FUNCTIONS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

o Studying, sleeping, talking, eating, and exercising all involve breathing. From our first breath at birth, the rate
and depth of our breathing are unconsciously matched to our activities. Although we can voluntarily stop
breathing, within a few minutes we must breathe again. Breathing is so characteristic of life that, along with
the pulse, it is one of the first things health professionals check to determine if an unconscious person is alive.

Respiration includes the following processes:

1) ventilation, or breathing, which is the movement of air into and out of the lungs;
2) the exchange of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) between the air in the lungs and the blood;
3) the transport of O2 and CO2 in the blood; and
4) the exchange of O2 and CO2 between the blood and the tissues.
o It can be confusing to hear the term respiration alone because sometimes it also refers to cellular
metabolism, or cellular respiration; in fact, the two processes are directly related. Breathing provides the O2
needed in cellular respiration to make ATP from glucose. Breathing also rids the body of potentially toxic
CO2, the CO2 produced during cellular respiration.
1. Regulation of blood pH. The respiratory system can alter blood pH by changing blood CO2 levels.
2. Voice production. Air movement past the vocal cords makes sound and speech possible.
3. Olfaction. The sensation of smell occurs when airborne molecules are drawn into the nasal cavity.
4. Innate immunity. The respiratory system protects against some microorganisms and other pathogens,
such as viruses, by preventing them from entering the body and by removing them from respiratory
surfaces.

ANATOMY OF THE RESPIRATORY

SYSTEM
The respiratory system has two divisions: the upper respiratory tract and
the lower respiratory tract.

 The upper respiratory tract includes the nose, the pharynx (throat),
and the larynx.
 The lower respiratory tract includes the trachea, the bronchi, and
the lungs.

Nose

The nose consists of the external nose and the nasal cavity.

 External nose - is the visible structure that forms a prominent feature of the face. Most of the external
nose is composed of hyaline cartilage, although the bridge of the external nose consists of bone
 Nares or Nostrils - are the external openings of the nose
 Choanae - are the openings into the pharynx.
 Nasal cavity - extends from the nares to the choanae .
 Nasal septum - is a partition dividing the nasal cavity into right and left parts.
 Deviated nasal septum - occurs when the septum bulges to one side.
 Hard palate - forms the floor of the nasal cavity, separating the nasal cavity from the oral cavity. Air
can flow through the nasal cavity when the oral cavity is closed or full of food.
  Conchae - are present on the lateral walls on each side of the nasal cavity. The conchae increase the
surface area of the nasal cavity and cause air to churn, so that it can be cleansed, humidified, and
warmed.
 Paranasal sinuses - are air-filled spaces within bone. They include the maxillary, frontal, ethmoidal, and
sphenoidal sinuses, each named for the bones in which they are located. The paranasal sinuses open
into the nasal cavity and are lined with a mucous membrane. They reduce the weight of the skull,
produce mucus, and influence the quality of the voice by acting as resonating chambers.
 Sinusitis - is inflammation of the mucous membrane of a sinus, especially one or more of the paranasal
sinuses. Viral infections, such as the common cold, can cause mucous membranes to become inflamed
and swollen and to produce excess mucus.
 Nasolacrimal ducts - which carry tears from the eyes, also open into the nasal cavity. Sensory receptors
for the sense of smell are in the superior part of the nasal cavity.

Many processes occur in the nose and nasal cavity including:

1) The coarse hairs just inside the nares and the mucus produced by the goblet cells trap large dust
particles.
2) Cilia sweep the debrisladen mucus toward the pharynx, where it is swallowed. The acid in the stomach
kills any bacteria that were trapped by the mucus.
3) Air is warmed by the blood vessels underlying the mucous epithelium. It is humidified by moisture in the
mucous epithelium.
 Sneeze reflex - dislodges foreign substances from the nasal cavity. Sensory receptors detect the foreign
substances, and action potentials are conducted along the trigeminal nerves to the medulla
oblongata, where the reflex is triggered. During the sneeze reflex, the uvula and the soft palate are
depressed, so that rapidly flowing air from the lungs is directed primarily through the nasal passages,
although a considerable amount passes through the oral cavity.

