăng cường động lực nội tại.
(1) Tiếp xúc, lĩnh hội kiến thức khoa học môi trường bằng tiếng Anh.
(2) Tổng hợp, đổi mới cách nghĩ, từ đó cải thiện cảm xúc và chất lượng cuộc sống.
(3) Điều chỉnh triết lí, phương pháp dạy và học ngoại ngữ của cá nhân.
1
Giảng dạy phản tỉnh là một quá trình tự quan sát và tự đánh giá. Người dạy nhìn vào những gì mình làm
trong lớp học, suy nghĩ về lý do tại sao lại làm điều đó và suy nghĩ về việc liệu cách đó có hiệu quả hay
không. Bằng cách thu thập thông tin về những gì diễn ra trong lớp học, phân tích và đánh giá thông tin
này, chúng tôi xác định và khám phá các phương pháp và triết lí (underlying beliefs) của riêng mình. Sau
đó, những điều này có thể dẫn đến những thay đổi và cải tiến trong việc giảng dạy của chúng tôi. Do đó,
giảng dạy phản tỉnh là một cách phát triển nghề nghiệp từ chính lớp học của chúng tôi (Julie Tice, 2014).
NHẬN BIẾT NHỮNG BIẾN CHUYỂN “TRỪU TƯỢNG” ĐỂ TĂNG ĐỘNG LỰC DẠY VÀ HỌC TIẾNG ANH CHUYÊN NGÀNH 171
Hình 1: Trật tự trình bày kết quả nghiên cứu
2.1. Xây dựng thói quen đọc

Thói quen là một đặc tính của ngôn ngữ ngoài các đặc tính như đặc tính văn hóa, đặc
tính hành vi xã hội, đặc tính cấu trúc… Kĩ năng ngôn ngữ nói chung và kĩ năng đọc nói
riêng đòi hỏi quá trình rèn luyện lặp đi lặp lại. Khi xây dựng được thói quen đọc là đã đảm
bảo cho việc rèn luyện diễn ra đều đặn và thường xuyên.
Khi học và dạy TACN, chúng tôi phần lớn nhờ 5 yếu tố sau để xây dựng thói quen:
áp lực, mục tiêu, động lực, tần xuất, thành tích. Các yếu tố này đan xen và tương hỗ khó
tách rời. Ví dụ, mục tiêu tạo ra động lực và áp lực tích cực1 (Pressure at comfort, stretch
level) giúp tăng cường hiệu quả thực hiện (performance); tần xuất hành động cũng tạo ra
thành tích, nhờ thành tích lại tiếp tục gia tăng động lực hướng đích và đạt mục tiêu.
Hình 2: Biểu đồ “U ngược” về Áp lực (pressure) và Hiệu quả thực hiện (performance)(Hseni, n.d)
(Truy cập tại https://www.hseni.gov.uk/articles/what-work-related-stress)
Hình 3: Bảng so sánh 5 yếu tố giữa đọc TAKCN và đọc TACN
Các yếu tố xây dựng thói quen đọc TAKCN TACN

Mục tiêu Không rõ: tiện gì đọc đó Rõ ràng: Khoa học môi trường
Áp lực Ít Đủ
Tần suất Ít lặp lại đối với một nội dung Lặp lại với một nội dung
Thành tích Khó nhận biết Dễ nhận biết
Động lực Ít Nhiều
1
Áp lực tích cực (Pressure at comfort, stretch level): áp lực vùng màu xanh và vàng cam trên biểu đồ sẽ
đảm bảo thực hiện công việc hiệu quả cao.
Sự khác biệt ở bảng trên sẽ được mô tả chi tiết hơn dưới đây:
- Áp lực: Trước khi dạy TACN, chúng tôi thường đọc về các lĩnh vực đa dạng, và
thường có ít áp lực để làm việc này liên tục, chủ yếu đọc khi thích. Theo lí thuyết về hành
vi, khi áp lực thấp ở mức 1 (boredom/chán nản) thì con người thiếu động lực làm việc
nên mức độ thực hiện thấp. Để làm việc hiệu quả cần gia tăng áp lực tới mức 2 (comfort/
dễ chịu) hoặc mức 3 (stretch/kéo căng). Vì vậy, áp lực công việc là phải dạy TACN đã
tăng đến mức cần thiết. Đôi khi, áp lực này tăng quá đến mức 4, 5 cũng dẫn đến việc giảm
hiệu quả thực hiện. Tuy nhiên, các tình huống này không diễn ra liên tục, và nếu xảy ra
chúng tôi điều chỉnh bằng cách giảm áp lực từ các nguồn việc khác, đề nghị đồng nghiệp
và người thân giúp đỡ…
- Mục tiêu: Thiết lập mục tiêu (goal-setting) là một trong những lý thuyết có ảnh
hưởng nhất về tạo động lực (Locke, 1990). Nếu đặt ra các mục tiêu cụ thể động lực làm
việc tăng cao. Học TACN có mục tiêu rõ ràng hơn như: đọc về khoa học môi trường.
- Động lực: Khi có áp lực phù hợp và mục tiêu rõ ràng, chúng tôi có nhiều động lực
hơn trước để đọc. Dần dần chúng tôi có cảm giác đón chờ và tò mò với các thông tin mới
vì mỗi một thông tin đọc được đem đến cảm giác thế giới sự vật kết nối ngày càng chặt
chẽ và hợp lí chứ không rời rạc hay khó hiểu như trước đây. Nhờ thế chúng tôi càng tìm
đọc nhiều hơn nữa, ngay cả khi phải dành thêm thời gian để chuẩn bị bài đọc mới cho sinh
viên thay vì dùng lại những bài đọc trước.
- Tần suất: Khi đọc TACN, kiến thức về Khoa học môi trường (KHMT) được lặp
lại nhiều lần trong các bài đọc mới. Điều này giúp chúng tôi gặp lại và củng cố kiến thức
chuyên ngành, kiến thức ngôn ngữ, tăng khả năng nhớ và hiểu.
- Thành tích: Lúc đầu đọc KHMT bằng tiếng Việt để tích lũy kiến thức KHMT, tiếp
đó chúng tôi chuyển sang đọc tiếng Anh. Sau một vài năm, kiến thức chuyên ngành và
kiến thức ngôn ngữ tăng rõ rệt, việc đọc dễ hiểu hơn, dễ nhớ hơn, dễ áp dụng hơn. Ngoài
ra, chúng tôi tìm thấy niềm vui khi có cơ hội am hiểu một cách hệ thống hơn về một vấn
đề môi trường, có khả năng nắm bắt thông tin mới mẻ nhờ việc đọc báo, tạp chí chuyên
ngành bằng tiếng Anh. Nhận diện các loại thành tích lớn, nhỏ như trên sẽ khiến não bộ
“ra lệnh” giải phóng hóa chất Dopamine, là hóa chất tăng động lực và khả năng tập trung
làm việc (NTH. Nga, 2018). Do vậy, chúng tôi có thể kiên trì đọc tài liệu trong suốt thời
gian giảng dạy.
2.2. Nuôi dưỡng tình yêu với khoa học

Chúng tôi bắt đầu yêu thích khoa học khi được thường xuyên tiếp cận với một cuốn
tạp chí chuyên ngành KHMT uy tín D+C (do một chuyên gia giới thiệu). Các bài nghiên
cứu rất ấn tượng bởi tính thiết thực, tính nhân văn thể hiện am hiểu dày dặn về ngôn ngữ,
chính trị và xã hội. Chúng tôi từng bước nhận ra ý nghĩa của hoạt động nghiên cứu, tìm
tòi, giải quyết vấn đề, và dần trở nên quan tâm hơn đến nghiên cứu. Chúng tôi bước đầu
làm quen với cách khảo sát, tổng hợp, phân tích, diễn giải số liệu và đề xuất giải pháp.
Chúng tôi được tiếp cận cách các nhà khoa học phản biện độc lập về các giải pháp cho
từng vấn đề môi trường như: cách mạng nông nghiệp xanh, nông nghiệp hữu cơ, sản xuất
điện, nhiên liệu sinh học, nóng ấm toàn cầu, rác thải, tái chế... Những vấn đề được bàn bạc
lâu dài xuyên qua nhiều thời đại và trải rộng khắp các quốc gia, giao cắt với các nền văn
hóa địa phương, mang dấu ấn từ các lĩnh vực khác như quyền bình đẳng, an ninh, chính
sách, giáo dục, luật pháp...
Kết hợp với các yếu tố khác như chính sách phát triển nghiên cứu khoa học của nhà
trường, nhận thức và cảm xúc tích cực đạt mức phù hợp để chuyển từ yêu thích khoa học
sang hành động nghiên cứu khoa học.
2.3. Tăng cường tư duy ngôn ngữ

Khi làm việc với các văn bản TACN KHMT, chúng tôi có nhiều cơ hội đối chiếu
và so sánh giữa từ ngữ và khái niệm khoa học, nhờ đó từng bước bồi dưỡng tư duy ngôn
ngữ. Trong thời gian giảng dạy, chúng tôi đã thực hiện 02 đề tài nghiên cứu cấp cơ sở về
ngôn ngữ học.
Làm việc với thuật ngữ môi trường giúp chúng tôi trải nghiệm sự hạn chế của ngôn
ngữ so với sự rộng lớn và trừu tượng của nội hàm/ khái niệm. Biết tên gọi con chim không
có nghĩa là đã hiểu biết về con chim đó (T.Irene Sanders, 2006). Điều này đôi khi khiến
cho giao tiếp của con người khó đạt được sự hiểu biết và thấu cảm. Ví dụ, tên gọi của
một sự vật chỉ diễn tả được rất ít về sự vật đó, chủ yếu là diễn tả nét đặc trưng nên tên gọi
thường phiến diện và mang tính thiên vị (N.T.H.Nga, 2017). Hơn nữa, do kinh nghiệm
khác nhau nên khi tiếp nhận tên gọi, trong tư tưởng mỗi người sẽ thiên vị về các nội dung
khác nhau của sự vật đó. Ví dụ:
Tên gọi Người đã trải nghiệm với sự vật Người chưa trải nghiệm với sự vật
Air tree Hệ thống điều hòa không khí nơi công cộng Cây không khí (có thể liên tưởng đến cái
cây và không khí)
Ozone hole Sự suy giảm mật độ phân tử Ozone trong Lỗ thủng tầng ozone (hình dung ra lỗ thủng
bầu khí quyển ở tầng bình lưu, không có của tờ giấy)
lỗ thủng nào cả.
sushi Cơm cuộn rong biển kiểu Nhật Món ăn của Nhật (không tưởng tượng ra nó
thế nào)
bánh chưng Bánh làm từ gạo nếp, đỗ xanh, thịt, lá rong Một loại bánh (không tưởng tượng ra nó
thế nào)
Hình 4: Ví dụ minh họa sự khác biệt khi tiếp nhận tên gọi
Những mô tả trong bảng chỉ mang tính tương đối, minh họa cho sự khác biệt trong
suy nghĩ của các cá nhân khi tiếp nhận cùng một tên gọi. Khó có một cách diễn tả/tên gọi
nào mô tả hoàn toàn sự vật/ hiện tượng. Và từ ngữ thường đi qua “tấm lọc” kinh nghiệm
cá nhân trước khi tạo ra những tác động lên nhận thức. Từ đó, chúng tôi nhận ra cần có
giải pháp giảm ảnh hưởng tiêu cực trong giao tiếp song phương và đa phương như trong
2 ví dụ dưới đây:
- Cha mẹ nói chuyện với con cái về chiến tranh và thời kì bao cấp. Về ngôn ngữ, cả
2 bên đều diễn đạt bằng những từ ngữ tương đối giống nhau. Nhưng quá trình giải mã nội
dung từ ngữ lại khác nhau do cha mẹ có nhiều trải nghiệm hơn con cái về 2 khái niệm trên.
Trong tình huống này, tư duy ngôn ngữ sẽ giúp cha mẹ hiểu và thông cảm khi con cái ít
đồng tình, ít hào hứng với các chủ đề này.
- Các chuyên gia (IT, Vũ trụ, Hóa, Sinh,...) thông cảm hơn với hiểu biết thiếu hệ
thống của người ngoài chuyên ngành, tìm cách hạn chế dùng thuật ngữ hoặc sử dụng cách
diễn giải đơn giản. Nếu họ không hiểu hoàn toàn thì đó cũng là điều lí giải được.
Tư duy ngôn ngữ càng cải thiện, con người càng ứng phó chủ động và thực tế hơn
với thế giới thông tin, càng sáng tạo trong sử dụng ngôn ngữ.
2.4. Bài học về nghĩ lớn làm nhỏ (Think global, Act local)
Các nhà môi trường học đã nghiên cứu những điều bé nhỏ nhưng thiết thực và dễ áp
dụng để khắc phục bất lợi về môi trường. Ví dụ, mái nhà màu trắng để giảm hấp thụ nhiệt,
giảm hiệu ứng nhà kính, đặt lốp thải ở bờ biển để tránh xói lở và tạo nơi trú bão cho sinh
vật biển; bình sinh học biến tro cốt người chết thành cây xanh; phong trào “watashi no
hashi” thúc giục mọi người tự mang theo đũa ăn của mình vào nhà hàng để giảm bớt sản
xuất và thải loại đũa sử dụng 1 lần; nhà cửa, xe hơi và thiết bị nhỏ gọn tiết kiệm điện; các
chiến dịch “warm biz”/mặc ấm vào mùa đông để bớt sử dụng lò sưởi và “cool biz”/ mặc
mát vào mùa hè để giảm sử dụng điều hòa...
Cách nghĩ, cách làm trên là một bài học sinh động giúp tôi tìm ra cách phát triển nghề
nghiệp. Dạy tốt là một kiểu nghĩ lớn, kế hoạch lớn. Nhưng kế hoạch này chỉ hoàn thành
bằng cách thực thi những hành động nhỏ. Tôi đã bắt đầu từ những thay đổi rất nhỏ trong
việc dạy học: tìm hiểu cách đặt tiêu đề khi dạy viết và diễn thuyết; tìm hiểu cách quản trị
mục tiêu của một buổi học, 1 khóa học để tăng động lực nội sinh; tìm hiểu về biến động
của áp lực trong học tập; tìm hiểu về hóa chất tạo động lực Dopamine; sử dụng ngôn ngữ
tích cực, phản hồi đúng cách; nhận biết thành tích cá nhân, cải thiện khả năng tập trung,
luyện tập chu trình sáng tạo trong từng bài tập nhỏ, phát triển kĩ năng giao tiếp để đạt
được sự hợp tác giữa người học với nhau, giữa người học và người dạy…
Khi làm những công việc nhỏ, chúng tôi dễ tìm ra nhiều việc vừa sức để làm ngay
chứ không cần phải chờ đợi điều kiện thuận lợi từ người khác. Mỗi khi hoàn thành một
việc nhỏ, chúng tôi lại thấy dễ dàng và có động lực hơn khi làm các việc nhỏ tiếp theo. Cứ
thế, tìm tòi và giải quyết vấn đề của dạy - học trở thành một thói quen hàng ngày.
2.5. Cách nhìn đa chiều và quan điểm cân bằng

Nhờ tiếp cận với nguồn tài liệu về KHMT, chúng tôi nhận biết sự đan xen chằng chịt
khó tách rời của các yếu tố khách quan và chủ quan khi giải quyết 1 vấn đề như ô nhiễm
đất, phá rừng... Các nhà khoa học không chỉ nhìn từ một lĩnh vực hẹp như thổ nhưỡng hay
nông nghiệp mà còn đứng từ các góc độ khác như nhận thức, thái độ của con người, điều
kiện kinh tế, chính sách xã hội, chế độ chính trị, trình độ khoa học công nghệ, văn hóa tập
quán.... Giải pháp cần toàn diện nhất có thể, không chỉ đáp ứng nhu cầu của người dân mà
phải xem xét đến mục tiêu phát triển đất nước và mục tiêu giữ gìn sinh thái.
Điều này giúp chúng tôi hình thành cách tiếp cận một vấn đề nảy sinh trong lớp học
cũng từ nhiều chiều kích. Để tăng hiệu quả giờ học tiếng Anh, tôi tìm hiểu nhu cầu và đặc
điểm của sinh viên, tìm hiểu về môn học, xác định điểm mạnh - yếu về chuyên môn và
các năng lực khác của giảng viên để phát huy và khắc phục, tìm hiểu về cơ chế não bộ để
khích thích khả năng ghi nhớ; cải thiện nhận thức và siêu nhận thức (Mega- cognition);
tìm hiểu cơ chế tâm lí cảm xúc để khai thác tốt động lực nội tại; tìm hiểu hành vi tổ chức
để quản lí và điều hành lớp học... Cách thức này tạo ra những chuyển biến chậm nhưng
rất có ý nghĩa đối với chúng tôi. Chúng tôi nhận thấy kiến thức các ngành học như tâm lí,
ngôn ngữ, giáo dục, khoa học thần kinh, giảng dạy ngoại ngữ kết nối với nhau và chiếu
sáng lẫn nhau để một số vùng kiến thức ở “góc khuất” trở nên rõ ràng hơn. Các ngành học
là những cột khói mà ở dưới thấp thì tách rời nhau, nhưng càng lên cao nó sẽ nhập lại làm
một (T.Irene Sanders, 2006). Tìm hiểu thêm một chuyên ngành nữa và kiên trì phát triển
dần lên - giống như cột khói trên cao - giảng viên có thêm cơ hội khám phá được những
mệnh đề mới trong chuyên ngành chính của mình.
Hình 5: Minh họa cho mối liên hệ giữa các ngành học
(https://locphen.vn/nguyen-nhan-gay-o-nhiem-moi-truong-nuoc-o-viet-nam-hien-nay.html)
Đôi khi, chúng tôi vận dụng mọi kinh nghiệm và kiến thức cá nhân nhưng vẫn chưa
giải quyết được các khó khăn trong các lớp học, không khiến cho tất cả học sinh học tập
hiệu quả như mong muốn. Cách nhìn đa chiều giúp chúng tôi hiểu là các giải pháp đang
nằm ở “góc khuất” khác mà chúng tôi chưa thể nhận ra ngay lúc này. Nhờ đó, chúng tôi
duy trì tinh thần lạc quan và kiên trì cho đến khi tìm được thêm câu trả lời.
Quan điểm hài hòa là hệ quả tích cực của cách nhìn đa chiều. Hài hòa là các yếu tố
khác biệt “cộng sinh và cộng hưởng” tạo thành 1 tổng thể cân bằng. Dưới đây là ví dụ về
cách nhìn đa chiều và quan điểm hài hòa:
- Trong khi một số ít nước giàu tìm con đường nhân danh kinh tế hay khoa học đổ
trộm rác thải, mở cơ sở sản xuất ô nhiễm tại các nước nghèo, một số nước giàu có khác
nghiên cứu công nghệ sản xuất mới để tự xử lí rắc rối của mình mà không gây hại thêm
đến các quốc gia và dân tộc khác. Một đất nước không tiến bộ về công nghiệp như Bhutan
lại là một bài học khác khiến thế giới suy ngẫm. Họ giữ gìn không khí trong lành bằng
cách không làm gia tăng và do đó không cần xử lí chất ô nhiễm CO2. Thụy Sỹ và nhiều
nước Bắc Âu xây dựng quốc gia trung lập không chiến tranh, không mở rộng lãnh thổ và
tăng cường sống hòa hợp thiên nhiên, tiêu thụ hợp lý.
- Một số chuyên gia phản đối khai thác sử dụng nhiên hoang dã, nhưng số khác lại ủng
hộ ở một mức độ nào đó vì họ muốn đời sống người dân cải thiện, và sự no ấm của người
dân cũng là thứ cần đánh đổi vì con người cũng là yếu tố thuộc về thiên nhiên và cũng cần
được chăm sóc. Về bài toán giữa kiếm sống và khai thác thiên nhiên, quan điểm của những
người dân nghèo sẽ khác với quan điểm của tầng lớp các nhà chính trị, hoặc các nhà khoa
học giàu có và học thức cao, ít phải lo toan đến mưu sinh hàng ngày. (N.Đ.Hòe, 2012).
Nhiều nhà lãnh đạo thế giới thường không áp dụng y hệt các bài học của từng quốc
gia mà ứng dụng một cách hài hòa với tình hình địa phương mình, quốc gia mình mới có
thể cho hiệu quả cao.
Quan điểm hài hòa, cân bằng cũng được chúng tôi áp dụng đối với các lớp học khi
cân nhắc và triển khai các lí thuyết liên quan đến giảng dạy ngoại ngữ của các chuyên gia
châu Âu, châu Á hay Đông Nam Á... vì không có một phương pháp giảng dạy ngoại ngữ
đơn lẻ nào mang lại hiệu quả cho mọi điều kiện giảng dạy. Chúng tôi theo dõi, điều chỉnh
việc áp dụng lí thuyết đối với từng lớp học, người học, môn học... Ví dụ, xu thế chung là
giảng viên thích cách tiếp cận giao tiếp hành động và sử dụng nhiều tiếng Anh khi giảng
giải. Tuy nhiên, chúng tôi sử dụng hài hòa cả phương pháp ngữ pháp dịch, sử dụng tiếng
Việt trên lớp, có lúc tăng cường các hoạt động tư duy giảm giao tiếp, có lúc ngược lại....
Quan điểm này cũng phù hợp với lí thuyết Hậu phương pháp1.
1
Đường hướng sư phạm hậu phương pháp khuyến khích giáo viên tìm tòi, phát triển các phương pháp
dạy học phù hợp với đối tượng người học cụ thể trong những điều kiện văn hóa, xã hội và kinh tế cụ thể
của địa phương thông qua “thực hành chiêm nghiệm” (reflective practice) chứ không phải chạy theo các
phương pháp giảng dạy đang được tuyên truyền là thời thượng. Quan niệm về phương pháp dạy học này
đòi hỏi giáo viên phải nắm được nhiều phương pháp dạy học khác nhau, thử nghiệm các phương pháp đó
qua các công trình nghiên cứu cải tiến sư phạm (action research). Derrida nhà hậu cấu trúc luận thuộc thế
hệ đầu tiên nói rằng “Triết lý đã chết hôm qua rồi… tư tưởng vẫn còn có tương lai”. Suy từ câu nói này,
ta có thể nói: Phương pháp dạy học đã chết hôm qua rồi nhưng giảng dạy vẫn có tương lai. Thách thức
đặt ra cho mỗi giáo viên là làm sao phát triển được khả năng vận dụng lý thuyết vào thực tế giảng dạy của
mình để từ đó phát triển thành những lý thuyết riêng, đóng góp cho lý thuyết chung về giảng dạy ngoại
ngữ bằng việc tích cực tham gia nghiên cứu cải tiến sư phạm như đã nói ở trên. (L.V.Canh)
2.6. Tư duy sáng tạo để giải quyết mâu thuẫn và phát triển
Các giải pháp môi trường mang chúng tôi đến với vô vàn ý tưởng sáng tạo và tinh
thần khởi nghiệp 1như: biến rác thành tiền, biến những bất lợi thành thuận lợi. Những ý
tưởng sáng tạo thiết thực và hiệu quả để giải quyết rắc rối lại là những ý tưởng tôn trọng
và hiểu biết sự vật, sự việc và hoàn cảnh. Bởi vì những rắc rối thường tiềm ẩn trong đó
giải pháp. Nếu không tìm tòi, hiểu biết về những rắc rối đó, thì sự sáng tạo cũng ít khả thi.
Ví dụ, để tự cứu mình khỏi dư lượng thuốc diệt cỏ, loài cây cải dại Canola đã tự thực hiện
biến đổi gien để sinh tồn; một học sinh nữ lớp 9 ở Kon Tum thấy khó khăn của mẹ và bà
con nông dân khi thu hoạch sắn đã chế tạo ra máy nhổ sắn.
Được lĩnh hội tinh thần làm việc và sống sáng tạo qua những bài viết chuyên ngành,
chúng tôi chuyển thái độ từ né tránh rắc rối, mâu thuẫn sang thái độ chấp nhận như một
thực tại khách quan. Nếu tìm cách giải quyết cũng đồng nghĩa với phát triển và ngược
lại, né tránh mâu thuẫn, chúng ta sẽ không phải đổ ra nhiều công sức, nhưng cũng sẽ như
con tàu mãi neo nghỉ trong vùng cảng an toàn. Khi ra khơi, ban đầu bạn có thể lo ngại,
nhưng bạn sẽ có niềm vui của việc ra khơi. Cũng đúng như Tom Rubbins nói: “Một hệ
thống thực sự ổn định là hệ thống đón chờ điều bất ngờ, là chuẩn bị sẵn sàng để hủy hoại
và mong đợi được cải biến.”
Loài chim Roadrunner sống trên sa mạc (Hình 6). Ngoài việc có đôi chân dài và khỏe
để băng trên cát nóng, chúng còn có cơ chế lọc và thu hồi nước thải của cơ thể để tái sử
dụng. Nhờ đó mà 2 nhu cầu mâu thuẫn là lấy nước và thải nước vẫn diễn ra “hòa thuận”,
đảm bảo sinh tồn bền vững.
Hình 6: Loài chim Roadrunner với cơ chế giải quyết cơ chế mâu thuẫn
(https://listverse.com/2016/07/07/10-desert-animals-with-brilliant-survival-adaptations/)
Thiên nhiên, cây cỏ, loài vật luôn tìm cách thích nghi với thay đổi của môi trường
xung quanh, chỉ có con người dường như có xu thế thích ổn định hoặc chỉ chấp nhận thay
đổi theo ý muốn chủ quan của mình (ví dụ, hoàn cảnh thuận lợi thì thích như thế mãi, hoàn
cảnh khó khăn thì thích ngay lập tức phải thay đổi). Kiến thức về thiên nhiên gợi ý cho
chúng tôi trong nội tại con người luôn là một quá trình tìm kiếm cách thức để giải quyết
ổn thỏa các cặp nhu cầu mâu thuẫn, ví dụ:
1
Mục tiêu của giáo dục thời đại 4.0 là tạo ra những con người sáng tạo (innovators) và những con người
khởi nghiệp (entrerpreneurs).
- Nhu cầu nghỉ ngơi/nhu cầu làm việc.

- Nhu cầu tự do sáng tạo/nhu cầu tuân phục kỉ luật.
- Nhu cầu liên kết hợp tác/nhu cầu độc lập tự giác.
- Nhu cầu sang tạo, khác biệt/nhu cầu hòa nhập, tương đồng.
Chúng tôi đã chuyển dần sang thái độ thích nghi và bớt e ngại thay đổi, tìm thấy
được giải pháp ngay trong nội tại sự việc. Điều này mang lại cho chúng tôi nhiều thành
quả trong học tập, giảng dạy, nghiên cứu, trong cuộc sống cá nhân và xã hội, dù nhỏ bé
nhưng nhiều ý nghĩa.
3. KẾT LUẬN
Nghiên cứu này của chúng tôi là quá trình chú tâm quan sát và phản tỉnh về hoạt
động HỌC và DẠY tiếng Anh chuyên ngành. Học là sự tích lũy kinh nghiệm, nhờ khả
năng liên hệ thực tế, người học có thể ứng dụng hiệu quả những thứ đã học. Do vậy, mặc
dù chúng tôi gần như dừng dạy TACN cách đây hơn 10 năm, nhưng dấu ấn của ngành
học này theo chúng tôi đến tận bây giờ và không ngừng đóng góp vào công việc hiện tại.
Giờ đây, chúng tôi đã nhận ra học tập là kho báu Learning: The Treasure Within (Unesco,
1996). Học và dạy TACN có thể mang lại rất nhiều biến đổi “trừu tượng” như thói quen,
động lực, nhãn quan, các giá trị tư tưởng, phương pháp và năng lực tư duy...
Hạn chế của nghiên cứu này là tính định tính cao. Hơn nữa, động lực của con người
là yếu tố chịu ảnh hưởng của rất nhiều biến lượng. Tuy nhiên, khi truy hồi về những sự
kiện đáng nhớ liên quan đến động lực làm việc, chúng tôi ghi nhận những ấn tượng sâu
sắc và rõ ràng nhất về các tác nhân tích cực từ môn học TACN.
Thông qua nghiên cứu này, chúng tôi mong muốn tìm tiếng nói chung từ các đồng
nghiệp làm việc với TACN, cùng tiếp tục tăng cường thực hành cách học tập - giảng dạy
chú tâm và phản tỉnh để thu gặt được nhiều thành quả hơn. Chú tâm bao gồm quan sát,
sáng tạo, điều chỉnh, thích nghi, liên hệ và ứng dụng thực tế... Chú tâm không chỉ có nghĩa
là chuyên sâu và cô lập mình trong lối đi riêng của giảng dạy tiếng Anh mà còn mang ý
nghĩa mở rộng, kết nối với các chuyên ngành khác để vượt qua các giới hạn cũ, tìm kiếm
những mệnh đề mới cho việc học - dạy TACN và ngoại ngữ nói chung.

1. Kỉ yếu Hội thảo khoa học Quốc gia 2018, Nghiên cứu và giảng dạy ngoại ngữ, ngôn ngữ và
quốc tế học. Hà Nội- 4/2018. Trường ĐHNN, ĐHQGHN.
2. Kỉ yếu Hội thảo quốc tế, Chiến lược và kế hoạch giáo dục trong bối cảnh cách mạng công
nghiệp 4.0. Viện Khoa học Giáo dục Việt Nam. Hà Nội tháng 2/ 2018.
3. Kỉ yếu Hội thảo Khoa học quốc tế, Ngôn ngữ học Việt Nam 30 năm đổi mới và phát triển của
Viện Ngôn ngữ học, Hà Nội, Nxb Khoa học Xã hội, Hà Nội, 2017.
4. Hội thảo Hệ thống giáo dục mở trong bối cảnh tự chủ giáo dục và hội nhập quốc tế, Hiệp hội
các trường đại học, cao đẳng Việt Nam, Hà Nội tháng 5/2018.
5. Hội thảo Giáo dục khai phóng: Giải pháp đào tạo nguồn nhân lực chất lượng cao phù hợp
cách mạng Công nghiệp 4.0. Đại học Việt – Nhật, Đại học Nguyễn Tất Thành. Hà Nội tháng
7/2018.
6. Nguyễn Đình Hòe, Nguyễn Ngọc Sinh, An ninh môi trường, Nxb Khoa học Kĩ thuật, 2012
7. Peter J. Anderson, Global Politics of Power, Justice and Death, Routledge, 1969.
8. Thomas L.Friedman, Thế giới phẳng, Nxb Trẻ, 2006.
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INCORPORATING FLIPPED CLASSROOM MODEL AND BRAIN-BASED
TEACHING IN AN ESP CLASS: A QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Nguyễn Quang Nhật1, Nguyễn Ngọc Phương Dung2

Dr. Kean Wah Lee3
Abstract: Taking cognizance of challenges of 21st century learning and the ubiquitous
technologies available, a course applying flipped classroom model and brain-based teaching
with a detailed combination of in-class and out-of-class activities was utilized to teach
an ESP module. The study aimed to (1) find out the effects of this combination towards
improving learners’ academic achievements and (2) investigate learners’ attitudes towards
this suggested model. 40 junior students at Banking University of Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
participated in the experimental study during the second semester of 2017-2018 academic
year. Quantitative data were collected through questionnaires and pre/post - tests comparison
to ensure the reliability as well as the validity of the results. Analysis of these data revealed
that this model was beneficial as it not only helped improve learners’ performance in the final
exam but also brought about positive attitudes towards the learning process.
Keywords: ESP, flipped classroom model, brain-based teaching, performance, attitudes.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Research statement

The practice of ESP (English for Specific Purposes) courses has attracted attention
of both educational researchers and practitioners in recent years. Although the teaching
and learning of English in Vietnam has experienced a shift from the traditional Grammar-
Translation Method to Blended-language Learning with the support of modern technology,
activities in which students take a more proactive role to interact with each other to
reach achievements are still limited in many Vietnamese ESP classes (Nguyen, 2015).
Therefore, with a view to changing the current situation, this study drew on a suggested
flipped classroom model combining technology-enhanced environment for out-of-class
1
Banking University of HCMC; nhatnq@buh.edu.vn.
2
Banking University of HCMC; dungnnp@buh.edu.vn.
3
The University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus; KeanWah.Lee@nottingham.edu.my
INCORPORATING FLIPPED CLASSROOM MODEL AND BRAIN-BASED TEACHING IN AN ESP CLASS: ... 181
activities and brain-based teaching for in-class sessions in an ESP (English for Banking
and Finance) module to evaluate its effectiveness on learners’ performance and to shed
light on how students perceived each element of this innovative model.
1.2. Research framework and procedure

The conceptual framework of this study is built upon 2 main cores: technology
as a mediational tool for out-of-class activities and Brain-based teaching for in-class
instructions. Figure 1 illustrates the relationship between these parts as follows.
Figure 1: Framework of the study
First, an online platform was created on Facebook so that students might log in,
download lessons and assignments. It consisted of two main functions: Announcements
and Group Forum. The “Announcements” comprised of latest updates, teacher’s
requirements, pre-recorded videos and computer-assisted presentations so that leaners can
download them for lesson preparations or revision. Besides, the “Group Forum” worked
as a platform for students to exchange ideas, disseminate information for their writing
tasks and express their opinions on this teaching model. It can be said that technology in
this study was more inclined to be an integrative and mediational tool for the teaching
process, and interactions between students, teachers, and the online environment was of
great significance.
As regards out-of-class activities, students were first required to watch pre-recorded
lectures, take notes, track down unknown words, explore new concepts and identify
difficult knowledge. The videos were taken from both online resources and teacher-
made videos based on the teaching objectives and course requirements. Then, they had to
complete some preparatory exercises related to the video contents. Portfolios including
the notes and preparatory tasks were marked and accounted for 20% of the total grades to
ensure learners’ preparation before physical class time.
The in-class activities adapted from the Brain-based teaching framework included
five steps: Engagement, Framing, Acquisition, Elaboration, and Memory Strengthening.
First, the “Engagement” employed various warm-up activities to create a positive learning
environment and to check learners’ understanding. Second, the “Framing” using authentic
materials allowed learners to have a deeper understanding about how the language and
new knowledge is used in real-life contexts. They also examined specific structures and
lexical items that occurred in a particular ESP environment. In the “Acquisition”, the
students collaborated to deal with challenging tasks to foster integrated skills. Then,
within the “Elaboration”, learners exchanged the outcomes through various forms of in-
class correction strategies such as partner quizzes, peer editing, presentations, debates
or reports to support deeper learning. Finally, the “Memory Strengthening” including
drama, partner reviews, or mini-test was a summary of what learners had studied during
the physical class time to ensure that the right content had been internalized correctly.
1.3. Research questions

