COMPOSITES

SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY
Composites Science and Technology 64 (2004) 1523–1530
www.elsevier.com/locate/compscitech

Design and manufacture of composite high speed machine

tool structures
Dai Gil Lee *, Jung Do Suh, Hak Sung Kim, Jong Min Kim
Mechanical Design Laboratory with Advanced Materials, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, ME3261, 373-1 Guseong-dong, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-701, Republic of Korea
Received 28 October 2002; received in revised form 29 September 2003; accepted 30 October 2003
Available online 12 February 2004

Abstract

The high transfer speed as well as the high cutting speed of machine tools is important for the productivity improvement in the
fabrication of molds/dies because non-machining time, called the air-cutting-time, amounts to 70% of total machining time with
complex shape products. One of the primary reasons for low productivity is large mass of the moving parts of machine tools, which
cannot afford high acceleration and deceleration encountered during operation. Moreover, the vibrations of the machine tool
structure are among the other causes that restrict high speed operations.
In this paper, the slides of high speed CNC milling machines were designed with fiber reinforced composite materials to
overcome this limitation. The vertical and horizontal slides of a large CNC machine were manufactured by joining high-modulus
carbon-fiber epoxy composite sandwiches to welded steel structures using adhesives and bolts. These composite structures reduced
the weight of the vertical and horizontal slides by 34% and 26%, respectively, and increased damping by 1.5–5.7 times without
sacrificing the stiffness. Without much tuning, this machine had a positional accuracy of
5 lm per 300 mm of the slide
displacement.
Ó 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Carbon fiber epoxy composite; B. Vibration; C. Sandwich; E. Welding/joining

1. Introduction
CNC milling machines and machining centers are
employed in the fabrication of various molds/dies that
are used for electrical appliances, automobile interiors,
stamping and injection molding. During normal ma-
chining with machine tools, their cutting tools are
moved with nominal feed rates, while the feed rates are
switched to a rapid traverse mode during the transfer of
cutting tools without contacting workpieces: The time
spent to transfer a cutting tool without contacting
workpieces is called air-cutting-time. Generally, only
about 30% of the total machining time is spent in the
actual cutting or making chips, while the remaining 70%
is spent in the air-cutting-time [1,2]. Therefore, not only
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +82-42-869-3221; fax: +82-42-869-
5221.
E-mail address: dglee@kaist.ac.kr (D.G. Lee).
high cutting speeds but also high transfer speeds are
required to obtain the enhanced productivity of ma-
chining which is essential to survive in the global com-
petition of machine tool markets. Although the cutting
speed has been increased due to newly developed cutting
tool materials such as ceramic, CBN, diamond and so
on, productivity is still restricted by the low transfer
speed of massive moving frames which are usually made
of steel. Conventional steel moving frames of machine
tools operate with maximum speeds of 0.2–0.8 m/s, and
maximum acceleration of 0.2–2.1 m/s2 (Conventional
Machining Center, Mynx400/ACE-TC320D, Daewoo
Heavy Industries & Machinery Ltd., Korea). However,
modern high speed milling machines are required to
have the maximum acceleration of 14 m/s2 and the speed
of 2 m/s. These high transfer speeds are hard to be re-
alized if massive steel moving frames are employed.
Furthermore, machine tool structures vibrate creating
problems during manufacturing at these high speeds,