Pharynx

o The pharynx is the common passageway for both the respiratory and the digestive systems. Air from the
nasal cavity and air, food, and water from the mouth pass through the pharynx. Inferiorly, the pharynx leads
to the rest of the respiratory system through the opening into the larynx and to the digestive system through
the esophagus.

The pharynx is divided into three regions: (1) the nasopharynx, (2) the oropharynx, and (3) the laryngopharynx

 Nasopharynx - is the superior part of the pharynx.

 Soft palate - which is an incomplete muscle and connective tissue partition separating the
nasopharynx from the oropharynx.
 Uvula - is the posterior extension of the soft palate.
 Pharyngeal tonsil - the posterior part of the nasopharynx contains, which helps defend the body
against infection
 Oropharynx - extends from the uvula to the epiglottis, and the oral cavity opens into the oropharynx.
Thus, food, drink, and air all pass through the oropharynx. The oropharynx is lined with stratified
squamous epithelium, which protects against abrasion.
 Palatine tonsils - are located in the lateral walls near the border of the oral cavity and the oropharynx.
 Lingual tonsil - is located on the surface of the posterior part of the tongue
 Laryngopharynx - passes posterior to the larynx and extends from the tip of the epiglottis to the
esophagus. Food and drink pass through the laryngopharynx to the esophagus. A small amount of air is
usually swallowed with the food and drink. Swallowing too much air can cause excess gas in the
 stomach and may result in belching. The laryngopharynx is lined with stratified squamous epithelium
and ciliated columnar epithelium.

Larynx

The larynx commonly called the voicebox, is located in the anterior throat and extends from the base of the
tongue to the trachea.

 Thyroid cartilage - is attached superiorly to the

hyoid bone.
 Cricoids cartilage - which forms the base of the
larynx on which the other cartilages rest. The
thyroid and cricoid cartilages maintain an open
passageway for air movement
 Epiglottis - it differs from the other cartilages in
that it consists of elastic cartilage rather than
hyaline cartilage. Its inferior margin is attached
to the thyroid cartilage anteriorly, and the
superior part of the epiglottis projects superiorly
as a free flap toward the tongue. The epiglottis
protects the airway during swallowing.

The three pairs of cartilages are on each side of the posterior part of the larynx .

The top cartilage is the cunei form (wedge-shaped) cartilage, the middle cartilage is the corniculate (horn-
shaped) cartilage, and the bottom cartilage is the arytenoid (ladle-shaped) cartilage.

The larynx also houses the vocal cords. There are two sets of ligaments that extend from the posterior surface of
the thyroid cartilage to the paired cartilages.

 The superior set of ligaments forms the vestibular folds, or false vocal cords
 The inferior set of ligaments composes the vocal folds, or true vocal cords
 Laryngitis - inflammation of the mucous epithelium of the vocal folds

Trachea

o The trachea or windpipe, allows air to flow into the lungs. It is a membranous tube attached to the larynx. It
consists of connective tissue and smooth muscle, reinforced with 16–20 C-shaped pieces of hyaline
cartilage
o The adult trachea is about 1.4–1.6 centimeters (cm) in diameter and about 10–11 cm long. It begins
immediately inferior to the cricoid cartilage, which is the most inferior cartilage of the larynx. The trachea
projects through the mediastinum and divides into the right and left primary bronchi at the level of the fifth
thoracic vertebra.

Bronchi

o The trachea divides into the left and right main bronchi or primary bronchi, each of which connects to a
lung. The left main bronchus is more horizontal than the right main bronchus because it is displaced by the
heart.
o The main bronchi extend from the trachea to the lungs. Like the trachea, the main bronchi are lined with
pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium and are supported by C-shaped pieces of cartilage.
Lungs

