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Ae2235 Exercises Topic I.3
Ae2235 Exercises Topic I.3
3: FOURIER TRANSFORM
Exercise 4-1
For all signals α > 0.
(a) The Fourier transform follows by direct substitution of the signal into the definition of the
Fourier transform (4-7):
R∞ R∞
Xa (f ) = (Ae−αt u(t))e−j2πf t dt = A e−(j2πf +α)t dt
−∞ 0
∞
−A −A 1
= (j2πf +α) e−(j2πf +α)t = (j2πf +α) ((0) − (1)) = A (j2πf +α) .
0
R∞ R0
Xb (f ) = (Aeαt u(−t))e−j2πf t dt = A e−(j2πf −α)t dt
−∞ −∞
0
−A −A 1
= (j2πf −α) e−(j2πf −α)t = (j2πf −α) ((1) − (0)) = A (−j2πf +α) .
−∞
Note that in the last step we used the fact that e−(j2πf −α)t = e−j2πf t eαt , and when t → −∞ the last
part becomes zero while the magnitude of the first part can never become larger than 1 (it is a complex
exponential function).1
(c) Here we see that for t < 0, xc (t) equals xb (t), and for t > 0, xc (t) equals xa (t). In fact,
xc (t) = xa (t) + xb (t)! So, we can just use the ‘linearity’-property of the Fourier transform, i.e.:
Xc (f ) = Xa (f ) + Xb (f ):
A A 2α
Xc (f ) = (α+j2πf ) + (α−j2πf ) =A α2 +(2πf )2
.
This function is real and even, simply because xc (t) is also real and even (sketch it for yourself!).
This function is imaginary and odd, simply because xd (t) is real and odd (sketch it for yourself).
1
Another (much shorter!) way to perform this transform is by noting that xb (t) = xa (−t), so Xb (f ) = Xa (−f ) (the ‘time
reversal’ transform, entry 3b in Table 4-1).
1
AE2235ii Exercises Topic I.3 (V2.2, May 2021) 2
The real and imaginary part of Xa (f ) can be used to compute the amplitude and phase of Xa (f ):
A
(Re(Xa (f )))2 + (Im(Xa (f )))2 = √
p
|Xa (f )| = , and
α2 +(2πf )2
From these calculations we can see that when f = 0, |Xa (f )| = A α and Xa (f ) = 0, when f → ∞,
6
|Xa (f )| = 0 and 6 Xa (f ) = − 2 , and when f → −∞, |Xa (f )| = 0 and 6 Xa (f ) = + π2
π
In the following table I summarize the main results for the other three signals:
But, as stated above, we generally use programs like MATLAB to do all these calculations for us, using
a typical script included below (for xa (t)).
subplot ( 2 , 1 , 2 )
ah =semilogx ( f , Xphase ) ; % use semilogx to have logarithmic x axis
xlabel ( ’f, Hz’ ) ; title ( ’<X_a(f)’ ) ;
set ( ah , ’linewidth’ , 2 ) ;
grid
print − d e p s c 2 z e 4 2 a
10
1 |Xa (f )|
0
10
−1
10
−2
10
−3
10
−2 −1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10
f , Hz
0
6 Xa (f )
−0.5
−1
−1.5
−2
−2 −1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10
f , Hz
And the same can be done for the other three signals. Obviously, we will not ask you to write and run
MATLAB-scripts on the exam. We do expect, however, that you are able to (1) compute |X(f )| and
6 X(f ) for a given Fourier transform, and (2) look at what the amplitude and phase spectra do in the
limit cases of f = 0 and f → ∞.
Exercise 4-4
Recall that for an even function: x(t) = x(−t), an example is the cosine-function. For an odd function:
x(t) = −x(−t), an example is the sine-function. Note that this exercise is very similar to Exercise 3-16.