As this study was conducted to improve the quality of the learning process, this
project aimed to answer two following questions:
1. To what extent does this model influence on students’ final exam results compared
to the traditional classes?
2. What are learners’ perceptions towards the effectiveness of this model?
Hypothesis
Since the study was conducted to investigate if this model could help students in the
experimental class achieve higher scores in the final exam than those in the traditional
classes, one theme gives shape to the hypothesis as presented below.
Hypothesis: Is there a significant difference between the performance of the
experimental class (subjected to flipped classroom model and brain-based teaching)
and that of the control classes (subjected to traditional instructions) in an ESP course as
measured through the final exam scores?
The null hypothesis: There is no significant difference between experimental and
control groups’ achievement scores as measured through the final exam scores.
The emergence of ESP training in Vietnam has required many educators to make
instructional changes to foster deeper learning, critical thinking skills, and independent
learning styles to keep up with the ever-changing specific-subject knowledge as well as

linguistic development (Nguyen, 2015). However, a review of recent literature shows that
this approach does not bring about fruitful benefits due to a number of challenges posed
to learners and practitioners (e.g. Nguyen, 2017; Nguyen, 2015; Tran, 2013). Therefore,
innovative approaches such as flipped learning can be seen as a remedy for this situation.
Flipped learning is an educational method in which class time creates meaningful
opportunities for collaborative practice while technologies are used to deliver contents
outside of the classroom (Bergmann & Sams, 2012; Sankoff & Forcese, 2014). The
benefits of flipped teaching towards improvements of learners’ academic performance and
attitudes have been verified by a large number of research papers (e.g. Seery, 2015; Zuber,
2016; Ozdamli & Gulsum, 2016). However, the use of flipped learning in ESP education
has received very limited attentions. In fact, there are currently 3 accessible studies on
this subject matter and this number is not adequate to decide whether and how flipping
the ESP classroom can enhance student learning. For example, in a study using survey,
observation and focused-group interviews to examine the impact of flipping method,
Zhongwen Liu (2016) stated that this approach could help Chinese learners to transform
knowledge effectively and become more well-prepared before physical class time, thus
enabling them to solve practical problems efficiently. Likewise, Bi Wen Lee (2017)
investigated the impact of flipped classroom on the performance of 34 undergraduate junior
students in Taiwan and the findings indicated that learners did not only express positive
attitudes towards his flipped classroom but also increase their learning engagement,
motivation and self-efficacy during the course. More importantly, Da Liu (2016) reported
that 35 students in his experimental group could achieve greater success not only in the
final exam results but also in the learning strategies. All of these three aforementioned
studies failed to identify how in-class procedure should be structured to enhance learners’
academic performances. It can be said that this this method has not been measured in any
coherent way in ESP training field. Finally, there has been no available empirical study
investigating the effect of flipped instructions on Vietnamese learners’ ESP proficiency.
Consequently, these issues were explored via this experimental research.
Brain-based learning is an approach based on the function of the human brain with
reflection activites to facilitate complex conceptual knowledge and procedural fluency
(Jensen, 2005). Studies have indicated that aspects of brain-based instructions could
promote students’ learning and attitudes in certain ways. In an experimental study with
third-year students in Turkey, Serap Tüfekçi and Melek Demirel (2009) asserted that
participants not only outperformed those in the control class but they also developed their
retention level, sensitivity, and participation significantly. Another study by Haghighi
(2013) in Iran showed that 50 sophomore students familiarized with brain-based learning
could have a better achievement. However, there is a lack of studies about the effectiveness
of a thorough brain-based approach with detailed procedure for in-class ESP activities.
As a result, this study aims to examine the effect of brain-based learning on achievement
and attitudes of Vietnamese ESP students at tertiary level.
In conclusion, no empirical studies have been undertaken to illustrate whether
flipped learning to ESP education can achieve its potential in Vietnamese context. Thus,
further research into this approach is needed. More importantly, whereas some available
studies conclude flipped pedagogy is effective in improving academic performance,
other relevant research indicate a contrary (Ayon, 2017; McLean et al., 2016; Sirota,
2017). Hence, more studies with empirical evidence should be conducted to solve these
inconsistencies. Finally, the questions of what instructional framework should be used in
planning the flipped writing classroom and what techniques can facilitate collaborative
environment inside and outside the classroom are still left unanswered. This means that
further evidence is needed to fill these gaps if instructors would like to implement flipped
method for an improvement in this training. Hence, the present study was undertaken
with the objective of evaluating the effectiveness of flipped learning model (combining
technology and in-class brain-based approach) in an academic ESP class at a Vietnamese
university, thus it could address these aforementioned gaps.
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1. Research design and sampling

This study was conducted from February to May, 2018 at Banking University of
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. 162 non-English majors participated in the study with
four research groups (one experimental class and 3 control classes). They were third-
year students who had studied an ESP1 course in the previous semester and this was
their second course (ESP2) of the Bachelor Programme. These students were at pre-
intermediate/intermediate level (450 in TOEIC or higher) and the class met once a week
for five academic periods.
The students were assigned to sections by their choices of online registration based
on their schedules and preferences, which meant that it was unfeasible to form the
experimental and control groups on purpose. They could experience certain equivalent
conditions such as location, quality of teachers, curriculum contents, instructional
textbooks and language of immediate environment. Hence, the pedagogical strategies
which form the independent variables are the contemporary and the flipped methods.
Students who withdrew from the class before taking the final exam and who did not
agree to participate were excluded from this study. Table 1 provides information about the
participants of the experimental class (flipped class) and control classes.
Table 1: Distribution of participants
Gender Male Female Total

Experimental class 18 22 40
Control class 1 16 24 40
3.2. Data collection and management

Two methods were used to collect data and to ensure the reliability of the results.
First, an analysis of students’ exam results was conducted between the experimental
class and the traditional classes. As students had just finished their ESP1 exam about
one month before the course, their results were analysed to test the homogeneity among
participants as a pre-test. After the treatment had been implemented for 9 weeks, an
end-of-course test was administered for analysis. The test lasted for 60 minutes, all the
test items were the same for each student, and the papers were marked by third-party
raters to ensure reliability. It should be noted that no statistical analysis was conducted to
investigate the differences between pre-test and post-test results within each group. The
reason for this decision lied in the belief that a comparison between two different tests with
different questions about both knowledge and linguistic skills was inappropriate because
the results might be evaluated based on different categorised rubric and influenced by the
subjective educational methodology (no researcher had taught any member of the two
classes in the previous ESP1 module). Hence, such comparison could not reflect the real
picture of learners’ capability. To maintain anonymity, the instructors of the traditional
classes assigned a random number to each student rather than using their real names, and
provided the researcher with an Excel spreadsheet document containing the exam scores
via the institutional email. The test results were analysed by F-test ANOVA to investigate
whether a statistically significant difference exists between the experimental and control
groups with regard to learners’ academic achievements.
Second, questionnaires were chosen to “elicit frank and honest answers” thanks to their
anonymity (Robson, 2002, cited in Lloyd, 2005, p. 36). The questionnaires (Appendix 1)
were distributed to 40 students in the experimental class at the end of the course to get
the participants’ perceptions of the new approach as well as to measure their satisfaction
with their progress. The data were entered into a database using Microsoft Excel and
were analysed by descriptive statistics in order to discover how the students perceived the
effectiveness of the new method.
4. FINDINGS
The results of this study are described as follows.
4.1. Students’ performance

This subsection aims to explore the statistically significantly differences of the grades
between the experimental class and control classes. First, Table 2 illustrates an analysis of
the pre-test results in the previous ESP1 exam.
Table 2: Descriptive analysis and One-way ANOVA analysis of pre-test results (n=162)
Descriptive analysis of Grades
95% Confidence
Std. Interval for Mean
N Mean Minimum Maximum
Deviation Lower Upper
Bound Bound
Experimental Class 40 8.1375 0.59773 7.9463 8.3349 6.5 9.1
Control Class 1 40 8.0325 0.63342 7.8299 8.2351 6.5 9.2
Control Class 2 43 8.0744 0.44083 7.9388 8.2101 7.2 9.0
Control Class 3 39 7.9256 0.59104 7.7340 8.1172 6.5 9.0
One-Way ANOVA
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig./p-value
Between Groups 0.941 3 0.314 .0972 0.408
Within Groups 51.018 158 0.323
Total 51.959 161
Results show that the significance level is 0.408 (p>0.05), indicating that there is
no statistically significant difference between the experimental and control groups with
regard to English proficiency. Both the Minimum and Maximum scores of the classes
are quite similar. However, it should be noted that the Mean score of the experimental
group (8.1375) is slightly higher compared to those of the control classes (8.0325,
8.0744, and 7.9256).
After the treatment process lasted for 9 weeks, an end-of-course ESP2 exam was
administered to the students in four groups. Appendix 2 provides the raw scores of two
classes in the final exam. In the experimental class, 16 students got High Distinction
mark (9.0 or above), the highest score is 9.8 while 2 students got the lowest score of
7.0. Likewise, in the control class 1, 5 students got High Distinction mark, 1 students
obtained the highest score of 9.5, 1 student got the lowest score of 4.6, and 6 students
had the score from 7 to below. In control class 2, 2 students got High Distinction mark
with the highest score of 9.0, 1 student got the lowest score of 6.6, and 6 students had
the score from 7 to below. In control class 3, no student got High Distinction mark,
the lowest score is 6.6 with one student, and 8 students had the score from 7 to below.
Moreover, the students who got at least 8 marks (Distinction grades at this university)
in the experimental class outnumbered those in the control classes, at 34 compared with
24, 18, and 13 respectively.
Table 3 exposes the descriptive analysis of the data including Mean, Min, Max, Std
Deviation, Error and Confidence Interval. The scores of students in the experimental
group ranged between 7.0 to 9.8 with a Mean of 8.5525 and a Standard deviation of
0.77658. 40 subjects in the control class 1 gained a range of scores between 4.6 and 9.5,
with a Mean of 7.9825 and a Standard deviation of 0.96314. Likewise, 43 subjects in the
control class 2 gained a range of scores between 6.6 and 9.0, with a Mean of 7.8000 and a
Standard deviation of 0.58548. Finally, 39 students in the control class 3 gained a range of
scores between 6.6 and 8.8, with a Mean of 7.6564 and a Standard deviation of 0.53695.
It can be clearly seen that figures of the Mean, Min, Max, and Confidence Interval of
the experimental class are all higher than those of the control classes, indicating that the
experimental group had a better performance on the final exam.
Table 3: Descriptive analysis of post-test results (n=162)
Descriptive analysis of Grades

95% Confidence
Std. Interval for Mean
N Mean Minimum Maximum
Deviation Lower Upper
Bound Bound
Experimental Class 40 8.5525 0.77658 8.3041 8.8009 7.0 9.8
Control Class 1 40 7.9825 0.96314 7.6745 8.2905 4.6 9.5
Control Class 2 43 7.8000 0.58548 7.6220 7.9780 6.6 9.0
Control Class 3 39 7.6564 0.53695 7.4824 7.8305 6.6 8.8
To carry out the inferential statistics, the samples were checked for the underlying
assumptions required for the choosing of an appropriate technique. Table 4 below shows
the Levene test of Homogeneity, indicating that the assumptions were met since the
p-value (0.02) is more than 0.05. It means that there were no outliers, the data followed a
normal distribution (the empirical rule), and within-group variance was equivalent across
the classes.
Table 4: The Homogeneity tests results (n=162)
Test of Homogeneity of Variances

Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig./p-value
3.377 3 161 0.020
A one-way ANOVA was also conducted to explore the differences between the grades
of the experimental class compared with the control classes and Table 5 below shows
the detailed data. The result indicated that there was a statistical significant difference
between the classes, F = 12.683, Sig./p-value = 0.000 < .05.
Table 5: One-way ANOVA analysis of post-test results (n=162)
One-Way ANOVA
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig./p-value
Between Groups 19.716 3 6.572 12.683 0.000
Within Groups 83.424 161 0.518
Total 103.140 164
Since the p-value is 0.000, a Multiple Comparison was investigated to provide

further insight into this issue. Table 6 displays in detail the statistical significant difference
between the grades of the experimental class and each individual control class. It can be
clearly seen that the p-value in each case is quite similar, confirming the reliability of the
technique and the effectiveness of this suggested model.
Table 6: Multiple Comparison (n=162)
Mean
Difference Std. Sig./p- Lower Upper
(I) Class (J) Class (I-J) Error value Bound Bound
Tukey Experimental Control Class 1 0.59417* 0.15903 0.001 0.1813 1.0070
HSD Class
Control Class 2 0.77750* 0.15726 0.000 0.3692 1.1858
Control Class 3 0.92109* 0.16199 0.000 0.5006 1.3416
The Mean plot of Figure 2 below shows that the Mean difference between four
classes. This Mean plot emphasized that the grade mean of experimental class is higher
than that of controlled classes.
Figure 2: Mean plot of post-test results between four classes (n=162)

4.2. Students’ perceptions towards the suggested model

Table 7 gives an overview of the results taken from the questionnaires. It can be seen
that the Mean scores clusters above 4.0, indicating that on the whole the students found
the eight steps of the model useful.
Table 7: Student’s overall perception of the new teaching model (n=40)
Usefulness
Mean (M) S.D.
Use of video lectures 4.225 0.577
Portfolio and Preparatory tasks 4.03 0.53
Group Forum 4.025 0.53
Engagement 4.35 0.662
Framing 4.05 0.552
Acquisition 4.03 0.48
Elaboration 4.05 0.50
Memory Strengthening 4.325 0.616
The Mean score of Video lectures is really high (4.225), suggesting that students
attached great value to this new component. In fact, 34 answers to Question 6 about the
usefulness of this element stated that learners became more prepared for the lessons.
Meanwhile, 31 students claimed that this component enabled them to learn new vocabulary
relating to the topics prior to the physical class effectively, and 35 students asserted that
they could review specific grammar structures related to the lessons better.
Table 8 below displays what benefits learners could achieve from Portfolio and
Preparatory tasks, and Group Forum. Overall, results showed that all Mean scores are
above 4.0, inferring that most students thought these activities were effective in enhancing
their English skills capability.
Table 8: Benefits of Portfolio and Preparatory tasks, and Group Forum (n=40)
Benefits of Portfolio and Preparatory tasks Mean S.D.

Learners can understand the lessons systematically 4.18 0.59
Learners can check their understanding and test their skills 4.2 0.464
Learners can revise for the practice and exams 4.425 0.549
Benefits of the Group Forum
Learners can do the exercises more effectively 4.23 0.58
Learners can discuss and practice outside the classroom 4.03 0.66
Learners can sharpen their skills with challenging tasks 4.05 0.68
Engagement step received the highest Mean score of 4.35, confirming the value of brain-
based teaching towards the learning process as it could stimulate and motivate learners for
the new lessons. Moreover, Question 9 (Do you think that the Engagement step can help you
…?) revealed that participants learned many aspects from this step as can be seen in Figure 3.
Figure 3: Benefits of the Engagement (n=40)
The Framing step was also rated as a useful activity (4.05). Question 10 of the
questionnaire (Do you think that the Framing can help you … ?) clarified this statement
by showing that this step helped learners improve their English in three main ways:
practice the lessons in context (87.5%), link vocabulary and grammar together for better
understanding (92.5%), and understand the lesson content better (80.0%).
Table 9: Roles of the Framing step (n=40)
Number of
students Percentage
Practice the lessons in contexts 33/40 82.5%
Link vocabulary and grammar together for better understanding 35/40 87.5%
Understand the lesson contents better 32/40 80.0%
The Acquisition and Elaboration steps also received the high rating with regard
to their usefulness level (MAcquisition=4.03; MElaboration= 4.05). It is worth noting that their
Standard deviations were quite small (S.D. Acquisition= 0.48, S.D.Elaboration=0.5), revealing the
homogeneity of the answers to this issue. Figure 4 and 5 illustrate the benefits of the
Acquisition and Elaboration to the learners’ performance.
Figure 4: Benefits of the Acquisition (n=40)

Figure 5: Benefits of Elaboration (n=40)
Finally, the Memory Strengthening was the second favoured element with the Mean
score is 4.325 and the Standard deviation is 0.616. Responses to Question 13 (Do you think
that the Memory Strengthening can help you …?) verified its effectiveness by showing
that this component was a useful step to summarise the lessons for deeper memorizing
(31/40), enabled learners to practice and get used to the time pressure for testing (34/40),
and allowed learners to self-assess their understanding from the lessons (35/40).
In terms of satisfaction with their progress, Table 10 indicates that the students were
generally confident with the lesson contents taught in the course with the mean scores
above 3.5 and the mode of 4. More importantly, they also felt a remarkable improvement
in their English ability and attitudes.
Table 10: Students’ satisfaction with their progress (n=40)
Mean Mode S.D.

Students’ satisfaction with their improvement in vocabulary. 4.15 4 0.4
Students’ satisfaction with their improvement in grammar. 4.125 4 0.516
Students’ satisfaction with their practice in the class. 4.2 4 0.65
Students’ satisfaction with their improvement in other skills. 4.2 4 0.65
Students’ satisfaction with their improvement in specialized knowledge. 4.025 4 0.423
Students’ satisfaction with their understanding of the lessons. 4.15 4 0.58
Students’ satisfaction with their remembering of the lessons. 3.95 4 0.504
Students’ satisfaction with their participation and engagement 4.13 4 0.65
Students’ satisfaction with their cooperative and attentive level 4.125 4 0.56
In short, the findings of this study clearly showed that students in the experimental
class significantly outperformed those who received the traditional instructions. In
addition, students’ perceptions towards this suggested model were mostly encouraging
and promising.
5. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS
5.1. The effectiveness of the suggested model on learners’ performance

Findings of the test analysis showed significant differences between the performance
of the subjects who went under flipped classroom model and brain-based teaching in ESP
class and those who received instructions based on traditional approach. This outcome is
quite consistent with the findings of Zhongwen Liu (2016), Da Liu (2016), Bi Wen Lee
(2017), Melek Demirel (2009), and Haghighi (2013). Hence, the null hypothesis stating
“There is no significant difference between experimental and control class’ performance
measured through the final exam scores” can be rejected.
This proposed model, to some extent, fostered the development of independent and
active learning, whereby students were encouraged to watch video lectures in advance
and reflect on it with peers in order to solve preparatory tasks. They then were encouraged
to take advantage of the practice groups to put their ideas, strategies and solutions to
deal with in-class assignments. Thus, learners were the main knowledge constructors
since they were able to communicate, discuss and share information with the teacher and
with fellow students through the logical structure of in-class activities based on brain-
based teaching. As a result, the flipped classroom model with a detailed instructional
framework and carefully designed structure could bring about a significant increase in the
performance of learners’ ESP proficiency.
5.2. Students’ perceptions towards the suggested flipped classroom model

In general, the study revealed the students’ positive attitudes towards the new method.
Particularly, a majority of students haboured an increased interest and encouraging
confidence in ESP learning, implying that this approach was more preferable than the
traditional ones. They appreciated highly both in-class and out-of-class activities and
commented these factors improved their attitudes and ESP ability significantly. They
also admitted that they became more active, well-prepared, and cooperative during the
course. This successful implementation can be attributed to three reasons. First, the well-
structured combination of out-of-class mediational technology and in-class brain-based
approach is composed of face-to-face component for collaborative practice and virtual
component for individual practice. Both components were implemented within the flipped
environment with the goal of foster the development of independent and active learning.
Thus, learners were the main knowledge constructors. Second, the in-class instructions
adopting brain-based teaching helped the learners to use their subject knowledge,
vocabulary, and grammatical structures in different collaborative and individual activities.
As a result, learners were exposed to a wide diversity of resources necessary for them
to engage critically with the subject and get more involved in the learning process.
Finally, the teacher’s role was facilitating and non-directive, and the students took on
the role of explorers. Therefore, their interest and motivation were enhanced. Therefore,
with technology as a meditational tool, the flipped classroom model built upon a well-
defined educational instructional design (i.e. brain-based teaching) became a creative and
participatory environment in which knowledge is constructed in an active manner.
6. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

In conclusion, the study has offered an insight into the students’ attitudes towards the
new method and its effectiveness. The results did not only reveal a significant change in
the students’ performance compared to the controlled class, they also indicated a positive
impact on students’ ability, interest and confidence. Those responses are quite consistent
with other studies in methodology (e.g. Zhongwen Liu, 2016; Da Liu, 2016; Bi Wen Lee,
2017; and Haghighi, 2013).
In the light of what the study has revealed, several implications for future research
arise. It is worth stating that the external validity of the project is relatively slow due to its
small sample size and short time frame. Thus, an understanding of flipped learning and
brain-based teaching in ESP training could be beneficial more from longitudinal research
with larger scale of participants. Besides, more qualitative methods such as interviews
and observations should be conducted to explore the actual in-class procedures as well
as to reveal how this method could re-orientate the students’ learning habits. As a result,
the students may adopt a more versatile approach to their language learning and they can
have a greater control over their own learning process.
REFERENCES
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APPENDIX 1
A QUESTIONNAIRE TO EVALUATE LEARNER’ PERCEPTIONS TOWARDS
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF FLIPPED CLASSROOM MODEL AND BRAIN-
BASED TEACHING IN THE ESP CLASS
1. LEARNER’S BACKGROUND
1. Gender: Male Female
2. Hometown: Rural area Municipality
3. How long have you been studying English?
5-7 years 7-10 years more than 10 years
4. Has any of your previous teachers applied the flipped classroom model?
Yes No
2. LEARNER’S PERCEPTIONS TOWARDS THE NEW METHOD MODEL
For question 5, please CIRCLE a number from 1 to 5 that is most closely the same as
your situation. The scale of 1 - 5 represents the following ratings:
1 = least useful, 2 = a bit useful, 3 = useful, 4 = quite useful, 5 = most useful.
5. How useful were the following activities for your studying?
a. Video lectures 1 2 3 4 5
b. Preparatory tasks and Portfolio 1 2 3 4 5
c. Group forum 1 2 3 4 5
d. Engagement 1 2 3 4 5
e. Framing 1 2 3 4 5
f. Acquisition 1 2 3 4 5
g. Elaboration 1 2 3 4 5
h. Memory Strengthening 1 2 3 4 5
6. Do you think that the Video lectures can help you ………… (Please CIRCLE the
answers)
become more prepared for the lessons? Yes No
learn new vocabulary relating to the topics? Yes No
learn specific grammar structures related to the lessons? Yes No
For questions 7-8, please CIRCLE a number from 1 to 5 that is most closely the same as
your situation. The scale of 1-5 represents the following ratings:
1= strongly disagree, 2= disagree, 3= no opinion, 4= agree, 5= strongly agree.
7. Do you think that the Preparatory tasks and Portfolios can help you ………..
understand the lessons systematically? 1 2 3 4 5
check your understanding and test your skills? 1 2 3 4 5
revise for the practice and exams? 1 2 3 4 5
8. Do you think that the Group Forum can help you ………………
do the exercises more effectively 1 2 3 4 5
discuss and practice outside the classroom 1 2 3 4 5
sharpen your skills with challenging tasks 1 2 3 4 5
9. Do you think that the Engagement step can help you ….. (Please CIRCLE the answers)
check your understanding of video contents? Yes No
recall and consolidate prior knowledge? Yes No
warm you up for the new lesson? Yes No
10. Do you think that the Framing help you …………… (Please CIRCLE the answers)
practice the lessons in context Yes No
link vocabulary and grammar together for better understanding Yes No
understand the lesson content better Yes No
11. Do you think that the Acquisition step can help you …….. (Please CIRCLE the answers)
practice the language in communication? Yes No
deepen your understanding with challenging tasks? Yes No
be more proficient in using vocabulary and grammar? Yes No
12. Do you think that the Elaboration stage can help you ……. (Please CIRCLE the answers)
learn from strengths and weaknesses of your friends? Yes No
understand the lessons better? Yes No
refine your skills? Yes No
13. Do you think that the Memory Strengthening can help you … (Please CIRCLE the answers)
summarise the lessons for memorizing? Yes No
get used to the time pressure for testing? Yes No
self-assess your understanding from the lessons? Yes No
3. LEANERS’ SATISFACTION WITH THEIR PROGRESS

For questions 14-21, please CIRCLE a number from 1 to 5 that is most closely the
same as your situation. The scale of 1-5 represents the following ratings:
1= strongly disagree, 2= disagree, 3= no opinion, 4= agree, 5= strongly agree.
14. I have improved my vocabulary a lot. 1 2 3 4 5

15. I could do grammar exercises better. 1 2 3 4 5
16. I could practice English more in this class. 1 2 3 4 5
17. I could improve other English skills in this class. 1 2 3 4 5
18. I could improve my specialized knowledge. 1 2 3 4 5
19. I could understand the lessons easier. 1 2 3 4 5
20. I could remember the lessons better. 1 2 3 4 5
21. My participation in this class was more than 1 2 3 4 5
in the previous class.
22. I became more cooperative and attentive 1 2 3 4 5
in this class than in the previous writing class.
23. If you could change or add anything to this course, what would your change be?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR PARTICIPATION IN THE STUDY!
APPENDIX 2
RAW SCORES OF THE CLASSES
BẢNG ĐIỂM MÔN AVCN 1 (Pre-test)
STT Experimental class Control class 1 Control class 2 Control class 3
1 8 7.8 7.5 8.2
2 7.8 8.2 7.5 7.5
3 7 7.5 8.2 8
4 7.5 7.5 7.8 8.8
5 8.4 9 7.5 8.5
6 7.7 7.5 8.4 8.2
7 8.7 8.4 8 7.2
8 7.5 8 7.6 8.2
9 8.1 8 7.8 7.5
10 8.8 7.5 8.4 8.2
11 9.1 8.5 8.7 6.5
12 7.5 8.2 8 7.5
13 7.8 6.5 8.4 8
14 7.7 8 8.5 8
15 9 8.5 7.2 7.5
16 8.8 8 8.4 8.2
17 8.2 8.2 8.6 7.5
18 8.1 8.5 8 9
19 8.7 8.2 8.4 8
20 6.5 8.2 8.4 8.4
21 8.5 9 7.8 8.5
22 8.3 7.8 8 7.8
23 9 7.5 8.5 8.6
24 8.7 8.5 8 7.8
25 8.7 7 7.8 7
26 7.8 8.2 8 8.5
27 8.2 7.8 8.5 8.4
28 7.9 8.8 7.5 7.2
29 8.5 9 8 8.5
30 8.2 8 7.8 7
31 8.1 9.2 8.5 8.5
32 8 7.2 8.2 6.8
33 8 7 8.8 8.2
34 8.5 6.5 8.2 7.8
35 8 8.4 7.2 8.2
36 8.8 8.5 8.2 7.5

37 8.8 8.2 8 7.5
38 8.2 8.5 9 8.8
39 6.9 8 8.5 7.6
40 7.5 8 7.5
41 7.8
42 8.6
43 7.5
BẢNG ĐIỂM MÔN AVCN 2 (Post-test)

STT Experimental class Control class 1 Control class 2 Control class 3
1 7.5 8.2 8.5 7.2
2 9.6 7 8.5 7
3 9 8.2 8.5 7.8
4 9.2 7.6 8.2 8
5 9 9 7 8
6 9.3 8.8 7 7.8
7 7 8.9 8.2 7.5
8 8 8.2 7 8
9 9.8 8 7 7.8
10 8.5 6.5 8 7
11 8.5 8.6 8.4 7.4
12 8 7.5 7.6 7
13 8 8.3 8.6 7.8
14 9.4 8.8 7.5 7.8
15 9.8 8.3 6.6 8.2
16 9.3 7.6 8.6 8.8
17 8.6 8.1 7.8 7
18 9.2 7.5 8.4 8.2
19 8.4 7.4 7.5 7.2
20 9.5 7.6 7.8 8.4
21 8.7 4.6 7.5 8.2
22 8 8.2 7.6 7
23 8 6.2 7.6 8
24 7.2 7.5 8.1 8.8
25 8.6 7.6 7.5 6.9
26 8.3 8.4 8.1 7.8
27 9.4 9.5 8.2 8.2
28 8.1 8.2 8.1 7.2
29 9.1 9 7.2 8.2

30 8.3 8.6 7.1 7.5
31 9.2 8.9 7.6 7.5
32 8 7.6 7.9 6.6
33 7.2 7.5 8.2 7.8
34 8.5 6.2 7.1 7
35 8.3 9 7 7.6
36 9.5 9.2 7.4 8
37 8.3 8.6 9 7.2
38 8.3 8.7 7.8 8
39 7.5 8.6 7.7 7.2
40 9 7.5 7.9
41 8.3
42 9
43 7.3
ENGLISH MEDIUM INSTRUCTION AND TEACHER PROFESSIONAL
DEVELOPMENT IN VIETNAM HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS
Lê Thị Thùy Nhung
Abstract: English Medium Instruction (EMI) has emerged as a prominent phenomenon in

higher education in non-dominant English speaking countries. There has been a substantial
increase in the number of EMI programs at tertiary level in various geographical areas,
especially Asia and Europe. Universities in Vietnam have increasingly introduced EMI in
their academic programs for various instrumental motives. Still, the success of EMI appears
to be under guarantee as preliminary conditions including resources, English competence of
students and lecturers, and teacher preparation are inadequately established in Vietnamese
universities. Particularly, the shortage of skilled teachers appears to be one of the major
concerns for EMI stakeholders worldwide and in Vietnam. This paper reviews development
of EMI around the world and in Vietnam as a global trend. It discusses support for and major
concerns about EMI practices globally and locally, with a focus on teacher professional
development opportunities. It concludes with implications for better implementation of EMI
in Vietnam higher education institutions.
Keywords: English Medium instruction, teacher professional development, higher education,
teacher training, education reform.
1. INTRODUCTION
English Medium Instruction (EMI) has emerged as a prominent phenomenon in
higher education in non-dominant English speaking countries. There has been a substantial
increase in the number of EMI programs at tertiary level in various geographical areas,
especially Asia and Europe. Universities in Vietnam have increasingly introduced EMI
in their academic programs for various instrumental motives. Still, the success of EMI
appears to be under guarantee as preliminary conditions including resources, English
competence of students and lecturers, and teacher preparation are inadequately established
in Vietnamese universities. Particularly, the shortage of skilled teachers appears to be one
of the major concerns for EMI stakeholders worldwide and in Vietnam. This paper reviews
development of EMI around the world and in Vietnam as a global trend. It discusses
support for and major concerns about EMI practices globally and locally, with a focus on
teacher professional development opportunities. It concludes with implications for better
implementation of EMI in Vietnam higher education institutions.
ENGLISH MEDIUM INSTRUCTION AND TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN VIETNAM... 203
2. DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH MEDIUM INSTRUCTION IN HIGHER EDUCATION A GLOBAL TREND

The medium of instruction refers to the language used to deliver the content of non-
language subjects other than the language studied as an object in itself. English Medium
Instruction (EMI) is a content-driven approach without explicit language learning aims
that uses English as a means to teach courses in disciplinary areas (Park, 2007). EMI is
widely adopted in countries where English is not spoken by a majority of the people. This
approach is mainly driven by economic and political motives (Costa & Coleman, 2012).
The increased use of English as a medium of instruction at the tertiary level in
non-dominant English speaking countries is driven by internalization and globalization
(Coleman, 2006; Tollefson & Tsui, 2004). EMI originated in European higher education
but has been increasingly adopted at the tertiary level in Asian countries. The intention of
EMI is to enhance the quality of teaching and learning, to compete for student enrolment
and institutional revenues, and to increase competitiveness in the global higher education
market (Hu, Li, & Lei, 2014; D. M. Le, 2012).
English increasingly becomes the language of higher education across Europe
(Coleman, 2004). Between 2002 and 2007, English-medium provision across European
higher education has nearly tripled. There were 700 programs delivered partially or entirely
in English across 1,558 institutions in 19 European countries in 2002, which accounts for
1% of the total study programs provided (Wächter & Maiworm, 2002). However, there
was a nearly threefold increase with more than 2,400 EMI programs in over 800 European
higher education institutions in 2007. The majority of EMI programs were found in Northern
Europe and mostly available at Masters level (Wächter & Maiworm, 2008).
By countries, the Netherlands was reported as the leading provider of EMI with a total
of 774 programs, followed by Germany with 415 programs and Sweden with 400 programs
in 2009 (Phillipson, 2009). Finnish higher education institutions provided 100% of study
programs in English (Lehikoinen, 2004). It is obvious that since the 1990s, there has been a
substantial increase in EMI programs/courses in European academic institutions.
The East Asian countries of China, South Korea, Taiwan, and Japan have been
leading in EMI provision. Top ranking universities in China have begun to introduce
EMI courses. More than 160 programs were delivered bilingually in both Chinese and
English at Zhejing University, China (Huang, 2006) in 2004. Approximately 132 out of
135 universities in China provided EMI programs, with an average of 44 EMI courses at
each institution in 2006 (Wu, 2010, as cited in Lei & Hu, 2014).
English-medium teaching has become fashionable in higher education institutions
in South Korea (Byun et al., 2011). There were 9,000 EMI courses offered by Korean
universities, which accounted for 2.2% of the total courses in 2002. The Korean
Government aimed to raise the EMI percentage to 3.1% of all courses by 2010.
In Taiwan, about 170 EMI programs at various levels were provided among 45
universities and colleges in 2011 (Hou, Morse, Chiang, & Chen, 2013). Similarly, Japan
offered 74 EMI graduate programs at 43 universities in 2005 (Huang, 2006; Manakul,
2007). The Japan Government aimed to increase EMI provision to 157 programs by
2014 as part of the ‘Global 30 Project’ funded by the government. EMI is increasingly
adopted by East Asian countries as a strategy to minimize ‘brain drain’ and to increase
opportunities for knowledge exchange and technological transfer (Kirkpatrick, 2011).
Table 1. EMI provision in higher education in Asian countries
Countries EMI in Asian higher education
Bangladesh All 80 private universities established since the introduction of the Private University
Act in 1992 have used English as the only medium of instruction.
China The highest ranking 32 universities offer EMI programs in many disciplines including
business, science and technology.
Indonesia The majority of the 78 private universities and the growing public universities have
introduced EMI.
Japan At least 30 universities have introduced EMI programs to attract 300,000 international
students as part of the Global 30 Project.
Malaysia Over 100 private colleges and universities, particularly those which have partnership
programs with foreign universities, and the majority of the 20 public universities
have introduced EMI.
South Korea EMI programs are available in the majority of the 42 national universities
Source: Hamid and Kirkpatrick, 2016
3. ENGLISH MEDIUM INSTRUCTION IN VIETNAM HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS

In Vietnam, EMI has been present in joint degree (or international) programs at
postgraduate level since the early 1990s and at Bachelor level since the 2000s as a result
of collaboration between Vietnam academic institutions and foreign education providers
(Nguyen, Walkinshaw, & Pham, 2017). These programs have traditionally targeted at
students who are financially well-off demanding high quality education without moving
away from home. Currently, approximately 200 joint programs remain active among 50
universities and institutions in Vietnam (VIED, 2017).
EMI programs were not targeting at mainstream undergraduate students until the early
2000s. The Vietnam Government encouraged Vietnamese universities to include EMI in
their academic programs through several EMI policy documents, which were recorded
in the following proposals such as: Foreign Language Education 2008-2020’ (MOET,
2008); Vietnam Educational Strategies 2009-2020 (UNESCO, 2013); and Fundamental
and Comprehensive Reform of Higher Education 2006-2020 (Vietnam Government, 2014).
These documents provide reasons for the introduction of EMI in Vietnam higher education:
to enhance graduates’ employability in the international workplace and thus enhance the
quality of human resources; to enhance the quality of Vietnam higher education through
a process of internationalisation; and to improve the English proficiency of Vietnamese
lecturers for research collaboration and professional exchange.
In response to EMI policy, several universities in Vietnam have increasingly offered
EMI courses and programs. There were 35 Advanced Programs initiatives supervised by
Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) in 23 Vietnamese universities from 2008 to
2015 (MOET, 2010). These programs allow selected Vietnamese universities to import
curricula from prestigious universities abroad. The International Standard Programs (ISP)
were introduced in the Vietnam National University which offered 16 training courses in
English in 2008 (Vu & Burns, 2014). The High Quality Programs promulgated by MOET
were launched in 2014 in several public universities (MOET, 2014). The programs above
share the following features: they model partly or entirely undergraduate degrees’ curricula
from prestigious Western universities; they use English as the medium of instruction to
deliver course content; and they are instructed by highly qualified teaching staff.
EMI policy also triggered the establishment of English medium universities. In
2003, the first public university established in a major city in Vietnam offered all degree
programs in English. In 2009, the Government launched the New Model University
Project to build four ‘world-class’ universities with US$400 million in loans from the
World Bank. These universities were to be public, research-oriented, and English medium
only. Two of them are currently in operation.
Table 2. EMI development in Vietnam Higher Education Institutions (HEIs)
EMI distribution Number

Joint programs/international programs Approx. 200 programs at 50 HEIs
EMI programs/universities Two (public) English medium universities, approximately

70 universities offer EMI courses/programs
Advanced Programs 35 programs (at 23 HEIs)

High Quality Programs 55 programs
Gifted programs Undocumented
Source: VIED, 2017; HEIs’ website
4. IMPLEMENTATION OF ENGLISH MEDIUM INSTRUCTION IN HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS:

PRELIMINARY SUPPORT AND MAJOR CONCERNS
a. Support
EMI seems to have received strong support from major stakeholders in various
education settings. At the national level, policy makers consider EMI as a strategy
towards human resource development, enhancement of national competitiveness, and

reform of higher education. At the institutional level, university managers see EMI as
a means to improve academic quality and standards, to facilitate internationalisation, to
raise the competitiveness of universities in the local and international education market,
and to obtain economic profits. At the personal level, students believe EMI enhances
their English proficiency, increase self-confidence, and better prepares graduates for the
international workplace (T. T. N. Le, 2016).
EMI appears to generate favourable attitudes among students whose preference for
EMI was mainly driven by career aspirations and the desire to study abroad (Byun et al.,
2011; Chang, 2010). Impacts of EMI on students’ performance and learning outcomes
seems to be positive. EMI appears to increase students’ English language proficiency,
especially their specialised vocabulary knowledge (Tatzl, 2011). EMI was highly favoured
by students in Business schools with a strong belief in greater economic returns and
career prospects (Byun et al., 2011; Earls, 2016).
b. Concerns
English Medium Instruction has been growing rapidly in different educational settings
despite predictable problems. These include lack of qualified teaching staff, insufficient English
proficiency levels among students, shortage of teaching materials, assessment mismatch,
financial constraints, and inadequate resources to run EMI programs (Smith, 2004).
Especially, the quality of lecturers has been a controversial issue concerning many
stakeholders. The recruitment practice of universities in various geographical areas shows
that university managers often consider lecturers qualified for EMI programs when they
obtain their qualifications and/or have had prior working experience from an Anglophone
country. Opportunities for lecturers to undertake formal pre-service training in EMI are not
available and in-service professional development remains lacking. Research shows that
lecturers with limited pedagogical skills may lead to students’ problems with understanding
course content and dissatisfaction with their teaching (Flowerdew & Miller, 1992).
In terms of lecturers’ English proficiency, EMI practices at most higher education
institution currently indicate lecturers are not assessed for their English proficiency
upon recruitment. Since there is no definitive benchmark for the level a lecturer needs
to be able to teach effectively through English, the quality of their instruction may be
compromised. Research shows that lecturers’ insufficient levels of English proficiency
exerted negative impacts on students’ ability to understand lectures. Students reported
problems with EMI lectures including complicated vocabulary and concepts, lecturers’
unclear pronunciation and unfamiliar accents, fast delivery rate, and few jokes and
storytelling which helped to deepen students’ understanding of the content (Hellekjaer,
2010; Miller, 2009). Despite concerns expressed about lecturers’ limited English
proficiency and methodology shortcomings, many lecturers were reluctant to attend

training courses, claiming that these courses were neither practical nor necessary
(Aguilar & Rodríguez, 2012; Tange, 2010).
Also, students’ inadequate levels English proficiency led to problems with
comprehension of lectures and textbooks, writing assignments and interaction in
English (Collins, 2010; Sert, 2008). Other barriers towards EMI implementation include
inadequate resources for teaching and research, high tuition fees for students, and high
costs of running EMI programs.
5. TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLICATIONS FOR VIETNAM HIGHER EDUCATION