0266-3538/$ - see front matter Ó 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.compscitech.2003.10.021
1524 D.G. Lee et al. / Composites Science and Technology 64 (2004) 1523–1530
which may result in poor quality products by the relative
positional error between the cutting tools and work-
pieces [3–5]: Recently machine tools are required to have
been kept the positional accuracy within
10 lm, which
is closely related to the precision of products [6]. For the
high speed operation with accuracy, machine tool
structures should be designed with light moving frames
without sacrificing stiffness and damping properties,
which are contradictory requirements if conventional
metallic materials are employed because conventional
metals have almost same low specific stiffness (E=q) with
low damping characteristics. Machine tool structures
with high specific stiffness and high damping are re-
quired to increase their fundamental natural frequencies
and decrease the vibration induced. The requirement of
high specific stiffness with high damping for high speed
machine tool structures can be satisfied by employing
fiber reinforced polymer composite materials [7,8]. Since
the fiber reinforced composite materials consist of rein-
forcing fibers with very high specific stiffness and matrix
with high damping, the resulting material characteristics
of composite materials reflect the best characteristics of
each material, i.e., high specific stiffness with high
damping. Moreover, sandwich structures whose face
structures are made of fiber reinforced composite ma-
terials and whose core materials are made of honeycomb
or foam structures maximize their advantages when they
are applied to the structures resisting bending moment.
Consequently, sandwich structures and composite ma-
terials have been employed increasingly in spacecrafts,
airplanes, automobile parts [9], robot arms [8,10], and
even machine tools [11,12].
The deformation of machine tool structures under
cutting forces and structural inertia loads during start
and stop motions produces not only poor quality
products but also noise and vibration. A simple way to
reduce the deformation is to employ structures with
large cross-sections. However, it increases the mass of
machine tool structures and consequently requires large
motors, bearings and motion guide systems. Therefore,
the best way to enhance the stiffness of machine tool
structures without much increase of mass is to employ
high specific stiffness structures such as composite
sandwich structures.
In this study, the vertical and horizontal machine tool
slides of a high speed CNC milling machine were de-
signed and manufactured with sandwich composite
structures that are adhesively bonded to welded steel
structures – a hybrid machine tool structure. The verti-
cal column of the horizontal slide (X-slide) was manu-
factured with composite sandwich structures while the
horizontal column of the vertical slide (Y-slide) was
reinforced with high modulus composite plates. The
hybrid structures were designed to have the equivalent
structural stiffness of conventional steel structures,
which was calculated by the classical beam theory and
FEM analysis. Then, the natural frequency and damp-
ing capacity as well as weight savings of the composite
hybrid machine tool structures were measured and
compared with those of comparable conventional steel
machine tool structures.
2. Design of hybrid machine tool structures
2.1. Characteristics of hybrid beam
The bending stiffness D of a simply supported sand-
wich beam as shown in Fig. 1 is expressed as follows
when Ef  Ec and d  t [13–15]:
bt3 btd 2 bc3
D ¼ Ef  þ Ef  þ Ec 
6 2 12 ð1Þ
btd 2
 Ef 
2
where Ef and Ec represent the YoungÕs moduli of face
and core, respectively. The deflection D of the simply
supported sandwich beam under a concentrated load P
based on the simple beam theory is the sum of D1 due to
bending deformation and D2 due to shear deformation
[15,16]:
P ‘3 P‘
D ¼ D1 þ D2 ¼ þ ð2Þ
48D 4AGc
where A and Gc represent equivalent cross-section area
and the shear modulus of core material, respectively.
Since the sandwich structure has low core shear stiffness,
the simple beam theory neglecting shear deformation
may not give an accurate result. Therefore, the calcu-
lated results of stiffness of sandwich beam specimen were
compared with the measured results obtained by the
three-point bending test shown in Fig. 1 as well as the
results by FEM analysis. The three-point bending test
was performed using Instron 4206 under 1 mm/min
displacement rate and the FEM analysis was performed
with a commercial software ANSYS 5.5 (USA) using
shell 99 and solid 95 elements. Table 1 shows the di-
mensions of sandwich specimens. The sandwich beam
specimens were made of composite faces and honey-
comb core. To join the faces and the core, both an ad-
hesive film (AF126, 3M, USA) and an epoxy adhesive
Fig. 1. Dimensions of the simply supported sandwich beam used for
three-point bending test: (a) longitudinal direction; (b) cross-section of
A–A1 .
 D.G. Lee et al. / Composites Science and Technology 64 (2004) 1523–1530 1525

Table 1 1000 Beam theory Beam theory

Dimensions (mm) of the simply supported sandwich beam under three-
(bending only) (shear only)
point bending test 800
b c d h ‘