(a) We start our proof by just elaborating on the definition of the Fourier transform, (4-7):
R∞
X(f ) = x(t)e−j2πf t dt, using Euler (e−j2πf t = cos(2πf t) − j sin(2πf t)):
−∞
R∞
X(f ) = x(t) (cos(2πf t) − j sin(2πf t)) dt
−∞
AE2235ii Exercises Topic I.3 (V2.2, May 2021) 4
R0 R∞
= x(t) (cos(2πf t) − j sin(2πf t)) dt + x(t) (cos(2πf t) − j sin(2πf t)) dt
−∞ 0
Substitute σ = −t in the first integral on the right-hand side (then: t = −σ, so dt = −(dσ), and the
integral limits change from (t from −∞ to 0) to (σ from ∞ to 0)):
R0 R∞
X(f ) = x(−σ) (cos(−2πf σ) − j sin(−2πf σ)) d(−σ)+ x(t) (cos(2πf t) − j sin(2πf t)) dt
σ=∞ 0
Since cos(−u) = cos(u) (cosine is even) and sin(−u) = − sin(u) (sine is odd), we get:
R∞ R∞
X(f ) = x(−σ) (cos(2πf σ) + j sin(2πf σ)) dσ + x(t) (cos(2πf t) − j sin(2πf t)) dt
0 0
Substitute σ = t in the integral on the left-hand side, and re-arrange yields (if you don’t understand this
substitution, look at the comments given in Exercise 3-16(a)):
R∞ R∞
X(f ) = [x(t) + x(−t)] cos(2πf t)dt − j [x(t) − x(−t)] sin(2πf t)dt (*)
0 0
Clearly then, when x(t) is even, i.e., x(−t) = x(t), the second integral in (*) becomes zero, and the
result is:
R∞
X(f ) = 2 x(t) cos(2πf t)dt qed
0
When x(t) is real (as are all signals in this lecture series) and even, X(f ) is a real and even function of
f : X(f ) = X(−f ).2
(b) From the derivation above we conclude that when x(t) is odd, i.e., x(−t) = −x(t), the first
integral in (*) becomes zero, and the result is:
R∞
X(f ) = −2j x(t) sin(2πf t)dt qed
0
When x(t) is real and odd, X(f ) is an imaginary and odd function of f : X(f ) = −X(−f ).3
Exercise 4-6
(a) Note that this Fourier transform can be found as entry 5 in Table 4-2. It can be computed
through direct substitution:
R∞ R∞
Xa (f ) = (te−αt u(t))e−j2πf t dt = te−(j2πf +α)t dt
−∞ 0
2
Please note that, as Ziemer says on page 152, it is the even cosine function, which is a function of frequency, which causes
the even-ness of X(f ), which is a function of frequency f . The property does not occur because the multiplication of an even
time-function x(t) and the even cosine-function is even!
3
Again, please note that it is the odd sine function, which is a function of frequency, which causes the odd-ness of X(f ),
which is a function of frequency f . The property does not occur because the multiplication of an odd time-function x(t) and
the odd cosine-function is odd, in fact the multiplication of two odd functions is even! The crux lies in that we are looking at a
function of frequency.
AE2235ii Exercises Topic I.3 (V2.2, May 2021) 5
Rb Rb
Use partial integration rule to solve this integral (i.e.: a (df /dx)g(x)dx = f (x)g(x)|ba − a f (x)(dg/dx)dx):
R∞ −1 −(j2πf +α)t
Xa (f ) = td (j2πf +α) e
0
−t −(j2πf +α)t
∞
−1 R∞
= j2πf +α e − (j2πf +α) e−(j2πf +α)t dt
0 0
∞
−1 −1 1
= ((0) − (0)) + (j2πf +α)2
e−(j2πf +α)t = (j2πf +α)2
((0) − (1)) = (j2πf +α)2
qed
0
(b) Note that u(t)u(1 − t) means that the signal t2 only needs to be evaluated from t = 0 to t = 1
s. We compute the Fourier transform through direct substitution:
R∞ R1
Xb (f ) = (t2 u(t)u(1 − t))e−j2πf t dt = t2 e−j2πf t dt
−∞ 0
R1 2 −1
−t2
1
−1 R1
= t d( j2πf )e−j2πf t = j2πf e−j2πf t − j2πf e−j2πf t dt2
0 0 0
−1 −j2πf
2 R1
= ( j2πf e ) − (0) + j2πf e−j2πf t tdt
0
The integral on the right-hand side requires another integration by parts and equals:
R1
−1
−t
1
−1 R1
td j2πf e−j2πf t = j2πf e−j2πf t − j2πf e−j2πf t dt
0 0 0
1
−1 −j2πf 1 −1
= ( j2πf e ) − (0) + j2πf j2πf e−j2πf t
0
−1 −j2πf 1
= j2πf e − (j2πf )2
(e−j2πf ) − (1) = △
So we obtain:
−1 −j2πf 2
Xb (f ) = j2πf e + j2πf △,
1
Note that the Ziemer solution has a plus sign before the jπf -term in the parentheses of the left-hand part
of the solution. Our answer above is correct.
