Schedule

Empirical Research Methods Session Topic

1 Course introduction, The nature and process of business research

Session 4 Research approaches (qualitative, quantitative, mixed-methods),

2
Problem structure and research designs (exploratory, descriptive and causal)
3 Research proposal, Measurement

4 Qualitative research methods, Quantitative research methods

5 Research instruments (i.e., design of a questionnaire)

6 Data analysis in qualitative versus quantitative research

7 Presentation, Feedback and Q&A

Dr. Sandra Pauser, M.A. 8 Presentation, Feedback and Q&A

9 Final Exam

103 | Dr. Sandra Pauser

Qualitative Research Qualitative Research

„ Qualitative Steps „ Qualitative Methods

„ Historical review, group discussions and case studies are mostly

qualitative research methods

„ These qualitative methods use more qualitative techniques, e.g., conversations

and in-depth, unstructured or semi-structured interviews (Ghauri, Grønhaug, and
Strange, 2020)

104 | Dr. Sandra Pauser 105 | Dr. Sandra Pauser

Qualitative Research Methods Qualitative Research Methods
„ Historical reviews „ Historical review – Example:
E. Maine et al. / Journal of Engineering and Technology Management 32 (2014) 1–25 19

Transistor Semiconductor Consumer Electronics

„ Describe what happened in the past so that we can understand the present or
plan for the future Consumer Electronics

„ Go through existing records and reports and talk to different people to get as true

Firms
Intel
a picture as possible Fairchild Semiconductor

of
„ The archives are reviewed in an interrogative manner with a particular

Number
Bell Labs
research question/problem in mind
Transistor
„ Main problem: trusting human memory which records selective parts of reality

„ Cross-check one written source with another, or a written source with an

interview, or two interviews with each other (Ghauri, Grønhaug, and Strange, Time

2020) Fig. 1. Evolution of the consumer electronics industry.

Maine, E., Thomas, V. J., & Utterback,

Diagnostics
J. (2014). Radical
Drug Delivery
innovation from the confluence of
Nanobiotechnology
technologies: Innovation management strategies for the emerging nanobiotechnology
industry. Journal of Engineering and Technology Management, 32, 1-25.

Nanobiotechnology Industry

Firms
106 | Dr. Sandra Pauser 107 | Dr. Sandra Pauser Zevalin®

Rituxan®

of
Number
Hybridoma Drug Delivery

PEGylation Doxil®

Diagnostics

Liposome

Bio-materials

Time

Fig. 2. Evolution of the nanobiotechnology industry.

Qualitative Research Methods Qualitative Research Methods

be nearing the end of the fluid phase of industry emergence, with potential standards emerging
CHAPTER 13 Grounded
(Maine et al., 2014). This implies that there is further growth to come in terms of firm entry, value
Theory Designs 439
creation, and revenue generation. Notably, in the case of the transistor, it was new technology
„ Grounded Theory „ Grounded Theory (Creswell & Guetterman, 2019, p. 439)
ventures which drove the commercialization of the radical innovation and its subsequent products,
with Bell Labs unable to capitalize on its invention, and start-up firms, supported financially by larger
FIGURE 13.3 firms, best positioned to create and capture value in the emerging industry (Rothwell, 1989). Similarly,
in the emerging nanobiotechnology industry, start-up firms are expected to play a leading role, with
„ Theory is derived from the data, which are systematically gathered and analyzed Grounded Theory Coding from Open Coding to the Axial Coding Paradigm
Maine et al. (2012a) finding that technology ventures account for nearly two-thirds of the firms in the
industry, and Hacklin et al. (2009) suggesting that small nanobiotechnology platform firms may drive
the disaggregation of the current, vertically integrated pharmaceutical industry.
„ Iterative process: Repetitive interplay between data collection and Open Coding Categories Axial Coding Paradigm
analysis/theory building
„ Tools for Grounded Theory: Category Context

- Coding: data are broken down into component parts, which are given names
Category Core
Causal
- Theoretical saturation: you reach a point where new data are no longer Conditions
Category or Strategies Consequences
illuminating the concept Phenomenon
Category
- Constant comparison (between concepts and indicators) (Ghauri, Intervening
Grønhaug, and Strange, 2020) Category Conditions

Grounded theorists select one open coding category

Category and use it as the core phenomenon in the axial coding
paradigm.