Force [N]
600
55 18 23 28 600
400 Beam theory
(bending + shear)
(2216, 3M, USA) was used to prevent delamination 200 Experiment
failure of sandwich structures [17,18]. Unidirectional FE-analysis
0
carbon-epoxy composite (USN150, SK Chemical, Ko- 0 0.0005 0.001 0.0015 0.002
rea) and glass fabric composite (GEP215, SK Chemical, Deflection [m]
Korea) were used for the face material while aramid fi- Fig. 2. Deflection of the sandwich beam obtained by the beam theory,
ber honeycomb (HRH-10-1/8-4.0, Hexcel, UK) was experiment and FEM analysis.
used for the core material. Tables 2 and 3 list the
properties of these materials. The composite faces for
the sandwich specimens were laid up with a stacking
B-B
sequence of [0°2;G /0°10;C /0°1;G /0°5;C ]S where the subscripts B
bh
G and C represent glass-fabric and carbon-epoxy, re-
steel
spectively. Fig. 2 shows the measured deflection as well
composite
as the calculated ones by the beam theory and FEM x
analysis. Both the beam theory and the FEM analysis bs bs
honeycomb
predicted the experimental deflection within 8% error. 2 2
From the above results, it was found that the deflection z B1
of the sandwich beam due to shear was not negligible
(three times larger than that due to bending in this case). Fig. 3. Box type hybrid beam to reduce shear deflection.
Therefore, box type hybrid beams with side surfaces
reinforced with steel plates as shown in Fig. 3 were
R R
adopted for the hybrid moving frames to reduce the dM Ac
Ez dA V Ac Ez dA
shear deformation of the sandwich beam. For the box sxz;h ¼ ¼ ð4Þ
dx DðRbs þ bh Þ DðRbs þ bh Þ
type beams reinforced with steel plates neglecting
warping, the shear stress sxz;h in the honeycomb and sxz;s where M, V , Ac represent bending moment, shear force
in the side steel are related from the geometric com- and the integrated area from the neutral axis to the top
patibility as follows: boundary, respectively. Hence the deflection due to
shear is expressed as follows:
Gxz;s R
sxz;s ¼ Gxz;s cxz ¼ sxz;h ¼ Rsxz;h ð3Þ ‘cxz;h P ‘ Ac Ez dA
Gxz;h
D2 ¼ ¼ ð5Þ
2 4DðRbs þ bh ÞGxz;h
where R is the ratio of the shear moduli between the steel
(Gxz;s ) and honeycomb (Gxz;h ). Then, the shear stress in From Eqs. (2) and (5), the total deflection D at the center
the honeycomb in Fig. 3 is expressed as [16,19] of the hybrid beam due to a concentrated load P with

Table 2
Properties of composite materials
E1 (Gpa) E2 (GPa) G12 (GPa) m12 Ply thickness (mm) Density (kg/m3 )
USN150 130.0 10.0 5.06 0.28 0.15 1550
GEP215 35.5 17.2 3.7 0.22 0.15 2050
HYEJ34M45D 270.0 5.9 4.5 0.30 0.3 1730

Table 3
Properties of HRH-10-1/8-4.0 honeycomb
Coordinate direction Strength (MPa) Modulus (MPa) Density (kg/m3 )
3 (compressive) 1–3 (shear) 2–3 (shear) 3 (compressive) 1–3 (shear) 2–3 (shear)
3.96 1.75 0.97 193.06 59.30 32.40 48.05

3 1
1526 D.G. Lee et al. / Composites Science and Technology 64 (2004) 1523–1530

simply supported boundary condition is the sum of

bending deflection D1 and shear deflection D2 :
R
P ‘3 P ‘ Ac Ez dA
D ¼ D1 þ D2 ¼ þ ð6Þ
48D 4DðRbs þ bh ÞGxz;h
If RBS, the ratio of the bending deflection to the shear
deflection, is large, the shear deflection can be neglected,
which condition can be expressed as following:
D1 ‘2 ðRbs þ bh ÞGxz;h
RBS ¼ ¼ R 1 ð7Þ
D2 12 Ac Ez dA

2.2. Design of light weight composite reinforced machine

tool frames

Fig. 4 shows the photograph of a high speed CNC Fig. 6. Photograph of the hybrid Y-slide and composite reinforcements
milling machine of 15 kW equipped with 35,000 rpm (dimensions: 926  615  136 mm).