INSTITUTIONS
a. Teacher professional development
One of the greatest concerns about EMI implementation in different educational contexts
is lack of teacher training, professional development and support for academic staff. Although
EMI education has come into existence in many non-dominant English speaking countries
for decades, pre-service training programs on EMI approach remains almost absent. Even
in established educational system such as Hong Kong, where English has been traditionally
used as a medium of instruction at tertiary level for generations, pre-service training on EMI
approach for university lecturers is still lacking. The majority of lecturers involved in EMI
programs are content experts and they tend to enter teaching career with no formal pedagogical
training either in their area of specialisation or in using EMI approach.
As a compensation, academic institutions around the world have offered in-service
training and professional development activities for EMI staff. This support often takes
the form of informal experience sharing sessions, workshops, and short courses on English
and teaching methodology which have occasionally been reported in the literature. For
example, Klaassen and Graaff (2001) reported a training workshop series organized
for EMI staff at a Dutch university. The workshop provided opportunities for lecturers
to enhance their teaching performance through reflections on demonstration teaching,
discussion, skill practice exercises and presentation.
Similarly, a 12-week professional development course was offered at a Swedish
university (Airey, 2011). EMI lecturers were asked to give mini-lectures and then
commented on lectures delivered by themselves and by their colleagues through online
and offline forums. By reflecting on their performance and receiving feedback from peers,
the lecturers were aware of their limitations and thus could find ways to improve the
quality of their teaching. Similar training activities reported in the literature appear to be
more prevalent in European academic institution than in Asia and elsewhere (Crawford,
2010; Guarda & Helm, 2016).
b. Implications for Vietnam higher education institutions

EMI has been expanding in scope in several universities in Vietnam recently. Despite
the initial appeal of EMI, the effectiveness of EMI programs appears to vary because many
Vietnamese universities are under-resourced and are not adequately prepared for EMI (D.
M. Le, 2012). Researchers have pointed to several obstacles facing EMI implementation in
Vietnam academic institutions including insufficient English proficiency among lecturers
and students, shortage of qualified teachers, outdated teaching methodology, and lack of
resources for teaching and research (D. M. Le, 2012; T. T. N. Le, 2016; Vu & Burns, 2014).
Teacher preparation programmes in EMI currently do not exist in Vietnam. As a
result, lecturers receive no formal training on EMI teaching. In addition, in-service teacher
training and professional development opportunities for EMI remain strictly limited in
several universities (T. T. N. Le, 2016). Current practices in many universities in Vietnam
have EMI lecturers recruited based on their postgraduate discipline qualifications and prior
experiences of EMI education at home or overseas. Research shows that some lecturers
lacked English proficiency and training in ways to teach effectively in English (T. T.
N. Le, 2016; Vu & Burns, 2014). Therefore, universities in Vietnam should stipulate an
English proficiency level required for EMI lecturers. Lecturers’ English proficiency could
be benchmarked against international standardised tests such as TOEFL and IELTS, and
qualifications in English language studies at Bachelors or Masters’ level. It is necessary
for lecturers to be screened for English proficiency upon recruitment.
To compensate for lack of formal training in EMI approach, apart from the
professional development activities mentioned above, Vietnam universities can adopt
tandem teaching (or team teaching) by pairing discipline experts and language teaching
experts in EMI classes to enhance lecturers’ oral English proficiency (Cots, 2012;
Wilkinson, 2012). English language teaching experts could observe EMI lectures
and provide feedback on pronunciation, vocabulary, and sentence-level expressions.
The English language experts could co-teach with discipline lecturers to help them
overcome their linguistic shortcomings and become more confident in using English
during lectures. Also, peer coaching (Klaassen & Graaff, 2001; Lavelle, 2008; Vinke,
Snippe, & Jochems, 1998) has been found to be helpful in assisting lecturers to enhance
their teaching performance. In so doing, beginning lecturers should be coached or
mentored by more experienced lecturers so that the former can learn from the latter
through teaching practice and experience sharing.
Universities in Vietnam should enable opportunities for lecturers to undertake
professional development in both methodology and English. In terms of methodology,
workshops and short courses should be organized on a frequent basis for lecturers to
enhance their knowledge and skills. The in-service teacher training and professional
development should be treated as a priority and exercised as an ongoing activity among
universities which offer EMI approach. In addition, Vietnamese universities should

make funding accessible for lecturers to participate in conferences and workshops on
discipline-related subjects organized locally and internationally. This allows opportunities
for lecturers to engage in research collaboration with international colleagues to enhance
their English and research capacity.
Last but not least, universities in Vietnam should ascertain that they have the necessary
human and financial resources before introducing EMI programs. EMI education
requires more generous funding and staffing than the traditional teaching approach using
Vietnamese. There should be more investment in resources and technology to ensure that
facilities are adequate and accessible to both students and lecturers. The implementation
of EMI in Vietnam higher education would be far from successful unless the issues
mentioned above are seriously addressed.
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USING MINDMAP IN TEACHING ENGLISH
TO STUDENTS MAJORING IN TOURISM
Võ Tú Phương1
Abstract: Mind map is a simple way to remember and express ideas and concepts. It is a
visual tool that helps to structure information, analyze, comprehend, synthesize, retrieve and
create new ideas. The application of mind map in teaching English for students majoring
tourism has helped students to better understanding the system of lectures and memorize the
lessons. This article will show the application of mind map in teaching and learning English
for tourisms at Khanh Hoa University.
Keywords: Mind map, English for tourism, ESP, teaching and learning English, Khanh Hoa
University.
1. INTRODUCTION
Today, with the development of science and technology, human knowledge is
expanding. The infinite sources of knowledge from books, newspapers, magazines,
internet, etc. often make learners confused and do not know what to learn, and if they
know what to learn it is really difficult for them to memorize a huge knowledge if they
just learn by heart or recite the lessons all the time.
Particularly for English for tourism, with specialized knowledge of guiding tourists
such as history, geography, relics, architecture etc. and vocabulary and grammar for this
specialized English, it is difficult for teachers to memorize and learn effectively. So while
teaching, in addition to imparting knowledge to students, we need to direct students to
a positive learning approach to remember, develop cognitive, thinking, imaginary and
creativity etc. One of the most effective tools for doing memorization is using mind map.
Mind map is an undiscovered teaching method. Mind map has been a useful tool of primary
and secondary education in many countries for decades. In education, it serves three
powerful functions: a student presentation tool, a pre-writing tool, and a teaching tool.
Tony Buzan, who is considered as the originator of modern mind map, developed the
mind map to research performed in the 1950s. To his research, mind maps would optimize
the brain’s ability to create, to learn, to remember.
1
Dr. Võ Tú Phương – Vice Dean of Foreign Language Department - University of Khanh Hoa.
Email : votuphuong@ukh.edu.vn.
In this article, I would like to introduce a mind mapping method proposed by Tony Buzan,
an innovative method of note taking, which makes teaching and learning English more effective.
2. CONTENT
2.1. Definition of mind map

Buzan1 has defined mind map as a powerful graphic technique that provides a
common key to unlocking the potential of the brain. This is a visual map of ideas, set
in a circular format around a central thought and it involves a unique combination of
visual, visual and non-visual layout. It has been shown to significantly improve memory
retention when compared to conventional methods such as note-taking and memorizing.
According to Martin (in Trianto, 2009:158), mind map is a specific illustration of
a concept that is unique to another concept in the same category. Mind map is a model
including images, symbols and colors which will not only help students understand the
knowledge but also make the students feel good, interesting and collected.
According to Wikipedia, mind map is a method that takes advantage of the visual
recognition of the brain. This is a way to remember in detail, to synthesize, or to analyze
a problem into a kind of branching scheme. The brain can remember a linear pattern
(remembering in a certain order, such as the sequence of occurrences of a story and
also the ability to communicate and relate facts to each other, which harness both of the
abilities of the two half of the brain).
2.2. The benefits of using the mind map technique

Mind map has 3 useful aspects on learning. Firstly, it helps to organize thinking into
clear categories. Secondly, mind map communicates a great deal of information very
quickly and very visually. Thirdly, the map served as the talking point. With words and
short phrases on the map, learner can make out long sentences.
DePorter and Hernacki (in Abdurrahman, 2008: 172) have suggested some advantages
of using the mind map technique as follows. First of all, flexible. We can use mind map to
explain something easily without making the confusion of adding more material. We can
put the label and category of something based on our own opinion anywhere in the mind
map. Secondly, concentrate on the topic. The subtopics focus on the main ideas. Keywords
may help to make the lesson simple and does not take much time. Thirdly, increasing
comprehension. Using mind map can make it easy to understand the materials, helping
us not to be confused with what we have learned and easy to remember the material. And
finally, enjoyable. Learners can use imagination and unlimited creativity in using mind map,
so learning is fun. By using images, pictures and colors, it makes learning more enjoyable.
1
Soure: http://www.usingmindmaps.com/what-is-a-mind-map.html.
USING MINDMAP IN TEACHING ENGLISH TO STUDENTS MAJORING IN TOURISM 215
2.3. How to make a mind map

To make a mind map, firstly, you start a mind map with a Main Idea at the center. Then
you add information relating to this Main Idea. The information is the idea that comes to
you when you think of the Main Idea. After that, you can just enter them or jot them down
in the order they come to you. Once you have a lot of ideas written down, you can group
them into a logical structure. You can break down each idea into its component parts. This
might involve the entering information you’ve found, or ideas that have occurred to you.
Mind map allows the map maker to move around, to follow their interests. But it does all
of this within an organized framework. Making mind map requires both right brain and
left brain. Picture 1 is an illustration of making a mind map.
(source: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/828451293926892969/)
2.4. The Classification of mind map Technique

Trianto (2009:160) describes that mind map can be distinguished into four kinds, namely;
(1) network tree, (2) event chain, (3) cycle concept map, and (4) spider concept map.
Network Tree
Mind map of this kind is performed with the main ideas are put in a quadrangle and
other words written in the connection line. It is suitable for visualization (a) a cause and
effect relation (b) a hierarchy, (c) branch procedure, and (d) technical terms which can be
used to explain some correlations.
For example: When talking about US currency, we can present in the tree diagram
of network tree as shown above. In the top-down map, the theme is US’s currency. It
includes paper money and coins. In paper money there are $1bills and $5 bill. In coins
there are copper coins and silver coins. Silver coins have the following kinds: ¼ dollar,
1/10 dollar etc. It can be seen that presentation the content of US’s currency on network
tree is easier to understand and more impressive.
Event Chain
In this kind of mind map, the event chain can be used for giving a random order for
steps in a procedure, or steps in a process. It is suitable for visualization (a) some steps in
a process, (b) some steps in a linier procedure, and (c) a random order. Starting from the
topic to be presented, it will then continue to branch out about: What happened? When
did it happen? Where does it happen? How does it happen, Why it happens? etc. This type
of mind map arranges events of the same topic in an area so that readers can follow the
events according to the time, place, what happened more easily.
Cycle Concept Map

In this concept map, the accident combination has no final result. It is suitable to show a
correlation how a combination accident is interacting to produce a group of result repeatedly.
For example, to represent the water cycle, the map can be used as follows. It includes: water
currents → evaporation → cloud accumulation → precipitation rain → water flow
Condensa-tion water steam

Evapora-tion water
water Evapora-tion
water steam Condensa-tion
Or butterfly life cycle is also shown in the circle mind map including:
butterfly → egg → pupa → silkworm → butterfly.
Spider Concept Map

The spider concept can be used for sharing opinion from a central idea until get more
various big ideas. It is suitable to visualize (a) something which is not based on hierarchy
(b) a category which is not parallel, and (d) the result of sharing opinion.
Mind map is similar to a road makes study, work and thinking enjoyable, it can help
to solve the lack of students’ vocabulary in memorizing some words which related to
universal word or key word.
2.5. Parts of mind map Technique

There are some parts of mind map (Windura, 2008:77-86) namely; (1) central image,
(2) key word, (3) basic ordering ideas, (4) branches, (5) colour and (6) picture.
Central Image
A central image has to describe the main idea of a mind map and put it on the center
of the paper. It is for activate the students’ right brain, strengthen the students’ memory
and make the learning activity enjoyable.
Key Word
A key word is a word that can lead a sentence or event. Identifying a familiar word
in one’s own language or another language that sounds like the new word and using only
one key word per line. It is as an urge to remember a lot of words for the students. It is
strong noun or verb that creates image to trigger recall the memory.
Basic Ordering Ideas

Basic ordering ideas are the branches that collect sort information and it connected
to the central topic that radiate out from the center. Making basic ordering ideas which
can direct our mind to make mind map and it need creativity that encourage the students
to understand to the material. It is thick and thinner at the ends. It can be seen as headings
for your topic and spread anywhere but do not become steep.
Branches
The branches should be curvy and in the same length as the words or pictures above it.
These branches can be seen as sub headings. It is thinner branches and containing details.
Colour
Colour is a very good memory sign and it involves the right brain in learning for long
term memory. Colours encourage creativity and help in memorization. Adding plenty
of colours via branches, map background and images will add life to your mind map.
It makes easier to comprehend and remember.
Picture
In mind map, pictures which can change or strengthen a key word that has been
written before.
2.6. Parts of mind map Technique

There are some parts that a mind map (Windura, 2008: 77-86) should have; (1) central
image, (2) key word, (3) basic ordering ideas, (4) branches, (4) and colour (5) picture.
Central Image
A central image depicts the main idea of a mind map and it is placed in the center
of the paper. It stimulates learners’ right brain activity, enhances memory and makes
learning fun.
Key Word
A keyword is a word that can refer to a sentence or an event. It is used to identify
a familiar word in the language of a person or language. And in a mind map we should
use only one keyword per line. It is an impulse to remember many words for students.
Keyword is often a noun or verb to make an image, to activate memory.
Basic ordering ideas

Basic ordering ideas are collections of information that are categorized and connected
to the central theme. Ideas will “radiate” from the center. It is necessary to have creativity
to do this. Teachers need to encourage students to thoroughly study the lesson so that they
can have ideas and arrange them in a suitable sequence. It can be considered headlines for
your topic and spread out anywhere.
Branches
Branches should be curves and have the same length as the words or images on it.
Branches can be considered as subheadings which are thinner and contain more details.
Colour
Color is a very good memory mark and it involves the right brain to remember
long in learning. Color encourages creativity and helps in remembering. Adding colors
through branches, maps and images will add life to your mind map. It makes your mind
map easier to understand and remember.
Picture
In a mind map, images can change or enhance a keyword that was previously written.
2.7. Using mind map in teaching English for students of tourism.

From the techniques and advantages of mind map, the author has instructed tourism
students to use it to summarize lessons, help them to remember the lesson long and
systematically. Here are some mind map works of students.
(1) Mindmap to introduce Nha Trang city
QĐ. Hoàng Sa
QĐ. Trường Sa
Mindmap 1.1
(source: assignment of a group of students from class Việt Nam Học K34, University of Khanh Hoa1)
1
University of Khanh Hoa is formed from Nha Trang College of Culture, Arts and Tourism and Nha trang Teacher Training College.
Mindmap 1.2
(source: assignment of student Phạm Thị Diệu Thảo from class Quản trị Nhà hàng - Khách sạn K33,
University of Khanh Hoa)
Mindmap 1.3
(source: assignment of student Bạch Ngọc Trân from class Quản trị Nhà hàng - Khách sạn K35,
Mindmap 1.4
(source: assignment of student Nguyễn Thanh Trang from class Quản trị Nhà hàng - Khách sạn K35,
(2) Mindmap to introduce Ponagar Temple in Nha Trang city
Mindmap 2.1
(source: assignment of a group of students from class Việt Nam Học K35, University of Khanh Hoa)
(3) Mindmap to introduce Long Son pagoda in Nha Trang city
Mindmap 3.1
(source: assignment of student Quang from class Việt Nam Học K39, University of Khanh Hoa)
Mindmap 3.2
Mindmap 3.3
Mindmap 3.4
(source: assignment of student Võ Thi Ngọc Hòa from class Việt Nam Học K39, University of Khanh Hoa)
Mindmap 3.5
(source: assignment of student Nguyễn Thi Ngọc from class Việt Nam Học K39, University of Khanh Hoa)
(4) Mindmap to introduce Chong Promontory in Nha Trang city
Mindmap 4.1
Mindmap 4.2
(source: assignment of student Huỳnh Ngọc Hiệp from class Quản trị Kinh doanh Khách sạn - Nhà Hàng
K35, University of Khanh Hoa)
Mindmap 4.3
(source: assignment of a group of students from class Quản trị Kinh doanh Khách sạn - Nhà Hàng K35,
2.8. Research
This research is aimed at evaluating the impact of applying mind maps to encourage
students in learning
Research purposes
This study evaluates the application of mind maps in teaching English for tourism
students of second year in tourism department. This module consists of 45 periods. Each
period is 50 minutes long. Each day students have 4 periods. On the first day, students
are introduced the course. The following 5 days teacher used traditional method to teach.
It includes explaining new words, reading comprehension, and answering questions to
check comprehension. Then students review the reading text and presenting the content.
There is a test after that. In The next five-class days we apply mind maps to teaching and
then we have a test.
The author undertakes this research by collecting information through a questionnaire
and comparing the results the student attains before and after applying mind map in
teaching and learning English as a second language. The questionnaires were distributed to
students after five classes that mind map was applied and a test. When applying mind map
to teaching and learning, students demonstrate the knowledge they take in after classes
through making a mind map and present it in front of the class, the teacher observes
throughout the learning process to compare learning attitude, learning enjoyment, and the
incorporation of students into the learning process.
Research subjects
Students taking part in this research are the second-year ones specializing in tour
guiding. They are in 2 classes (travel management K41A & K41B includes 62 students).
Most of the students have English level of A2 of CEFR (the abbreviation of Common
European Framework for Reference), and have completed 2 general English course
including listening, speaking, reading and writing.
Research question
This study addresses two questions:
- Does the use of mind maps in teaching English for tourism change the attitude of
students positively?
- Do students master the content of the lesson better when using mind maps in
teaching rather than not using?
Research Methods
In order to understand students’ attitudes toward the application of mind maps in
teaching, the author designed a questionnaire consisting of 4 selected questions with
choices about the effectiveness of using mind maps in teaching and learning English for
tourism and one question for students to show their opinion about learning with mind
maps. At the same time the lecturer observes the learning process and performance the
duties of the student. The attitude and the way students perform tasks in groups and
individuals are monitored, observed, and recorded throughout the process. The classes
with mind maps method are compared to the previous classes without applying mind
maps to teaching and learning.
Research result
Question 1: Does using mind maps in teaching interest you?
Of the 62 respondents, 16 (25.8%) completely agreed that using mind maps in
teaching interests them. 30 students in the survey agreed (48.4%), 7 agree partly (11,3%).
At the same time, 3 students did not give any personal opinion (4,8%). Six students
disagreed with the statement (9,7 %). Statistics show that most students agree with the
positive role of using mind maps in learning.
Table 1: the student’s opinion in using mind map in teaching
Question 2: Does the use of mind maps in learning help you organize the lesson better?
When evaluating mind maps in organizing the lesson, we see that 24 respondents
(38,7%) completely agreed that mind maps helps them organize the lesson better. 28 students
(45,2%) in the survey agreed, 6 agreed partly (9,7%). Meanwhile, 1 students did not give
any personal opinion (1,6%) and 3 students disagreed with the statement (4,8%). Statistics
show that most students agree with the effect of mind maps in organizing the lesson.
Table 2: the student’s opinion in the effect of mind maps in organizing the lesson
Question 3: Do mind maps help you make presentation better?

When evaluating mind maps in helping students to make presentation the subject
better, there were 14 answering “completely agree” (accounted for 22,6%), there are 15
votes expressing “agree” (24,2%) and 25 students “agree partly” (accounted for 40,3%).
Meanwhile, 1 students did not give any personal opinion (1,6%). There were 7 students
who disagreed with the view (11,3%). Statistics show that most students agree that mind
maps help them make presentation better.
Table 3: the student’s opinion in the effect of mind maps in
making presentation better
Question 4: In your opinion, should teacher apply mind maps in teaching other
English course?
Of the 62 respondents, 51 (82,3%) agreed that mind maps should be used in teaching
other English course. 9 students in the survey (14,5%) agreed that mind maps should not
be used in teaching. And 1 student (3,2%) has no idea. Statistics show that most students
agree with the application mind maps in teaching other English course.
Table 4: Students’ opinion on whether mind maps
should be applied in teaching or not
Question 5: What do you like or don’t you like when using mind maps in teaching
English for tourism?
- This is an open question for students to express their opinions about using mind
maps in teaching English.
The students gave the following positive feedback:
a. Mind map makes lessons short and well-structured, which helps us remember the lesson.
b. Using the mind map, I easily recognize the shortcomings from the teacher’s comment.
c. Mindmap helps me make better presentation.
d. Mindmap makes learning more colorful with images.
e. Mindmap evokes the artistic ability in me.
f. I feel interested in new lesson, because I have fun with mind map.
g. I remember longer when using mind map in learning.
h. Mindmap helps me to learn more things other than the lesson.
i. Mindmap create an environment for me work in groups, knowing how to discuss
and divide tasks, and how to present my ideas fluently.
j. Mind map stimulates my creativity to bring joy in learning.
- Here are negative feedbacks on mind map:
a. Mind map is so complex, it makes me confused.
b. I do not have the ability of drawing. I hate drawing and I hate mind map.
c. I hope that my teacher and my friends can understand what I mean through my drawing.
d. I need time to familiarize myself with mind map.
e. This is English class not drawing class.
2.9. Proposals and Recommendations

In order to make use of mapping in the classroom more effective, the author would
like to make some recommendations as follows:
Firstly, teachers should provide individualized assessment criteria when asking
students to do home-based mind maps. A group report will help the teacher to see who
does what, who does the most, who does the least, who does not do anything, so that there
is a good evaluation for each student.
Secondly, some students have good painting skill, some students have the ability to
organize ideas, some students have good language ability, they can speak English fluently
etc. these students when working with mind maps will develop their abilities complement
each other to have better result in learning. The problem is that teachers are testing
language so they have to ask all students to make presentation rather than just one student
presenting. Students in a group use the same mind map in turn to give presentation so that
teacher assesses the language ability of each student. The problem is that some students
need more time to practice presentation, some need time to develop the presentation from
a words and phrases.
Thirdly, the use of mind maps in teaching English for tourism is what the author
wants. With the advantages of systematizing knowledge, the lesson is dynamic, combining
the ability of students: from painting to organizing ideas and working in team, in group,
practicing presentation skills. The author hopes that mind maps will be widely applied to
other courses in the faculty.
3. CONCLUSION
Mind maps are a tool for teaching and learning systematically and it makes the lessons
more interesting. As you can see that students can make the maps colorful and bright-
almost like works of art. The structure of the mind maps helps them think of concepts and
associations, to build hierarchies of information. It elicits learners’ abilities, motivates
learners and makes learners the center of teaching and learning. Mind maps promote the
strengths of students such as creativity, painting, organizing ideas, working in groups etc.
And the combination of words, colors, images and drawings, and spatial orientation really
make learners and teachers amazed.
The application of mind maps in teaching English for tourism has only recently been
conducted, but it has brought positive effects on learning attitudes and learning outcomes,
helping learners to practice soft skills, such as teamwork, self-study, and presentation
skills, which are essential in a student’s future career. The author hopes that this study will
provide an alternative to teaching and learning English.
REFERENCES
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Paedagogy. San Francisco: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
2. DePorter, Bobbi and Mike Hernacki. (2008). Quantum Learning: Membiasakan Belajar
Nyaman dan Menyenangkan. Jakarta. Kaifa
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Orchestrating Students’ Success. Boston. A Pearson Education Company.
4. Effendi, Yusuf. (2004). “The Effectiveness of Mindmap Technique in Increasing the Second
Year Students’ reading Comprehension at SLTP Negeri 43 Palembang.” Unpublished
Undergraduated Thesis. Palembang: Faculty of Teacher Training and Education University
of PGRI Palembang.
5. Fraenkel, Jack R and Norman E Wallen. (1990). How to Design and Evaluate Research.
New York, NY : MC. Gray- Hill. Inc.
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Linguistics. Cambridge: Newbury House Publiser, Inc.
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Eleventh Students of SMA Negeri 14 Palembang.” Unpublished Undergraduated Thesis.
Palembang: Faculty of Teacher Training and Education University of PGRI Palembang.
8. Hornby, AS. (2000). Oxford Advance Learners’ dictionary of Current English. New York:
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University of Sriwijaya.
10. Thornbury, Scott. (2002). How to Teach Vocabulary. England: Longman.
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Implementasinya pada Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Dasar Pendidikan (KTSP). Jakarta. Kencana.
12. Windura, Sutanto. (2008). Mindmap: Langkah Demi Langkah. Jakarta: PT. Elex Media
Komputindo.
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(Accessed on April 20th, 2018).
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(Accessed on April 28th, 2018).
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16. Mindmaps in Education - Where it all Started... at http://www.usingmindmaps.com/ what-
is-a-mind-map.html. (Accessed on May 8th, 2018).
ESL TEXTBOOK EVALUATION AND ADAPTATION:
A CLOSER LOOK AT “FACE2FACE” (UPPER-INTERMEDIATE LEVEL)
Đỗ Như Quỳnh, Dương Thị Tâm1
Abstract: Evaluating materials has never been separated from English language teaching,
as a material, once used in any pedagogical context, acts a prerequisite for learners to obtain
their target language competence. Many instruments were, consequently, established for
materials evaluation, such as Daould & Celce-Murcia’s (1979) evaluation checklist, Reinders
& Lewis’s (2006) evaluative checklist on self-access materials and Littlejohn’s framework for
analysing materials (Tomlinson, 1998: 192-201). These checklists or framework allow an
evaluator with a number of assessing patterns of successful teaching and learning materials
in order to make decision on whether a material is appropriate for a group of learners or not.
Regarding this, the present study was designed to evaluate the Face2Face Student’s Book
upper-intermediate of Cambridge University Press, which is now the core learning material
of the course Social English 3A for sophomores at ULIS, by using Littlejohn’s framework for
analysing materials (Tomlinson, 1998:192-201). The findings will report on three aspects of
tasks designed in the aforementioned book: a process through which learners and teachers are
to go, classroom participation concerning with whom the learners are to work, and content
that learners are to focus on. Through both theoretical evidence, this study will definitely be
of great benefit to the instructors who are still working on optimizing the efficiency of the
chosen book.
Keywords: Material evaluation, material development, Face2face Upper-intermediate
Student’s Book.
1. INTRODUCTION
Materials development is not to be thought of as a single discipline, but rather as a broad
and vital field of knowledge that constitutes an essential foundation of modern language
teaching. In that respect, many studies on materials development have been carried out
such as Tomlinson (2011) and Riazi (2002). Along with these attempts, this research
is going to evaluate the Face2Face Student’s Book upper-intermediate of Cambridge
University Press, which is now the main learning material of the course Social English 3A
1
Faculty of English Language Teacher Education, VNU University of Languages and International
Studies, Pham Van Dong Street, Cau Giay, Hanoi, Vietnam.
ESL TEXTBOOK EVALUATION AND ADAPTATION: A CLOSER LOOK AT “FACE2FACE” (UPPER-INTERMEDIATE LEVEL) 235
for sophomores at ULIS, by using Littlejohn’s framework for analysing materials

(Tomlinson, 1998:192-201). This study has been done by carrying out an analysis of tasks
in Unit 7 extracted from the Face2Face Student’s Book upper-intermediate to find out
how appropriate they are for the context of use. Three stages are involved: firstly, clarified
some terms namely materials, materials development and tasks, secondly stated out the
research method, and finally presented the analysis and implications of use.
2. MATERIALS, MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT AND TASKS
Materials
According to Oxford Learners’ Dictionary, “materials” means “things that are needed
in order to do a particular activity” or “items used in a performance”. When it comes to
“materials” in teaching, its meaning, despite the various definitions of many scholars, still
keeps the core value as the description above. According to Tomlinson (2012), materials
for language learning can be anything that is used to promote the learning of a language,
including course books, videos, graded readers flash cards, games, websites and mobile
phone interactions. Johnston (2007) shared the same idea with Tomlinson. He defined
materials as any artifacts that facilitate the learning and use of language in the language
classroom. This deliberately broad definition includes a wide potential range of artifacts
which are pictures realia, and virtual artifacts such as Web sites and computer programs.
Based on a 2012 research of Tomlinson, materials normally have five main
characteristics namely informative, instructional, experiential, eliciting and exploratory.
Specifically, informative means informing the learner about the target language,
instructional means guiding the learner in practicing the language, experiential means
providing the learner with experience of the language in use, eliciting means encouraging
the learners to use the language and exploratory means helping the learner to make
discoveries about the language. Oxford (2002) claimed that the perfect materials should
provide all these characteristics of achieving the target language for the learners to practice
and choose from due to the fact that learners have various learning styles. However, the
fact is that most current printed materials are mainly devoted to informing the learners
about language features and instructing them to learn these features. In previous reviews
of currently used EFL textbooks; Masuhara et al. (2008) also concludes that the emphasis
in most course books is on providing explicit teaching and practice.
Material development
As Riazi (2002) states, textbooks have an important role in language teaching
classrooms, however, choosing a textbook that matches with the learners’ needs and
competence has never been an easy task, not to mention that teachers do not have the free
choice upon textbook selection. Therefore, it posed the need for teachers to evaluate and
develop their legitimated materials.
“Materials development” is considered to be all the processes made by professionals
who design and/or use materials for language learning, including materials evaluation,
adaptation, design, production, exploitation and research (Tomlinson, 2012).
Tomlinson, in his 2011a research, claimed that the procedures of materials
development include any activity which is done by writers, teachers or learners to provide
sources of language input, and to exploit those sources to facilitate language learning. In
order to optimize the use of any materials, measuring their value is significantly important.
Regarding material evaluation, many checklists have been established by worldwide
scholars, such as Daoud and Celce-Murcia’s checklist (1979) and Littejohn’s framework
(Tomlinson, 1998:192-201). The checklist of Daoud and Celce-Murcia (1979) is
frequently used for the evaluation of general English textbooks consisting of five major
sections including: (1) subject matter, (2) vocabulary and structures, (3) exercises,
(4) illustrations and (5) physical make-up. In Littlejohn’s framework, materials are
analysed in every single task based on process, classroom participation and content,
instead of the whole material as a set.
Though it is concluded that no single set of criteria for second language materials
evaluation is universally appropriate for all classroom contexts, Littlejohn’s framework
still proves to have certain strengths compared to the others. Thus, this current study is
going to apply Littlejohn’s framework for analyzing material as it allows practitioners
to make decision on whether the materials used are appropriate or not and then make
necessary adaptations.
Tasks
By adopting the Littlejohn’s framework of task analysis, the researchers come to
the next mission of finding a working definition of “task”. Task is usually defined as any
classroom work which involves the learners in the process of negotiating the language
meaning to help them acquire the language in a comprehensible and suitable way. In the
task-based language teaching (TBLT) method, “task” is seen as meaning-centered work,
such as projects, problem-solving and simulations. These works often share similarities
with real life language used outside the classroom (Nunan, 2006).
However, regarding a larger picture when analysing any set of materials, these
definitions are considered to be limited, therefore it might be inappropriate when it is
applied to other materials which are not meaning-focused. In 2003, Johnson gave another
broader meaning which is most likely used by language practitioners. He defined “task” as
“what we give students to do in the classroom” which contains a wide range of activities,
including both task-based work, and more traditional form-focused work. Littlejohn
(Tomlinson, 1998) also shares the same viewpoint which gives a specific task definition
on three key aspects:
- How: a process through which learners and teachers are to go.
- With whom: classroom participation concerning with whom (if anyone) the learners
are to work.
- About what: content that learners are to focus on.
This research is going to adopt task definition from Littlejohn’s point of view.
3. RESEARCH METHOD
In this research, the authors adapted a framework from A preliminary framework for
materials analysis, evaluation and action of Dr. Andrew Littlejohn (1998, pg.204) which
is commonly used and much cited in analyzing and evaluating textbooks.
Figure 1. Adapted framework for materials analysis, evaluation and adaptation

(Littlejohn, 1998:204)
As can be interpreted from the Figure 1, the research went through three main stages:
(1) analyzing the material itself, (2) interpreting the use of material based on (1) and
(3) proposing some actions regarding materials’ adaptation.
In stage (1), materials may be analyzed and described so as to expose their internal
nature, and at the same time, make the analyst’s subjective interpretations more easily
visible. In this stage, we focus on identifying two key levels of tasks:
Level 1: What is their explicit nature? Or what is physically there in the materials?
Level 2: What is required of users? Or about the demands likely to be made of
teachers and learners?
In stage (2), after the first stage becomes explicit, evaluation can then follow in
which an evaluator would need to set out precisely which aspects of the materials are
appropriate and inappropriate and why.
The final stage – “Adaptation” involves the evaluators in making decisions over
what to do next in the light of evaluation. By clearly dividing the various stages involved
in this way, careful account can be taken of each element in materials evaluation. This
analytical framework may be seen as potentially empowering educational administrators,
teachers and learners and others to voice their needs and to take more control over the
materials with which they are involved.
4. MATERIALS ANALYSIS
Level 1: What is their explicit nature?

The observation for recording the explicit nature of the materials consisted of two
parts including the physical aspects of the materials and the main sequence of activity taken
from students’ materials. “Face2face Upper Intermediate Student’s Book” published by
Cambridge University Press in 2007 is written by Chris Redston and Gillie Cunningham.
The materials aim to help with teaching/ learning of “general English”, particularly for
learners at tertiary education whose ages range from 18 to 20 and for the second year
of study. The precise target age range is decided by the nature of students’ age when
they start their higher education. In Vietnam, students usually begin their tertiary level
at the age of 18 after they finish high school. The materials come as a set which consists
of monolingual Teacher’s Book (TB), Student’s Book (SB), Student’s Workbook (SW),
class CDs, and Supplementary Materials (SM).
The materials are intended to be used in approximately 14 weeks which is equivalent
to one semester. Six hours per week is dominated to complete one unit; therefore, there
are total 84 teaching hours. The layouts of TB, SB and WB have a dominating purple
colour while SM’s written by ULIS’s lecturers has a white and yellow colour. The number
of pages for SB, TB, SW and SM is consecutively 160, 224, 63, 206. Materials such as
answer keys, methodology guidance and tests are provided exclusively for teachers while
the others like audio, audio script, guidance on use of the material and extra practices
are given to teachers only. Whereas, the access to syllabus overview and wordlists are
distributed to both teachers and learners.
The route through the material is specified for teacher. The materials are divided
into 10 units with main theme on each and each unit has 5 subsections. Every subsection
in the unit is specified by the topics and followed by the activities which use integrated
skills approach. In the last part of the unit, the subsection named “Review” contains the
summary of the unit. The sequence of main activity types reveal that units often consist
of different tasks and no fixed order through 10 units. For example, the extract from the
students’ book begins with vocabulary task then grammar content. Most of tasks allow
learners to work to acquire language rather than listen to the explanation of teacher.
Level 2: What is required of users?