 The lungs are the principal organs of respiration. Each lung is cone-shaped, with its base resting on the
diaphragm and its apex extending superiorly to a point about 2.5 cm above the clavicle
 The right lung has three lobes: (1) the superior lobe, (2) the middle lobe, and (3) the inferior lobe. The left
lung has two lobes, called the superior lobe and the inferior lobe
 Bronchopulmonary segments - separated from one another by connective tissue septa, but these
separations are not visible as surface fissures.
 Tracheobronchial tree - consists of the main bronchi and many branches
 Lobar bronchi - as they enter their respective lungs. The lobar bronchi conduct air to each lung lobe.
 Segmental bronchi - which lead to the bronchopulmonary segments of the lungs.
 Bronchioles - also subdivide numerous times to give rise to terminal bronchioles, which then subdivide
into respiratory bronchioles
 Alveolar ducts - long, branching ducts with many openings into alveoli, which are chambers connected
to two or more alveoli. There are about 300 million alveoli in the lungs.
 Alveoli - are small air-filled chambers where the air and the blood come into close contact with each
other. The alveoli become so numerous that the alveolar duct wall is little more than a succession of
alveoli.
 Respiratory membrane of the lungs - is where gas exchange between the air and blood takes place. It is
formed mainly by the walls of the alveoli and the surrounding capillaries.

The respiratory membrane consists of two layers of simple squamous epithelium, including secreted fluids,
called alveolar fluid, and separating spaces. The individual layers are the following:

1. a thin layer of alveolar fluid

2. the alveolar epithelium, composed of a single layer of cells—simple squamous epithelium
3. the basement membrane of the alveolar epithelium
4. a thin interstitial space
5. the basement membrane of the capillary endothelium
6. the capillary endothelium, also composed of a single layer of cells—simple squamous epithelium

Pleural Cavities

 The pleural cavity, between the parietal and visceral

pleurae, is filled with a small volume of pleural fluid
produced by the pleural membranes.

The pleural fluid performs two functions:

1) It acts as a lubricant, allowing the visceral and parietal pleurae

to slide past each other as the lungs and thorax change
shape during respiration, and
2) it helps hold the pleural membranes together.
 Pleura - consists of a parietal and a visceral part.
 Parietal pleura - lines the walls of the thorax, diaphragm, and mediastinum.
 Visceral pleura - covers the surface of the lungs.
Lymphatic Supply

The lungs have two lymphatic supplies: the superficial lymphatic vessels and the deep lymphatic vessels.

 Superficial lymphatic vessels - are deep to the visceral pleura. They drain lymph from the superficial lung
tissue and the visceral pleura.
 Deep lymphatic vessels - follow the bronchi.

VENTILATION AND RESPIRATORY VOLUMES

 Ventilation or breathing, is the process of moving air into and out of the lungs.

There are two phases of ventilation:

1) Inspiration or inhalation - is the movement of air into the lungs

2) Expiration or exhalation - is the movement of air out of the lungs. Ventilation is regulated by changes
in thoracic volume, which produce changes in air pressure within the lungs.

Changing Thoracic Volume

o Muscles of inspiration –inhaling requires a set of muscle. The muscles of inspiration include the
diaphragm and the muscles that elevate the ribs and sternum, such as the external intercostals.
o Diaphragm - is a large dome of skeletal muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal
cavity
o Muscles of expiration – forceful exhalation requires a set of muscles. n. The muscles of exhalation
include the internal intercostals and depress the ribs and sternum.

Pressure Changes and Airflow

Two physical principles govern the flow of air into and out of the lungs:

1. Changes in volume result in changes in pressure. As the volume of a container increases, the pressure
within the container decreases.
2. Air flows from an area of higher pressure to an area of lower pressure. If the pressure is higher at one end
of a tube than at the other, air or fluid flows from the area of higher pressure toward the area of lower
pressure.

The volume and pressure changes responsible for one cycle of inspiration and expiration can be described as
follows:

1. At the end of expiration, alveolar pressure, which is the air pressure within the alveoli, is equal to
atmospheric pressure, which is the air pressure outside the body.
2. During inspiration, the volume of the thoracic cavity increases when the muscles of inspiration
contract. The increased thoracic volume decreases the pressure in the alveoli below atmospheric
pressure.
3. At the end of inspiration, the thorax and alveoli stop expanding. When the alveolar pressure and
atmospheric pressure become equal, airflow stops
4. During expiration, the thoracic cavity volume decreases. Consequently, alveolar pressure increases
above atmospheric pressure, and air flows out of the alveoli
Lung Recoil

o Lung recoil is due to the elastic properties of its tissues and because the alveolar fluid has surface
tension.
o Surface tension exists because the oppositely charged ends of water molecules are attracted to each
other

Two factors keep the lungs from collapsing: (1) surfactant and (2) pressure in the pleural cavity

 Surfactant - is a mixture of lipoprotein molecules produced by secretory cells of the alveolar epithelium.
The surfactant molecules form a single layer on the surface of the thin fluid layer lining the alveoli,
reducing surface tension. Without surfactant, the surface tension causing the alveoli to recoil can be
ten times greater than when surfactant is present.
 Pleural Pressure - is lower than alveolar pressure. Pleural pressure is lower than alveolar pressure because
of a suction effect caused by fluid removal by the lymphatic system and by lung recoil. This difference
in pressures—lower pleural pressure than alveolar pressure—keeps the alveoli expanded.