spindle and the hybrid moving frames, the horizontal

Fig. 4. Photograph of a high speed milling machine tool structure
(F500, Daewoo heavy industries & Machinery Ltd., Korea).
slide (X-slide) and the vertical slide (Y-slide), whose
vertical columns and horizontal columns were rein-
forced with composite sandwich structures and com-
posite plates (F500, Daewoo Heavy Industries &
Machinery Ltd., Korea). Both the moving frames are
operated up to 2.0 m/s speed with maximum accelera-
tion of 14.0 m/s2 . Figs. 5 and 6 show the photographs of
the X-slide and the Y-slide composed of composite
sandwich structures adhesively bonded to welded steel
structures, respectively. In order to estimate the deflec-
tions of the machine tool structures during high accel-
eration, the moving steel frames were analyzed first by
FEM as shown in Fig. 7 where the vertical columns of
the X-slide were bent inward by the attraction force of
20 kN generated by the two linear motors mounted on
the inner surface of the vertical column of the X-slide.
The horizontal columns of the Y-slide were deformed in
the Z-direction by the bending moment due to the pro-
truded spindle weight of 4000 N. In order to maximize
the reinforcement effect, in this work, the vertical col-
umn of the X-slide and the horizontal column of Y-slide
were selected for the main reinforcement parts because