While Level 1 mainly dealt with the explicit nature of the materials, the next level
would draw the teacher-analyst to a deeper level of analysis by identifying three key
aspects of tasks:
- a process through which learners and teachers are to go.
- classroom participation concerning with whom (if anyone) the learners are to work
- content that the learners are to focus on.
The three aspects of process, participation and content above would be reflected in
the according “questions” that we can put to each task as below:
Figure 2. Questions for the analysis of tasks (Littlejohn, 1998:199)
The first question concerning process, contains three sub-sections which allow us
to focus in details on what precisely learners are expected to do. “Turn-take” relates to
the role in classroom discourse that the learners are expected to take. “Focus” refers,
for example, to whether the learners are asked to focus on the meaning of the language,
its form or both. “Operation” refers to the mental process required – for example,
repetition, deducing language rules, and so on. The second question asks about classroom
participation: “With whom?” – are the learners to work alone, in pairs/groups, or with the
whole class? Finally, the third question asks about the content of the task. Is it written or
spoken? Where does it come from? And what is its nature?
Each of these questions can be applied to each task in an extract from the materials, and
help to build up a detailed picture of the classroom work that the materials propose. Three
aspects of a task were then further investigated based on the following detailed schedule.
Figure 3. Task Analysis Sheet
The authors used the Task Analysis Sheet above in their research, and obtained the
following results:
I. WHAT IS THE LEARNER Number of Total number
Proportion
EXPECTED TO DO? tasks required of tasks
A. TURN TAKE
Initiate 11 66 16.67%
Scripted response 18 66 27.27%
Not required 36 66 54.55%
B. FOCUS ON
Language system (rules or form) 12 66 18.18%
Meaning 35 66 53.03%
Meaning/system/form relationship 19 66 28.79%
C. MENTAL OPERATION
Decode semantic meaning 11 66 16.67%
Select information 16 66 24.24%
Hypothesize 2 66 3.03%
Retrieve from LTM 6 66 9.09%
Repeat identically 15 66 22.73%
Apply general knowledge 11 66 16.67%
Research 1 66 1.52% SUM:
Express own ideas/information 30 66 45.45% 139.39%
Figure 4. A process through which learners and teachers are to go
Turn-take
As can be seen from Figure 4, more than half of the overall tasks do not require
“turn-take”, at nearly 55%. Students, in these tasks, are not asked to take any direct role at
all (e.g. tick the ones you have done to pass the time at the airport or fill in the gaps with
the correct form of the verbs). In opposite, initiate has the lowest mean of percentage,
with 16.67%. The activities required for scripted responses where learners repeat the
language supplied by the materials are 27.27%.
Focus
The second subsection indicates the learners’ main focus attention during tasks. In
regard to where learners need to focus their attention, this textbook is predominantly
toward meaning as meaning has the highest mean of percentage among others. It is
53.03% of the whole tasks designed to lead the learners to the negotiation of meaning.
Following meaning, tasks that blended meaning and form account for 28.79%. Focusing
on form seems to be considered of less importance in this textbook, at 18.18%.
Mental operation
The third subsection concerns the mental processes required during the tasks. The features
under this subsection have the difference in portion because in one task, it may involve more
than one mental operation. Therefore, the total of all features will not be exactly 100%. It is
139.39%. All mental processes listed above are helpful for language acquisition.
Express all ideas/information attracts the highest mean of percentage in this subsection
with 45.45%, then followed by select information at a quite far distance (at merely 24%).
In the third place, there is feature of repeat identically (22.73%). Decode semantic meaning
and apply general knowledge have the same figure, at 16.67%. The rest features are having
the mean of percentage less than 10%, in which the proportion of tasks requiring retrieving
information from long term memory (LTM) is amounted to marginally 9.09%. In only 1 or 2
tasks we could see the involvement of hypothesize and research elements.
II. WHO WITH? Number of task Overall tasks Percentage

Learners individually simultaneously 41 66 62.12%
Learner to whole class 25 66 37.88%
Learner individually outside the class 0 66 0%
Figure 5. Classroom participation concerning with whom (if anyone) the learners are to work
As can be seen from Figure 5, individual work accounts for the major distribution
compared to group work. The finding shows that 62.12% of tasks in textbooks involves
learners individually simultaneously, and 37.88% for leaners to whole class (pair work/
group work). No task was recorded with the learners working outside the classroom.
III. WITH WHAT CONTENT? Number of task Overall tasks Percentage
A. INPUT TO LEARNERS
a. Form
Extended discourse: written 12 66 18.18%
Extended discourse: aural 8 66 12.12%
Words/phrases/sentences: written 41 66 62.12%
Words/phrases/sentences: aural 3 66 4.55% SUM:
Graphic 4 66 6.06% 103.03%
b. Source
Materials 51 66 77.27%
Learners 15 66 22.73%
Outside the course/lesson
c. Nature
Fiction 53 66 80.30%
Non-fiction 0 66 0%
Personal information or opinion 13 66 19.70%
B. EXPECTED OUTPUT FROM LEARNERS
a. Form
Words/phrases/sentences: oral 25 66 37.88%
Extended discourse: oral 8 66 12.12%
Words/phrases/sentences: written 33 66 50%
b. Source
Materials 40 66 60.61%
Learners 26 66 39.39%
c. Nature
Fiction 54 66 81.82%
Non-fiction 12 66 18.18%
Personal information or opinion 0 66 0%
Figure 6. Content that the learners are to focus on
The part “With what content” refers to the results regarding the contents of the tasks
that are assigned to the learners. The total of the form of the input provided to learner
cannot be exactly 100%. It is 103.03% as the form can have more than one feature. The
written content may be provided together with graphic or the oral content might be in
associated with the graphic. In term of the input provided to learners, written words/
phrases/sentences predominate with 62.12%. The second and the third place belong to
written and aural extended discourse, at 18.18% and 12.12% respectively. With less
than 7% of the total tasks, graphic and aural words/phrases/sentences are hardly used as
the language input for learners. On the other hand, the content for expected output from
learners is interestingly equal for both oral and written format (50/50%). In oral form,
words/phrases/sentences dominate extended discourse with the threefold proportion.
In terms of the source of the content as the input to learner is 77.27% come from the
materials and 22.73% coming from the learners. No tasks are recorded to take the input
from outside sources (course/lesson). The source of the content for expected output from
learners is 60.61% coming from materials while 39.39% coming from learners.
Last but not least, the nature of the content for input and output is approximately both
80% in form of fiction, 20% of personal opinion for the former and 20% of non-fiction
for the latter.
5. IMPLICATIONS OF USE AND EVALUATION
5.1. What is learner expected to do?

Turn take
From the analysis above, it is shown that the most noticeable point to emerge from
the analysis of tasks is the very low degree to which the book attempts the activeness in
learning among their learners. It is quite clear to see that the initiate language just accounts
for approximately 16% of the whole tasks. In order to facilitate language learning, learners
need to be given activities requiring production of output, in which initiating language
can be one way as it allows learners to be more independent and creative. Therefore,
regarding turn-take, we could see some limitations in the design of this book.
On the other hand, nearly 55% of total tasks are not required to either initiate or
response through script, followed by approximately 28% tasks of scripted response. In
scripted response, setting out the precise words which teachers and learners are to say
to each other should be needed for learners, especially beginner learners like students at
junior high school or high school to draw leaners to the target language. However, when
it comes to sophomores at ULIS (level B1+), repetition according to script seems not to
be challenging enough. Moreover, this also means that the tasks in this textbook still put
emphasis on teacher-centered in teaching process.
Focus on
Despite the low figure in turn-take, the majority of tasks, interestingly, focus on
meaning or meaning and form, both of which accumulate to nearly 82% of the total. The
rest 18% focus on form only with the dominant tasks in vocabulary and grammar sections.
As the theory of communicative language teaching believes that delivering meaning
is more important than focusing on form in order to develop learners’ communicative
competence (Richard and Rodger, 2001), this figure above means that learners are given
the choice to build their language production capability since they can communicate more
in target language without being concerned with the accuracy as long as the meaning
conveyed.
Mental operation
Figure 7. Mental operation observed in Unit 7a and 7b
The first observation that we can take from the Figure 7 is that all the tasks mainly
require just 1 or 2 mental processes. There are some tasks engaging more than 2 cognitive
elements, however, the number is limited, only 7 out of 66 tasks in total. It is believed
that the more mental operations accumulated in a task would generate more benefits to the
language learners in obtaining knowledge and understanding. Therefore, regarding this
domain, the analyzed tasks failed to construct a comprehensive thinking ability among
learners.
On the second observation, the authors look into that mental operation under the
platform of Bloom’s Taxonomy Revised (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). When placing
seven mental processes (decode semantic meaning, select information, hypothesize,
retrieve from LTM, repeat identically, apply general knowledge, research and express own
ideas/opinions) into six levels of cognitive domain in Bloom’s taxonomy, we interestingly
find out that all of them belong to the initial 3 lower level skills containing remembering,
understanding and applying as illustrated in Figure 8 below:
Figure 8. Bloom’s Taxonomy by E. Robyn, 2014, ExpertBeacon, Inc.
In other words, these mental processes above all help learners to recall knowledge,
check their comprehension and put knowledge into application. These cognitive domains
can totally fit for a young learner in secondary school or high school, however, a higher
level of mental operation should be demanded when it comes to college students.
5.2. With whom?

In the aspect of participation, it is clear that the majority of tasks require learners
to work individually (at approximately 62%) while the numbers of group/pair’s tasks
provided from the material are quite low, at 38%.
This figure is in a very close interrelationship with the turn take session, as most
tasks that do not require turn-take are individual works, and the task that initiate learners’
use of language is a pair work and group work (see the Figure 9 below). As a result, if
we want to change the proportion in the distribution of turn-take components, we need to
work on the participation of learners in classroom.
Figure 9. The inter-relationship between turn take and participation

More noticeably, no tasks are recorded to ask learners work outside the classroom,
which means that the pre-class and post-class sessions have not been fully exploited.
Students are often expected to be in class without any preparation related to the tasks nor
are they required to further apply or create any “learning products”, i.e. a project, after class.
5.3. With what content

Input/output forms
From the analysis of the content of the materials, it shows that there is a huge gap between
the proportion of written words/phrases/sentences and extended written/aural discourse (62%
and around 15% respectively). This imbalance is disadvantageous to learners for the fact that,
according to Krashen (1985) and Long (1983a, 1983b), extended discourse acts as a “driving
force behind the acquisition process”. If a language-learning material were only designed with
fragmentary items, learners could not see the beautiful nature of this language as well as could
not understand the significance, or the motivation, for learning. As a result, this imbalance, to
some extent, impedes the language acquisition of learners.
Besides, graphics, which has been argued to be the most naturally eliciting input that
allows students to use alternative system of logic, or “certain physiological strengths of
learners… can be exploited” (Winn 1987, p. 160), is used with less than 7% in total. Moreover,
the images are all for decorative purposes rather than a prompt for language production.
Regarding form of output, the distribution is perfectly equal for oral and written form,
however, the main focus of output here is just in form of words, phrases and sentences,
with the faint appearance of extended discourse (at 12.12%). These two factors would
leave a huge space of adaptation for the researchers in the next section of this research.
Input/output source
The figures 77.27% for materials, 22.73% for learners and 0% for outside classroom
mean that learners are not allowed to be active to contribute in providing the input to other
learners. Similarly, the output sources of contents are overwhelmingly from materials
(at 60.61%), leaving 39.39% for the learners. This shows that learners are limited to the
output provided by materials that will not increase their autonomy in the learning process.
Input/output nature
Mostly, the nature of contents of both the input and output are largely fiction,
accounting on average for 80%. Fiction input is really necessary for the low-level learners
in recognizing linguistic components and produce simple utterances. Nonetheless, when
it comes to B1+ level sophomores, authentic tasks should be a must as it helps learners
apply knowledge and skills, perform the task in a new situation and rehearse for the
complex ambiguities of adult and professional life.
6. MATERIALS ADAPTATION
Based on what have been analyzed above, this textbook can be used as teaching and
learning materials but it needs a few modifications as stated below.
1. According to the prior explanation of the inter-relationship between low initiate
in turn take and low frequency of group work, teachers instructing this course should
include more activities requiring students to work in group or pair, since it helps them to
build their collaborative learning environment. The nature of working in group is about
sharing opinions and negotiating meanings for every single utterance, therefore, it would
be conducive to learners’ expressions of what he/she wishes to say without the script of
any kind. Moreover, this kind of classroom activity would increase learners’ autonomy
and activeness in their acquisition of language.
2. In terms of low-level cognitive taxonomy, the authors propose a use of project
design for this course (Project-based learning). The goal should be one mini project for
each unit. For example, in unit 7B, there is a reading text named “Changing China” which
talks about the development of a city. Based on this topic, teachers can assign a mini
project called “Your hometown now and then”. Students need to collect some images
from the past and present, or draw some pictures about the changes, search for the genuine
information describing these historical periods, then present what they have acquired to
their classmate. This activity would motivate learners thinking at higher levels of Bloom’s
Taxonomy by making judgements on which images would be suitable for the presentation
(evaluating) and putting information together in an innovative way (creating).
Moreover, this project-based approach also helps to solve problems with the lack
of graphics (students bring their collection of graphics to class), lack of output extended
discourse (students need to present their mini project), lack of output source from the
students (students self-make their product), and lack of non-fiction input/output nature
(images are authentic).
7. CONCLUSION
This research, when coming to an end, has fulfilled the initial intention of investigating
Face2Face English Student Book among the two researchers. As real practitioners of this book,
we always have an urge to dig deep into the material that we experience hands-on teaching in
order to see its strengths and weaknesses. This research has truly saved us from the intuitive
evaluation by figuring out the explicit nature of this book as well as the requirements for users
through the analysis on process through which learners and teachers are to go, classroom
participation concerning with whom the learners are to work, and content that learners are to
focus on. Based on analyzed data, we can see “inside” the book and take more control over
their design and use, resulting in more successful classroom practice in the long run.
REFERENCE
1. Anderson, L. W. and Krathwohl, D. R., et al (Eds.) (2001) A Taxonomy for Learning,
Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Allyn
& Bacon. Boston, MA (Pearson Education Group).
2. Daoud, A., & Celce-Murcia, M. (1979). Selecting and evaluating a textbook. In M. Celce-Murcia
and L. McIntosh (Eds.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language (pp. 302- 307).
Cambridge, MA: Newbury House Publishers.
3. Harwood, N. (ed.) (2010a). Materials in ELT: Theory and practice. Cambridge: Cambridge
University
4. Johnston, B., & Janus, L. (2007). Developing classroom materials for less commonly
taught languages. Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition, University of
Minnesota. London: Continuum.
5. Long, M. H. (1983-13). Native speaker/non-native speaker conversation and the negotiation
of comprehensible input. Applied Linguistics, 4, 126-141.
6. Long, M. H. (1983a). Linguistic and conversational adjustments to non-native speakers.
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 5, 177-194.
7. Masuhara, H., M. Haan, Y. Yi & B. Tomlinson (2008). Adult EFL courses. ELT Journal
62(3), 294–312.
8. Nunan, D. (2006). Task-based language teaching. Ernst Klett Sprachen.
9. Oxford, R. L. (2002). Sources of variation in language learning. In R. B. Kaplan (ed.), The
Oxford handbook of applied linguistics (3rd ed). New York: Oxford University Press, 245–252.
10. Reinders, H. & Lewis, M. (2006). An evaluative checklist for self-access materials. ELT
Journal, 60(3). Oxford University Press.
11. Reinders, H., & Lewis, M. (2006). An evaluative checklist for self-access materials. ELT
Journal, 60(3), 272-278.
12. Riazi, A. (2002). What do textbook evaluation schemes tell us? A study of
textbook evaluation schemes of three decades. In W. Renandya (Ed.), Methodology
and materials design in Language teaching, (pp: 52 - 68). Singapore: SEAMEO.
13. Robyn, E. (2014). Bloom’s taxonomy. Denver, CO: ExpertBeacon. Retrieved from http://
expertbeacon.com/blooms-taxonomy/#.VZGfG0aIU0w.
14. Tomlinson, B. (1998). Materials development in Language Teaching. Cambridge University Press.
15. Tomlinson, B. (ed.) (2007a). Language acquisition and development: Studies of first and
other language learners. Continuum Publishing House.
16. Tomlinson, B. (ed.) (2011a). Materials development in language teaching (2nd ed).
17. Tomlinson, B. (2012). Materials development for language learning and teaching. Language
Teaching, 45(2), pp.143-179. Cambridge University Press.
18. Winn, W. D. (1987). Charts, graphs and diagrams in educational materials. In D. M. Willows,
& H. A Houghton (Eds.): The psychology of illustration. New York: Springer-Verlag, 152 - 198.
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Adapted framework for materials analysis, adaptation and evaluation
Figure 2. Questions for the analysis of tasks
Figure 3. Task Analysis Sheet
Figure 4. A process through which learners and teachers are to go
Figure 5. Classroom participation concerning with whom (if anyone) the learners are to work
Figure 6. Content that the learners are to focus on
Figure 7. Mental operation observed in Unit 7a and 7b
Figure 8. Bloom’s Taxonomy by E. Robyn, 2014, ExpertBeacon, Inc.
Figure 9. The inter-relationship between turn take and participation.
THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL BASIS OF CONTENT
AND LANGUAGE INTEGRATED LEARNING - CLIL IN HIGHER EDUCATION
Nguyễn Thanh Tâm1
Abstract: In recent years, there appear various novel trends in foreign language teaching/
learning in association with subject-matter courses. CLIL - content and language integrated
learning is one of these trends; this method is becoming a growing trend in many countries,
including Vietnam. However, in comparison to the history and development of this method
in the world, it is quite new in Vietnam with a few years of development. As a new trend, this
method is controversial and there are still people who are unclear about it. This study focuses
on theoretical and practical bases which support the integration of content and language
(especially English) in higher education. The study consists of three main parts: Theoretical
basis, Practical basis of content and language (English) integrated learning and Suggest
some practical solutions in order to effectively implement this method at higher education
institutions in Vietnam.
Keywords: English, integrate, content, theories, theoretical basis, practical basis, higher
education, tertiary education.
1. THEORETICAL BASIS OF CLIL (CONTENT AND LANGUAGE INTEGRATED LEARNING)
1.1. History of Formation and Development of CLIL

The concept CLIL – Content and Language Integrated Learning was first officially
introduced and widely known in around 1994. However, in essence, it is not a new
educational phenomenon. There is a lot of evidence showing that during human education
history, language and content integration was formed and developed long time ago. The
root of CLIL is supposed to start when human initially had the transfer of language and
cross-culture, which happened thousands of years ago. The seed of CLIL was formed
and developed strongly in multilingual territories and in the countries with more than one
official language. At that time, the second language was not only learnt through the language
instruction but also through the content which was the daily appearance and experience
among people. The real context could be considered as the content to learn language.
1
Research Center of Psychological and Pedagogical Sciences, Vietnam Institute of Educational Sciences, No. 62
Phan Dinh Giot street, Thanh Xuan district, Hanoi. Email: thanhtam.vss@gmail.com.
THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL BASIS OF CONTENT AND LANGUAGE INTEGRATED LEARNING - CLIL... 251
However, based on the written proof, similar methods of CLIL appeared from the 16th
century in Central Europe. There are two pedagogues at this period supporting the principle
of learning foreign language in the real context and integrating language with meaningful
subject or content. The first pedagogue is the one of J.A. Comenius (1592-1670) with the
target of teaching language effectively. The second pedagogue is of Slovak origin, called
Matthias Bel (1684-1749), also known as the Great Ornament of the Kingdom of Hungary
(Hanesová, 2014&2015). Matthias Bel who lived in a multilingual region with German,
Hungarian, Sloval and Czech dedicated his live to find out effective ways of learning
foreign language. Although Bel lived long time ago in the past, he had up-to-date thinking
and viewpoints in education. His main point in teaching foreign language was that we
should not teach foreign language through language only but teach vocabulary, grammar
by getting to know the reality and experience the word in the world around us. His foreign
language teaching method was through visual aids such as pictures, maps, visualized
story-telling, stimulating the learners’ vivid imaginations..., through specific content like
cultural context of languages, e.g. historical, geographic and legislative texts and their
vocabulary… and through practical experience like asking learners to compare the words
to their own life and to apply appropriate parts in their own context, teaching language
of everyday life for example language of daily routine, daily activities like dressing up,
preparing and serving daily meals, inviting and welcoming guests, interactions during
visits, walks, hunting, etc.
The second milestone in the development of CLIL was from the 2nd half of 20st century.
In the 2nd half of 20st century, some specific linguistic regions such as national borders, big
cities, had a demand of designing educational programs which can integrate language and
content because they wanted their people to receive bilingual instruction and to be able to
acquire language skill for authentic communication and understand the natives in the area.
This demand lead to the formation of one new type of curriculum called “immersion”.
One of the first programs of this education type is a kindergarten program in Canada in
around 1965. At that time, English speaking parents who were living in the French territory
of Quebec wanted their children to learn both French and knowledge, including English.
To satisfy this demand, local educational authorities formed a program which immersed
content and a language other than learners’ mother tongue. More specifically, English
speaking students learnt subjects in French with French speaking children. Gradually, the
term “immersion” was used to describe similar bilingual programs.
Since the first immersion program was introduced, this model later on was multiplied
and spread all over Canada, then the United States and many other countries (Mehisto,
Marsh & Frigols, 2008). Two areas where basis for developing CLIL in this period was
clearest were North America (including Canada and the United States) and North Europe
(including some European countries). In the United States, the integration or immersion
of content and language not only had a long tradition but also developed into many forms
such as Content Based Instruction (CBI) and Bilingual Education (BE). In Europe, right
after the first immersion program was introduced in Canada, educational experts here
paid attention to this method and have adjustments to educational policies. In 1978, the
European Commission (EC) issued a proposal aimed at “encouraging teaching in schools
through the medium of more than one language” (Marsh, 2002, p. 51). Later, in 1983, the
European Parliament challenged the EC “to forward a new program to improve foreign
language teaching” (Marsh, 2002, p. 52). More and more mainstream, i.e. state-funded,
schools in Europe began to teach some subjects in a foreign language.
The term CLIL was officially introduced and its recent development
The term CLIL was first introduce by David Marsh, a specialist working in the area
of multilingualism and bilingual education at the Finnish University of Jyväskylä in 1994
(Kovács, 2014, p. 48; Marsh, Maljers & Hartiala, 2001). Canadian immersion program is
the first basis for Marsh to create CLIL. The original concept of CLIL was used to designate
teaching subjects to students through a foreign language. According to Marsh (2012, p. 1),
“the European launch of CLIL during 1994 was both political and educational. The political
driver was based on a vision that mobility across the EU required higher levels of language
competence in designated languages than was found to be the case at that time. The educational
driver, influenced by other major bilingual initiatives such as in Canada, was to design and
otherwise adapt existing language teaching approaches so as to provide a wide range of
students with higher levels of competence”. During the 1990s, the term CLIL became the
most widely used one to define the integration of content and and language (mostly foreign
language) in European education. A number of research called CLIL an approach while others
consider CLIL as a methodological approach. Whether CLIL is simply an approach or a
methodological approach is still controversial. However, the essence of CLIL is remained,
which is the integration teaching-learning of language and content.
Since then, CLIL has developed and received a lot of attention of not only teachers and
educational authorities but also education researchers, linguists, educators, psychologists,
neurologists in many countries. It is reported by the Eurydice in 2006 that CLIL was
adapted in the majority of European member states in all educational level.
1.2. Definition
In 2003, the European Commission, in its 2004-2006 Action Plan, clearly define
CLIL as a valid approach, more specifically:
Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) involves teaching a curricular
subject through the medium of a language other than that normally used. The subject can
be entirely unrelated to language learning, such as history lessons being taught in English
in a school in Spain. CLIL is taking place and has been found to be effective in all sectors
of education from primary through to adult and higher education. Its success has been
growing over the past 10 years and continues to do so.
CLIL at the tertiary level or ICLHE (Integrating Content and Language in Higher
Education)
CLIL at higher education is called by ICLHE (Integrating Content and Language in
Higher Education). The term ICLHE was coined in Maastricht under two conferences
organized in 2003 and 2006. The fact that this method has an independent name for
tertiary level shows that CLIL at this education level has specific and different features as
well as teaching requirements.
1.3. Features of CLIL at the tertiary level or ICLHE
1.3.1. CLIL Fundamentals

CLIL is made up of and integrates four learning blocks: content, communication,
cognition, and culture. Coyle calls this the 4Cs Framework (Figure 1). The interrelatedness
of the four CLIL aspects takes place by progressing through skill areas and the content,
engaging in cognitive processing, communicating about the material, and acquiring
intercultural awareness (Coyle et al., 2010). The 4Cs Framework is central to any CLIL
curriculum; although there are lessons to be learned from the framework, and ideas to be
emulated and expanded upon, one CLIL size does not fit all. In other words, there is not
one universal CLIL model, and thankfully so. There is considerable curricular variation
in CLIL, which can be manifested in various ways.
Figure 1. The 4Cs of CLIL (based on Coyle, 2005, as cited in Gierlinger, n.d.)
Source: Luisanna Paggiaro, Lend Pisa, 2013
The figure describes the four principles which are essential to the CLIL approach.
They should be used as the framework for creating and delivering successful lessons.
In addition, there are three kinds of language that need to be operational for learning
to occur in CLIL: the language of learning, the language for learning, and the language
through learning (Figure 2). These ways of thinking about language and the teaching of
it are not unique to CLIL; they are simply part of good teaching practice. Nevertheless,
they are necessary for CLIL to occur.
Figure 2. The language tryptique (Coyle, Hood, & Marsh, 2010)
1.3.2. English as a foreign language is the language most used in CLIL and ICLHE
The main purpose when integrating language and school subjects in any educational
levels is to help learners enhance the knowledge of specific aspect together with language
skills. Because higher education students are certainly proficient at the first language,
when implementing CLIL at tertiary education, the language used to learned content must
be a foreign language. Therefore, when applying CLIL, foreign languages are usually
strong ones which have high using demand. CLIL was formed in Europe where English
is the first language in many countries or an important foreign language in other countries.
Besides, in today increasingly globalised world, English as a foreign language becomes
an essential requirement to human resources in many countries. As a result, English as a
foreign language is the language most used of CLIL method.
1.3.3. Higher requirement to both teachers and learners in term of knowledge and language skills
In order to join CLIL program, students need to have proficiency in foreign language
used, which include four skills: listening, reading, writing and speaking. The requirements
in language skills of a CLIL program are certainly higher than the ones of an independent
foreign language program. Therefore, learners of a CLIL program need to have good
language skills. Regarding lecturers of ICLHE program, the requirements are even
much higher. Lecturers that are teaching CLIL at the higher education level are mainly
non-native English speaking and have majors in either subject-matters or language. Very
few lecturers have major in both one academic content and foreign language. On the
contrast, a great number of lecturers do not have enough ability in both academic content
and language to take part in an ICLHE program. In addition, many lecturers are not given
any CLIL training, leading to inadequate preparation to handle integrating lessons. From
this status, we can see that in order to cover a CLIL program, teacher need high level of
academic knowledge and foreign language.
1.3.4. Higher requirement in educational management and organization

Higher requirements to teachers and learners of CLIL program lead to higher
demand in recruiting lecturers and students, managing the teaching quality of lecturers,
assessing the results and higher cost (tuition fees, salary for teachers, equipment, and
money invested in syllabus, books,…).
1.4. Comparison between CLIL and some other methods

Together with the globalization and the increasingly important role of English in higher
education, the trend of combining foreign language and content is becoming more popular.
In universities of many countries in the world, rather than just an object of study, English
is now often the language of teaching and learning. Higher education in the world now is
currently adopting some approaches with the same essence of integrating academic content
and foreign language, which are content and language integrated learning (CLIL), English-
medium instruction (EMI) and content-based instruction (CBI) approaches. Although these
three approaches share the same point of combining content and language, they are still
different in relative positions and functions of content and language in learning objectives
and assessment. The differences among 3 approaches are summarized in the table below:
Table 1. Comparison between CLIL and some other methods
Criteria CBI EMI CLIL

Content mastery is priority Dual and equally important
Aims Language learning Language 2 learning is focuses: Content mastery
incidental and Language learning
Target Nonnative English Both Nonnative English Nonnative English
groups learners and native English speakers learners
Advanced Subject Advanced Subject
Requirements of
Advanced language skills knowledge knowledge
Teaching staff
Good Language skills Advanced Language skills
Follow pedagogical Follow pedagogical
Pedagogical Follow pedagogical
approaches of teaching approaches which support
approaches approaches of teaching
subject knowledge both subject content and
and teaching language
Subject learning tasks language learning; team
formats Language learning tasks
teaching possible
Tool
The role of
Subject Tool Subject
language
Mediator
Language learning
Expected
outcomes. Content Language learning and
learning Content learning outcome
learning is incidental, at a content learning outcomes
outcomes
general knowledge level
on on language proficiency /
on subject content
Assessment language proficiency / performance and subject
knowledge
performance content knowledge
Note: Adapted from Unterberger & Wilhelmer (2011)
From the table above, it can be seen that while CBI and EMI mostly focus on
either content knowledge or language proficiency, CLIL can cover both. Among three
approaches, CLIL is the most comprehensive one in all aspects. Compared to two other
methods, the comprehensiveness of CLIL certainly requires more effort to implement;
however, the benefits it brings about will be greater.
1.5. Benefits of CLIL at higher education level
1.5.1. CLIL helps to increase higher education effectiveness

CLIL is the teaching of subjects to students in a language that is not their own. A CLIL
class can solve two elements: the subject content (or major knowledge at higher education)
and the foreign language. Compared to the traditional education, CLIL can really double the
result: teaching the academic knowledge and teaching foreign language at the same time.
Just like the idiom “Hit two birds with one stone”, CLIL with one class, one duration of
time, one place can help students not only learn content but also enhance language skills.
CLIL is more effective not only than traditional methods but also the other integrating
approach such as CBI and EMI. As mentioned above, CBI focuses mostly on language by
using content to teach language while EMI mostly deals with content by using language
as a tool to teach content. CLIL focus equally on both content and language. Therefore,
CLIL definitely bring students more knowledge, more skills, create an active environment
for students to learn with just one timetable, one syllabus.
1.5.2. CLIL helps to increase the effectiveness of learning language

Learning foreign language in general and English in particular in CLIL approach is
more effective than doing that in simple traditional way. Learning language in a CLIL
class is not the same as in a language class as we usually think of. In a CLL class, while
students are learning about the subject matter, they’re also learning a new language
alongside it. CLIL creates a more positive environment and motivation to learn foreign
language because of its own features and its way to teach language. More specifically,
CLIL benefits students in learning language because:
Language is learn in real context and by experiencing
In CLIL, the content gives students a real context to learn language. Every vocabulary
word, phrase and concept is used to handle direct task from researching and learning
about the subject, working the assignments to talking with classmates. Students have
many chances to use language in practical circumstances. They learn language by using
them to solve the requirements in class. There is always a direct context in which the
words become immediately useful, vivid and alive.
In comparison with a dry vocabulary list, where students must learn the meaning, the
pronunciation, the form of the words, then think up scenarios to apply them, CLIL method
apparently is more effective because students do not have to spend time learning by heart,
making up scenarios to apply the words, finding the opportunities to use language. CLIL
helps students learn language by using and experiencing it in a communicative context,
which is more effective than learn by listening, watching, repeating and self-studying.
Language is learn naturally
A CLIL class offers students an English – speaking environment, where students see
language in action, use language to communicate in a concentrated and relevant context
and they learn language through all these activities. In ICLHE, students who have English
skills from medium level hardly learn language as a subject with grammar rules, sentence
structures; there are hardly any grammar lessons, either. At this level, students acquire
language skills in the studying activities, interacting with teachers and friends. When
learning in a CLIL class, students are also allowed to make mistakes in language, guess
and negotiate the word meaning. Although not explicitly stated, mistakes are part of the
curriculum. Learning language in CLIL is not formalized training but a very practical
socialization. All these things are the same as the way we learn our first language as kids:
learning through activities, normal course of life, learning by doing and making mistakes
to really master language.
Language is learned with a strong motivation
Almost all higher education students choose their majors based on their passion, their
favorites and their abilities. Consequently, each tertiary student has his own innate motivation
for the subject matter (like technology, economics, pedagogy, science,…) learned at university.
When these students attend in a CLIL program, they are likely to indirectly channel their
motivations to the target language used in the program. Because subject matter and medium
of instruction are inseparable and intertwined in CLIL approach, the target language used
ultimately benefits from the natural interest a student has for the topic.
1.5.3. CLIL Global Advantages of CLIL

CLIL not only brings benefits in pedagogical aspect but also broaden its effects
beyond educational limit. In the cultural aspect, CLIL is considered a means to developing
intercultural communication skills, especially when the lecturers are native speakers. From
that basis, intercultural knowledge and understanding are formed and strengthen. Moreover,
CLIL helps universities and education industry to promote international co-oporation and
contribute positively to globalization process. When using foreign language to teach,
educational institutions will have chances to access international programs, cooperate with
foreign partners in many ways such as importing curriculum, team-teaching with foreign
universities, cooperate to award degree,… This helps institutions enhance their profile by
access in international certification and joining in international education system as well
as globalization in education. In addition, students who learned CLIL with knowledge and
foreign language are well prepared to join in both domestic and foreign labor markets.
2. PRACTICAL BASIS OF CLIL
2.1. CLIL Current context of implementing CLIL in European Union higher education
CLIL was formed in Europe, so this approach reaches the highest development here.
In fact, in the countries of the European Union (EU), the development and investment in
CLIL are always focused, not only within individual member states but also across the
Union, expressed through a variety of projects, research and policies. CLIL in general and
ICLHE in particular has received a lot of attention from the European Union and from the
Member States for many years, which can be seen in many aspects such as a strong system
of legal and institutional policies, a huge number of research, many organizations supporting
research and activities regarding CLIL/ICLHE and quantitative results of this method.
The investment in CLIL in general of EU educational system can be seen through the
table below which summarizes the policies and research together with organizations in CLIL:
Table 2. Policies, Research and Organizations in CLIL in European Union
When Who/What Comments/explanations
“The Resolution refers to the promotion of innovative
methods and, in particular, to the teaching of classes in
EC Resolution (1995) on a foreign language for disciplines other than languages,
improving and diversifying providing bilingual teaching’. It also proposes improving the
1995 language learning and quality of training for language teachers by encouraging the
teaching within the education exchange with Member States of higher education students
systems of EU working as language assistants in schools, endeavouring
to give priority to prospective language teachers or those
called upon to teach their subject in a language other than
their own” (Eurydice Report, 2006, p. 8).
Emphasise on plurilingual education in Europe – especially

on the importance of innovative ideas and the most effective
White Paper of EC: Teaching
practices for helping all EU citizens to become proficient
1995 and Learning – Towards the
in 3 European languages: “… it could even be argued that
Learning Society
secondary school pupils should study certain subjects in the
first foreign language learned, as is the case in the European
schools” (p. 47).
European Grant Programmes Comenius, Erasmus and Socrates Programmes – financial
2000 - 2006
by EC provision for activities of ‘teaching staff of other disciplines
required or wishing to teach in a foreign language’.
Suggestion for the promotion of language learning
2001 European Year of Languages and linguistic diversity to be achieved through a wide
CLIL compendium variety of approaches, including CLIL type provision – a
comprehensive typology of European CLIL.
2003 Council of Europe. Language
Bilingual policy issues, including CLIL
Policy Division
EC: Promoting Language CLIL expected to make a major contribution to the EU’s
2004
Learning and Linguistic language learning goals. A set of actions suggested to
Diversity: An Action Plan promote the integrated learning of content and language.
2005 EC Publication Special Educational Needs in Europe - The Teaching and
Learning of Languages
2005 Eurydice report CLIL – enriched with teaching any language that is not the
first language.
Eurydice Report: CLIL covers: “All types of provision in which a second
2006
CLIL at School in Europe language is used to teach certain subjects in the curriculum
other than the language lessons themselves.” (ER, 2006)
2008 Mehisto, Marsh, Frigols CLIL – umbrella term for a whole variety of approaches
Experimental testing of CLIL Didactic Efficiency of the CLIL Methodology at the First
2008
at Primary level Level of Basic Schools in Teaching Foreign Languages –
approved by the Ministry of Education of Slovakia
2010 CLIL Teachers’ Competence A document necessary for professional development of
Grid future CLIL teachers
European Framework for
2011 CLIL Teacher Education A framework for the professional development of CLIL
(Frigols Martin, Marsh, teachers
Mehisto, & Wolff)
Source: Dana Hanesová, 2015, History of CLIL
CLIL in higher education/ICLHE in particular in EU countries has also developed

rapidly. The Bologna Process initiated in 1999 stated the aim of harmonizing tertiary
programs all over Europe, which makes many higher education institutions become more
and more interested in programs taught in English. Some figures which can prove the
development of integrated programs in Europe were shown in the study by Ammon and
McConnell (2002) and Wachter and Maiworm (2008). Specifically, these studies indicated
that between 2002 and 2007, English-medium BA and MA programs tripled in number:
from 700 to 2400; these programs have been organized mainly in the Northern and central
parts of continental Europe, in which the leading countries are Netherlands, Finland,
Cyprus, Sweden, Switzerland and Denmark. The institutions which offer such programs
usually have some typical characteristics like: large, having many degree programs from
Bachelor’s, Master’s and PhD. The majors usually taught in foreign language include
Economics/Business, Engineering, and Science. Regarding student enrolment, the overall
numbers was 121,000 in 2008 (Wachter and Maiworm, 2008).
Current context of implementing CLIL in some countries:
Belgium: According to constitution, there are three official languages in Belgium,
namely French, Dutch and German. However, English is required to almost all citizens of
Belgium because this country is the host country of many EU agencies such as European
Commission, European Council. Therefore, trilingual education at tertiary level is
becoming more widespread. The usual CLIL model in Belgium is Dutch and French
universities offer English-taught programs.
Finland: The internationalization process which includes CLIL programs started
from the end of the 1980s. CLIL programs in Finland cover all the educational level from
primary to tertiary (Lehikoinen, 2004). English is the main foreign language adopted in
CLIL programs in Finland. Today, the country attracts many foreign students.
Bulgaria has a 50-year tradition of bilingual schools. Up to 2016, there are 125
bilingual schools in Bulgaria and the languages taught include English, German, Spanish,
French, Italian and Russian. Because of strong development of bilingual education, CLIL
is applied in all educational levels, including tertiary education. Integrating programs in
higher education helps Bulgarian universities improve not only educational quality but
also competitiveness in the European context. English is the main foreign language used
in higher education integrating programs.
2.2. Current status of integrating programs in Vietnam