Changing Alveolar Volume

Air moves into and out of the lungs due to changes in alveolar pressure. Alveolar pressure change is due to
alveolar volume changes. Alveolar volume changes result from changes in pleural pressure.

The decrease in pleural pressure during inspiration occurs for two reasons:

1. Increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity results in a decrease in pleural pressure because a change
in volume affects pressure.
2. As the lungs expand, lung recoil increases, increasing the suction effect and lowering the pleural
pressure.

The events of inspiration and expiration can be summarized as follows:

1. During inspiration, pleural pressure decreases because of increased thoracic volume and increased
lung recoil. As pleural pressure decreases, alveolar volume increases, alveolar pressure decreases, and
air flows into the lungs.
2. During expiration, pleural pressure increases because of decreased thoracic volume and decreased
lung recoil. As pleural pressure increases, alveolar volume decreases, alveolar pressure increases, and
air flows out of the lungs

Respiratory Volumes and Capacities

 Spirometry - is the process of measuring volumes of air that move into and out of the respiratory
system.Is the device that measures these respiratory volumes. Measurements of the respiratory volumes
can provide information about the health of the lungs.
 Respiratory volumes - are measures of the amount of air movement during different portions of
ventilation
 Respiratory capacities - are sums of two or more respiratory volumes.

The four respiratory volumes and their normal values for a young adult male are:

1. Tidal volume is the volume of air inspired or expired with each breath. At rest, quiet breathing results in a
tidal volume of about 500 milliliters (mL).
2. Inspiratory reserve volume is the amount of air that can be inspired forcefully beyond the resting tidal
volume (about 3000 mL).
 3. Expiratory reserve volume is the amount of air that can be expired forcefully beyond the resting tidal
volume (about 1100 mL).
4. Residual volume is the volume of air still remaining in the respiratory passages and lungs after maximum
expiration (about 1200 mL)

Values of respiratory capacities, the sum of two or more

pulmonary volumes, are shown:

1. Functional residual capacity is the expiratory reserve

volume plus the residual volume. This is the amount of air
remaining in the lungs at the end of a normal expiration
(about 2300 mL at rest).
2. Inspiratory capacity is the tidal volume plus the inspiratory
reserve volume. This is the amount of air a person can
inspire maximally after a normal expiration (about 3500
mL at rest).
3. Vital capacity is the sum of the inspiratory reserve volume, the tidal volume, and the expiratory reserve
volume. It is the maximum volume of air that a person can expel from the respiratory tract after a
maximum inspiration (about 4600 mL).
4. Total lung capacity is the sum of the inspiratory and expiratory reserves and the tidal and residual
volumes (about 5800 mL). The total lung capacity is also equal to the vital capacity plus the residual
volume.

Forced expiratory vital capacity - is the rate at which lung volume changes during direct measurement of the
vital capacity. It is a simple and clinically important pulmonary test.

GAS EXCHANGE

o The major area of gas exchange is in the alveoli,

although some takes place in the respiratory
bronchioles and alveolar ducts. Gas exchange
between blood and air does not occur in other areas
of the respiratory passageways, such as the
bronchioles, bronchi, and trachea. The volume of
these passageways is therefore called anatomical
dead space.

The exchange of gases across the respiratory membrane

is influenced by three factors:

1) The thickness of the membrane

2) The total surface area of the respiratory membrane, and (3) the partial pressure of gases across the
membrane.