Fig. 5. Photograph of the hybrid X-slide and composite reinforcements Fig. 7. Deformation of the steel machine tool structures: (a) X-slide
(dimensions: 914  1723  409 mm). under 20 kN attraction force; (b) Y-slide under spindle weight of 4 kN.
 D.G. Lee et al. / Composites Science and Technology 64 (2004) 1523–1530
they were the weakest parts of the moving frames of the
milling machine considered.
In order to develop a lighter hybrid frame, the X-slide
steel base, made of thinner steel plates of 16 mm
thickness compared to 20 mm thick steel plates for
conventional one, was reinforced with composite sand-
wich structure as shown in Figs. 5 and 8. Since the shear
deformation of a simple sandwich structure is usually
large, in this study, the hybrid structure was designed as
a box type structure as shown in Figs. 8 and 9 whose
sides were reinforced with steel plates. The calculated
values of RBS from Eq. (7) for the designed box type
hybrid structure was larger than 10.4, which meant that
the deflection due to shear was less than 8.8% of the
total deflection. Therefore, during the design of the
structure, the flexural rigidity D was used as the objec-
tive parameter, where
X n
D¼ Ei Ii ð8Þ
i¼1
Since the reinforcement of the outer face of the moving
frames is most effective to increase the flexural rigidity
D, the inner face thickness of the sandwich was deter-
mined to be 5 mm considering the joining of the inner
faces of the sandwich beams to the steel base with bolts.
Fig. 8. Section views of vertical columns of the X-slide: (a) reference of
section view; (b) hybrid; (c) conventional.
1527
The thickness of the outer face of the sandwich beam
was tentatively determined to give the equivalent D of
the conventional one and then the more specific calcu-
lations were performed to determine the suitable di-
mensions of the reinforcements using FEM considering
local warping or twisting. From the analysis, it was
found that a larger deflection occurred in the hybrid
beams when both the beams had the same flexural ri-
gidity D because the hybrid beam did not have the
transverse reinforcing steel plates, while the conven-
tional steel beam was designed as a lattice type structure
with reinforcing plates, Fig. 9. Therefore, the outer face
thickness of the sandwich beam was increased to 13 mm.
Furthermore, the dimensions of other reinforcements
were calculated through a procedure starting with
equivalent flexural rigidity D and then calculating with
FEM considering warping of the structure.
2.3. Manufacture of hybrid machine tool structure
High strength carbon epoxy composite (USN150, SK
Chemical, Korea) and glass fiber epoxy (GEP215, SK
Chemical, Korea) were mainly used for the faces
of sandwich beams and reinforcing plates for the X and
Y-slides. The vertical column of the X-slide was rein-
forced with the two sandwich beams of 1462 mm and
1223 mm long, respectively, while the top and bottom
parts were reinforced with the four composite plates and
six small sandwich beams as shown in Fig. 5. The
Y-slide on which the spindle unit of the milling machine
Fig. 9. Configurations of the vertical column of X-slide: (a) conven-
tional one with transverse reinforcing plate; (b) hybrid one without
transverse reinforcing plate.
1528 D.G. Lee et al. / Composites Science and Technology 64 (2004) 1523–1530
mounted should resist the bending moment produced by
the spindle weight, cutting force and the inertia force
due to fast acceleration and deceleration of the slide.
The horizontal column of Y-slide with strict dimen-
sional constraint was reinforced with very high modulus
carbon fiber epoxy composite whose properties are given
in Table 2 (HYEJ34M45D, Mitsubishi, Japan), to avoid
interference with other parts. Moreover, the left and
right vertical columns of the Y-slide were reinforced
with sandwich beams with holes for lubrication and
electrical wiring as shown in Fig. 6. Additionally, four
triangular shape plates were used to reinforce the
twisting rigidity of the rectangular frames. The com-
posite reinforcements were bonded to the steel base
structures with an epoxy adhesive (2216, 3M, USA)
combined with the mechanical joining with bolts to
enhance the reliability and manufacturing efficiency.
3. Characteristics of the hybrid slides
3.1. Dynamic and static characteristics
The impulse response tests for both the conventional
steel slides and the hybrid slides were performed with
free-free boundary conditions to investigate the effects of
composite reinforcement on the dynamic characteristics
such as natural frequencies and damping characteristics.
In addition, the dynamic characteristics of the CNC
milling machine tool structure equipped with the hybrid
X-slide were measured. During the test, a 4-channel
FFT analyzer (B&K 3109), a charge amplifier (B&K
Fig. 10. Mode shapes of the hybrid X-slide with free-free boundary
condition: (a) first mode; (b) second mode.
Fig. 11. Mode shapes of the hybrid Y-slide with free-free boundary
condition: (a) first mode; (b) second mode.
2626), an impulse hammer (B&K 8202), an accelerom-
eter (B&K 4374) and a force transducer (B&K 8200)
were used. The mode shapes and damping factors g of
the structures were calculated using the results of the
fast Fourier transform (FFT) of the vibration signals
from the accelerometer. Figs. 10 and 11 show the first
and second mode shapes of the hybrid X-slide and the
hybrid Y-slide, respectively, and the damping factors g
were calculated using the half-power band width method
expressed as [20,21]
f2  f1
g¼ ð9Þ
fr
Tables 4 and 5 show the comparison of dynamic char-
acteristics between the conventional and the hybrid
slides. For the X-slide, the natural frequencies of the
hybrid slide increased 30% in the measuring range and
the damping factors increased 1.6–5.7 times. Especially,
the significant increase of damping factor was found
in the third, fourth, and fifth modes corresponding to
bending of the vertical column. For the Y-slide, there
was no significant difference in the natural frequencies
between the conventional and the hybrid structures,
whereas the damping factor g of the hybrid slide in-
creased by 1.5–2.5 times compared with the conven-
tional slide. Fig. 12 and Table 6 show the frequency
response (Receptance, X =F ) and dynamic characteristics
of the X-slide that was mounted on the machine tool
frame with a spindle unit as shown in Fig. 4. The first
two natural frequencies are 97 and 143 Hz, respectively,
where vibrations of the two low frequencies were dom-
inant and had damping factor g of 2.65% and 1.84%,
respectively. From the previous results, it was found
that the hybrid machine tool structure had large
damping factor g in the wide range of frequency.
The vertical column of the X-slide was a critical
component of machine tool structure because the de-
flection due to the attraction force of linear motors is an
important constraint for proper operation. As it were,
because the linear motors operate with 0.9 mm gap be-
tween a moving magnet and a fixed magnet face, a de-
formation larger than the permitted value make the two
magnets contact. Therefore, the relative displacement at
the mid point of the vertical column is important. The
relative deflection of the vertical column was measured
with dial gage for various positions of the Y-slide, and
it was found that the maximum deviation was less than
0.1 mm, which was satisfactory for the operation of the
linear motors. Table 7 shows the mass comparison be-
tween the conventional slides and the hybrid slides, in
which the mass reductions of the hybrid X- and Y-slide
were 174 kg (26%) and 48 kg (34%), respectively, with-
out sacrificing the stiffness of the structures. Conse-
quently, the moving frames of newly developed
machining center (F500, Daewoo Heavy Industries &
Machinery Ltd., Korea) operates with the maximum
 D.G. Lee et al. / Composites Science and Technology 64 (2004) 1523–1530 1529