In the recent decade, Vietnamese higher education has witnessed a strong development
of many programs taught in foreign language (mostly English) in universities. Although
these programs have the common points of using foreign language to teach major contents,
they are organized in different types. In general, foreign language integrating programs in
Vietnamese higher education institutions can be divided into the following types:
2.2.1. Content based instruction (CBI) programs

CBI programs are usually organized in language universities or the departments of
foreign language for specific/special purposes of universities. The aims of these programs
are the same as ones of CBI approaches: teaching the language with a focus on language
of specific majors/purposes. The language is taught through the content of a specific
major such as language for teaching language, language for translation and interpreting,
language for management, language for international business, language for finance and
banking, language for business administration, language for technology… At the end of
the program, students are awarded the degree of Foreign language for special purpose
(depending on each specific purpose).
Table 3. Some examples of CBI programs in Vietnam
Foreign language Language is taught

University Major/Degree
taught through major content of
English
Russian
Foreign Language Teacher
French Teacher Education
Education
University of Chinese
Languages and Japanese
International Translation and Interpreting
Studies - Vietnam Applied Linguistics
English
National Management
Russian
University, Hanoi Foreign Language (with International studies
French
(ULIS - VNU) specializations) Tourism
Chinese
Economics
Japanese
(Depending on Foreign
Language taught)
English
Russian
French
Teacher Education
Chinese
Translation and Interpreting
Ha Noi Japanese
Foreign Language Tourism
University Korean
German
Italian
Spanish
Portuguese
English
Foreign Trade French Business
Business Foreign Language
University Chinese
Japanese
Hanoi University
English for Science and
of Science and English Science and Technology
Technology
Technology
English as medium of instruction (EMI) programs

In some recent years, there are more institutions offering undergraduate programs
taught and learned in English instead of Vietnamese as regular. These programs apply
EMI approach which using English as a medium to transfer knowledge, to do the test
and conduct learning activities. The first target of these programs is teaching major
content; the incidental target is learning foreign language. Through learning activities, the
programs offer students opportunities to learn and practice foreign language. However,
the final assessment/the degree focus mostly on the completion of major knowledge;
language is assessed as singular subject. One characteristic of this type of program is
higher requirement in lecturers’ knowledge, students’ knowledge and other conditions of
program (equipment, facilities, tuition fees,…) because it is more difficult to organize an
English program.
Table 4. Some examples EMI programs in Vietnam
University Major/Degree Note

High quality Program
Bachelor of International Business General knowledge subjects are
Economics taught in Vietnamese (30%)
Foreign Trade University
High quality Program Major knowledge subjects are taught
Bachelor of Banking and International in English (70%)
Finance
High quality Program
Bachelor of International Business
Economics
Information Technology
Management and Tourism
Finance – Banking
In English
Hanoi University Accounting
Business Management
International Studies
Entrepreneurial Communication In French
Double major programs

Another type of integrating program is double major program. The universities
which offered this program are usually language universities like Ulis, Hanu because
these institutions want their students to enhance learning outcomes with 2 degrees after
graduation. Double major program provide one language course (for example English)
and one major content course (for example International Business, Finance and Banking,
Business Administration,…). The students can learn two courses at the same time or in
consecutive order but with the common subjects between two programs students only
need to study one time. The graduates of these programs can achieve a degree of foreign
language and a degree of another expertise. Moreover, they can save learning time and
an amount of tuition fees. In comparison with 8 years to complete 2 separate programs,
students applying in double major program have to spend from 4 to 6 years. To some
extent, the final target of double major program is the same as CLIL program which helps
students get two majors in one duration of learning time. However, the ways to implement
two types are quite different. While a CLIL program integrates language and content in
the whole course, a double major one separates these two courses and only help students
save time in common subjects.
2.3.4. International Joint Program

Many universities now are offering joint programs in which the Vietnamese
university cooperates with one university/college abroad. In these programs, language of
instruction is English. There are two main ways to organize the program: the first way is
that students learn in Vietnam in the first half of the program, then qualified students are
transferred to learn in foreign university in the second half of the program; the second
way is that students only learn in Vietnam and do not need to go abroad, Vietnamese
university imports the curriculum from foreign partner, invites foreign lecturers to teach
in Vietnam. Graduates of these program are awarded a bachelor degree in major content
by both Vietnamese and foreign universities.
2.3.5. The first tertiary CLIL programs in Vietnam

Besides EMI, CBI programs as mentioned above, some recent years in Vietnam, there
appear some programs which satisfy many characteristics of a CLIL program. They are
English – Subject Teacher Education Programs offered by some universities of education
such as Hanoi University of Education, Hanoi Pedagogical University 2,… The “Subject”
taught in English include: Mathematics, Physics, Chemical, Biology, Information and
Technology. The outstanding features of these programs which make them close to CLIL
approach are the curriculum taught in English, the degree states clearly two major: Subject
content and English to teach that subject content, for example English Mathematics
Teacher Education, English Physics Teacher Education,… After graduation, students can
master two expertise aspects: the subject knowledge and English in this subject, which
certainly help them to cover CLIL lessons.
3. SUGGESSIONS FOR VIETNAM IN ORDER TO EFFECTIVELY IMPLEMENT CLIL/ICLHE

It is easily seen in the previous part of the study that in theory, CLIL approach brings
a lot of benefits to the education system; in practice of the EU, CLIL in general and
ICLHE in particular are contents which are mentioned and concerned in many aspects:
from policies and legislation to research and supporting organizations. Both theoretical
and practical basis show that all educational system, including Vietnam should invest in
and implement this method. From theoretical and practical basis of CLIL approach, we
can draw out valuable experience in how to apply this aspect to Vietnam. From author’s
point view and research process, there are some suggestions and policy implications in
constructing and implementing CLIL in Vietnamese higher education. Generally, in order
to utilize the advantages of CLIL method in higher education, we firstly need to construct
a general strategy to develop it, in which CLIL implementing solution is constructed
and developed in many aspects, from policies and legislation to research and supporting
organizations, on a wide scale and by many joining parties. The specific suggestions will
be analyzed hereinafter:
3.1. Issuing a clear policy framework regulating the construction and implementation of CLIL in
Vietnamese higher education
The EU countries have together issued a clear legal framework regarding CLIL for all
educational levels with many documents, namely EC Resolution (1995) on improving and
diversifying language learning and teaching within the education systems of EU, White
Paper of EC, Council of Europe. Language Policy Division, EC: Promoting Language
Learning and Linguistic Diversity: An Action Plan,… In each member state, the legislation
system relating to CLIL has also been constructed in a very detailed and practical way. A
comprehensive legal framework covering not only national level but also the whole Union
strengthens development of CLIL. From this experience, Vietnamese higher education
should review and supplement the policy framework regarding integrating programs,
including CLIL program in Vietnam. A clear and detailed legal framework helps provide
the standardized guidelines for all the integrating programs in general and CLIL programs
in particular and facilitates the implementation of CLIL in Vietnam. At present, we have not
had any single specific legal document in CLIL, ICLHE, we have only issued some legal
documents relating to teaching language and integrating language and content in different
educational levels, including higher education. Some specific legal bases about teaching
foreign language and integrating language and content in higher education level are:
Decision No.1400/QD-TTg Approving the scheme on foreign language teaching
and learning in the national education system in the 2008-2020 period. It is stated in
the Decision that:
To encourage educational institutions to proactively formulate and implement
bilingual and intensive foreign language training programs.
To formulate and implement programs to teach and learn in foreign languages a
number of subjects such as mathematics and some relevant subjects at upper secondary
schools.
To formulate and implement a program to teach in foreign languages in the senior
year of tertiary education a number of basic, fundamental, specialized and optional
subjects of some key disciplines of study.
To complete the elaboration of curricula and compilation of training and learning

materials for foreign language intensive, foreign language-oriented and bilingual training
for a number of subjects in general education and a number of subjects and disciplines
of colleges and universities;
In the 2009-2010 school year, to implement advanced programs on training in
English at tertiary education level;
To teach in foreign languages a number of basic, specialized and in-depth subjects
in a number of key disciplines in the senior year of tertiary education, starting with
around 20% of students of national universities, regional universities and some other
key universities. To gradually increase the annual percentage and expand the program to
other schools and localities.
Plan No. 808/KH-BGDDT regulating the Implementation of Scheme on Foreign
Language 2020 in higher education institutions in period 2012-2020. The Plan states that:
Until 2015, there are some majors or some subjects belonging to non-English major
priority group: Teacher Education, Natural Sciences, Information and Technology,
Finance and Banking, Tourism, Business Management taught and learned in English.
Choose and use curricula of advanced universities in the world to teach in Vietnamese
universities
The current regulations have just stated the general directions of integrating foreign
language and content at tertiary level. In the upcoming time, we should make the current
regulations more detailed by issuing guiding and explaining documents; at the same time,
complement more regulations which have not been issued, such as the regulations on which
content, which language can be taught, the curricula of CLIL program, teaching method,
characteristics of assessment, degree, tuition fees, the standards of institution to offer CLIL
programs, the requirements of lecturers and students,… One important point of legal basis we
should focus on is the degree after completing a CLIL program. At present, except the English-
Mathematics Teacher Education Program of Hanoi University of Education which certify two
majors in one degree (English Mathematics – Mathematics for teacher), other current CBI and
EMI programs only award degree for one major. If the upcoming CLIL programs can offer
two majors for graduates (for example English and Economics, English and Technology,…),
students will feel encouraged and motivated to apply in and learn, the career opportunities
after graduation will be broaden with two majors in one duration of time.
3.2. Strengthen researching activities on CLIL

Besides legal framework, research also contributes to the development of CLIL
because through scientific research, the current contexts and the advantages as well as
disadvantages will be assessed, analyzed and many solutions, policy implications can
be drawn out. In the world, a study of CLIL at the tertiary level is even more necessary
because there have still been relatively few studies compared to the number of studies
at the other educational level (Dafouz ilne – Nunez –Sancho, 2007, Fortanet Gomez,
2008). In Vietnam, therefore studies on this issue are more necessary. Researching
activities help to consolidate and foster the development of CLIL/ICLHE in Vietnam. The
research regarding CLIL can have many kinds of contents, such as: the theories underline
this approach, the experience of foreign countries in developing CLIL programs and
implications for Vietnam, the trends in constructing and developing CLIL programs in
the world, the current context of developing CLIL programs in Vietnam,... The research
can be conducted by study projects, surveys or scientific conferences.
3.3. Encourage the participation of several parties and organizations on developing CLIL
Organizations supporting CLIL like EC or Eurydice in EU have an important position
in helping construct and developing CLIL programs, sharing experience, finding valuable
resources suitable for CLIL teachers and researchers to enhance their careers and improve
their own competences. In every educational aspect, including CLIL, there are many
parties involving in such as and national authorities, policy makers, researchers, teachers,
parents and students, The participation of many parties in developing CLIL also increase
the objectivity and comprehensiveness of this issue, helping CLIL programs meet the
practical demands of students and educational system. Therefore, in order to facilitate the
development of a new approach as CLIL in Vietnam, the Government and the national
authorities of education could have more policies and incentives to support and develop
organizations working in CLIL as higher education institutions, research institutions, and
the teacher councils in Vietnam or the foundations having activities in CLIL.
3.4. Construct and develop CLIL Teacher Training Curricula and Programs
Teacher training always takes a very important role in every education programs, every
educational levels. In order to successfully implement any new programs, new method,
teacher is always the first subject to be focused on. As a result, in order to implement CLIL
– a new approach in Vietnam, it is necessary to focus on teacher training. In EU countries
and many other foreign countries, there are always special programs for teachers covering
CLIL programs. It is considered and practically proven that CLIL programs require
teaching method with many special and different characteristics, resulting in special and
different teacher training programs. Professional teachers in teaching CLIL method are
trained both major content and foreign language together with specific teaching method.
In Vietnam, the major of English – Mathematics Teacher Education can be considered
as the first CLIL as well as CLIL teacher training program because it satisfy the basic
characteristics of CLIL approach. We can review and further develop this program to
complete it and construct new CLIL teacher training program.
The last point to be mentioned is that the support to develop integrating methods
in general and CLIL in particular in the EU (legal documents, research, supporting
organizations/councils) is conducted on a very wide scale: not only within each nation
but also on the whole EU including all member states, which represents the importance
of this issue as well as the huge investment in teaching foreign languages. The member
states do not develop their integrating teaching and learning on their own only but in close
partnership with other countries, helping them learn from each other, connect domestic
status to regional and international one and then enhance the quality of CLIL development.
Therefore, in Vietnam, the legislation, research and the activities of organization
supporting CLIL should be implemented on a wide scale, such as having scale from
provinces to the whole nation in order to increase the unification and comprehensiveness
of a new educational approach. Besides, we should also actively take the chance to
broaden the scale, take part in research, forums or conferences regarding CLIL and similar
approaches/methods outside Vietnam, in the region or in the world. The international
events will be good opportunities for us to discuss, share experience and learn new trends
of constructing and developing integrating programs.
Furthermore, when constructing and developing integrating programs in Vietnam,
it is advisable that we encourage the participation of several parties, including policy
makers, researchers, and experts on teaching foreign languages, integrating language and
content, universities, institutions, teachers, students and parents, private sectors... The
legal regulations as well as the research should be based on the practical surveys and
current context so as to have suitable solutions.
REFERENCES
1. Richard Caraker, “Towards a CLIL Syllabus in Japanese Universities”, Official Journal of
the European Union, (2007/C 300/07).
2. Simone Smala, (2009), “Introducing: Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)”
(forthcoming, September, Vol 17, Number 3). New Literacies in a Globalised World.
3. Francesca Costa, (2016), CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning) through English
in Italian Higher Education, Milano, LED, ISSN 2234-9235, ISBN 978-88-7916-785-7.
4. McDougald, J.S. (2017). Language and content in higher education. Latin American Journal
of Content and Language Integrated Learning, 10(1), 9-16. doi:10.5294/laclil.2017.10.1.1.
5. Nalan Kenny, HEPCLIL (Higher Education Perspectives on Content and Language Integrated
Learning). Vic, 2014.Assessment in CLIL.
6. Sandra Attard Montalto, Lindsay Walter, Maria Theodorou, Kleoniki Chrysanthou, The
CLIL Guidebook, Lifelong Learning Programme, Clil4U.
7. Umberto Lesca, (2012), An introduction to CLIL, Notes based on a CLIL course at British
Study Center – Oxford, ISTITUTO DI ISTRUZIONE SUPERIORE - “QUINTINO SELLA”
– BIELLA.
8. Steve Darn, Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) A European Overview,
Teacher Development Unit, School of Foreign Languages, Izmir University of Economics,
Izmir, Turkey.
9. Charinee Chansri, Punchalee Wasanasomsithi, (2016), Implementing CLIL in Higher Education in
Thailand: The Extent to Which CLIL Improves Agricultural Students’ Writing Ability,Agricultural
Content, and Cultural Knowledge, PASAA Volume 51 January - June 2016.
10. Cinganotto, L. (2016). CLIL in Italy: A general overview. Latin American Journal of Content
and Language Integrated Learning, 9(2), 374-400. doi:10.5294/laclil.2016.9.2.6.
11. Pokrivčáková, S. et al. (2015). CLIL in Foreign Language Education: e-textbook for foreign
language teachers. Nitra: Constantine the Philosopher University. 282 s. ISBN 978-80-558-0889-5.
12. Brown, H., & Bradford, A. (2017). EMI, CLIL, & CBI: Differing approaches and goals. In P.
Clements, A. Krause, & H. Brown (Eds.), Transformation in language education. Tokyo: JALT.
13. Ulla Fürstenberg and Petra Kletzenbauer, (2015), Language-sensitive CLIL teaching in
higher education: Approaches to successful lesson planning, ELTWorldOnline.com April
2015 http://blog.nus.edu.sg/eltwo/?p=4791 Special Issue on CLIL
14. MacGregor, L. (2016). CLIL in Japan: University teachers’ viewpoints. In P. Clements, A.
Krause, & H. Brown (Eds.), Focus on the learner. Tokyo: JALT.
15. Elisabeth Wielander, (2013), Something to talk about: Integrating content and language
study in higher education, Aston University.
16. Decision No.1400/QD-TTg Approving the scheme on foreign language teaching and
learning in the national education system in the 2008-2020 period.
17. Plan No. 808/KH-BGDDT regulating the Implementation of Scheme on Foreign Language
2020 in higher education institutions in period 2012-2020.
18. Website of Hanoi University http://www.hanu.vn/vn/
19. Website of Foreign Trade University http://www.ftu.edu.vn/
20. Website of Hanoi University of Science and Technology https://www.hust.edu.vn/
21. Website of University of Language and International Studies http://ulis.vnu.edu.vn/
22. Website of Hanoi University of Education http://hnue.edu.vn/
23. Website Thu vien phap luat http://thuvienphapluat.vn/.
TEACHING CULTURE-RELATED COURSES:
TEACHERS’ SHARING ON CONTENT AND APPROACH
Đỗ Thị Mai Thanh1, Phan Thị Vân Quyên1
Abstracts: In the age of globalization, English training courses need to equip students with
not just knowledge but also attitudes and flexible skills to help them adapt in an international
and intercultural environment. At our university, we provide our students, majored in English
language and teaching, different Culture-related courses, namely Intercultural communication
and Language, Culture and Society. The aims of these courses are to raise students’ awareness
of cultural differences and sociocultural impacts on language uses and development. In the
meantime, we focus on exploring students’ creativity and competences as well as their autonomy.
Therefore, our shared ideas on the philosophy of teaching culture-related courses are open-
mindedness and diversity. In our paper, we will discuss what to teach, how to encourage
students to get involved and how to motivate them to communicate what they have learnt in
Culture-related courses to their communities (professional, educational and social).
Keywords: Key words: culture-related courses; learners’ creativity and diversity of
competence; learners’ autonomy; students’ presentation.
RATIONALE AND AIMS OF THE STUDY

Intercultural communication and Language, Culture and Society are the two culture-
related courses for English majored students at University of Languages and International
Studies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi. The aims of these courses are to equip the
future teachers of English, interpreters, translators and linguistic researchers with the
social and cultural knowledge to facilitate the further language and culture teaching and
study. Besides, these courses are also expected to raise their awareness of language and
cultural differences, cultural biases and cultural stereotypes, the sociocultural impacts on
language uses, thus, respect the diversity of the world. The knowledge gained through
these classes will empower their flexibility, autonomy, creativity and promote their critical
thinking and sensitivity in language practice and intercultural communication.
Therefore, in our courses, we focus on exploring students’ creativity, competences and
autonomy. Our shared ideas on the philosophy of teaching culture- related courses are open-
1
Faculty of Linguistics and Cultures of English speaking countries, University of Languages and
International Studies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi
mindedness and diversity. In our paper, we will discuss what to teach, how to encourage
students to get involved and how to motivate them to communicate what they have learnt
in the culture-related courses to their communities (professional, educational and social).
Learning, as Kolb and Kolb (2005:2) propose, is “best conceived as a process, not
in terms of outcomes. To improve learning in higher education, the primary focus should
be on engaging students in a process that best enhances their learning —a process that
includes feedback on the effectiveness of their learning efforts.” Students should be
involved in a process of exposing, understanding, penetrating and gaining the knowledge.
They may come from different cultural and social background. They may experience the
concepts, facts and reality differently. What they perceive and apply from our lessons
may be different, nevertheless, our teaching principles should encourage them to think
and to learn creatively and critically.
Teaching for creativity, as Jeffrey, B. and Craft, A. (2004: 77-87) emphasise, is
“to develop young peoples own creative thinking or behavior” and “having ‘learner
empowerment’ as its main objective.” The teachers should facilitate the students’
creativity, autonomy and originality via their lectures, assignments to the students and
their encouragements to the students’ freedom of learning opportunities. They should
bring a dynamic and diversified learning context, in which students have chances to
express their multiple competence.
Our philosophy of teaching culture-related courses stems from a pedagogic reality:
the students are valued individuals and the emphasis on individuality, freedom of choices
and diversity of multiple competence should be obtained. The necessity of incorporating
students’ creativity and autonomy into in and out of the class activities promotes the
teachers’ further steps on giving students more choices, thus empowering them.
WHAT TO TEACH?
Intercultural Communication and Language, Culture and Society are the content-
teaching courses which combine both lectures and students’ presentation and multiple
formats out of the class activities.
Intercultural communication
Course description: “This course is designed to introduce basic concepts and
processes of cross-cultural and intercultural communication. The course will offer various
opportunities for students to acquire an informed understanding and hence an appreciation
of the dynamics of culture, the diversity of values and perceptions of peoples from different
cultures and even from the same culture that give meaning to people’s lives and drive
their actions and behaviours. This understanding will help them to reflect on personal
TEACHING CULTURE-RELATED COURSES: TEACHERS’ SHARING ON CONTENT AND APPROACH 271
values and practices, and to draw implications to their intercultural communication and
intercultural understanding and appreciation of the cultural similarities and differences.”
Course objectives: By the end of this course, students should be able to:
- apply basic concepts and processes of cross-cultural and intercultural communication
in exploring, understanding and analysing cross cultural and intercultural phenomena.
- use their informed understanding and increased sensitivity of their own culture and
those of others to reflect on their own beliefs, actions and behaviours and to observe those
of others to enhance effective intra-, inter- and cross-cultural communication.
- identify adaptive challenges facing a person, or an organization in different cultural
contexts and in their own contexts of constant change.
- demonstrate their improved communication skills through ability to reflect, to
suspend judgment, and to respect differences.
Course content: the course is expected to cover the concepts of culture and culture
components such as beliefs, values, norms and social practices. Cultural stereotypes,
cultural biases, ethnocentrism, prejudice and discrimination are also the main topics in
order to raise students awareness of the intolerance, tolerance, acceptance and appreciation
of cultural differences. Different cultural patterns and taxonomies are also introduced to
help students have different perspectives on how cultures are viewed. Besides, nonverbal
communication, which is an indispensable part of intercultural communication, provides
another aspects on the dynamic use of cues in interaction. The goal of this course to to
enhance students’ intercultural communicative competence.
Teaching methods: The course will include both lectures and in-class tutorials. To
facilitate learning, the course employs discussion of readings, students’ presentations,
films and documentary, and case analysis. Students are the centre of the learning activities
and are expected to proactively make their own choice of the extra materials for analysis,
to collaboratively work with their peers, to autonomously work on their own and to
actively apply what they have learnt.
Language, Culture and Society
Course description: “The course examines how language functions; how it shapes
and is shaped by thought; how age, ethnicity, class and gender and other social factors
are constructed by language and influence language variation. It explores how people’s
identity is constructed and performed through language, and how language in the media,
politics and everyday talk potentially and creatively represent people and their cultures.
The course will offer various opportunities for learners to acquire an informed
understanding and hence an appreciation of complex and dynamic relationship between
language, culture and society through critical analysis of language in use in media, politics
and everyday talk and how such language use gives rise to power. This understanding will
empower learners in the process of working with language in their further study and practice.”
Course objectives: “By the end of this course, students should be able to:
- apply basic concepts and processes of language, culture and society in exploring,
understanding and analysing language in use.
- use their informed understanding to empower themselves and others in the process
of language use in their study and practice.
- demonstrate their respect and sensitivity in language practice of themselves and
people around them to enhance understanding, appreciation and empowerment among
people and their varied language use.
Course content: The course is to cover the interrelationship between Language
and Society, Language and Culture and Language and Media. Thus, such concepts as
speech community, language and age/gender/social class/politics, language to express
solidarity and politeness, language and cultural stereotypes, language and constructions of
identities, and language, media and power are topics for students to discuss and penetrate.
Besides, students also learn about the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, Language determinism
and Language relativity.
Teaching methods: “The Language, Society and Culture lessons are the combination
of different class activities which are not limited to lectures, group assignments, student
presentations, tutorials, reflection papers, project assignments and group discussions on
critical commentary books and readings. Students are the centre of the learning activities
and are expected to proactively make their own choice of the extra materials for analysis,
to collaboratively work with their peers, to autonomously work on their own and to
actively apply what they have learnt”.
HOW TO MOTIVATE THEM?

To motivate students to actively participate in the class activities and to apply the
knowledge they learn in the class, we assign them different group projects, discussions
and reflection papers.
As for the group projects, students are given different activities including but not
limited to reading, surveying and investigating different social groups, discussing critical
commentary books and articles and relating the knowledge they gained in the course
to the results they collected from activities. These will be reported in the form of the
group presentations. We introduce multiple formats of presentation for the students to
choose: live-presentation, live role-play, live talk-show/game show, recorded role-play
and analysis, recorded presentation, poster, teacher-student role swap and students’
initiated formats. As the results collected from the end-of-course survey with third-year
English-majored students in 3 classes in the course year 2016-2017, the flexibility of using
presentation formats has facilitated their students’ diversified competence and creativity by
giving them chances to present their originality and individuality. The findings indicated
higher level of engagement from both presenters and audience. These activities enhance
students’ autonomy, creativity, flexibility, soft-skills and make the presentations more
attractive, easy to understand. More elaborately, presenters tended to choose the format
“recorded presentation”. The justifications are the facilitation of the students’ competence
and creativity, e.g. group-leadership, soft skills, script-writing skills, language proficiency,
computing skills etc.; the reduction of psychological pressures and the enhancement of
group cooperation. Factors that decide their choice of the format of the presentation are
the compatibility of the topic and their competences, group’s diversified expressions and
the presentation’s impressiveness that help them get high scores. Audiences were more
engaged by being introduced to various presentation formats and richer content.
As for reflection papers and critical essays, students are given the chances to express
their ideas about what they assume and value, how the course has changed their attitudes
and world views and what they can individually do to act responsibly to their communities.
By allowing students more choices of the presentation formats and various in and
out-of-the-class activities, we have promoted their autonomy, creativity, diversity of
competences and engagement in learning.
HOW TO GET THEM MORE INVOLVED IN THE COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES?
1. To raise their awareness to change their attitudes

Different activities in the form of mini research, survey and text analysis are included
in the class activities and groupwork. As for each main topic, students are tasked with
using the concepts they have learned to view and comment on a particular social and
cultural problem in their real life. This will help them think about different cultures and
communities dynamically and diversely. For example, when learning about cultural
identities and cultural biases, students can explore about themselves – their own identities
– and be aware of different kinds of discriminations due to the stereotypes and prejudices,
thus having more tolerance and acceptance to the cultural diversity and differences. (For
more topics, see the Appendix).
When learning about intercultural communication and the relationship between
language, culture and society, students are built up with personal growth motive, social
responsibility motive and cross cultural travel motive. They do not only understand
the world better but also explore themselves in a more critical and flexible way. The
knowledge they gain empowers their personal development.
2. To ask them to act as an interactive motivators in their communities through their assigned
group projects
In the group projects, students are asked to relate what they learn and research with
the reality, i.e. what and how they can do to improve the situations. This will raise their
awareness of the personal responsibility and facilitate their commitments to the social and
cultural problems. For example, besides realizing types and causes of discriminations of
a group of people, students are supposed to work out some solutions that helps reduce
the prejudices against them. When they know that they should tolerate the differences,
students can work as a powerful source to permeate this perception to the community.
When the students understand the manifestations of cultural differences in terms of
values, beliefs, social practices and so on, they will act more cooperatively and ethically
as individuals and groups.
In conclusions, by raising students’ awareness of cultural differences and the
relationship among language, culture and society and allowing students with the
diversification of learning and teaching formats, we enhanced the students’ autonomy,
creativity and cooperation in groupworking and studying. Besides, students are empowered
with flexibility, open-mindedness and adaptation to the connected world.
Appendix 1- ICC GROUP PRESENTATION PROJECTS

Report the results of your project to the class in a group presentation:
TOPIC 1: Design and conduct a small-scale survey on a particular culture’s common
beliefs, values and social norms. Remember to distinguish the differences between beliefs
and values and between values and norms.
Suggestion: The informants in your survey may be: People in your community (your
neighbours, classmates, students at your university…); People at your same age/ course/
sex…; Your friends in a different region/ country…
TOPIC 2: Investigate some biased beliefs that might lead to distorted images of (a
group of) peoples/ nations/ cultures and their impacts. These biased beliefs might cause/ be
caused of ethnocentrism/ stereotypes/ prejudice/ overgeneralization and discrimination.
Suggestion: You can tell the stories of your own or collect from (e)- newspapers/
television/Facebook… provided that the sources of those should be noted.
TOPIC 3: Investigate the linguistic/communicative and cultural transfer phenomena
in Vietnam.
Suggested subjects for your investigation: Teachers of English or English-major
students within our university; Television commercials; Newspapers and magazines;
Online social network…
TOPIC 4: Analyse a taxonomy of cultural pattern and communication and provide

examples. Give your critical opinions. You can select a particular cultural dimension/
pattern to analyse.
TOPIC 5: Discuss the roles of nonverbal communication in intercultural communication.
Examples? Why effective intercultural communicators need to understand the cultural
differences ? What suggestions do you recommend to boost the adaptation in the
intercultural contexts?
Appendix 2 - Language, Culture and Society Group Presentation Project

Design and carry out ONE of the following Language, Culture and Society projects.
Report the results of your project to the class in a group presentation.
TOPIC 1: Design and conduct a small scale opinion survey on Attitudes to Accents
and Dialects in Vietnam or Attitudes to VTV news readers’ accents.
The informants may be people around you. It’s best to choose informants of varying
age, gender, occupation, and background. Investigate their attitudes to different accents
and dialects in Vietnam. Are there any prejudices against a particular accent or dialect?
What are the implications of this project?
TOPIC 2: Investigate the Gender- and Age-related differences in the use of
politeness terms in Vietnamese/ English (or any language you know well) emails/letters/
conversations.
This project could be conducted as secondary research. The sources of information
may come from books, newspapers, margazines, articles… Study the politeness terms
used by people of different genders, by the old/ senior, the middle-aged and the teenagers.
Compare these terms. Are there any differences in the aspects of vocabulary and grammar?
Do people use rhetorical methods to show politeness?
TOPIC 3: Design and conduct a small-scale survey and investigate the impacts of
media and social networks on a particular group in terms of language use and attitudes.
The informants in your survey could be: People in your neighbourhood; People at
your university; Your friends…
Discuss the spread of news and information via social networks and the internet. Are
they reliable and recognised?
TOPIC 4: Investigate the rhetorical skills popularly used in mass media (newspaper,
TV, radio, the internet…)
Choose mass media of any types (serious or entertaining). Analyse rhetorical methods
used and discuss the common ones and their effectiveness.
REFERENCES
1. Jeffrey, Bob and Craft, Anna (2004). Teaching creatively and teaching for creativity:
distinctions and relationships. Educational Studies, 30(1) pp. 77–87.
2. Kolb, A.Y and Kolb, D.A (2005). The Kolb Learning Style Inventory-Version 3.1.
3. 2005 Technical Specifications. Experience Based Learning Systems, Inc. Haygroup.
4. Intercultural communication syllabus (ENG2015). The Faculty of Linguistics and Cultures
of English - Speaking Countries, University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam
National University, Hanoi, 2017.
5. Language, Culture and Society syllabus ( ENG3058). The Faculty of Linguistics and Cultures
of English - Speaking Countries, University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam
National University, Hanoi, 2017.
CHƯƠNG TRÌNH TIẾNG ANH BIÊN PHÒNG 1
Lại Thị Phương Thảo, Lê Thị Chinh, Phạm Thu Hà

Vũ Phương Lan, Nguyễn Đặng Nguyệt Hương, Dương Hồng Anh
Tóm tắt: Việc học tập ngoại ngữ để đáp ứng nhu cầu công tác của các cán bộ ngành biên
phòng là một trong những vấn đề quan trọng, đặc biệt trong bối cảnh toàn cầu hóa hiện nay.
Xuất phát từ nhu cầu thực tiễn đó, Chương trình tiếng Anh Biên Phòng 1 đã được nghiên
cứu và xây dựng. Chương trình bao gồm các hợp phần cơ bản sau: giới thiệu tổng quan về
chương trình, quan điểm xây dựng chương trình, mục tiêu chung và mục tiêu cụ thể, chuẩn
đầu ra cần đạt, nội dung kiến thức và kĩ năng ngôn ngữ, phương pháp và các hình thức dạy -
học, kiểm tra đánh giá, giải thích triển khai thực hiện. Tổng thời lượng của Chương trình là
135 tiết. Trong đó thời gian giảng dạy trên lớp là 105 tiết, thời gian thực hành tại đơn vị có
sự hỗ trợ của giảng viên là 30 tiết. Ngoài thời gian học tập đề cập ở trên, học viên được yêu
cầu dành thời gian hoàn thành các bài tập bắt buộc và tự chọn trong Chương trình.
Từ khóa: tiếng Anh chuyên ngành, tiếng Anh biên phòng
Abstract: Border patrol officers’ acquiring a foreign language in order to fulfil their job
requirements is considered to be critically important, especially in today’s global context.
Stemming from such realistic demands, English Program for Border Patrol 1 has been studied and
developed. The program is composed of eight fundamental components as follows: overview of
the program, approaches to devise the program, general and specific objectives, target language
proficiency level, content of language knowledge and skills, teaching and learning methods,
testing and assessment, specification of implementation. The entire length of the program is 135
periods, which includes 105 periods of class time, 30 periods of on-site practicum with teacher’s
facilitation. Also, students are supposed to spend time on further practice as a part of the program.
Keywords: English for Specific Purposes, English for border patrol.
1. GIỚI THIỆU CHUNG

Một trong những yêu cầu quan trọng đối với cán bộ viên chức trong thời đại hiện
nay là phải đảm bảo năng lực ngoại ngữ đáp ứng nhu cầu công tác. Với bộ đội biên phòng
thuộc các tỉnh Tây Bắc – những người thường xuyên tiếp xúc với người dân đi lại qua
biên giới Việt – Trung và các đơn vị tương ứng của Trung Quốc, ngoài việc phổ cập sử
dụng tiếng Trung Quốc thì nhu cầu sử dụng tiếng Anh trong công việc cũng hết sức cần
thiết. Trên thực tế, tại các đơn vị biên phòng đều đã có một số cán bộ có năng lực tiếng
Anh ở trình độ cao, đáp ứng được nhu cầu phiên biên dịch trong các cuộc giao lưu đàm
phán cao cấp. Tuy nhiên, số cán bộ chiến sĩ chưa được học tập tiếng Anh một cách bài
bản, với nội dung học tập phù hợp với nhu cầu công việc thực tế hàng ngày còn khá lớn.
Chương trình tiếng Anh Biên phòng 1 (sau đây gọi tắt là Chương trình) được xây dựng
nhằm đáp ứng nhu cầu trên.
Chương trình là một trong những nội dung thuộc hợp phần nhánh của đề tài cấp Nhà
nước Nghiên cứu xây dựng mô hình nâng cao năng lực ngoại ngữ cho cán bộ, công chức,
viên chức các ngành hải quan, ngoại vụ, du lịch và biên phòng để thực thi công vụ và dịch
vụ trong xu thế hội nhập quốc tế ở vùng Tây Bắc (sau gọi tắt là Đề tài) do Trường Đại học
Ngoại ngữ – Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội chủ trì thực hiện, nhằm phục vụ mục tiêu phát triển
bền vững khu vực Tây Bắc. Vì vậy, mục tiêu và nội dung của Chương trình cũng hướng
tới việc hoàn thành các nhiệm vụ nghiên cứu và mục tiêu chung của Đề tài.
Chương trình có sự liên thông với Chương trình tiếng Anh Biên phòng 2 và có sự
tương quan nhất định với Chương trình bồi dưỡng năng lực tiếng Trung Quốc dành cho
cán bộ ngành Biên phòng và các chương trình tương tự về bồi dưỡng năng lực tiếng Anh
cùng thuộc phạm vi Đề tài.
Chương trình bao gồm các hợp phần cơ bản sau: giới thiệu tổng quan về chương
trình, quan điểm xây dựng chương trình, mục tiêu chung và mục tiêu cụ thể, chuẩn đầu ra
cần đạt, nội dung kiến thức và kĩ năng ngôn ngữ, phương pháp và các hình thức dạy - học,
kiểm tra đánh giá, giải thích triển khai thực hiện và tài liệu tham khảo chính.
Tổng thời lượng của Chương trình là 135 tiết. Trong đó thời gian giảng dạy trên lớp là
105 tiết, thời gian thực hành tại đơn vị có sự hỗ trợ của giảng viên là 30 tiết. Ngoài ra học
viên còn phải dành thời gian hoàn thành các bài tập bắt buộc và tự chọn trong Chương trình.
2. QUAN ĐIỂM XÂY DỰNG CHƯƠNG TRÌNH