R∞ R1 R1
Xc (f ) = (e−αt u(t)u(1 − t))e−j2πf t dt = e−αt e−j2πf t dt = e−(j2πf +α)t dt
−∞ 0 0
1
−1 −(j2πf +α)t −1
= (j2πf +α) e = (j2πf +α) (e−(j2πf +α) ) − (1)
0
1
Xc (f ) = (j2πf +α) (1 − e−(j2πf +α) ).
AE2235ii Exercises Topic I.3 (V2.2, May 2021) 6
Exercise 4-8
(a) This signal is real and even, so its Fourier transform will also be real and even. We compute
the Fourier transform through direct evaluation:
R∞
X1 (f ) = ( 21 [δ(t + 1) + δ(t + 12 ) + δ(t − 12 ) + δ(t − 1)])e−j2πf t dt
−∞
Exercise 4-9
From the definition of the Fourier transform we obtain:
R∞ R∞ R∞
X(f ) = x(t)e−j2πf t dt = x(t) cos(2πf t)dt − j x(t) sin(2πf t)dt,
−∞ −∞ −∞
giving the real and imaginary part of X(f ) through the first and second integrals on the right, respec-
tively. Now, it is easy to show that:4
Re(X(−f )) = Re(X(f )), that is, the real part is an even function of f , and
Im(X(−f )) = −Im(X(f )), that is, the imaginary part is an odd function of f .
p
The amplitude of X(f ), |X(f )|, equals (Re(X(f )))2 + (Im(X(f )))2 , so:
p
|X(−f )| = (Re(X(−f )))2 + (Im(X(−f )))2
p p
= (Re(X(f )))2 + (−Im(X(f )))2 = (Re(X(f )))2 + (Im(X(f )))2 = |X(f )| qed
Similarly, for the phase of X(f ), 6 X(f ), which equals arctan( Im(X(f ))
Re(X(f )) ), then:
Concluding, the amplitude of X(f ) is a real and even function of f , and the phase is a real and odd
function of f .
Exercise 4-10
(a) We note that X1 (f ) is a real and even function of f , so we expect that when inverse Fourier-
transforming, we obtain a real and even function of time t. Through direct manipulation:
4
Hint: cos(2π(−f )) = cos(2πf ) and sin(2π(−f )) = − sin(2πf ).
AE2235ii Exercises Topic I.3 (V2.2, May 2021) 7
R∞ R0 R∞
x1 (t) = X1 (f )ej2πf t df = Aeαf ej2πf t df + Ae−αf ej2πf t df = i1 (t) + i2 (t)
−∞ −∞ 0
R∞ R∞ A
∞
i2 (t) = Ae−αf ej2πf t df = A e(j2πt−α)f df = (j2πt−α) e(j2πt−α)f
0 0 0
A A
= (j2πt−α) ((0) − (1)) = (α−j2πt) ,
where in the latter step we used the fact that e(j2πt−α)f = e(j2πt)f e−αf , and for f → ∞ the second ex-
ponential becomes 05 , and the value of the first exponential is never larger than 1 (it is a rotating complex
vector with magnitude 1).