Table 4
Dynamic characteristics of hybrid X-slide with free-free boundary condition
Mode Conventional X-slide Hybrid X-slide
Natural frequency Mode shape Damping factor Natural frequency Mode shape Damping factor
(Hz) (%) (Hz) (%)
1 64 Twisting 0.90 92 Twisting 2.20
2 126 Bending 0.50 131 Tilting 0.80
3 211 Bending 0.30 281 Bending 1.20
4 261 Bending + tilting 0.20 304 Bending + tilting 0.80
5 308 Bending + tilting 0.14 357 Bending + tilting 0.80

Table 5
Dynamic characteristics of hybrid Y-slide with free-free boundary condition
Mode Conventional Y-slide Hybrid Y-slide
Natural frequency Mode shape Damping factor Natural frequency Mode shape Damping factor
(Hz) (%) (Hz) (%)
1 135 Twisting 0.48 115 Twisting 0.90
2 345 Bending 0.22 341 Bending 0.35
3 365 Complex mode 0.19 589 Bending 0.30
4 572 Bending 0.22 598 Bending 0.32
5 690 Bending 0.12 620 Bending 0.28

3.2. Performances and economic estimation

During machine tool operation, the errors in the po-

sitional accuracy mainly come from inaccuracies in the
geometry, finite stiffness, and thermal deformation of the
machine components. Recently CNC controllers are
equipped with the error compensation algorithm, which
enables machine tools to obtain the positional accuracy
of about
2 lm [22,23]. The positional accuracy of
modern machine tools is determined not only by struc-
Fig. 12. Dynamic characteristics of the hybrid X-slide assembled with a tural stiffness but also by adjustment or tuning of their
frame and a spindle unit.
controller to compensate the structural deflection or the
thermal deformation. The developed machine tool had a
structural stiffness comparable with conventional high
precision machine tools and was equipped with a com-
puter aided numerical controller (made by Siemens,
Table 6 Germany). Conventional CNC milling machines were
Dynamic characteristics of the hybrid X-slide assembled with frame
required to have the positional accuracy within
10 lm,
and spindle unit
while modern high precision CNC milling machines are
Mode Natural frequency (Hz) Damping factor, g (%)
required to have the positional accuracy within
2 lm.
1 97 2.65 Although the positional accuracy of the developed ma-
2 143 1.84
chine tool is currently within
5 lm at 80% of the max-
3 150 3.27
imum operating acceleration because its controller
tuning has not been completed, it will be improved to
satisfy the accuracy requirements within
2 lm.
speed of 2 m/s and acceleration of 14 m/s2 owing to the The costs of the conventional X-slide and Y-slide are
light weight moving frames made of composite sandwich about $12,000 and $5000, respectively. The costs of the
structures, which will enable to reduce the total ma- composite materials and the adhesive added up to the
chining time significantly and to obtain the enhanced modifications were $1400 and $500, respectively without
productivity. including labor-cost. Although the total costs of hybrid
1530 D.G. Lee et al. / Composites Science and Technology 64 (2004) 1523–1530
Table 7
Comparison between masses of the X-slide and the Y-slide of the conventional and the hybrid machine tools (kg).
X-slide
Conventional Hybrid
Total Steel base Composite
671 497 465 32
moving frames are about 30% higher than those of the
conventional ones, the hybrid moving frames exhibited
superior characteristics both in static and dynamic.
Consequently, the hybrid structures are considered to be
economically feasible because the conventional machine
tools should be equipped larger size motors to come up
with same performance of the composite machine tool.
4. Conclusions
In this study, the horizontal slide (X-slide) and ver-
tical slide (Y-slide) of a high speed CNC milling machine
were designed and manufactured with a hybrid machine
tool structure – sandwich composite structure that was
adhesively bonded to the welded steel structure. The
mass reductions of the hybrid X-slide and the Y-slide