Chương trình tiếng Anh Biên phòng 1 dành cho cán bộ ngành biên phòng được xây
dựng theo các quan điểm sau:
1. Chương trình thiết kế dựa trên nền tảng các kết quả nghiên cứu về giáo dục học,
tâm lý học và phương pháp dạy học ngoại ngữ hiện đại; kinh nghiệm xây dựng chương
trình môn Ngoại ngữ chuyên ngành của Việt Nam và quốc tế; nhu cầu và điều kiện thực
tiễn công tác của bộ đội biên phòng.
2. Đảm bảo hình thành và phát triển năng lực giao tiếp tổng hợp bằng tiếng Anh cho
học viên. Rèn luyện các kỹ năng giao tiếp nghe, nói, đọc, viết thông qua việc vận dụng
các kiến thức ngữ âm, từ vựng và ngữ pháp. Nội dung và hoạt động dạy ngữ âm sẽ được
lồng ghép vào các hoạt động dạy các kỹ năng nghe, nói, đọc, viết.
3. Đảm bảo chương trình được xây dựng trên cơ sở hệ thống chủ điểm và chủ đề. Một
chủ điểm bao gồm nhiều chủ đề. Các chủ điểm và chủ đề có mối liên quan chặt chẽ với nhau,
phù hợp với nhu cầu công tác thực tế của bộ đội biên phòng các tỉnh Tây Bắc và môi
trường làm việc của học viên. Hệ thống chủ điểm và chủ đề được lặp lại, mở rộng và phát
triển qua các bài học. Nội dung các bài học được sắp xếp dựa trên hệ thông các chủ đề.
CHƯƠNG TRÌNH TIẾNG ANH BIÊN PHÒNG 1 279
4. Đảm bảo coi học viên là chủ thể của quá trình dạy học; giáo viên là người tổ chức,
hướng dẫn. Học viên cần được tham gia tích cực vào các hoạt động nghe, nói, đọc, viết
bằng tiếng Anh trong các tình huống giao tiếp với các chủ điểm và chủ đề trong Chương
trình phù hợp với thực tiễn công tác.
5. Đảm bảo tính liên thông và tiếp nối giữa các bài trong Chương trình tiếng Anh
Biên phòng 1 và 2 (sau này); đảm bảo tích hợp giữa các chủ điểm và chủ đề, tích hợp
4 kỹ năng nghe, nói, đọc, viết và dịch.
6. Đảm bảo tính linh hoạt, mềm dẻo của Chương trình nhằm đáp ứng nhu cầu và phù
hợp với từng điều kiện dạy - học tiếng Anh của từng đơn vị, từng địa phương.
7. Đảm bảo sau khi học xong Chương trình, học viên có thể sử dụng tiếng Anh tối
thiểu ở bậc A1 theo Khung năng lực ngoại ngữ 6 bậc dùng cho Việt Nam, đáp ứng được
nhu cầu công tác ở mức cơ bản, đồng thời sẵn sàng bước vào giai đoạn bồi dưỡng năng
lực tiếng Anh ở bậc cao hơn.
8. Chương trình có thể được điều chỉnh tối đa 20% sau mỗi đợt bồi dưỡng tuỳ theo
tình hình thực tế dạy – học.
3. MỤC TIÊU CHƯƠNG TRÌNH
3.1. Mục tiêu chung

Chương trình cung cấp cho học viên kiến thức, kỹ năng ngôn ngữ cơ bản ở trình độ
A1, giúp học viên bước đầu có khả năng giao tiếp bằng tiếng Anh một cách tương đối độc
lập ở những tình huống giao tiếp cơ bản khi tiếp xúc với người nước ngoài trong quá trình
công tác, tạo hứng thú và sự tự tin tiếp tục học tập tiếng Anh ở trình độ cao hơn.
3.2. Mục tiêu cụ thể

- Giao tiếp đơn giản bằng tiếng Anh về các chủ điểm: (1) Personal information
(Thông tin cá nhân), (2) At the border (Tại biên giới), (3) International relations (Quan
hệ quốc tế), (4) Border patrol services (Công tác tuần tra biên giới), và (5) Issues at the
border (Các vấn đề tại biên giới) thông qua 4 kỹ năng nghe, nói, đọc, viết.
- Có kiến thức nhập môn về tiếng Anh, bao gồm ngữ âm, từ vựng, ngữ pháp.
- Hình thành hứng thú với việc học tiếng Anh.
- Bước đầu hình thành phương pháp học tiếng Anh hiệu quả.
4. CHUẨN ĐẦU RA CẦN ĐẠT

Kết thúc Chương trình, học viên có thể sử dụng tiếng Anh tối thiểu ở trình độ A1
(tương đương với bậc 1 trong Khung năng lực ngoại ngữ 6 bậc dành cho Việt Nam). Cụ
thể là: Có thể hiểu, sử dụng các cấu trúc quen thuộc thường nhật; các từ ngữ cơ bản đáp
ứng nhu cầu giao tiếp cụ thể trong công tác biên phòng. Có thể hỏi và nghe hiểu việc tự
giới thiệu về nhân thân; có thể hỏi và nghe hiểu những thông tin về người khác như nơi
sinh sống, người thân/ bạn bè,... Có thể giao tiếp đơn giản nếu người đối thoại nói chậm,
rõ ràng và sẵn sàng hợp tác giúp đỡ.
4.1. Chuẩn kiến thức ngôn ngữ

Ngữ âm - Phát âm được các nguyên âm và phụ âm trong tiếng Anh tuy nhiên vẫn còn nhiều
ảnh hưởng của tiếng mẹ đẻ.
- Bước đầu làm quen và nhận biết trọng âm của từ và câu.
Ngữ pháp - Sử dụng được cụm động từ/ tính từ/ danh từ đơn giản về để diễn đạt trong những tình
huống giao tiếp hàng ngày của ngành Biên phòng.
- Sử dụng các cấu trúc câu cơ bản, các thì quá khứ và hiện tại đơn giản.
Từ vựng - Nắm được nghĩa và cách dùng cơ bản của khoảng 720 từ thuộc các chủ đề đã học
liên quan đến biên phòng.
4.2. Chuẩn kỹ năng ngôn ngữ

Đọc - Hiểu được tên, từ và những câu đơn giản, chẳng hạn những tên riêng và những cụm từ
trên biển báo, biển chỉ dẫn,…
- Hiểu được các bài đọc ngắn, đơn giản gồm những từ vựng được sử dụng lặp đi lại lại
nhiều lần liên quan đến ngành biên phòng.
- Đọc hiểu thư tín/biểu mẫu đơn giản, đặc trưng của ngành biên phòng.
Nghe - Nhận ra được những từ quen thuộc và những cụm từ rất cơ bản liên quan đến bản thân,
gia đình, và môi trường sống quen thuộc cũng như từ vựng liên quan đến ngành biên
phòng khi người nói nói chậm rãi và rõ ràng.
- Hiểu được nội dung chính trong các thông báo hay chỉ dẫn/ mệnh lệnh đơn giản trong
môi trường làm việc của ngành biên phòng.
Nói - Trao đổi ý kiến và thông tin đơn giản khi người khác diễn đạt thông tin với tốc độ chậm
và có sự giúp đỡ khi cần thiết.
- Hỏi và trả lời những câu hỏi đơn giản trong những tình huống giao tiếp rất quen thuộc
của ngành biên phòng.
- Sử dụng những cụm từ và câu đơn giản để trao đổi thông tin về những chủ đề quen
thuộc trong những tình huống giao tiếp liên quan đến ngành biên phòng.
Viêt - Viết thư ngắn và đơn giản để trao đổi trong công việc hàng ngày của ngành biên phòng;
- Hoàn thành biểu mẫu với thông tin cá nhân như điền tên, quốc tịch, và địa chỉ vào mẫu
đơn đăng ký, đơn khai báo,….
- Bước đầu làm quen với viết đoạn văn đơn giản về những chủ đề quen thuộc.
5. NỘI DUNG CHƯƠNG TRÌNH

5.1. Hệ thống chủ điểm, chủ đề bài học
Mỗi một chủ đề có 2 chủ điểm liên quan như sau:
Theme 1: Personal information
Topic 1: Identity Q&A
Topic 2: People around you

Theme 2: At the border
Topic 1: Daily routines
Topic 2: Vehicle inspection
Theme 3: International relations
Topic 1: Countries and nationalities
Topic 2: Land crossings
Theme 4: Border patrol services
Topic 1: Entry and exit procedures
Topic 2: Document examination
Theme 5: Issues at the border
Topic 1: Entry refusal and overstaying
Topic 2: Border security
5.2. Nội dung chi tiết môn học đề xuất

Nội dung 1: Nhập môn
Nội dung 2-11: Tương đương với 10 Units
Nội dung 12-13: Ôn tập
Nội dung 14: Kiểm tra đánh giá định kỳ và kết thúc khóa học
Nội dung Các tiểu mục
Giới thiệu chương trình học
- Đề cương môn học
Nội dung 1: - Lịch trình giảng dạy
Nhập môn - Kiểm tra đánh giá khóa học
- Một số quy định về lớp học
- Kiểm tra trình độ đầu vào
VOCABULARY:
The alphabet, countries and nationalities (1), numbers
GRAMMAR:
Present tense verb be, pronouns, possessive adjectives, a/an/the, plurals, this / that
/ these / those
READING:
Nội dung 2 Scanning for details
Identity Q&A LISTENING:
Listening for specific information
SPEAKING:
Saying hello and goodbye, exchanging personal information
WRITING:
Writing Wh-questions; writing about a partner.
TRANSLATION:
English – Vietnamese, Vietnamese – English
VOCABULARY:
General, Admiral, Field Marshal, family relations, years
GRAMMAR:
Past tense verb be, possessive ’s
READING:
Nội dung 3 Scanning for details
People LISTENING:
around you Listening for specific information
SPEAKING:
Talking about a famous military soldier
WRITING:
Writing about famous military people, describing uniform
TRANSLATION:
VOCABULARY:
Daily routines
GRAMMAR:
Adverbs of Frequency + Present Simple Questions
READING:
Reading for gists
Nội dung 4
LISTENING:
Daily routines
Listening for details
SPEAKING:
Asking and answering about a typical day
WRITING:
Writing about a typical day
TRANSLATION:
VOCABULARY:
Vehicle checking procedure
GRAMMAR:
Imperatives
READING:
Nội dung 5 Identifying main ideas and gists
Vehicle LISTENING:
inspection Listening for details
SPEAKING:
Checking a vehicle
WRITING:
Writing instructions
TRANSLATION:
VOCABULARY:
Countries and nationalities (2)
GRAMMAR:
Near future tense
READING:
Understanding details
Nội dung 6
LISTENING:
Countries and
Identifying contexts - Understanding details
nationalities
SPEAKING:
Asking/ Giving information at border
WRITING:
Form completion - Short report writing
TRANSLATION:
VOCABULARY:
Vietnam visa information
GRAMMAR:
Present perfect tense with the verb be
READING:
Understanding details
LISTENING:
Listening for details
SPEAKING:
Nội dung 7
Guiding passengers
Land
WRITING:
crossings
Form of notice completion
TRANSLATION:
VOCABULARY:
Exiting to Cambodia
GRAMMAR:
The present perfect, the present perfect vs. past simple
READING:
Nội dung 8
Scanning for specific information
Entry
LISTENING:
and Exit
Listening for specific information
procedures
SPEAKING:
Asking for and giving information during entry procedures
WRITING:
Writing a postcard
TRANSLATION:
VOCABULARY:
Passport and visa inspection
GRAMMAR:
Question forms
Nội dung 9 READING:
Document Reading for gist and specific information
examination LISTENING:
Listening for specific information and details
SPEAKING:
Problems with identity documents
WRITING:
Writing a letter to a foreign friend asking about preparations to visit his/ her country
TRANSLATION: English – Vietnamese, Vietnamese – English
VOCABULARY:
Entry and exit restrictions
GRAMMAR:
Modal verbs: Can and Should
READING:
Nội dung 10
Identifying topic and main idea
Entry
LISTENING:
refusal and
Listening for main idea
overstaying
SPEAKING:
Entry refusal at Vietnam border checkpoint
WRITING:
Writing a letter to friends about entry regulations in Vietnam
TRANSLATION:
VOCABULARY:
Border guard’s command, detention at borders
GRAMMAR:
Modal verbs: have to , must and mustn’t
READING:
Reading for specific information
Nội dung 11 LISTENING:
Border Listening for specific information and details
security SPEAKING:
Talking about reasons for detention
WRITING:
Wring a paragraph about security regulations at
border check point
TRANSLATION:
Nội dung 12 Luyện tập và củng cố nội dung 2-6
Review 1
Nội dung 13 Luyện tập và củng cố nội dung 7-11
Review 2
Ôn tập và làm các bài kiểm tra tiến độ và kiểm tra cuối khóa học (chi tiết dạng
Nội dung 14 thức đề thi xem ở mục 9.1)
Ôn tập và + Bài kiểm tra tiến bộ số 1
kiểm tra + Bài kiểm tra tiến bộ số 2
+ Bài kiểm tra hết môn học
5.3. Phân bổ số giờ cho mỗi nội dung

Hình thức tổ chức môn học
Tự học không có hướng
Nội dung Trực tiếp trên lớp Học trải nghiệm
dẫn của GV
Nội dung 1 3 2 6
Nội dung 2 9 2 18
Nội dung 3 9 2 18
Nội dung 4 9 2 18
Nội dung 5 9 2 18
Nội dung 6 9 2 18
Nội dung 7 9 2 18
Nội dung 8 9 2 18
Nội dung 9 9 2 18
Nội dung 10 9 2 18
Nội dung 11 9 2 18
Nội dung 12 3 3 6
Nội dung 13 3 3 6
Nôi dung 14 6 2 12
Tổng giờ 105 30 210
6. PHƯƠNG PHÁP DẠY HỌC

Phương pháp chủ đạo trong Chương trình tiếng Anh Biên phòng 1 (dành cho cán bộ
ngành Biên phòng) là đường hướng dạy ngôn ngữ giao tiếp (Communicative Language
Teaching). Giáo viên giữ vai trò tổ chức, hướng dẫn quá trình học tập của học viên. Học
viên là chủ thể năng động của hoạt động học. Hoạt động học là trung tâm của quá trình
dạy học (learning-centered approach).
6.1. Vai trò của giáo viên

Giáo viên là người tổ chức, hướng dẫn hoạt động dạy học. Giáo viên cần hiểu rõ đặc
điểm tâm lí và năng lực của người học trong quá trình tham gia vào các hoạt động học
tập. Giáo viên cần có sự hiểu biết về đặc điểm của địa phương, đặc trưng của vùng/miền
để áp dụng các phương pháp dạy học phù hợp.
Giáo viên coi học viên là những chủ thể tích cực tham gia vào quá trình học tập. Giáo
viên tạo cơ hội và dành thời gian cho học viên sử dụng ngôn ngữ trong các ngữ cảnh, tình
huống thiết thực với cuộc sống và công việc hàng ngày của học viên. Giáo viên khuyến
khích học viên vận dụng kiến thức ngôn ngữ (ngữ âm, từ vựng, ngữ pháp) trong các hoạt
động giao tiếp (nghe, nói, đọc, viết) liên quan đến công việc của học viên.
Giáo viên sử dụng phối hợp các phương pháp dạy học giao tiếp ngôn ngữ phù hợp
với đối tượng học viên và điều kiện học tập ở địa phương. Thông qua các phương pháp
dạy học, giáo viên giúp học viên hình thành và phát triển phương pháp học tiếng Anh hiệu
quả để tiếp tục tự học, tự nghiên cứu.
Giáo viên sử dụng các đồ dùng, thiết bị dạy học hiện đại, hướng dẫn học viên sử dụng
tài liệu và phương tiện học tập như sách giáo khoa, tài liệu tham khảo, học liệu điện tử,
đồ dùng, thiết bị nghe nhìn, thiết bị điện tử, ICT, mạng Internet, … trong quá trình học để
nâng cao hiệu quả dạy học. Giáo viên sử dụng tiếng Anh trong quá trình dạy học trên lớp
để học viên làm quen với môi trường tiếng và tạo cơ hội tối đa để học viên sử dụng tiếng
Anh trong và ngoài lớp học.
6.2. Vai trò của học viên

Học viên là chủ thể tham gia tích cực, chủ động, sáng tạo vào quá trình dạy học. Trên
cơ sở nắm bắt kiến thức ngôn ngữ (ngữ âm, từ vựng, ngữ pháp), học viên tham gia rèn
luyện kết hợp các kĩ năng giao tiếp (nghe, nói, đọc, viết) trên nền ngữ cảnh và tình huống
giao tiếp trong môi trường công tác của ngành biên phòng. Mức độ hình thành các kĩ năng
giao tiếp thể hiện thông qua:
- Kĩ năng giao tiếp ngôn bản (nghe, nói), trong đó khả năng tương tác trong môi
trường làm việc của ngành là trọng tâm.
- Kĩ năng giao tiếp văn bản (đọc, viết), trong đó khả năng đọc hiểu, tóm lược thông
tin, hoàn thành một số biểu mẫu, văn bản cơ bản thuộc ngành là quan trọng.
- Tăng cường kĩ năng hợp tác nhóm và khả năng sáng tạo, tự nghiên cứu.
Trong quá trình học tập, học viên nắm bắt các phương pháp học tiếng Anh, biết cách
sử dụng tài liệu học tập như sách giáo khoa, học liệu điện tử, đồ dùng học tập, thiết bị điện
tử, ICT, mạng Internet, ... để nâng cao hiệu quả học tập. Học viên từng bước định hướng
học tập và làm việc độc lập, tăng cường khả năng đánh giá và tự đánh giá để không ngừng
củng cố và phát triển kiến thức, nâng cao năng lực công tác.
6.3. Hoạt động học

Hoạt động học là trung tâm của quá trình dạy học. Trên cơ sở xác định mục tiêu dạy
học, nội dung dạy học, các phương pháp, qui trình dạy học và đánh giá năng lực giao tiếp
tiếng Anh được lựa chọn và triển khai phù hợp cho đối tượng học viên là cán bộ ngành
biên phòng. Hoạt động học được thực hiện thông qua hoạt động giao tiếp (Activity-based
learning), nhiệm vụ giao tiếp (Task-based learrning) và học tập trải nghiệm tại nơi làm việc.
Hoạt động được tổ chức thông qua việc tái hiện ngữ cảnh giao tiếp tại nơi làm việc
của học viên với các hoạt động tương tác, các hình thức hoạt động cá nhân, theo cặp/nhóm
và cả lớp. Hoạt động học được tiến hành trên cơ sở quá trình tương tác giáo viên - học
viên, học viên – học viên, học viên - sách giáo khoa và các nguồn học liệu khác (bao gồm
cả học liệu điện tử), thông qua các chủ điểm, chủ đề, nhiệm vụ, tình huống giao tiếp đa
dạng về nội dung và hình thức. Các hoạt động giao tiếp kể trên đều tính đến năng lực học
tập, khả năng triển khai công việc của đối tượng học viên có kinh nghiệm sống và có nền
tảng học vấn như cán bộ của ngành biên phòng. Do đó, các hoạt động hoạt động học theo
nhiệm vụ, trải nghiệm thực tế và tự học được chú trọng.
7. KIỂM TRA ĐÁNH GIÁ
7.1. Phương pháp, hình thức kiểm tra đánh giá kết quả học tập môn học
Hình thức Mục đích kiểm tra Trọng số
Nhật ký của giảng viên Đánh giá mức độ tham gia vào hoạt động học tập trải nghiệm 10%
Đánh giá mức độ tiến bộ của học viên ở các kỹ năng đọc, viết
Bài kiểm tra tiến bộ số 1 20%
và ngữ pháp, từ vựng
Bài kiểm tra tiến bộ số 2 Đánh giá mức độ tiến bộ của học viên ở các kỹ năng nghe, nói 20%
Đánh giá, xác định học viên đạt được nội dung và kiến thức
Bài thi kết thúc chương trình 50%
theo mục tiêu chương trình
7.2. Dạng thức đề thi
a. Bài kiểm tra tiến bộ số 1

- Hình thức: Viết
- Thang điểm đánh giá thể hiện trong bài kiểm tra.
- Học viên viết kết quả bài làm lên phiếu trả lời (Answer sheet)
- Bài kiểm tra viết kéo dài 50 phút.
Phần Dạng bài Nội dung Thời gian
- 20 câu hỏi dạng trắc nghiệm, trong đó 10 câu ngữ pháp, 15 phút
I TỪ VỰNG - 10 câu từ vựng
NGỮ PHÁP- - Ngữ pháp-từ vựng:
+ 10 câu không hoàn chỉnh và mỗi câu có 4 lựa chọn; học viên
chọn 1 đáp đúng cho mỗi câu hỏi
+ 5 câu nhận diện lỗi sai; mỗi câu có 4 từ/cụm từ gạch chân;
học viên chọn 1 từ/cụm từ sai
II ĐỌC - 2 đoạn văn dài khoảng 200 từ với 20 câu hỏi dạng trắc nghiệm 20 phút
- Mỗi đoạn văn có 10 câu hỏi với 4 lựa chọn; học viên chọn 01
đáp án đúng cho mỗi câu hỏi
- Mỗi câu trả lời đúng được 1 điểm
III VIẾT - Học viên được yêu cầu viết 01 bức thư có gợi ý cho sẵn. 15 phút
- Chủ đề: liên quan đến nội dung học
- Độ dài: 80-100 từ
Tổng thời gian 50 phút
b. Bài kiểm tra tiến bộ số 2
- Hình thức: viết, nói
- Thang điểm đánh giá thể hiện trong bài kiểm tra.
- Học viên viết kết quả bài làm lên phiếu trả lời (Answer sheet) và trình bày nói.
- Dạng thức đề thi như sau:
Phần Dạng bài Nội dung Thời gian
I NGHE - 2 bài hội thoại ngắn, mỗi bài 05 câu hỏi dạng trắc nghiệm đa lựa 15 phút
chọn; chọn 01 đáp án đúng
- 1 bài nói dài với 10 chỗ trống. HS điền từ vào ô trống.
- Mỗi câu trả lời đúng được 1 điểm
II NÓI - Mỗi học viên trình bày nói trong vòng 5-7 phút 5-7 phút/học viên
- Dạng thức: gồm 2 phần:
+ Phần 1: Chào hỏi và giới thiệu bản thân (≈2 phút) + Phần 2:
Giao tiếp theo tình huống (≈ 2-3 phút)
c. Bài kiểm tra cuối khóa học

- Hình thức: viết, nói
- Bài kiểm tra viết kéo dài 120 phút; bài kiểm tra nói kéo dài 5 - 7 phút
- Dạng thức đề thi như sau:

Môn thi, Thời gian Định dạng bài thi Mục đích
- Chọn phương án trả lời đúng
- 20 câu/3 phần
1. Nghe - Đánh giá khả năng nghe hiểu
- Phần 1: Nghe hội thoại ngắn
≈ 25 phút ngôn ngữ đích và nắm bắt được
- Phần 2: Nghe hội thoại có độ dài vừa phải
thông tin theo yêu cầu trong đề
- Phần 3: Nghe bài nói chuyện dài có tốc
độ chậm rãi
- Đánh giá các kỹ năng nhận biết
2. Từ vựng - câu đúng của ngôn ngữ đích.
- 40 câu/2 phần
Ngữ pháp - Kiểm tra khả năng sử dụng từ và
- Phần 1: Tìm lỗi sai trong câu
25 phút cấu trúc ngữ pháp phù hợp trong
- Phần 2: Chọn từ đúng để hoàn thành câu
tình huống của ngôn ngữ đích.
3. Đọc - Đánh giá kỹ năng đọc hiểu ngôn
- 20 câu/3 bài đọc
30 phút ngữ đích và nắm bắt các thông tin
- Các bài đọc có các chủ đề khác nhau
theo yêu cầu của đề thi.
- Mỗi bài đọc có độ dài khoảng 200 từ
- Viết 2 bài
4. Viết
- Bài 1: Viết lại câu/ sắp xếp các từ/cụm từ - Đánh giá khả năng viết ở cấp độ
40 phút
thành câu/ chọn câu tương đương. câu và văn bản theo chủ đề yêu cầu.
- Bài 2: Viết văn bản ngắn.
- Phỏng vấn trực tiếp không có chuẩn bị trước - Đánh giá khả năng diễn đạt ngôn
5. Nói - Phần 1: Chào hỏi và giới thiệu bản thân ngữ đích của thí sinh thông qua
5-7 phút - Phần 2: Giao tiếp theo tình huống giao tiếp trực tiếp với giám khảo,
giao tiếp theo tình huống.
7.3. Lịch thi, kiểm tra

TT Hình thức kiểm tra, đánh giá Thời gian Ghi chú
1 Bài kiểm tra tiến bộ số 1 Sau nội dung 6
2 Bài kiểm tra tiến bộ số 2 Sau nội dung 11
3 Bài kiểm tra cuối khóa học Từ 1 - 4 tuần sau khi kết thúc khóa học
8. GIẢI THÍCH VỀ VIỆC TRIỂN KHAI CHƯƠNG TRÌNH

Xuất phát từ đặc điểm về đối tượng học, mục tiêu, nội dung học tập, việc triển khai
Chương trình tiếng Anh Biên phòng 1 (dành cho cán bộ ngành biên phòng) cần được tiến
hành trên các phương diện sau:
8.1. Giáo viên

- Số lượng giáo viên được bố trí phù hợp để giảng dạy toàn bộ chương trình đề ra.
Giáo viên phải đạt chuẩn năng lực ngoại ngữ tiếng Anh theo qui định của Bộ Giáo dục và
Đào tạo, có nghiệp vụ sư phạm phù hợp với đối tượng cần giảng dạy.
- Giáo viên phải được tập huấn đầy đủ để triển khai Chương trình. Đối với giáo viên
đã đạt chuẩn nghiệp vụ, công tác bồi dưỡng giáo viên cần được tổ chức thường xuyên
để thực hiện đúng mục tiêu, nội dung và phương pháp dạy học do chương trình qui định.
Giáo viên cần được tập huấn về kiểm tra, đánh giá kết quả học tập và sử dụng các trang
thiết bị hiện đại trong dạy học.
- Phát triển đội ngũ giáo viên đáp ứng nhu cầu giảng dạy. Thường xuyên bồi dưỡng
và hỗ trợ giáo viên trong công tác giảng dạy, kiểm tra - đánh giá thường xuyên, định kì
theo định dạng chung, qua đó đánh giá năng lực tiếng Anh của học viên có đáp ứng được
yêu cầu công việc thực tế hay không.
8.2. Cơ sở vật chất

- Đảm bảo đầy đủ sách giáo khoa (sách học viên, sách giáo viên, tài liệu tham khảo)
cho giáo viên và học viên.
- Đảm bảo đủ trang thiết bị tối thiểu hỗ trợ việc dạy học tiếng Anh (thiết bị nghe nhìn,
bảng tương tác, học liệu điện tử, máy tính cá nhân, hệ thống mạng điện tử, …).
- Đảm bảo đầy đủ thời lượng học tập cho học viên theo chương trình.
8.3. Quản lí chỉ đạo

- Đảm bảo đủ thời lượng dạy học trên lớp và thực hành có hướng dẫn. Chương trình
được thiết kế theo kế hoạch dạy học với thời lượng 135 tiết, trong đó 105 tiết học trên lớp
và 30 tiết học trải nghiệm thực tế có hướng dẫn của giảng viên và trợ giảng (bao gồm cả
số tiết ôn tập và kiểm tra, đánh giá).
- Xây dựng đội ngũ chuyên viên quản lí, tổ chức thực hiện Chương trình nhằm đảm
bảo khả năng hỗ trợ tốt cho đội ngũ giáo viên trong quá trình dạy học.
- Số lượng học viên cho một lớp học không vượt quá quy định của Bộ Giáo dục và
Đào tạo và nắm được nghiệp vụ căn bản của ngành biên phòng.
- Tổ chức tập huấn giáo viên về tích hợp ứng dụng công nghệ thông tin vào việc dạy
học ngoại ngữ, giúp giáo viên phát triển, chia sẻ, khai thác tài liệu điện tử trong việc dạy
và học tiếng Anh.
4. Môi trường học tập

- Tạo môi trường học tập đa dạng, phong phú để học viên có thể tham gia vào các
hoạt động giao tiếp tiếng Anh có ý nghĩa (tổ chức câu lạc bộ tiếng Anh, giao lưu học viên
giỏi tiếng Anh, thực hành giao tiếp trong môi trường thực tế của ngành,...).

1. Tiếng Anh Biên phòng 1 (Tài liệu lưu hành nội bộ), Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ - ĐHQGHN.
2. American Language Course. Defense Language Institute – English Language Center.
3. Oxeden, C. & Latham-Koenig, C. (2012). New English File Elementary Student’s Book. OUP.
4. Websites:. http://policeacademy.gov.ge/frontex/basic/Home/Home.html.
MULTIMODAL INSTRUCTION IN INITIAL TEACHER TRAINING:
PROSPECTS AND CHALLENGES
Trần Thị Hiếu Thủy1
Abstract: This paper looks into the possibility of incorporating multimodal practices in
initial language teacher training at a university in Vietnam. It starts with a careful review
of the concepts of multimodality as well as merits and challenges of applying a multimodal
approach to language teaching. Then comes the description of the author’s multimodal lesson
in the course Introduction to English Language Teaching Methodology (Bachelor program) at
the University of Languages and International Studies. An analysis of the author’s experience
as a teacher educator when conducting these lessons follows. Here an informed evaluation of
what has advantaged and disadvantaged the integration of multimodal pedagogies is offered.
Implications for multimodal practices to be incorporated effectively in language teacher
education in Vietnam are also discussed.
Keywords: Multimodal practices, multimodal literacy, initial teacher training, language
teacher education.
1. INTRODUCTION
The movement from an industrialized to a digitalized way of life in this 21st century
has altered the definition of literacy and what it means to be literate. It is no longer possible
to think about literacy solely as a linguistic accomplishment (Jewitt, 2008, p. 241). Rather
than being confined to communication through reading and writing of traditional printed
text, 21st century literacy has expanded with texts becoming increasingly multimodal.
In today’s world, where media and technology position us both as viewers and users of
multimedia, it is not uncommon to come across multimodal texts that integrate visual,
musical, dramatic, digital, and new literacies. The desire to create and decode multimedia
and multimodal texts is currently existing: children and adults alike are engaged into
“using visual, audio, and technology media to capture, develop, produce, and publicly
publish all types of products” (Sanders & Albers, 2010). These uses have created radical
effects on language teaching and learning. A growing number of language learners
are now engaging in multimodal literacy practices in their daily lives (Yi & Angay-
Crowder, 2016, p.998), from reading hypertext and watching videos on the Internet
1
Lecturer at University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University – Hanoi
Email: thuytth@vnu.edu.vn.
MULTIMODAL INSTRUCTION IN INITIAL TEACHER TRAINING: PROSPECTS AND CHALLENGES 291
to playing interactive games to practice their language, and schools need to be able to
satisfy them with multimodal lessons while preparing them with skills to comprehend,
respond to, and compose multimodal texts in diverse forms accordingly. This requires
teachers’ competence to integrate multimodal instruction into their teaching practices.
However, several research works have shown that a significant proportion of their
teacher respondents feel unconfident about and underprepared for teaching multimodally
(Chandler, 2017; Coyle, Yanez & Verdu, 2010), and that certain and systemic actions in
initial teacher education should be taken to cultivate multimodal instructional practices
of would-be-teachers.
In Vietnam context, I find it a real challenge both for me as a teacher educator and
for my students as pre-service teachers attempting to engage ourselves in digital and
multimodal practices. The very first reason is that we may be lacking the required skills
and formal training to design and deliver multimodal practices in our instructions. While
waiting for formal training opportunities, I did a little search and trial as a way look into
the possibility of incorporating multimodal practices in initial language teacher training at
my university. This article is a narration of what I have done so far to approach multimodal
teaching and what I feel should be the future direction for myself in researching this
pedagogy. It starts with a careful review of the concepts of multimodality as well as
merits and challenges of applying a multimodal approach to language teaching. Then
comes the description of my multimodal lessons in the course Introduction to English
Language Teaching Methodology (Bachelor program) at the University of Languages
and International Studies. An analysis of my experience as a teacher educator when
conducting these lessons follows, together with an informed evaluation of what has
advantaged and disadvantaged the integration of multimodal practices in my lessons.
Finally, implications for multimodal practices to be incorporated effectively in language
teacher education in Vietnam are also discussed.
With this article, I hope to share initial ideas with colleagues who are concerned about
the multimodal literacies and multimodal pedagogies as well as to see myself progressing
in my professional development pathways.
2. MULTIMODAL APPROACH TO LANGUAGE TEACHING
Multimodality and multimodal literacies

Two theoretical constructs essential to the conceptualization what is called multimodal
pedagogies are multimodality and multiliteracies.
Before defining multimodality, it must be made very clear on what learning
modalities are and are not. They are basically the receptive modes of taking in the world,
or simpler in Moreno & Mayer’s words (2007, p.310), the “sense receptors used to receive
information”. These include visual (seeing), aural (hearing), gestural (body, feeling,
doing), spatial (layout, architect) and linguistic (delivery, vocab, logos). The following
figure visualizes the concept of modalities by the New London Group.
Figure 1: Modes of Meaning
(adapted from New London Group, 1996, p. 83, by Cope & Kalantzis, 2000)
Notably, learning modalities are not to be confused with learning styles (of which
there are many versions such as field dependent or independent, risk-avoidant or risk-taker,
introverted or extroverted, convergers or conformists, and such). Nor is it to be confused
with Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences, which are ways of understanding, and
really describe thinking about the world rather than how we receive information.
Accordingly, multimodality is an inter-disciplinary approach that understands
communication and representation to be more than about language. It refers to the practice
of meaning-making involving the purposeful selection and configuration of modes while
foregrounding the significance of the interaction between modes of meaning (Emmison &
Smith, 2000; Kress, 2003; The New London Group, 1996; van Leeuwen & Jewitt, 2001).
Multimodality assumes that resources are socially shaped over time to become
meaning making resources that articulate the (social, individual/affective) meanings
demanded by the requirements of different communities, and people tend to intentionally
orchestrate (by, for example, selecting and configuring) these multiple modes for meaning
making. Central to the examination of multimodality is the notion of meaning-making.
In a multimodal text, all the modes that interplay with each other are integral to meaning
“making the whole far greater than the simple sum of its parts” (Lemke, 1998:284).
Each mode does a specific thing: image shows what takes too long to read, and
writing names what would be difficult to show. Colour is used to highlight specific aspects
of the overall message. Without that division of semiotic labour, the sign, quite simply,
would not work. Writing names and images shows, while colour frames and highlights;
each to maximum effect and benefit.
Kress (2010, p.1)
Therefore, in a multimodal text, the various modes other than verbal ones must not
be treated as merely decorative add-ons to the printed words (Lemke, 1998). Also, the
advent of media and technologies has brought with it changes in the way learners learn,
perceive and respond to the world, and in so many cases, multimodality is considered as
digital. However, “multimodality is not synonymous with the digital” (Early, Kendrick,
& Potts, 2015, p. 454). Learners have long produced multimodal texts in both print and,
later on, digital forms (e.g., brochures, posters, and videos). Technology advances are
assisting them in creating and sharing multimodal texts more speedily and effectively.
Multiliteracies is a term used by Jewitt and Kress (2003) to refer to the different ways
in which meanings can be created and communicated in the world today. It emphasizes that
“the strategic use of multiple communication channels and media and the consideration
of increasing linguistic and cultural diversity are critical to students’ academic careers
and civic lives” (New London Group, 1996, p. 60). The major change that technology has
made in literacy is a move beyond logocentrism or an overemphasis on the printed word.
Since the desire to create and read multimedia, multimodal, hyperlinked texts is real out
there for learners, an increasing need for a literacy to produce and access information of
such types must be recognized to fulfill. While the experience of teaching and learning is
intrinsically multisemiotic and multimodal, with various meaning-making resources like
images, drawing, music and so on having long been of common use in the classroom, a
new role in the hand of language teachers and teacher educators is that “we must work
to develop a culture of possibilities that engage and build upon the new literacies that
students bring with them to class daily” (Sanders & Albers, 2010).
As noted by Yi and Angay-Crowder, the two terms multimodality and multiliteracies
are often used together or interchangeably; however, when a distinction is to be made,
“multimodality comes first in that it informs how we make meaning, and multiliteracies, as
a possible pedagogy, give us tools for doing so…” (Rowsell and Walsh, 2011, p.56, cited
in Yi&Angay-Crowder, 2016, p.990). In this article, the following three terms are used
interchangeably: multiliteracies pedagogy, multimodal teaching, and multimodal instruction.
A pedagogy of multiliteracies: Learning by Design