R0
Similarly: i1 (t) = Aeαf ej2πf t df
−∞
0 0
R (j2πt+α)f A
i1 (t) = A e df = (j2πt+α) e(j2πt+α)f
−∞ −∞
A A
= (j2πt+α) ((1) − (0)) = (j2πt+α) .
A A 2Aα
So: x1 (t) = (α−j2πt) + (j2πt+α) = α2 +(2πt)2
, which is a real and even function of t.
Furthermore: x1 (0) = 2A 6
α which equals the value of the integral of X1 (f ) from −∞ to ∞. Similarly,
X1 (0) = A, which equals the value of the integral of x1 (t) from −∞ to ∞.7
Exercise 4-15
F F
Because Π( τt ) −→ τ sinc(f τ ), τ1 Π( τt ) −→ sinc(f τ ).
1 t
τ Π( τ ) is a ‘model’ of the delta-function δ(t), i.e., δ(t) ≈ lim τ1 Π( τt ).
τ →0
Then, its transform sinc(f τ ), how does it behave when τ → 0? The sinc-function equals 1 at f = 0 and
equals zero for f τ = ±1, ±2, ±3, . . ., so for f = ± τ1 , ± τ2 , ± τ3 , . . .
Clearly then, when τ → 0, the first ‘null’ of the sinc-function lies at f → ∞, or, the sinc-function
becomes incredibly broad and equals 1 for a very large range of frequencies.
In the limit-case then, when τ → 0, the Fourier transform of the model of δ(t) equals 1 for all frequencies.
Exercise 4-16
(a) xa (t) = Π( (t+1.5)
1 ) + Π( (t−1.5)
1 ), an even function.
5
The exercise should have defined α > 0.
R∞ R∞ ∞
6
Ae−α|f | = 2A e−αf df = 2A
−α
e−αf 0
= 2A
−α
((0) − (1)) = 2A
α
.
∞ 0
∞
R R∞ R
2Aα 1 1
7
x1 (t)dt = 2 α2 +(2πt)2
dt. From Calculus we know that a2 +b2 u2
du = ab
arctan( ab u), we use this result here,
−∞ 0
R∞ 2Aα 1 ∞
with a = α and b = 2π to obtain that 2 α2 +(2πt)2
dt = 4Aα α2π arctan( 2π
α
t) 0
= 2A
π
( π2 ) − (0) = A.
0
AE2235ii Exercises Topic I.3 (V2.2, May 2021) 8
We know that F Π( τt ) = τ sinc(f τ ), and we can use the time-delay theorem (Table 4-1, entry 2) to
So: Xa (f ) = F Π( t+1.5 t−1.5
τ ) + F Π( τ ) = sinc(f ) e
j3πf + e−j3πf = 2sinc(f ) cos(3πf ), a real
1 −j3πf
= πf e (sin(πf ) + sin(3πf )),
where we use the fact that sin(u) cos(v) = 21 (sin(u − v) + sin(u + v)), so with u − v = πf and
u + v = 3πf we get u = 2πf and v = πf , so:
2 −j3πf
Xd (f ) = πf e sin(2πf ) cos(πf ).
Exercise 4-17
The signal x(t) is recorded at 15 inches/second, and is played back at 7 12 inches/second. This is twice as
slow as what is needed to get the original signal back.
Then, if signal x(t) has Fourier transform X(f ), then signal y(t) = x( 12 t) has Fourier transform
Y (f ) = | 11 | X( f1 ) = 2X(2f ), i.e., when time goes twice as slow, frequency runs twice as fast.
2 2
Let’s sketch what happens, in the frequency domain. The signal that is being recorded has an approxi-
mately rectangular spectrum extending from 100 to 10000 Hz.
Another, more cumbersome but still educational way would be to start with defining xc (t) = Π( (t+1.5)
8
1
) + 2Π( 2t ) +
Π( (t−1.5)
1
), and Fourier transforming, which yields: Xc (f ) = 2sinc(f ) cos(3πf )+4sinc(2f ), which after some manipulation
results in the same answer. Of course, students are recommended to use the fast (and easier!) approach stated above.