108 | Dr. Sandra Pauser 109 | Dr. Sandra Pauser

In the second phase, axial coding, the grounded theorist selects one open coding
category, positions it at the center of the process being explored (as the core phenome-
non), and then relates other categories to it. These other categories are the causal condi-
tions (factors that influence the core phenomenon), strategies (actions taken in response
 CHAPTER 13 Grounded Theory Designs 445

FIGURE 13.5 Research Methods

Qualitative Qualitative Research Methods
Zigzag
„ Data Collection
Grounded Theory and Analysis
– Sampling to Achieve
Example Saturation
(Creswell of Categories
& Guetterman, 2019, p. 445) „ Grounded Theory – Processes and Outcomes

Data Collection Data Analysis

Close to Saturated
Categories
More Refined
Categories
Third
Interview Toward
Refined Saturation
Categories of
Second Categories
Interview
Preliminary (Ghauri, Grønhaug, and Strange, 2020)
Categories
First
Interview

110 | Dr. Sandra Pauser 111 | Dr. Sandra Pauser

the process by which the researcher collects data, analyzes those data immediately rather
than waiting until all data are collected, and then bases the decision about what data to
collect next on this analysis. The image of a “zigzag” helps us to understand this proce-
dure, as shown in Figure 13.5. As illustrated in this figure, the grounded theorist engages
in initial data collection (e.g., the first collection of interview data), analyzes those data
for preliminary categories, and then looks for clues about what additional data to collect.
These clues may be underdeveloped categories, missing information in the sequence of
Qualitative
the study process, orResearch Methods
new individuals who can provide insight into some aspect of the Qualitative Research Methods
process. The grounded
„ Grounded Theorytheorist
Example:then returns to the field to gather this additional infor- „ Case Study
mation. In this procedure, the inquirer refines, develops, and clarifies the meanings of
categories for the theory. This process weaves back and forth between data collection „ Data sources of a case study can come from verbal reports, personal interviews
and analysis and continues until the inquirer reaches saturation of a category. Saturation and observation as primary data sources or financial reports, archives, as well as
in grounded theory research is a state in which the researcher makes the subjective budget and operating statements, including market and competition reports
determination that new data will not provide any new information or insights for the
developing categories. „ Case studies are often of an explanatory, exploratory or descriptive nature
Identifying this process in a published grounded theory study requires close exam-
ination of the data collection and analysis process to note whether the researcher seems „ When research questions concern only ‘what’, e.g., ‘What are the ways in which
an effective firm is operated?’, an exploratory study is justified
to be recycling between data collection and data analysis. For example, in a study of the
processes of men experiencing chronic illness, Charmaz (1990) carefully documented
„ Example: study a situation or an organization
how she interviewed 7 of the 20 men in her study more than once to refine her emerging which has rarely been studied and is unique
categories. in its nature (Ghauri, Grønhaug, and Strange, 2020)

Constant Comparative Data Analysis

In grounded theory research,(Ghauri,
112 | Dr. Sandra Pauser Grønhaug,
the inquirer and Strange,
engages in a2020)
process of gathering data, sorting 113 | Dr. Sandra Pauser

it into categories, collecting additional information, and comparing the new information
with emerging categories. This process of slowly developing categories of information is
the constant comparative procedure. In grounded theory research, constant comparison
Qualitative Research Methods Qualitative Research Methods
„ Comparative case studies - we ask or study the same questions in a number of „ Strategies for Case Selection (Ghauri, Grønhaug, and Strange, 2020)
organizations and compare them with each other to draw conclusions Selection strategy Explanation
Critical case Where an insight into a single critical case can provide maximum and
logical explanation that can be true for all other cases in that
„ The purpose is to
category
Comparative cases When cases are selected so that these can be compared and
„ compare the phenomenon (e.g. strategy formation) studied in different cases in a contrasted to achieve maximum understanding
systematic way Criteria based cases When cases are selected that are based on pre-decided criteria.
Often to compare the cases that meet criteria and those that do not
meet criteria.
„ explore different dimensions of our research issues Heterogeneous cases When we select cases that are clearly different from each other. For
example, to understand the impact of a certain factor on the success
of manufacturing versus services firms.
„ examine different levels of research variables Homogeneous cases When we select cases that are clearly similar. For example, cases
(Ghauri, Grønhaug, and Strange, 2020) from manufacturing as well as the same industry such as
automobiles.
Typical cases When we select cases that are considered normal/average to
achieve better insight and understanding.
Snowball case selection When we select cases that can lead us to further cases, suggested
by respondents, that are difficult to approach on our own or are
connected to earlier cases.
114 | Dr. Sandra Pauser 115 | Dr. Sandra Pauser