Based on the assumption that human’s mind is “embodied, situated, and social”
(New London Group, 1996, p. 82), multiliteracies suggests a theory of pedagogy that
integrates four components or approaches to education, namely, situated practice, overt
instruction, critical framing, and transformed practice.
(New London Group, 1996, p. 88)
In the works by Cazden et al. (1996) and Cope & Kalantzis (2000), explanation of
how each of the above components is realized in classroom instructions is offered. Situated
Practice is where teachers ground their plans in the interests, needs, and knowledge of
their students. Overt Instruction is where the teacher-centered aspect of pedagogy involves
teachers intervening at students’ point of need with necessary genre and text knowledge
and significant ICT instruction. Critical Framing, which is integral to the pedagogical
process, involves critical analysis of the purposes of texts and the ways the structures and
features of texts reflect these purposes. Finally, Transformed Practice refers to the new
teacher and student understandings about text deconstruction and creation which emerge
from operating in the multimodal context.
Figure 2: Learning by Design

(Cope & Kalantzis, 2000)
An effort to map the four components with the eight Knowledge Processes involved
in this multiliteracies pedagogy is provided below.
SITUATED PRACTICE - Experiencing…

• the known – learners reflect on their own familiar experiences, interests and
perspectives.
• the new – learners observe or take part in something that is unfamiliar, they are
immersed in new situations or contents.
OVERT INSTRUCTION - Conceptualizing…
• by naming – learners group things into categories, apply classifying terms, and
define these terms.
• with theory – learners make generalisations using concepts, and connect terms in
concept maps or theories.
CRITICAL FRAMING - Analyzing…
• functionally – learners analyse logical connections, cause and effect, structure and
function.
• critically – learners evaluate their own and other people’s perspectives, interests
and motives.
TRANSFORMED PRACTICE - Applying…
• appropriately – learners apply new learning to real world situations and test their validity.
• creatively – learners make an intervention in the world which is innovative and
creative, or transfer their learning to a different context.
(Adapted from http://newlearningonline.com/learning-by-design/pedagogy)
It is also noted that the four components listed in this multiliteracies pedagogy is not linear,
nor are they arranged in stages (New London Group, 1996, p.85). Rather, they may either occur
simultaneously, be sequenced, or predominate one another. They may not be one-off events in
the classroom, but are often revisited at different levels of thinking and learning.
Multimodal teaching: Merits & Challenges

Research to date on the impact of multimodal instructions on learners’ learning has
proved that there are marked improvements in learning achievement and learning strategies
and attitudes. To be more specific, Mayer (2003) discusses the “multimedia effect” which
concludes that students gain deeper learning when there is a combination of words and
pictures than when the lessons consist of words alone. A number of other research works
by Chen & Fu (2003), Zywno (2003), and Moreno & Mayer (2007) highlight improved
learning performance, especially for low-achieving students when lessons are delivered in
various meaning-making modes. The result is backed up in a later study by Fadel (2008) who
finds that “students engaged in learning that incorporates multimodal designs, on average,
outperform students who learn using traditional approaches with single modes” (p. 13).
Regarding learning strategies and attitudes, Picciano (2009) states that learners are found
more self-directed and willing to interact with the surroundings when they are given chances
to learn in multimodal environment, reasoning that such an environment allows learners to
experience learning in ways in which they are most comfortable, while challenging them to
experience and learn in other ways as well (p.13). When learners are aware of their individual
strengths and weaknesses in learning, they can be more motivated to learn and this may
cultivate skills for monitoring and managing their own learning, which is crucial to academic
success (Coffield et.al., 2004, McLoughlin, 1999, all cited in Ryan et.al., 2009).
However, multiliteracies pedagogy is not without any challenge. As Ryan et.al. (2009)
has listed in their reviews, challenges lie in how to provide “overt instruction” in the new
environment, how to provide critical framing of texts and the complexity of planning for
transformed practice in a multimodal classroom. There have been several questions, one of
which relates to identifying the genuine motivation of learners for participating classroom
tasks: “Are they really enthusiastic about the subject matter, or are they just passionate with
using the computer?” Also, in traditional classrooms, the teacher is indispensable; yet, are
they still as essential in the multimodal context? When learners’ enthusiasm for technology
has been allowing them to be more self- directed, the role of the teacher is apparently being
diminished (Green & Bigum, 1993). Other concerns include the challenges for teachers
(and learners, too) to equip themselves with multiplying field of knowledge, deal with
multi-genre tasks, and consider the issue of technology as well as the issue of texts.
In summary, to respond effectively to the changing 21st century literacies and learners,
the two questions which I believe that each educator should ask themselves are What are
the everyday literacies that learners bring into the classroom? and How can I value and
integrate these literacies into my own practice? As Sanders and Albers (2010) remark,
keeping these questions in mind will help us as educators make literacy more relevant to
students while “creating space in the English language arts classroom both for teachers
and students alike to explore, compose, and share a range of texts with larger audiences”.
Besides, with such questions in mind, we can create multidimensional curricula that reach
more populations in ways that we could not otherwise.
3. MULTIMODAL TEACHING IN PRACTICE – A CASE IN INITIAL ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION
Context of the case

Pre-service teachers of English language at this Vietnam university are to start their training
in teaching methodology (ELT) from semester 5th out of their eight-semester curriculum. The
foundation course in ELT is Introduction to English Language Teaching Methodology (coded
as ELT1) which takes 15 weeks in 90 contact hours and covers six themes, from Principles
of Second Language Instruction to The Context of English Language Teaching in Vietnam.
I chose a lesson in this ELT1 course to design a multimodal lesson for a number of reasons.
First, this is a course focusing on theory, and so there are many terminologies, concepts, and
frameworks that my pre-service teachers have to deal with. While their language proficiency
might already be at B2 or C1 level, many still struggle with understanding the theoretical terms
and connecting them to the context of teaching and learning. Therefore, there is a critical need
to reinforce knowledge learnt via multiple modes of meaning-making. The next reasons can be
mapped to Domains 2, 3, 4 and 5 in the English Language Teacher Competency Framework
regulated by Ministry of Education and Training – Vietnam.
Figure 3: English Language Teacher Competency Framework
As would-be-teachers of the 21st century, they need to be aware of major changes in

modern literacies which are taking place out there in the world in order to better equip
themselves with employable skills. Lessons like this afford them the opportunities to try
out formal multimodal instructions so that they can reflect on the experience and replicate
in their own teaching contexts.
A brief description of the lesson

Theme 4: Learners’ individual differences Notes
Lesson 2: Learning styles, Multiple Intelligences, and Motivations
1. Class description
- 18 pre-service teachers, all girls.
2. Time: 100 minutes (= 2 credit hours)
3. Objectives: By the end of the lesson, the pre-service teachers (Ss) can…
- Explain how learners of different intelligences, learning styles and motivations
may perform differently in various learning contexts;
- Reason the learning activities that suit learners of certain intelligences, learning
styles and motivations; and
- Create learning activities that suit learners of given profiles.
Ss have all read required reading materials and/or watched given video clips before class.
REVIEWING KEY CONCEPTS

Activity 1. “Snowflake”: 10 minutes Situated practice
- Ss volunteer to be in either group: G1 to follow the instructions and make paper
snowflake; G2 to take note of the instructions and recall them later.
- After 6 minutes, teacher (T) checks their products.
- Ask: In which way(s) do you find it easier to learn how to make the paper
snowflake? Is there any implication for your classroom teaching?
(Expected answer: Infor must be delivered via many channels (see, hear, do,
discuss, etc.); different learners may learn well in different ways)
KEY CONTENTS: Individual variations
- T goes over key concepts such as learning styles, intelligences, motivations Overt instruction
- T goes over the principle: “If a child is not learning in the way you teach, change
your teaching strategy and teach the child in the way he learns!” (10 minutes)
Activity 2. Jigsaw Discussion: 30 minutes
- T asks questions to check if Ss have done their home reading/video viewing and Overt instruction
understood key concepts. – Conceptualizing
- Ss work in three stations. They take notes of information they get from the text/ by naming
video on the worksheet by T (10 minutes).
+ Station 1: on “Multiple Intelligences Theory” (by Howard Garner, 1983)
+ Station 2: on Myers-Briggs and Learning Styles and Strategies
+ Station 3: on Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
- Ss in each station divide into two groups with each having at least one member
Overt instruction
who read and one who watched. They allocate the contents they have read/watched
– Conceptualizing
among the groups and summarize the assigned contents in one of the three ways:
by theory
mindmap and/or drawing on poster; ppt presentation; digital quiz – using Kahoot
(15 minutes).
- T monitors and supports when necessary.
Activity 3. Application: 15 minutes
- In groups:
+ Ss look at a task bank, and decide which task promotes which intelligence/ Critical framing
sensory mode. For “motivation” station, they identify the given situations as of - Analysing
intrinsic or extrinsic motivation. They stick the task/ situation description on functionally
appropriate blank on the poster. They may download the docx version from google
classroom and copy-paste onto their ppt slides/ Kahoot quiz. Teacher check and
support within their groups/ stations.
+ The groups rehearse the five-minute presentation on their assigned part, using the
products they have come up with in Activity 2.
Activity 4. Open house: 20 minutes
- Ss set up their own corner of exhibition.
- Each group keeps one presenter at the corner and the others walk around to other Critical framing
corner, listen to the presentations/ do the quiz and note down important points on - Analysing
the given worksheet. critically
- After 15 minutes, T checks the worksheet with the whole class.
CREATION
Activity 5. Create learning activities: 20 minutes Transformed
- T gives whole class the profile of three learners. Ss work in new groups with practice –
one member from each station, study one of the profiles and suggest appropriate Applying
learning activities for that learner. appropriately and
- T and whole class discuss the relevance and feasibility of one or two learning creatively
activities.
4. EVALUATION OF THE CASE: THE GAINS AND THE PAINS
What went well

The lesson was a success considering the diversity and quality of activities being
used as well as the quality of pre-service teachers’ products.
It is clear that the pre-service teachers loved being challenged by the fast pace of
learning in that lesson and were excited to work with digital technology. They were
highly motivated to interact with the texts and hypertexts when studying the multimodal
resources given by the teachers and with each other when working in pairs and groups.
They were exposed to various sources of meaning-making: knowledge was transferred in
visual, aural, linguistic, spatial and gestural modes through the use of reading texts, video
clips, the pre-service teachers’ and my interactions (including verbal and body language
prompts). The contents of the subject matter were accessible in multiple modes which
might suit learners of different sensory types and intelligences. From my observation,
learning really happened and was assessible by evaluating the learners’ completing given
worksheets/ tasks. The pre-service teachers produced good quality multimodal texts in
the form of mindmaps, posters, ppt slides and digital quizzes.
Challenges
Designing and delivering a multimodal lesson is not an easy piece of cake. The
preparation stage was time-consuming and effort-demanding since I had to watch several
videos to select the ones appropriate to the lesson objectives and task aims. Besides, much
time was devoted to the design of worksheets and activities. During the lesson, I made
constant effort to provide students with individual support, which I would otherwise save
much if conducting the lesson in a teacher-led way.
Perhaps what disadvantaged the prospects of multimodal instruction in this university
included technological constraints and the lack of formal training on multiliteracies.
We know that multimodality does not necessarily mean technology, but at the same
time cannot ignore the fact that technological advances have greatly assisted systemic
implementation of multimodal practices in learning places. At the time this lesson was
carried out, wifi connection was not accessible in our classroom, which I believed would
be the common context in most surrounding universities. Nor did a working computer
with Internet connection exist in the classroom. The university does have a well-equipped
lab, yet, seating arrangements in the lab are linear and unsuitable for groupwork. Although
the pre-service teachers overcame this challenge by bringing their personal laptops and
using their smart phones as mobile hotspots, clearly, the issue of classroom facilities
to better assist teaching and learning should have rested with the university. Besides,
since both my pre-service teachers and I have not had opportunities to receive formal
training on using multimodal resources, we had to spent much more time researching
into multimodal teaching and framing a multimodal lesson (on my part) as well as to
react quickly under time pressure in the classroom (on my pre-service teachers’ part).
Especially with framing the lesson, I spent a lot of time weighing each task to ensure that
what my pre-service teachers were doing could bring them significant teacher knowledge,
and that it was worth assigning them the tasks that I would assign. I believe that once we
both get more familiar with this kind of lesson, things will be easier.
A final challenge to us was that of culture. In Vietnam, we haven’t yet developed a
culture of visual studying. While certain pre-service teachers are ICT competent and quick
at decoding message from visual resources, some was struggling to think with image and
craft arguments from various modes of meaning. Some attributed their choices of fonts/
font sizes on the slides and/or the illustrations they chose to their personal preferences
rather than relying on a sound and logical reasons.
5. CONCLUSION
For educators and students in Vietnam, the Industrial Revolution 4.0 is already
around the corner. Technology and the strong desire to create and interpret multi-semiotic,
multidimensional, and hyperlinked texts can be felt very clearly in both stakeholders. If
unable to create multimodal curricular, schools would be less competitive in reaching
more populations in the ways that they could otherwise, which may result in cuts in
teaching posts. Conversely, for more promising career prospects and powerful impacts
on students’ academic success, teachers must be ready in every way to value the kinds
of literacies that students come into contact with on their learning paths, to find ways to
integrate these literacies into their classroom practices, and to teach them the skills of
assessing, analyzing and evaluating information sources. As teacher educators, our roles
in training pre-service and in-service teachers for multimodal competence and to perform
multimodally are more significant than ever before.
Integrating multimodal practices into initial teacher training and assessment seems to
be a unneglectable trend, but for effective integration, several points should be carefully
considered. Firstly, there is an essential need to identify what counts as ICT knowledge
and what counts as academic literacies in a multimodal lesson. We as educators “should

critically examine our own practices (especially teaching, researching, and writing) in light
of multimodality and reflect upon how print-based unimodal and multimodal practices
coexist and collaboratively contribute to understanding, knowing, and representing
knowledge” (Yi & Angay-Crowder, 2016, p.995). Only by being critical, can we make
informed decisions regarding the types of modes which should be used predominantly
and the levels of ICT required in each lesson. We must also make sure that by carrying
out assigned multimodal tasks, our pre-service teachers are really accumulating teaching
knowledge but not being challenged on the technology side. If the multimodal task is
used as an assessment component, it is necessary to design a rubric that caters content
knowledge, language proficiency (depending on each task) and visual/digital aspects. The
most critical step, in Yi and Angay-Crowder’s suggestion (2016), is to reconceptualize
various aspects of multimodal practices. This includes experimenting multimodality
within teacher education courses and professional development programs in order to gain
better understanding of designing and evaluating multimodal texts. Yi and Angay-Crowder
(2016) also suggests that learning “the metalanguage of multimodal texts” (Hung et al.,
2013, p. 409) is imperative. For Vietnamese teacher educators and teachers in training,
experimenting multimodality would situate them in a learning community in which they
join hands to co-construct knowledge. Last but not least, multimodal instruction does
not necessarily mean technology but technology is one important factor to facilitate
effective teaching and learning in the multimodal learning environment. Therefore,
significant improvement in classroom facilities is indispensable, without which, systemic
implementation of multimodal practices could not be realized.
To conclude, I would like to share with fellow teachers three techniques to ease
multimodal teaching. First, change the activity (and/or the learning modes) every 15 or 20
minutes. Second, repeat the lesson in multiple modes to reinforce the learning. In addition
to breaking up the monotony, presenting the same concepts in more than one mode can
reinforce ideas and help students learn in ways that suit them best. A typical lesson might
include two or three modes, ranging from a reading text with guided questions, an animated
PowerPoint presentation, a video to perhaps a Web page. Also, when technology allows,
design interactive quizzes about the subject matter contents and intersperse them to the
students. Finally, create supplementary activities if necessary. This might be in the form
of further reading or watching, which can be done either as classwork or homework.
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LANGUAGE USED IN BUSINESS RESPONSE LETTERS
IN TERMS OF SPEECH ACTS AND POLITENESS STRATEGIES
Nguyen Thi Minh Trang1 – Ulis
Abstract: Understanding the importance of language used in commercial correspondence

especially in business response letter, with the eyes of a teacher and a language user, the
researcher has conducted a documentary research to figure out the types of speech acts and
politeness strategies used as well as their frequency in business response letters. In the process
of analyzing letters, the researcher had divided them into different parts in order to deeply
understanding the purposes of the writers in using a particular type of strategies. From that,
the effects of the speech acts and politeness strategies in conveying the writers’ messages are
analyzed. The result from analyzing 50 business response letters showed that representatives,
directives, expressives and commissives were four most frequently used types of speech acts.
Besides, the frequency of negative politeness strategies overwhemed the positive ones. Based
on the results of the research, as a role of a language user, the researcher is able to evaluate
the effectiveness of different language used strategies in writing a business response letter;
as a role of a teacher, the researcher hopes to raise ESP teachers’ awareness of helping
students differentiate the use of language in different types of response letter rather than
copying the formats.
Keywords: speech acts, politeness strategies, business response letters
1. INTRODUCTION
It is clear that letters have been a crucial communication channel for human being
to exchange information since writing letter was invented. Nowadays, with the rapid
development of technology, fax and email have gradually replaced handwritten letters.
However, in whatever forms, language is the key to make a successful letter. It reflects the
language competence and the attitude of both the writer and his company (Ashley, 2003).
Besides, business correspondence is considered the medium to connect sellers and
buyers, business partners, creditors and debtors in case it is unable or inconvenient for
them to have direct meetings. In these kinds of correspondence, whether they are letters,
faxes or emails, appropriate language used helps to express the aims of the writers in the
most professional way. This means, besides the information of introducing, promoting or
1
trangtrang1989@gmail.com
concluding transactions, language in business letters conveys the good will of the writer
as well as his respect to the readers. It decides the success or failure of transaction in
business community.
Furthermore, English is widely used as an international language. Thus, a large
number of business correspondences have been written in English. Among those letters,
response letters account for a big proportion. This type of letters plays an important role
in connecting the providers and the consumers. If enquiries letters serve the purpose of
exploring the information related to goods or services, letters for responding do not only
reply to the enquiries but also provide a wide range of information about goods and
services, prices or transport in order to sell the products. In many cases, the providers may
suggest alternatives or refer the customers to another place if they no longer produce the
products. In all cases, the writers are expected to be wise writers so that their words convey
clear meanings (Forbes, 1981) and impressive messages to persuade the readers and also
to create the formality. In other words, producing speech acts maintaining politeness and
protecting the face of both readers and writers are the crucial criteria of a response letter.
In order to achieve these goals, the writers can use various politeness strategies such as
positive or negative strategies suggested by Brown and Levinson (1978), politeness rules
by Lakoff (1973) or politeness principles by Leech (1983).
Besides, commercials correspondences have been taught in many universities but
mainly focused on letter formats. Therefore, this research hopes to raise awareness
of teachers in helping students understand the different meanings of language used in
commercial correspondences, especially response letters.
The aforementioned reasons leave a place for the researcher to carry out a research
paper entitled “Language used in business response letters in terms of speech acts and
politeness strategies”.
2. SPEECH ACT
2.1. The concept of speech act
The term “speech act” is believed to be first mentioned by J.L Austin, a British
philosopher of languages in his series of lectures at Harvard University in 1955. Those
lectures were edited and published posthumously by Oxford University Press as a book
entitled How to Do Things with Words (1962). Later on, one of his fellows, J.S Searle
developed his own ideas on the field based on Austin’s though. Searle’s arguments were
discussed deeply in his work Speech Acts (1969). Generally speaking, both philosophers
agreed that there existed other meanings or actions via utterances themselves.
LANGUAGE USED IN BUSINESS RESPONSE LETTERS IN TERMS OF SPEECH ACTS AND POLITENESS STRATEGIES 305
Austin paid much attention in “speech situation as a whole” (Austin, 1962, p.137) as
it was believed to be an important factor correlated with the meaning of an utterance. Also,
by means of associated linguistic conventions, the speaker, with an associated intention,
actually performs an act to the hearer, which induces a certain response from the hearer.
Like Austin, Searle believed the meaning could not be accounted without the existence
of the context of a speech act. In Searle, sentences themselves do not express a proposition.
Instead, tokens or sentences in a context, express propositions. However, Searle focused
more on explaining the illocutionary force. In his work (Searle, 1969), Searle responded
to Austin’s call for a general theory of speech acts by providing three dimensions of an
utterance which were rules, proposition and meaning. Searle goes further than Austin in
providing not only the needed general framework for a theory of speech acts but also a
richer specification of the detailed structures of speech acts themselves. In Searle’s ideas,
he discussed speech acts in three main aspects including the rules governing speech acts,
the various meanings of a proposition regarding different elements such as words order
and tones, and the relationship between convention meaning and its effects. Searle tended
to analyze more detailed than presenting general theory like Austin did.
2.2. Classification of speech act
2.2.1. Austin’s classification

In the latter part of the William James Lectures, Austin introduced the concept of
illocutionary acts, and carefully distinguishes them from locutionary acts and perlocutionary
acts. According to his classification, locutionary acts include phonetic acts, phatic acts,
and rhetic acts. Perlocutionary acts are, on the other hand, acts attributed to the effect of
uttering a sentence. By these distinctions, Austin has shown that, unlike locutionary acts,
illocutionary acts have a force. Unlike perlocutionary acts, illocutionary acts are valid
and complete without being reduced to the effect of it. In other words, illocutionary acts
including verdictives, exercitives, commissives, behabitives and expositives are using a
sentence to perform a function. Although this clarification is considered not complete, it
is best seen as an attempt to give a general picture of illocutionary acts.
2.2.2. Searle’s ideas

The speech act theorists after Austin have focused more on explaining illocutionary
acts in a narrow sense. For instance, John Searle inherited Austin’s ideas and elaborated
on some of them in his paper (1969). Besides, he also developed the theory in his own
style such as performing an illocutionary act is expressing an illocutionary intention
(Searle, 1979). Searle’s notion of the speech act theory was developed along this line.
Then, in their works, Searle (1983) and Searle and Vanderveken (1985) attempted to
explain illocutionary force in a formal model which was compatible with the formal
analysis of propositional contents.
In A Taxonomy of Illocutionary Acts (1975), Searle analysed weaknesses of

Austin’s classification which were confusion between verbs and acts; not all the verbs
are illocutionary verbs; overlapping among the categories and within one category; and
unclear principles to classify speech acts.
Accordingly, Searle suggested an “alternative taxonomy” (p. 354) including five
types of speech acts which are representatives , directives, commissives, expressives and
declaratives. This way of classification is clear and logical. Each category has its own
principle and does not overlap others.
2.3. Direct and indirect speech acts

In his book, Yule (1996) introduced a different approach to speech acts types made
on the basis of structure. He argued that in English there were three basic structural forms
going with three communicative functions.
He pointed out that “whenever there is a direct relationship between a structure and
a function, we have a direct speech act” and we would have indirect speech act when
“there is an indirect relationship between a structure and a function”. As people can use
various ways to express their wants, indirect speech acts are generally associated with
greater politeness in English than direct speech acts (Yule, 1996, p.56).
3. POLITENESS
3.1. The concept of politeness

People may have different ways of defining the term “politeness”. Some people feel
appropriate behaviors in certain circumstances mean politeness. Some other value more
on cultivated men or women (Richard, 2003). According to some traditional researchers
such as Lakoff (1973 & 1977), Brown and Levinson (1978 & 1987) and Leech (1983),
politeness belongs to the linguistic pragmatics area and bases on some particular rules.
In some later research, researchers like Eelen (2001), Mills (2003) have analyzed more
on the nature of politeness concerning some affected factors such as situations or genders
besides linguistic devices or strategies.
3.2. Politeness strategies

Brown & Levinson (1987) held the view that nearly all speech acts were FTAs. Some
threaten the hearer’s negative face by imposing on him. Other FTAs threaten the hearer’s
positive face by indicating the speaker’s lack of concern for the hearer’s self-image. Thus,
in order to avoid FTAs or minimize the threat of these acts, people use various ways
which are called politeness strategies. According to the face-threatening degree of speech
acts, speakers can choose to do or not to do the FTAs in which the risk of face lost will be
increased or decreased as the following figure (Brown & Levinson, 1987).
4. BUSINESS RESPONSE LETTER

The term “business letter” refers to all types of formal written communication starting
with a salutation, ending with a signature and whose contents are professional in nature (
Wickford, 2011). A business letter is usually used when writing from one company to
another, or for correspondence between such organizations and their customers, clients
and other external parties. It is considered the primary mean (Nguyen, 2008) to help
companies keep in touch with their customers.
There are various types of business letters such as sales, orders, complaints, enquiries
and replies. Each of them has its own functions, among those, replies or response letters
play an important role in maintaining and developing the business of a firm. If an inquiry
indicates interest of potential customers in the company, the inquiry reply should be designed
not only to increase that interest, but also to inspire the inquirer to action (Nguyen, 2008).
Therefore, the language used in response letters is essential to create the success of them.
The writers need to take the correspondents’ feeling into account by expressing politeness.
5. METHODOLOGY
50 letters of responding are selected from Oxford handbook of commercial
correspondence (Ashley, 2003), The language of business correspondence in English
(Nguyen, 2008) and from example response letters of some companies such as Sun Lee
Consultancy Ltd or Vietnam Handicraft company . The chosen letters have the correct
form of a letter, formal language and appropriate length (at least 90 words). The letters
were numbered from 1 to 50; speech acts and politeness strategies used were classified.
The author uses two analysis methods which are content analysis and statistical
analysis. First, content analysis method is used in the process of reading the collected
letters and categorizing language used into different types of speech acts and politeness
strategies. Then, the author figures out the frequency distribution of these types by
statistical analysis method applying the following formula:
X
A=
×100%
Y
A: Frequency distribution of a speech act/ politeness strategy
X: The number of sentences used the speech acts/ politeness strategies
Y: The total number of sentences used speech acts/politeness strategies
Finally, the findings were summarized and conclusions are drawn by the researcher
to answer two research questions:
1. What are the types of speech acts used in studied response letters and their purposes?
2. What are politeness strategies used in studied response letters and their purposes?
6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
6.1. Realization of speech acts used in business response letters
6.1.1. Representatives in business response letters

The priority of a response letter is to reply to the inquiry of the customer in terms of
products status, price and methods of payment. As a result, representatives are employed
in all collected response letters to report an action, to present the conditions or terms of
the inquiry and to inform new information.
First, the writers use representatives to report their companies’ actions such as
enclosing catalogues, price lists or samples. Besides, representatives are used to describe
the condition of the inquiry or the terms of payment or to introduce some people who are
going to be directly assigned to take over the transaction with the customers. For many
letters, representatives are used to report that the company has received the inquiry.
By using representatives, the writers have presented the needed information clearly
and precisely, the goal of describing, reporting the inquiry status or explaining the terms
related to the products as well as the role of related people are still made. Moreover,
representative speech acts also help the companies to advertise their products. Thanks to
this type of speech act, more than introducing their products, the writers also convince the
readers to believe and to purchase the products or to show their regrets if the inquiries are
out of the capability of the supplier.
In short, representatives are the most frequently used speech acts in the 50 collected
response letters. This is one of the effective ways to serve many requirements of the
writers like reporting, describing, introducing or informing information.
6.1.2. Directives in business response letters

Directives are rated the second frequently used in collected business response letters.
Most of the letters in general and in business response letters in particular, the writer
finishes his writing by a phrase “I/We look forward to”. This phrase is not merely a
goodbye sentence but more than that, it conveys the hope of actions from the readers.
Apart from a fix phrase, many writers apply imperative to direct the customers to
purposive actions. By imperative sentences, the requests or commands are stated clearly,
which helps the reader understand easily. Not only serving the purpose of the writer,
directives in the form of imperative sentences also creates positive effects to the readers
as they immediately bear in mind the messages. Besides, the indirect directives are usually
employed to show the respective attitude of the suppliers when they have desires referring
to customers’ actions.
Generally, directives sentences are applied in both direct and indirect requesting
structures in business response letters. The direct ones have a great effect of supplying
information and call for customers’ order. Meanwhile, the indirect structures can create
positive emotions to the readers and show the respect of the writers.
6.1.3. Expressives in business response letters

Response letters are considered a bridge connecting the customers and the suppliers.
When receiving an inquiry, it is necessary for a company to show their attitude towards
that inquiry which will decide the success of business transactions. If the suppliers show
that they are interested in the order and willing to provide their products and services, the
customers will feel to be welcome and eager to continue the business. To complete its
role, expressive speech act in business response letter is indispensible.
In most of the collected letters, the writers begin with a thank you sentence referring
to the customers’ inquiries. Besides using direct words “thank you” to express thankful
attitude, the writers make use of expressive speech act to remind the readers the inquiries’
information. In addition, expressive sentences play a significant role in showing the
companies’ enthusiasm in serving the customers.
To conclude, the main role of expressive speech act in business response letters is
to thank the customers for their inquiries. Besides, it helps to transmit the emotion of the
writers like interests, enthusiasm or regret.
6.1.4. Commissives in business response letters

Expressing commitments in terms of providing high quality products and services
along with appropriate contract terms are also the purpose of business response letters.
Thus, commissives are applied in lots of the letters.
When replying for an inquiry, there are many possible situations that need specific
actions from the suppliers. For example, the suppliers may present negotiable prices,
confirm the delivery time or send representatives to directly discuss with the customers.
In such cases, commissives are effectively applied to show the suppliers’ commitments
regarding the quality of the products. Most of the commissive sentences are placed at the
last paragraph of the letters. With good will attitude and formal structures, these sentences
play a remarkable role in transmitting the message of business response letters.
6.2. Overview of speech acts used in business response letters

The following table and pie chart describe the frequency of speech acts employed in
50 collected response letters.
Figure 4.1: Speech acts in business response letters
In conclusion, representatives and directives are the two main tools to serve the
writers’ purposes in writing response letters. Besides, commissives and expressives play
their role in creating positive impressions and showing the suppliers’ cooperative wants.
6.3. An analysis of business response letters in terms of Politeness Strategies

In order to analyze the data more easily, the researcher categorized the components of 50
collected letters into 10 acts the salutation, the closing, the signature, the context, the pre-closing,
the enclosing, the informing, the confirming, the suggesting and the requesting.
Each of the above acts was analyzed for the evidences of politeness strategies including
the percentage number of specific types of politeness strategies used. According to the
researcher’s findings, positive and negatives politeness strategies are applied in all 50 letters.
Thus, the researcher has summarized the findings in the followings tables. Table 4.1 lists the
types of positive strategies used and their frequency of occurrence together with the data. And
Table 4.2 shows the types of negative politeness strategies, their frequency of occurrence and
corresponding examples. The percentages in Table 4.1 and 4.2 were calculated from the times
a given politeness strategy identified within each act.
Table 4.1. Positive strategies in business response letters
Number of Rate of
Act Politeness strategy Example
occurrence occurrence (%)
We have received your letter of 30th
Establish common
The context 4 8.7 Nov. for Vietnamese softwood…
ground
(Letter 12)
We look forward to hearing from you
We do hope, however that it will be
Be optimistic 23 63.9
possible for us to make an offer in
The pre-closing
the very near future (Letter 12)
Please let us hear from you as soon
Directness 4 11.1
as possible (Letter 14)
Please find enclosed our current

The Enclosing Directness 10 50
brochure and price list (letter 17)
We can also confirm that the job
The confirming Be optimistic 1 100 will be completed before the end of
February…(Letter 37)
The closing Use appropriate 1 2 Regards
forms 1 2 Cordially
Total 44
Table 4.2. Negative strategies in business response letters
Act Politeness Number of Rate of Example

strategy occurrence occurrence (%)
The Use 37 74 Dear Mr/Ms +family name
salutation appropriate Dear Mr. Wong
forms
13 26 Dear sir
The closing 36 72 Yours sincerely
12 24 Yours faithfully
The signature 50 100 S. Kong
Simon Kong
Managing Director
The context Go on record 42 91.3 Thank you for your enquiry about the
as incurring a availability of a single room for six
debt nights… (Letter 5)
The enclosing Be pessimistic 10 50 We would be pleased to quote prices and
Hedges schedules if you could provide us with
Minimize more detailed information. (letter 4)
imposition We have much pleasure in sending
herewith a fairy full collection of our
latest and best selling designs.(letter 10)
We’re please to enclose our latest
brochure. (Letter 6)
The Be pessimistic 2 100 May we suggest that we send two
suggesting Hedges representatives … (letter 4)
We invite you to test the samples (letter 13)
The Impersonalize 158 100 We’re please to inform you that we have
informing sender and sent you, by parcel post…. (letter 14)
receiver We would like to congratulate your
company on the inauguration of the new
route. (Letter 4)
We regret to inform you that we
are not in a position to meet your
requirements… (Letter 12)
The Go on record 6 100 We shall, therefore, be obliged if you

requesting as incurring a let us know the quantities, the times of
debt shipment you require…..(Letter 16)
Be pessimistic
Hedges
Minimize
imposition
The pre- Indirectness 9 25 If the range of patterns we have selected
closing does not contain anything you want,
please do not hesitate to let us know
your exact requirements. (Letter 10)
Total 375
As can be seen from Table 4.1 and Table 4.2, positive politeness strategies are used in
conducting five acts including the context, the pre-closing, the enclosing, the confirming
and the closing; whereas, negative strategies are applied in nine over 10 acts. Also,
from Figure 3.2, it’s clear to see that negative strategies are used much more frequently
than positives ones (89.5% and 10.5%, respectively). This is an understandable trend as
according to Brown and Levinson (1987), the greater use of negative politeness strategies,
the more effective the act would be, especially in such circumstances that far distance
exists between the addressor and the addressee.
Table 4.3. Comparison of the occurrence of positive and negative politeness strategies
in business response letters
Total number of
Positive strategies Negative strategies
occurrence
Act
Number of Rate of ccurrence Number of Rate of ccurrence
occurrence (%) occurrence (%)
The salutation 0 0 50 100 50
The closing 2 4 48 96 50
The signature 0 0 50 100 50
The context 4 8.7 42 91.3 46
The enclosing 10 50 10 50 20
The suggesting 0 0 2 100 2
The confirming 1 100 0 0 1
The informing 0 0 158 100 158
The requesting 0 0 6 100 6
The pre-closing 27 75 9 25 36
Total 44 10.5 375 89.5 419
Figure 4.2. Politeness strategies in business response letters
From the above tables and figures, both positive and negative strategies realization
have been found in specific components of the 50 collected response letters. Different
strategies used in different parts assist the writers in conveying their genuine purposes as
well as maintaining the essential social distance among the suppliers and the customers.
In addressing the readers, identifying the writers and signaling the completion of a
letter, the appropriate uses of words or phrases are necessary in establish an impressive
appearance for the letter. Then, the reasons for writing are placed in the context which is
often immediate after the salutation. In those contexts, negative strategies are the more
frequently use strategies besides some positive ones. Next, the enclosing realizations are
found in 20 out of 50 letters and the number of positive and negatives strategies use in
encloses are equal. In addition, all informing sentences are written in form of negative
politeness strategies in order to impersonalize the writers and the readers. Besides, hedges
are used in requesting and suggesting sentences to minimize the threat to the negative
face of the readers. In the pre-closing, to show an optimistic attitude, most of the writers
choose positive strategy to express their ideas. From all the data, it is clear to see the
dominant of negative strategies which accounts for nearly 90% of the total strategies.
This shows the high awareness of the writers while producing the letters. By hedges and
mitigation devices, the writers not only succeed in conveying the messages but also create
positive impression from the readers’ view point.
6. CONCLUSION
In this study the researcher has investigated the realizations of speech acts and
politeness strategies used in 50 business response letters. From the process of analyzing
the data, there are some key findings as listed below.
First, the answer for research question 1 regarding types of speech acts used in
business response letters is figured out.
There are four types of speech acts found in the data which are representatives,
directives, expressives and commissives. Among those, representative is the dominant
speech act applied most frequently in the data to present the information. Besides, the
other speech acts play their specific role in conveying the determination of the writers.
Among those, directive speech acts analyzed in the examples serve the purpose of calling
an act from the reader. Expressives as revealed in 13 examples are used to express the
writers’ attitude toward the inquiries. Then, commissive sentences are used to represent a
promise or a commitment about the products’ quality.
Second, the answer for research question 2 in terms of politeness strategies realization
in business response letters is found.
In order to reveal the pragmatic discourse features of business response letters, the
use of positive and negative politeness strategies in letters was investigated. The findings
show that negatives strategies are used more often than the positive ones. Whenever the
threat to the FTA is high, the negative strategies are the better choice for conducting the
message. In addition, in different parts of a letter, there exist different preferences in
choosing the suitable strategies.
7. IMPLICATION
Writing a letter, particularly a response letter is an essential skill for all people doing
business. In order to achieve the success for a business response letter, the writer’s task
is not merely replying the enquiry but also promoting the products and persuading the
customer to order more in the future. Hence, presenting a good will and a sincere attitude
is a crucial requirement when conducting this type of letter.
From the analysis of this study, it is suggested that to gain the best effect, the writer
should consider the following points when writing a business response letter.
First, in terms of speech acts, representatives should be used frequently when there
is a need of providing further information related to the products. Then, directive speech
act is a beneficial choice in writing the enclosing and pre-closing parts. Some suggested
structures are “Please find the enclosed” or “We look forward to your order”.
Second, in terms of politeness strategies, negative strategies such as indirectness or
minimizing imposition by using hedges and mitigation devices should be used in order to
avoid FTAs. The writer may consider some useful structures such as “We are pleased to”,
“we would like to”, and “If you need any further information, please do not hesitate to”.
Those structures can help a lot in creating positive impression from the readers.
In the position of an English teacher, the researcher believe that being aware of
the uses of language in business response letters helps teachers support their students
better, especially language majored ones. Besides teaching letter formats, teachers can
analyse the different kinds of structures to serve particular purposes in terms of speech
acts, politeness and tones.
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5. Eelen, G. (2001). A Critique of Politeness. Manchester: St. Jerome.
6. Forbes, M. S. ( 1981). How to write a business letter. Washington, D.C: International Paper
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linguistic society.
8. Lakoff, R. T. (1977). What can you do with Words: Politeness, Pragmatics and Performatives.
Arlington: Center for Applied Linguistic.
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Hanoi: Labour and Social Publishing House.
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13. Searle, J. R. (1969). Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge:
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from Chron: http://work.chron.com/follow-up-business-letters-9788.html
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DẠY VÀ HỌC TIẾNG ANH CHUYÊN NGÀNH QUẢN TRỊ VĂN PHÒNG
Ở TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC TRONG THỜI KÌ 3.0 VÀ NHỮNG ĐỀ XUẤT
Trần Thị Kim Tuyến1
Tóm tắt: Với tình hình mở cửa và hội nhập của nước ta hiện nay đã thu hút nhiều nhà đầu tư
trên thế giới vào các lĩnh vực như kinh tế, xã hội... kéo theo sự phát triển thay đổi nhiều mặt
về đời sống, kinh tế, ngôn ngữ, văn hóa xã hội của người Việt và đặc biệt, về ngôn ngữ, ngoài
tiếng Việt là tiếng mẹ đẻ thì đa phần tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ được sử dụng phổ biến nhất trong
nghiên cứu, giao tiếp tiếp trong thời kì phát triển nhanh chóng của công nghệ hiện đại. Vì thế,
đề tài “Dạy và học tiếng Anh chuyên ngành quản trị văn phòng ở trường đại học trong thời kì
3.0 và những đề xuất” là đề tài có giá trị quan trọng, đáng được quan tâm nghiên cứu trong
xu thế mới. Để thực hiện được đề tài này, chúng tôi đã sử dụng phương pháp miêu tả, phân
tích, nêu ví dụ minh họa trong nối kết, sử dụng các trang web, các phương tiện công nghệ
hiện đại trong hoạt động dạy và học tiếng Anh chuyên ngành ở những khoa không chuyên
ngữ của trường đại học… Từ đó, chúng tôi đưa ra những đề xuất phù hợp trong hoạt động
dạy và học tiếng ở thời kì hội nhập và phát triển của đất nước hiện nay.
Từ khóa: Tiếng Anh chuyên ngành, dạy và học tiếng Anh, dạy và học tiếng Anh trong thời kì 3.0,…
TEACHING AND LEARNING ENGLISH SPECIFIC PURPOSES FOR OFFICE