AE2235ii Exercises Topic I.3 (V2.2, May 2021) 9
X(f )
Y (f )
2A
Clearly, the sound will appear to be much lower-frequency than the original signal.
Note when you have studied part I.4, look back at this exercise and see what happens to the energy of
the signal...
Exercise 4-18
f f
The Fourier transform X(f ) is shown in Figure P4-18, we see that X(f ) = Π 4 +Π 2 .
The duality theorem states that when a time-signal x(t) has a Fourier transform X(f ), then a time-signal
X(t) will have a Fourier transform equal to x(−f ).
t t
From Exercise 4-16(c) we know that xc (t) = Π 4 +Π 2 has as Fourier transform Xc (f ) = 4sinc(4f )+
2sinc(2f ).
Then here: since X(f ) equals xc (f ), the time signal that X(f ) originates from, x(t) must equal Xc (−t),
i.e.:
x(t) = 4sinc(−4t) + 2sinc(−2t) which equals 4sinc(4t) + 2sinc(2t) since the sinc-function is
even.
Hence, the time signal x(t) is real and even, as its Fourier transform (Figure P4-18) is also real and even.
Exercise 4-19
All signals in Exercise 4-16 are multiplied with p(t) = cos(20πt), a 10 Hz sinusoidal signal. The Fourier
transform of this signal equals:
1
P (f ) = 2 (δ(f + 10) + δ(f − 10)).
Multiplication of a signal x(t) in the time domain with p(t), means that in the frequency domain their
Fourier transforms are convolved, that is, when y(t) = x(t)p(t), then Y (f ) = X(f ) ⋆ P (f ).
AE2235ii Exercises Topic I.3 (V2.2, May 2021) 10
Convolution of X(f ) with a δ-function δ(f − f0 ) means that we get a ‘copy’ of the original spectrum
X(f ), but now centered around f = f0 , that is X(f − f0 ).
Multiplication with a cosine-signal therefore yields two copies of the original Fourier transform, one at
f = −f0 and one at f = f0 .
Exercise 4-20
See Figure P4-20. xa (t) is (real and) even, so Xa (f ) will be real and even. xb (t) is (real and) odd, so
Xb (f ) will be imaginary and odd.
We will use the differentiation theorem and the time-delay theorem to obtain the Fourier transforms
Xa (f ) and Xb (f ).
(a) Suppose we have a triangle c(t), shown in the left-hand sketch below, and its derivative d(t),
shown in the right-hand sketch:
c(t) d(t)
1 1
−1 1 t −1 t
−1
d
Clearly then: dt c(t) = d(t), so using the differentiation theorem: (j2πf )C(f ) = D(f ), or C(f ) =
D(f )
(*).
(j2πf )
Then d(t) = Π t+0.51 − Π t−0.5
1 , so D(f ) = sinc(f ) ejπf − e−jπf and since the entity between
brackets equals 2j sin(πf ), we obtain that D(f ) = 2jsinc(f ) sin(πf ), an imaginary and odd function
of f .9
9
Note that sinc(f ) is even, sin(πf ) is odd, so their product is odd, and that 2j is purely imaginary.
AE2235ii Exercises Topic I.3 (V2.2, May 2021) 11
1 1 sin(πf ) 2
C(f ) = (j2πf ) D(f ) = (j2πf ) 2jsinc(f ) sin(πf ) = sinc(f ) πf = sinc(f )sinc(f ) = sinc (f ),
a real and even function of f , as we expected since c(t) is a real and even function of t.
Now, xa (t) = c(t−1)+c(t+1), so Xa (f ) = C(f )e−j2πf +C(f )ej2πf , thus Xa (f ) = 2sinc2 (f ) cos(2πf ),
a real and even function of f , as we expected since xa (t) is real and even.
(b) The Fourier transform of xb (t) follows directly from what we have computed above. Since
xb (t) = −c(t + 1) + c(t − 1) we get:
10
Note that sinc2 (f ) is even, sin(2πf ) is odd, so their product is odd, and that 2j is purely imaginary.