Qualitative Research Methods Qualitative Research Methods

„ Observations „ Observations

„ Entail listening and watching other people’s behavior in a way that allows some
type of learning and analytical interpretation

„ Advantages
- collect first-hand information in a natural setting
- can interpret and understand the observed behavior, attitude and situation
- capture the dynamics of social behavior

„ Disadvantage
- difficult to translate the events or
(Ghauri, Grønhaug, and Strange, 2020)
happenings into scientifically useful
information (Ghauri, Grønhaug, and
Strange, 2020)

116 | Dr. Sandra Pauser 117 | Dr. Sandra Pauser

Qualitative Research Methods Qualitative Research Methods
„ In-depth interviews „ In-depth interviews

„ Gain an accurate and clear picture of a respondent’s position or behavior „ Open questions are useful in exploratory
research, when the researcher may not have a
„ Use open-ended questions and respondents are free to answer according to
clear idea of possible responses, and/or when
their own thinking the researcher wants to elicit detailed
responses

„ Suitable for exploratory and inductive types of study (Ghauri, Grønhaug, and
„ Often difficult to code the responses to such
Strange, 2020)
questions consistently (Ghauri, Grønhaug, and
Strange, 2020)

118 | Dr. Sandra Pauser 119 | Dr. Sandra Pauser

Qualitative Research Methods Qualitative Research Methods

„ In-depth interviews – Disadvantages „ Focus group

„ Demand a skilled and cautious interviewer „ Focus groups take many different forms, e.g., discussion groups, focused
interviews, group interviewing and group research for new product development,
„ Expect the interviewer have a complete understanding of the research problem,
program evaluation, etc.
its purpose and what information is being sought „ A group of 6 to around 10 individuals discuss a particular topic/issue under
„ May take a long time the direction of a moderator
„ Should be some homogeneity among the individuals in one specific focus
„ Difficult to interpret and analyze
group
„ Coding of in-depth interviews can be a difficult „ Last from half an hour to around two hours, relatively cheap and convenient way
task (Ghauri, Grønhaug, and Strange, 2020) „ Focus groups are mostly used for collecting qualitative data

„ The records and notes are analyzed, for example by using content analysis
(Ghauri, Grønhaug, and Strange, 2020)

120 | Dr. Sandra Pauser 121 | Dr. Sandra Pauser

Qualitative Research Methods Qualitative Research Methods
„ Focus group – Advantages „ Focus group – Disadvantages

„ Produce very rich and in-depth data expressed in respondents’ own words and „ Difficult to summarize and categorize the information gathered
reactions
„ Difficult to get useful information in the case of an unskilled moderator
„ A quick, flexible and inexpensive method of data collection
„ Difficult to gather people at a location
„ Observe reactions of people in open and free conversation with each other
„ The responses of the group members are not independent of one another
„ Allow the researcher to interact directly with respondents, and to react and build
„ The live participation and observation may lead the researcher to have greater
upon the discussion as it goes
faith/belief than is warranted
(Ghauri, Grønhaug, and Strange, 2020)
„ The moderator may bias the respondents
(Ghauri, Grønhaug, and Strange, 2020)

122 | Dr. Sandra Pauser 123 | Dr. Sandra Pauser

Qualitative Research Methods Common Qualitative Research Methods

„ Focus group – Steps Features Historic review Focus group Grounded theory Case study
(Ghauri, Grønhaug, and Strange, 2020) Focus Description of Gathering Developing a theory Developing in depth
Events information from a from the data in the description through one or
group of people field more cases
Type of To tell stories of Explaining a lived Grounding a theory Providing an in depth
research Experiences phenomenon in the view of the understating from a case
participants or cases
Discipline Humanities, history, Philosophy, Sociology, Psychology, law, political
sociology, literature psychology, management science, medicine,
education management
Unit of Studying one or Studying several Study a process, Study and event, program,
analysis more individuals who action, or interaction activity – more than one
Incidents/individual share the between Individuals individual
s experience
Data Documents & Group discussion Interviews with Multiple sources,
Collection Interviews and Observations several individuals
interviews, observations,
documents
Data Storytelling, Seeking significant Generating a theory Developing detailed
Analysis developing themes, statement, structure illustrated by data analysis from one or more
chronologies and description cases
124 | Dr. Sandra Pauser 125 | Dr. Sandra Pauser
Quantitative Research Quantitative Research
„ Quantitative Steps „ Primary data are data that are collected by the researcher through surveys,
interviews, or experiments specifically for the research problem that is being studied