ADMINISTRATION DEPARTMENT OF THE UNIVERSITY IN 3.0 PERIOD AND PROPOSALS
Abstract: With the opening and integration situation of our country, we have attracted
many investors in the world such as economy, society, etc., leading to the development of
many changes in Vietnamese’s life, economy, language and culture society. So “Teaching
and learning English specific purposes for office administration department of the university
in 3.0 period and proposals” is a topic which has important value in communication and is
worthy of attention research in the current trend. To carry out this topic, we have used the
method of description, analysis and illustrative example of linking, using websites, modern
technology facilities in teaching and learning foreign language for English specific purpose
in non-language major departments of the university... From this, we give some appropriate
proposals to apply into teaching and learning linguistic activities in the integration and
development period of the country.
Keywords: English specific purpose, teaching and learning English specific purpose,
English in 3.0 period,…
1
TS, Trường Đại học Sài Gòn; Email: ktuyensgu@gmail.com.
1. DẪN NHẬP
Đất nước ngày càng phát triển, nhu cầu xã hội ngày càng cao, đòi hỏi trình độ chuyên
môn và ngoại ngữ của mỗi người cũng cần phải được nâng cao cho phù hợp. Đặc biệt là
với tình hình đất nước ta ở thời kì mở cửa và hội nhập như hiện nay đã thu hút rất nhiều
nhà đầu tư nước ngoài trong tất cả các lĩnh vực như kinh tế, xã hội... kéo theo sự phát triển
thay đổi nhiều mặt về đời sống, kinh tế, ngôn ngữ, văn hóa xã hội của người Việt và đặc
biệt, về ngôn ngữ, ngoài tiếng Việt là tiếng mẹ đẻ thì đa phần tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ được
sử dụng phổ biến nhất trong nghiên cứu, giao tiếp trong thời kì phát triển nhanh chóng
của công nghệ hiện đại. Vì thế, đề tài “Dạy và học tiếng Anh chuyên ngành Quản trị văn
phòng ở trường đại học trong thời kì 3.0 và những đề xuất” là đề tài có giá trị quan trọng,
đáng được quan tâm nghiên cứu trong xu thế mới. Giáo dục Việt Nam nói riêng và thế
giới nói chung trải qua 4 giai đoạn ở 4 thời kì phát triển nhưng do giới hạn bài viết nên
chúng tôi chỉ tập trung vào trong thời kì 3.0 ở kĩ năng nghe - nói trong hoạt động dạy và
học tiếng Anh chuyên ngành Quản trị văn phòng ở trường đại học, còn kĩ năng đọc - viết
thì chúng tôi sẽ bàn đến ở các phần tiếp theo. Để thực hiện được đề tài này, chúng tôi đã sử
dụng phương pháp miêu tả, phân tích, nêu ví dụ minh họa trong nối kết, sử dụng các trang
web, các phương tiện công nghệ hiện đại trong hoạt động dạy và học ngoại ngữ chuyên
ngành tiếng Anh ở những khoa không chuyên ngữ của trường đại học. Từ đó, chúng tôi
đưa ra những đề xuất phù hợp trong hoạt động dạy và học tiếng ở thời kì hội nhập và phát
triển của đất nước hiện nay.
2. TÌNH HÌNH VỀ VIỆC DẠY VÀ HỌC TIẾNG ANH CHUYÊN NGÀNH QUẢN TRỊ VĂN PHÒNG
2.1. Vài nét giới thiệu về ngành Quản trị văn phòng
Quản trị văn phòng là một ngành học liên quan đến việc thiết kế, triển khai thực hiện,
theo dõi đánh giá và đảm bảo quá trình làm việc trong một văn phòng của một tổ chức
luôn đạt năng suất và hiệu quả. Trách nhiệm của người làm công tác quản trị văn phòng là
giám sát và theo dõi hệ thống, thường tập trung vào các mục tiêu cụ thể như khoảng thời
gian được cải thiện, doanh thu, sản lượng, bán hàng...
Tại Việt Nam, ngành quản trị văn phòng là ngành học có từ sớm, năm 1997 ngành
này đã được đào tạo ở Trường Đại học KHXN&NV để cung cấp nguồn nhân lực cho các
cơ quan nhà nước, các tổ chức chính phủ. Trong hơn 20 năm qua, ngành Quản trị văn
phòng được đào tạo chung với ngành Lưu trữ học (ngành Lưu trữ học và Quản trị văn
phòng), Thư viện - Văn phòng (ngành Thư viện và Quản trị văn phòng). Hiện nay, do
nhu cầu nhân lực về lĩnh vực này trên thị trường lao động ngày càng tăng cao, nên ngành
Quản trị văn phòng đã được tách thành ngành độc lập và bắt đầu tuyển sinh riêng từ năm
học 2014 - 2015 ở trường đại học KHXNHV nhưng hầu như ở các trường đại học khác
thì ngành Quản trị văn phòng vẫn còn đào tạo chung. Điều này làm hạn chế rất nhiều tới
DẠY VÀ HỌC TIẾNG ANH CHUYÊN NGÀNH QUẢN TRỊ VĂN PHÒNG Ở TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC TRONG THỜI KÌ 3.0... 319
chỉ tiêu tuyển sinh và đào tạo không đáp ứng đủ nhu cầu xã hội ngày càng cao. Nhu cầu
nhân lực trong lĩnh vực Quản trị văn phòng ngày càng tăng cao vì văn phòng là nơi mà tất
cả các cơ quan, tổ chức, doanh nghiệp đều phải có để lãnh đạo bàn thảo và ban hành các
quyết định quản lí. Văn phòng là trụ sở liên lạc và giao dịch chính thức của các cơ quan,
tổ chức, doanh nghiệp… Văn phòng là nơi thiết kế thời gian, tổ chức, theo dõi, kiểm tra,
đánh giá kết quả thực hiện các quyết định quản lí đã được ban hành, là nơi thu thập và
xử lí thông tin. Tóm lại, văn phòng là bộ phận tham mưu đắc lực cho các cấp lãnh đạo và
quản lí trong việc tổ chức, điều hành hoạt động của cơ quan, doanh nghiệp... Sau khi tốt
nghiệp hệ cử nhân, sinh viên ngành Quản trị văn phòng có thể đi làm ở những vị trí như
chuyên viên, nhân viên văn phòng làm việc tại các bộ phận hành chính - tổng hợp; hành
chính - tổ chức; hành chính - nhân sự... trong văn phòng các cơ quan nhà nước, văn phòng
các tổ chức xã hội từ trung ương đến địa phương và văn phòng doanh nghiệp, lễ tân, văn
thư, lưu trữ, thư ký văn văn phòng hoặc trợ lý hành chính tại văn phòng của tất cả các
cơ quan, doanh nghiệp, tổ chức; các chương trình, dự án; hoặc có khả năng đảm nhiệm
vị trí lãnh đạo hoặc phụ trách bộ phận hành chính, văn phòng tại các doanh nghiệp, các
cơ quan nhà nước và các tổ chức khác. Các sinh viên có cơ hội học lên bậc cao học, trở
thành thạc sĩ ngành Quản trị văn phòng và nếu có điều kiện có thể học tiến sĩ các ngành
về quản lý, quản trị.
2.2. Lịch sử các cuộc cách mạng công nghiệp hiện đại
Trong lịch sử xã hội loài người đã đánh dấu 4 cuộc cách mạng công nghiệp hiện đại,
4 cuộc cách mạng này đã làm thay đổi và phát triển toàn diện thế giới nói chung và Việt Nam
nói riêng, đặc biệt là trong ngành giáo dục.
1765 1870 1969

Hiện nay (Đầu thế kỉ 21)
Giáo dục qua các thời kì cách mạng hiện đại:

- Giáo dục 1.0: Người dạy là trung tâm, là người truyền đạt khuôn mẫu; người học
là người tiếp nhận kiến thức và phải làm theo tất cả những yêu cầu của người dạy đưa ra
một cách thụ động (tiếp thu bài, học bài và trả bài).
- Giáo dục 2.0: Người dạy tổ chức giờ học, hướng dẫn người học cách giải quyết vấn
đề (problem-based learning), quan sát; người học làm việc theo nhóm, nghiên cứu theo
yêu cầu, tiếp cận những dụng cụ trực quan sinh động, các trang web, các mạng xã hội…
- Giáo dục 3.0: Người dạy hướng dẫn, quan sát; người học là trung tâm, chủ động
giải quyết vấn đề một cách sáng tạo, sử dụng thành thạo tất cả các trang thiết bị hiện đại,
các trang web, các trang mạng xã hội facebook, email, zalo… kết nối với toàn thế giới.
- Giáo dục 4.0: Kết nối giữa ảo và thực qua hệ thống internet, hệ thống hóa giáo dục
trực tuyến, người dạy hướng dẫn cách phân tích sự việc, nhận định vấn đề; người học chủ
động trong việc nhìn nhận sự việc từ nhiều góc độ, đánh giá vấn đề, bảo vệ quan điểm,
sáng tạo trong cách xử lý, thiết lập quan hệ tốt với bạn học nhằm đạt hiệu quả cao nhất.
Giáo dục Việt Nam đã và đang từng bước chuyển mình nâng cao chất lượng đào tạo
nhằm bắt kịp xu hướng phát triển của thế giới. Và tiếng Anh là một trong những ngoại
ngữ yếu tố hàng đầu quyết định cho sự thay đổi này.
3. NHỮNG KHÓ KHĂN VÀ HƯỚNG KHẮC PHỤC TRONG VIỆC DẠY VÀ HỌC CÁC KĨ NĂNG
Chúng tôi sử dụng facebook, email, zalo cho hoạt động dạy - học tiếng Anh chuyên
ngành Quản trị văn phòng. Facebook được sử dụng thường xuyên hơn vì trang web này có
thể tải hình ảnh, âm thanh, video nhanh hơn email, zalo… Còn email, zalo… chúng tôi và
các thành viên của lớp học dùng để chuyển tải nhanh thông tin, tin nhắn, tệp đính kèm…
3.1. Kĩ năng nghe

Kĩ năng nghe được xem là kĩ năng khó nhất trong bốn kĩ năng (nghe, nói, đọc, viết)
trong quá trình học tiếng Anh của sinh viên ở các lớp chuyên ngành Quản trị văn phòng.
Đa phần, sinh viên chưa đề cao việc học môn tiếng Anh chuyên ngành dẫn đến vốn từ
vựng bị hạn chế, chưa hiểu rõ cách phát âm, cách nối từ và ngữ điệu của người đọc, người
nói nên người nghe khó hiểu, thậm chí là không hiểu nội dung đang đề cập đến trong bài
nghe, không nắm được nội dung chính cần nắm bắt trong bài nghe. Sinh viên thường thích
xem trước nội dung và đáp án hoặc có tâm lí chờ đợi đáp án, không cố gắng tập trung nghe
dẫn đến việc không nhanh nhạy trong khả năng nghe.
Từ những khó khăn như đã nêu trên, giảng viên cần có nhiều phương pháp giảng dạy
sinh động trong giờ nghe, cho sinh viên nghe hiểu trước các từ mới, các từ khó trong bài, tạo
sự suy đoán nội dung từ sinh viên và từng bước dẫn dắt vào bài nghe để sinh viên không bị
nhàm chán, cho sinh viên nghe nhiều lần. Yêu cầu sinh viên nắm vững cách phát âm, nhấn
trọng âm của từng từ vựng, ngữ điệu trong câu tiếng Anh. Thường xuyên cho sinh viên nghe
các bài trong chương trình, lẫn ngoài chương trình để tạo không khí sôi động như nghe chủ
đề yêu thích, những bài hát hay, những mẫu hội thoại ngắn, những đoạn phim giao tiếp tiếng
Anh... Khuyến khích các sinh viên không sử dụng nội dung và đáp án bài nghe trước khi
nghe, nâng cao ý thức tự học, tự thực hành của bản thân sinh viên. Thường xuyên luyện tập
nghe trước khi đi ngủ, nghe ngay khi làm bất kì điều gì không cần sự tập trung cao, nghe
nghe cho đầu óc thoải mái, thư giãn, không cần quan tâm đến nội dung để hiểu và quen dần
với những cách phát âm, ngữ điệu và cách nói tự nhiên.
Ngoài ra, giảng viên cần thường xuyên chủ động, trao đổi, chia sẻ và học hỏi kinh
nghiệm từ đồng nghiệp, từ những người đã từng thành công trong việc học nghe.
Ví dụ về dạy và học kĩ năng nghe
Bài nghe 1.4, tr. 8 Listen to these responses a-h and match them to the requests in 2
(the questions)- Unit 1: Making contact - companies [2].
i. Chia lớp thành nhiều nhóm nhỏ: nhóm lớp học = nhóm kín facebook = nhón kín
email = nhóm kín zalo)
ii. Yêu cầu các em đọc hiểu từng câu hỏi in 2 (lưu ý các từ vựng, ngữ pháp chủ điểm
ở mỗi câu: could, ask, ring, later…)
iii. Cho sinh viên nghe 3 lần và yêu cầu nối câu đúng:
1. Could you ask her to ring me later, please? - d. Yes, of couse. Can I take your
number, please?
2. Sorry. It’t a bad line. Can you say that again? - e. I said my name is Jones. J-O-N-E-S…
Kết quả đạt được là 35% sinh viên làm đúng 100%; 30% sinh viên làm đúng 75%,
20% sinh viên làm đúng 50%, 15% sinh viên làm đúng dưới 50%. Mục tiêu giảng viên đề
ra như mong muốn là 90% nghe làm đúng yêu cầu từ 75% trở lên.
iv. Sau tiết học giảng viên gửi bài nghe này cho từng trưởng nhóm, yêu cầu các em
nghe lại thường xuyên và gửi bài nghe luyện tập thêm qua nhóm kín của facebook.
v. Giảng viên sửa bài tập nghe thêm vào tiết nghe của tuần sau và cộng điểm tích lũy cho
từng sinh viên có bài tập đúng vào kết quả kiểm tra giữa học kì cho từng sinh viên. Chất lượng
nâng cao kĩ năng nghe của sinh viên được đánh giá qua kết quả của từng phần: chuyên cần:
10%, bài nghe tại lớp: 30%, bài tập nghe thêm 20%, bài nghe kiểm tra giữa kì: 40%.
3.2. Kĩ năng nói

Những khó khăn thường gặp của các sinh viên chuyên ngành tiếng Anh ở kĩ năng này
là do các sinh viên ngại nói, không tự tin, thiếu ý tưởng, không đủ vốn từ vựng, không có
khả năng diễn đạt tốt, sợ nói sai, thường cố gắng dịch sang tiếng Việt những câu vừa nghe
được và khi nói thì nghĩ ra ý tiếng việt trước rồi dịch sang tiếng Anh ý định nói, điều này
làm mất nhiều thời gian và ảnh hưởng nhiều đến sự tập trung nghe nói và thường là chưa
nắm rõ những quy tắt về cách phát âm các từ vựng trong tiếng Anh, trọng âm, ngữ điệu
trong phát âm, cách nối từ và cách nói tắt trong câu khi phát âm.
Để có thể luyện nói tiếng Anh đúng, lưu loát, sinh viên cần phải mạnh dạn, tự tin,
không sợ sai hay sợ người nghe không hiểu mình nói gì, cố gắng bắt chướt, lập lại thường
xuyên những câu nói trong hội thoại, tập đóng vai, chủ động, sáng tạo trong thực hành.
Chuẩn bị sẵn từ vựng, câu hỏi có liên quan đến chủ đề trong giờ thực hành. Hạn chế dịch
sang tiếng Việt, tập trung vào lời nói của người đối diện, phản xạ, nhanh nhạy sau khi
nghe được câu hỏi của người đang giao tiếp với mình. Thường xuyên tham gia các câu lạc
bộ tiếng Anh, giao lưu gặp gỡ người bản xứ qua các tổ chức học tập tiếng Anh.
Ví dụ về dạy và học kĩ năng nói
Bài nói 1.7, tr. 7, Unit 1: Making contact - companies [2]. Work with a partner. Ask
each other questions on these topics:
1) Where you live/ 2) Your hobbies/ 3) Present projects/ 4) Reasons for learning
English/ 5) Your car.
i. Chia lớp thành nhiều nhóm nhỏ: nhóm lớp học = nhóm kín facebook = nhóm kính
email = nhóm kín zalo)
ii. Yêu cầu các em đọc hiểu yêu cầu và từng chủ đề. Lưu ý có thể áp dụng các câu hỏi
và trả lời trong các đoạn hội thoại ở bài tập 1.3 và 1.6, có thể sử dụng từ điển và mẫu câu
trên ứng dụng có sẵn Smarphone, google…
iii. Yêu cầu sinh viên đứng lên nói thì chào hỏi thăm và giới thiệu về đề tài mình đã
chọn. Hỏi và trả lời các câu hỏi mở rộng xung quanh đề tài chẳng hạn như chọn đề tài
1) Where you live thì đáp ứng được các nội dung gợi ý như sau:
A. Hello. What’s your name?
B. Hello. My name’s (B’s name) and what’s your name?
A. My name’s (A’s name). What do you do, (B’s name)?
B. I’m a … (doctor). What’s your job?
A. Oh, I’m a … (doctor), too. What do you work for?
B. I work for a Swiss pharmaceutical company. And you?
A. ....
B. Oh, I think this is our fate. Could you tell me your address here and phone number, please?
A. Hope sweet fate! My address is …and my phone number is… Could you give me
your number? Where do you live, (B’s name?
B. My number is… I live with my parents’ house in the suburb of HCMC so every
day I have to take two buses to get to my workplace. It’s not too bad though because I
can come up with a lot of things to do on the buses and sometimes I can even get to take
a short nap before arriving at my office.
Kết quả yêu cầu đạt được về phát âm, ngữ điệu và nội dung là 40% sinh viên nói đạt
100% yêu cầu; 30% sinh viên nói đạt 75% yêu cầu, 20% sinh viên đạt 50% yêu cầu, 15%
sinh viên nói 50% dưới mức yêu cầu. Mục tiêu giảng viên đề ra như mong muốn là 80%
nói đạt yêu cầu từ 75% trở lên.
iv. Sau tiết học giảng viên gửi những đoạn hội thoại mẫu về 5 chủ đề nêu trên cho
từng trưởng nhóm, yêu cầu các em tự thực hành với các bạn của mình thường xuyên luyện
tập thêm qua nhóm kín của facebook.
v. Giảng viên, sinh viên thực hành lại những đoạn hội thoại mẫu vào tiết nói của tuần
sau và cộng điểm tích lũy cho nhóm sinh viên đạt yêu cầu vào kết quả bài tập nhóm cho
từng sinh viên. Chất lượng nâng cao kĩ năng nói của sinh viên được đánh giá qua kết quả
của từng phần: chuyên cần: 10%, thực hành nói tại lớp: 30%, thực hành nhóm làm thêm
20%, kiểm tra nói giữa kì: 40%.
Tương tự, chúng tôi thực hiện cho bài tập làm thêm nhằm nâng cao các kĩ năng đọc
và viết thông qua từng nhóm kín trên facebook.
4. NHỮNG GIẢI PHÁP VỀ VIỆC DẠY VÀ HỌC TIẾNG ANH CHUYÊN NGÀNH QUẢN TRỊ VĂN PHÒNG
Để thực hiện được điều này đòi hỏi sự phối hợp chặt chẽ cùng với sự nhiệt tình, nỗ
lực và cố gắng nhiều từ 3 phía (sinh viên, giảng viên và cả nhà trường).
Đối với sinh viên:
- Nâng cao nhận thức về tầm quan trọng của môn tiếng Anh trong xã hội hiện nay.
Ngoài thời gian học các môn khác, đi làm thêm, sinh viên cần dành nhiều thời gian cho
việc học tiếng Anh và lập kế hoạch, thời gian biểu rõ ràng cho việc học tiếng Anh.
- Chăm học từ vựng, phát âm đúng và đặt câu ứng dụng từ vựng đó vào ngữ cảnh
phù hợp, thường xuyên tập nghe tin tức bằng tiếng Anh trên các đài phát thanh, ti vi... Tự
tin, mạnh dạn đóng vai giao tiếp các đoạn hội thoại và tự tin sử dụng tiếng Anh trong giao
tiếp hằng ngày với các bạn bè, thầy cô. Không sợ mắc các lỗi sai khi nghe - nói tiếng Anh.
- Luôn phối hợp với giảng viên để thực hiện mục tiêu giảng dạy môn Tiếng Anh
chuyên ngành đạt hiệu quả cao ở trường đại học. Thường xuyên tham gia các tổ chức, các
hoạt động ngoại khóa như câu lạc bộ tiếng Anh, thi đố vui bằng tiếng Anh, thi thuyết trình
bằng tiếng Anh, thi sinh viên giỏi tiếng Anh ở các lớp tiếng Anh chuyên ngành.
- Luôn trung thực với kết quả mà mình có được.
Đối với giảng viên:
- Thường xuyên trau dồi, học hỏi kinh nghiệm chuyên môn, nghiệp vụ, áp dụng đa
dạng các phương pháp giảng dạy phù hợp, quan tâm, tiếp cận và đổi mới các phương pháp
dạy học một cách sinh động, hiểu quả hơn.
- Trong mỗi tiết dạy nên chia từng giai đoạn phù hợp cho từng kĩ năng như warm
up, pre/ before - listening/ speaking, while - listening/ speaking, post/ after - listening/
speaking, sử dụng hình ảnh minh họa, trò chơi sinh động, tạo bầu không khí học tập thoải
mái, năng động nhằm lôi kéo sự thu hút, chú ý và tự tin của sinh viên vào quá trình học.
- Giảng viên chia lớp học thành các nhóm nhỏ, đưa những yêu cầu cụ thể cho từng
nhóm và luân phiên thay đổi nhiệm vụ hoạt động giữa các nhóm với nhau, sinh viên có thể
phát triển toàn diện hơn, hiểu sâu hơn về các vấn đề đang học và cả những vấn đề kế tiếp.
- Thường xuyên cập nhật và điều chỉnh hệ thống các bài tập phù hợp với từng đối
tượng sinh viên. Thiết kế bài tập rèn luyện từ dễ đến khó để nâng cao trình độ cho sinh
viên, nhưng không nên truyền tải quá nhiều kiến thức mới trong một tiết học.
- Giảng viên luôn tạo môi trường tiếng Anh trong giờ học và sinh viên thường xuyên
sử dụng tiếng Anh như là ngôn ngữ chính để giao tiếp một cách chủ động, tự tin, giảm bớt
căng thẳng, không khí lớp học thoải mái, tự nhiên, không nên quá đặt nặng vấn đề từ lỗi
của sinh viên trong giao tiếp, khuyến khích, khen thưởng sinh viên tiến bộ.
- Thường xuyên quan sát từng sinh viên trong lớp, đặc biệt là những sinh viên yếu,
rút ngắn khoảng cách giữa giảng viên và sinh viên, tạo nhiều cơ hội cho sinh viên ứng
dụng những mẫu câu tiếng Anh một cách tự nhiên, tiết học thành công hơn, hiệu quả hơn.
- Thường xuyên tự bồi dưỡng nâng cao năng lực chuyên môn, nghiệp vụ, thường
xuyên cập nhật kiến thức, chương trình và nội dung giảng dạy hiện đại, sử dụng thành
thạo công nghệ hiện đại vào giảng dạy.
- Đánh giá đúng năng lực học tập, cố gắng, nỗ lực của sinh viên trong học tập.
- Khuyến khích các sinh viên và cùng nhau tham gia các tổ chức, các hoạt động
ngoại khóa về tiếng Anh như câu lạc bộ iếng Anh, thi đố vui bằng tiếng Anh... cho các lớp
chuyên ngành trong trường và cả trong khu vực.
- Đưa ra kế hoạch cụ thể và đồng thời kêu gọi sự hợp tác của các câu lạc bộ tình
nguyện ở các nước bản xứ nhằm trao đổi nâng cao sự giao lưu học hỏi về trình độ ngoại
ngữ và văn hóa với các nước này.
- Luôn kết hợp mối liên hệ chặt chẽ giữa Ban lãnh đạo nhà trường - giảng viên - sinh
viên để cùng nhau thực hiện mục tiêu giảng dạy môn Tiếng Anh chuyên ngành đạt hiệu
quả cao ở trường đại học.
Đối với nhà trường:
- Tạo điều kiện cho giảng viên được cập nhật kiến thức, chương trình và nội dung
giảng dạy hiện đại, học hỏi, trau dồi kinh nghiệm chuyên môn, nghiệp vụ, tiếp cận các
phương pháp giảng dạy mới, hiệu quả hơn nhằm phục vụ tối ưu cho công việc giảng dạy.
- Hỗ trợ và tạo điều kiện cho giảng viên được tham gia các lớp bồi dưỡng nâng cao
năng lực chuyên môn, nghiệp vụ.
- Tạo điều kiện và hỗ trợ cho giảng viên, sinh viên cùng nhau tham gia các tổ chức,
câu lạc bộ, các hoạt động ngoại khóa về tiếng Anh cho các lớp chuyên ngành trong trường
và cả trong khu vực, hợp tác các câu lạc bộ tình nguyện ở các nước bản xứ nhằm trao đổi,
giao lưu học hỏi về trình độ ngoại ngữ và văn hóa của sinh viên với các nước này.
- Mời các giảng viên người bản xứ về dạy cho các sinh viên ít nhất hai tiết trong một
tuần. Tăng số lượng học bổng du học để tạo động lực học tập cho sinh viên học ngoại
ngữ (tiếng Anh) và có kế hoạch khen thưởng cho giảng viên, sinh viên đạt thành tích tốt.
- Hỗ trợ, bổ sung kịp thời những trang thiết bị hiện đại với chất lượng âm thanh, hình
ảnh tiêu chuẩn cao, sửa chữa, thay đổi những trang thiết bị đã hỏng.
5. LỜI KẾT
Để khẳng định lại tầm quan trọng của việc dạy và học Tiếng Anh chuyên ngành ở
những khoa không chuyên ngữ (tiếng Anh), Hiệu trường Trường Đại học KHXH&NV
Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh, PGS.TS. Võ Văn Sen đã nói: “… ngoài việc nâng cao trình độ
tiếng Anh tổng quát cho SV theo các tiêu chí của Đề án NNQG 2020, mục đích của việc
giảng dạy chuyên ngành bằng tiếng Anh còn thúc đẩy và tăng cường khả năng tiếp cận, khai
thác các nguồn tài liệu khoa học và chuyên môn bằng tiếng Anh, viết bài báo quốc tế và
tham dự các hội nghị hội thảo quốc tế của giảng viên cũng như đối với SV. Khả năng thích
ứng với môi trường toàn cầu, cơ hội việc làm và khả năng thành công cao hơn cho các cử
nhân khoa học xã hội và nhân văn là điều đặc biệt quan trọng mà chương trình hướng đến
[9]. Và cuối cùng, giảng viên là người quyết định chất lượng dạy - học trong một tiết học
nên các giảng viên phải tận dụng những tính năng ưu điểm của các phương tiện hiện đại
3.0 như Smartphone, computer, bảng tính bảng với các trang web, facebook, e-mail, zalo…
Vì thế, việc nâng cao chất lượng dạy và học tiếng Anh chuyên ngành của những khoa
không chuyên ngữ (tiếng Anh chuyên ngành Quản trị văn phòng) ở các trường đại học là
một trong những bộ môn quan trọng ở mỗi ngành đào tạo, nhằm tăng khả năng tiếp thu,
lĩnh hội tốt kiến thức của sinh viên ở hai kĩ năng cơ bản đầu tiên (nghe, nói) và cả ở các kĩ
năng đọc, viết để sinh viên có khả năng tham khảo, tìm hiểu và học tập kinh nghiệm ở các
nước tiến bộ trên thế giới, đáp ứng kịp thời những đòi hỏi cao của đất nước trong thời kì
hội nhập khu vực và thế giới không những ở lĩnh vực ngôn ngữ mà còn ở cả các lĩnh vực
kinh tế, văn hóa và xã hội trong thời kì hội nhập và phát triển của nước ta như hiện nay.

Tiếng Việt:
1. Robert J. Marzano, Debre J. Pickering & Jane E. Pollock (2013), Các phương pháp dạy học
hiệu quả, Nxb Giáo dục Việt Nam.
Tiếng Anh:
2. David Grant & Robert McLarty (2004), Business Focus, Pre-Intermediate, Oxford
University Press.
3. Field, J. (1998), Skills and Strategies: towards a new methodology for listening. Oxford.
4. Grellet, F. (1981), Developing reading skills: A practical guide to reading comprehension
exercises. (1st ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5. Harmer, J. (1989), The Practice of English Language Teaching, Longman.
6. Holliday A., Hyde, M., & Kullman, J. (2004), Intercultural communication.An advanced
resource book, London: Routledge.
7. Michael Rundeel (2002), Macmillan English Dictionary, Macmillan.
8. Rivers. W. (1968), Teaching foreign language skills, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Trên mạng:
9. Võ Văn Sen, “Giảng dạy chuyên ngành bằng tiếng Anh tại Trường ĐH KHXH&NV – mục
tiêu và lộ trình thực hiện”, http://hcmussh.edu.vn/?ArticleId=657eb651-058b-4036-bf27-
3216ad0da2ad.
NHÀ XUẤT BẢN Tổng Biên tập: (024) 397140511;
ĐẠI HỌC QUỐC GIA HÀ NỘI Biên tập: (024) 39714896; Hành chính: (024) 39714899
16 Hàng Chuối - Hai Bà Trưng - Hà Nội Kế hoạch và hợp tác xuất bản: (024) 39728806
Chịu trách nhiệm xuất bản: Giám đốc - Tổng biên tập: TS. PHẠM THỊ TRÂM
Biên tập chuyên ngành: TỐNG THỊ THANH HUYỀN, HỒNG QUÂN
Biên tập xuất bản: PHAN HẢI NHƯ
Chế bản: ĐỖ THỊ HỒNG SÂM
Trình bày bìa: NGUYỄN NGỌC ANH
Đối tác liên kết: Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội
SÁCH LIÊN KẾT
Mã số: 2L - 02 ĐH2018
In 300 cuốn, khổ 19x27 cm tại Công ty CP In sách Việt Nam
Địa chỉ: 22B Hai Bà Trưng, Hoàn Kiếm, Hà Nội
Số xuất bản: 4767-2018 /CXBIPH/01-404/ĐHQGHN, ngày 18/12/2018.
Quyết định xuất bản số: 1537 LK-XH/QĐ - NXB ĐHQGHN ngày 31/12/2018.
In xong và nộp lưu chiểu năm 2018.

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Vol 9.

TẠP CHÍ KHOA HỌC ĐẠI HỌC TÂN TRÀO

ISSN: 2354 - 1431

Tập 9, Số 1 (Tháng 01/2023)

STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPING ENGLISH SPEAKING SKILLS OF FIRST-YEAR

Uong Thu Hang*, Vu Van Tuan

Article info Abstract:

TẠP CHÍ KHOA HỌC ĐẠI HỌC TÂN TRÀO

ISSN: 2354 - 1431

Tập 9, Số 1 (Tháng 01/2023)

Uông Thu Hằng*, Vũ Văn Tuấn

Thông tin bài viết Tóm tắt

Introduction Russian, and Spanish. In practice, the most popular

and memorizing than experimenting and producing Research Instruments

Table 1. Strategies applied by K46 Legal English majors at HLU

to practice speaking skills through the Covid-19 pandemic

I use this strategy and

this strategy but am

strategy and would

I have tried this

1. Strategies to practice speaking skills

This strategy doesn’t fit for me

I have never used this strategy

I have tried this strategy and

I use this strategy and like it

would use it again

2. Strategies to engage in conversation

this strategy but am

strategy and would

I have tried this

2. Strategies to engage in conversation

I use this strategy and

this strategy but am

strategy and would

I have tried this

2. Strategies to engage in conversation

This strategy doesn’t

this strategy but am

strategy and would

I use this strategy

I have tried this

Strategies for when I can’t think of a word or expression

this strategy but am

strategy and would

I use this strategy

I have tried this

Strategies for when I can’t think of a word or expression

I have tried this

Strategies for when I can’t think of a word or expression

This strategy doesn’t

I use this strategy and

strategy and would

I have tried this

Strategies for when I can’t think of a word or expression

[9]. O’Malley, J. M., & Chamot, A. U. (1990).

Improving EFL Students' Speaking Proficiency

Index Terms— H-PBL, speaking proficiency, motivation, teaching strategies

© 2018 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

© 2018 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

B. Questions of the Study

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

© 2018 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

© 2018 ACADEMY PUBLICATION