Factors That Affect Gas Exchange

1. Increases in the thickness of the respiratory membrane result in decreased gas exchange.
2. Small decreases in surface area adversely affect gas exchange during strenuous exercise. When the
surface area is decreased to one-third to one-fourth of normal, gas exchange is inadequate under
resting conditions.
 3. The pressure exerted by a specific gas in a mixture of gases is reported as the partial pressure of that
gas

Movement of Gases in the Lungs

1. Oxygen diffuses from a higher partial pressure in the alveoli to a lower partial pressure in the pulmonary
capillaries.
2. Oxygen diffuses from a higher partial pressure in the tissue capillaries to a lower partial pressure in the
tissue spaces.

Movement of Gases in the Tissues

1. Carbon dioxide diffuses from a higher partial pressure in the tissues to a lower partial pressure in the
tissue capillaries.
2. Carbon dioxide diffuses from a higher partial pressure in the pulmonary capillaries to a lower partial
pressure in the alveoli.

GAS TRANSPORT IN THE BLOOD

o Oxygen Transport After O2 diffuses through the respiratory membrane into the blood, about 98.5% of the O2
transported in the blood combines reversibly with the iron-containing heme groups of hemoglobin. About
1.5% of the O2 remains dissolved in the plasma.
 Oxyhemoglobin - Hemoglobin with O2 bound to its heme groups
o The ability of hemoglobin to bind to O2 depends on the Po2. At high Po2, hemoglobin binds to O2, and at
low Po2, hemoglobin releases O2. In the lungs, Po2 normally is sufficiently high so that hemoglobin holds as
much O2 as it can. In the tissues, Po2 is lower.
o The amount of O2 released from oxyhemoglobin is increased by four factors. (1) low Po2, (2) high Pco2, (3)
low pH, and (4) high temperature.

Carbon Dioxide Transport and Blood pH

o Carbon dioxide diffuses from cells, where it is produced, into the blood.
 Carbonic anhydrase - is located inside red blood cells and on the surface of capillary epithelial cells.
Carbonic anhydrase increases the rate at which CO2 reacts with water to form H+ and HCO3 − in the
tissue capillaries.
o Carbon dioxide has an important effect on the pH of blood. As CO2 levels increase, the blood pH
decreases (becomes more acidic) because CO2 reacts with H2O to form H2CO3. The H+ that results from
the dissociation of H2CO3 is responsible for the decrease in pH.

RHYTHMIC BREATHING

o The normal rate of breathing in adults is between 12 and 20 breaths per minute. In children, the rates are
higher and may vary from 20 to 40 per minute. The rate of breathing is determined by the number of times
respiratory muscles are stimulated. The basic rhythm of breathing is controlled by neurons within the
medulla oblongata that stimulate the muscles of respiration.

Respiratory Areas in the Brainstem

o Medullary Respiratory Center - consists of two dorsal respiratory groups, each forming a longitudinal
column of cells located bilaterally in the dorsal part of the medulla oblongata, and two ventral
respiratory groups, each forming a longitudinal column of cells located bilaterally in the ventral part of
the medulla oblongata.
 o Pre-Bötzinger Complex - is now known to establish the basic rhythm of breathing.
o Pontine Respiratory Group - is a collection of neurons in the pons (figure 15.15). It has connections with
the medullary respiratory center and appears to play a role in switching between inspiration and
expiration.

Generation of Rhythmic Breathing

1. Starting inspiration. The neurons in the medullary respiratory center that promote inspiration are
continuously active.
2. Increasing inspiration. Once inspiration begins, more and more neurons are activated.
3. Stopping inspiration. The neurons stimulating the muscles of respiration also stimulate the neurons in the
medullary respiratory center that are responsible for stopping inspiration

Nervous Control of Breathing

1. Higher brain centers allow voluntary control of breathing. Emotions and speech production affect
breathing.
2. The Hering-Breuer reflex inhibits the respiratory center when the lungs are stretched during inspiration.
3. Touch, thermal, and pain receptors can stimulate breathing.

Chemical Control of Breathing

1. Carbon dioxide - is the major chemical regulator of breathing. An increase in blood CO2 causes a
decrease in blood pH, resulting in increased breathing.
2. Low blood levels of O2 - can stimulate chemoreceptors in the carotid and aortic bodies, also resulting in
increased breathing.
3. Chemoreceptors - in the medulla oblongata respond to changes in blood pH. Usually, changes in blood
pH are produced by changes in blood CO2.