were 26% and 34%, respectively, compared to those of
conventional steel structures without sacrificing any
bending stiffness. The damping factors g of the hybrid
X-slide and the Y-slide increased 1.5–5.7 times com-
pared to those of the conventional structures. Further-
more, the machine tool structure equipped with the
hybrid X-slide showed large damping capacity through
a wide range of frequencies. During the performance
tests of the machine tool, it was found that currently the
positional accuracy of
5 lm could be obtained at 80%
of maximum operating acceleration, which will be im-
proved by adjusting the controller gain.
Acknowledgements
This work was partially supported by the NRL project
of Korean Government. The authors wish to thank for
the cooperation of IAE (Institute of Advanced Engi-
neering, KOREA) and Daewoo Heavy Industries &
Machinery Ltd., Korea, in executing this project. The
technology of this paper has been selected as KoreaÕs
10 best new technologies of 2001 by the Korean
Government.
References
[1] Nenov GV, Szecsi T. Increasing CNC machine tool productivity
by using tool touch control. Robot Comput Integr Manuf
2002;18:291–6.
Y-slide
Conventional Hybrid
Total Steel base Composite
140 92 84 8
[2] Degarmo EP, Black Jt, Kohser RA. Materials and processes in
manufacturing. Englewood Cliffs (NJ): Prentice-Hall; 1997. p.
1117–28.
[3] Ema S, Marui E. Damping characteristics of an impact
damper and its application. Int J Mach Tool Manuf
1996;36:293–306.
[4] Rivin EI, Kang H. Improvement of machining conditions for
slender parts by tuned dynamic stiffness of tool. Int J Mach Tool
Manuf 1989;29:361–76.
[5] Tobias SA. Machine tool vibration. New York: Wiley; 1965.
[6] Chen JS. Computer-aided accuracy enhancement for multi-axis
CNC machine tool. Int J Mach Tool Manuf 1995;35:593–605.
[7] Lee DG, Sin HY, Suh NP. Manufacturing of a graphite epoxy
composite spindle for a machine tool. Ann CIRP 1985;34:365–
9.
[8] Lee DG, Kim KS, Kwak YK. Manufacturing of a scara type
direct-drive robot with graphite fiber epoxy composite materials.
Robotica 1991;9:219–29.
[9] Cheon SS, Lee DG, Jeong KS. Composite side-door impact beams
for passenger cars. Compos Struct 1997;38:229–39.
[10] Lee DG, Jeong KS, Kim KS, Kwak YK. Development of the
anthropomorphic robot with carbon fiber epoxy composite
materials. Compos Struct 1993;25:313–24.
[11] Lee DG, Chang SH, Kim HS. Damping improvement of machine
tool columns with polymer matrix fiber composite materials.
Compos Struct 1998;43:155–63.
[12] Suh JD, Chang SH, Lee DG, Choi JK, Park BS. Damping
characteristics of composite hybrid spindle covers for high speed
machine tools. J Mater Process Technol 2001;113:178–83.
[13] Allen HG. Analysis and design of structural sandwich panels.
Oxford: Pergamon Press; 1969.
[14] Vinson JR. The behavior of sandwich structures of isotropic and
composite materials. Technomic Publishing; 1999.
[15] Zenkert D. The handbook of sandwich construction. EMAS
Publishing; 1997.
[16] Gere, Timoshenko. Mechanics of materials. 4th ed. PWS Pub-
lishing; 1997.
[17] Okada R, Kortschot MT. The role of the resin fillet in the
delamination of honeycomb sandwich structures. Compos Sci
Technol 2002;62:1811–9.
[18] Daniel IM, Abot JL. Fabrication, testing and analysis of
composite sandwich beams. Compos Sci Technol 2000;60:2455–
63.
[19] Pilkey WD. Formulas for stress, strain, and structural matrics.
New York: Wiley; 1994.
[20] Sun CT, Lu YP. Vibration damping of structural element.
Englewood Cliffs (NJ): Prentice-Hall; 1995.
[21] Nashif D, Johns DIG, Henderson JP. Vibration damping. New
York: Wiley–Interscience; 1985.
[22] Castro HFF, Burdekin M. Dynamic calibration of the positioning
accuracy of machine tools and coordinate measuring machine
using a laser interferometer. Int J Mach Tool Manuf 2003;43:947–
54.
[23] Mou J. A systematic approach to enhance machine tool accuracy
for precision manufacturing. Int J Mach Tool Manuf
1997;37:669–85.