„ Secondary data are data that have already been collected by government agencies,
market research agencies, firms, or other organizations and/or individuals (Ghauri,
Grønhaug, and Strange, 2020)

126 | Dr. Sandra Pauser 127 | Dr. Sandra Pauser

Quantitative Research Quantitative Research

„ Secondary data - Examples „ Advantages of Secondary data

European Union www.europa.eu * Country-level data for the Member States

„ The enormous savings in time and money
* Basic information about life and business in the
European Union
* Public opinion polls „ Many secondary data are freely available on a
OECD www.oecd.org * Country-level data for many countries, not just wide variety of variables
member countries
* Economic surveys „ Data published by government departments
* Economic forecast summaries and supranational organizations were collected
* Labor force statistics on a consistent basis (Ghauri, Grønhaug, and
* Activities of multinational enterprises (AMNE) Strange, 2020)
database
AC Nielsen www.nielsen.com * Expertise in consumer measurement
Bloomberg www.bloomberg.com * Firm-level real-time market data

(Ghauri, Grønhaug, and Strange, 2020)

128 | Dr. Sandra Pauser 129 | Dr. Sandra Pauser

Quantitative Research Quantitative Research
„ Disadvantages of Secondary data „ Primary data

„ The data were collected for purposes other than those of the researcher „ When secondary data sources are not available or are inappropriate

„ Sometimes there are some uncertainties relating to the accuracy and reliability of
the raw data
„ No way of checking how (if at all) the raw data were checked and cleaned
(Ghauri, Grønhaug, and Strange, 2020)
„ When the researcher requires data for a new group of firms or individuals
„ Need to collect primary data though surveys, interviews, or experiments (Ghauri,
Grønhaug, and Strange, 2020)

130 | Dr. Sandra Pauser 131 | Dr. Sandra Pauser

Quantitative Research Quantitative Research

„ Advantages of Primary data „ Disadvantages of Primary data

„ Be able to collect data with the exact objectives/questions of the project „ The process is often slow and expensive

„ Can choose exactly who to approach, and how many units of observation to be
surveyed
„ Be able to collect accurate responses and thus have greater confidence in the
final results (Ghauri, Grønhaug, and Strange, 2020)
„ Difficult to obtain suitable access and/or build a dataset of suitable size
„ Response rates are often low, which may lead to small sample sizes and/or non-
response bias (Ghauri, Grønhaug, and Strange, 2020)

132 | Dr. Sandra Pauser 133 | Dr. Sandra Pauser

 CHAPTER 12 Survey Designs 387

Quantitative Research Methods Quantitative

FIGURE 12.1 Research Methods
Types of Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Survey Designs
„ Survey research: the collection of primary data using questionnaires and/or semi- „ Survey research (Creswell & Guetterman, 2019, p. 387)
structured interviews
Time of Data Collection

„ Analytic surveys may be used to test a theory (e.g., the relationship between
accounting control systems and business performance) Study over Time Study at One Point in Time

Longitudinal Cross-sectional
„ Descriptive surveys are concerned with identifying the phenomena whose
variance we wish to describe (e.g., consumer attitudes towards a certain product)
(Ghauri, Grønhaug, and Strange, 2020) Changes in a
Changes
Trends in subpopulation
in the Attitudes
the same group identified Community Program
same and
population by a common needs evaluation
people practices
over time characteristic
over time
over time

Trend Cohort Panel Group National

comparisons assessment

134 | Dr. Sandra Pauser 135 | Dr. Sandra Pauser

Quantitative Research Methods Quantitative
„ Experiments
„ group
„ Allow the collection of primary data in more artificial controlled settings
„ Involve both laboratory experiments and/or field experiments
„ Laboratory experiments refer to any artificial experimental setting in a computer
laboratory or classroom
„ Field experiments involve novel strategies being piloted in actual situations,
though the situations are still contrived (Ghauri, Grønhaug, and Strange, 2020)
136 | Dr. Sandra Pauser 137 | Dr. Sandra Pauser
Of this sample, 52.3% responded to the four-page questionnaire consisting of 21 questions
and several items asking for demographic information, such as gender, age, and years of
teaching experience. Overall, the authors concluded that teachers who saw themselves as
readers were more likely than teachers who did not see themselves as readers to use rec-
ommended literacy instructional practices (e.g., “read aloud a picture book to your class”).
Another cross-sectional design compares two or more educational groups in terms of
attitudes, beliefs, opinions, or practices. These group comparisons may compare students
with students, students with teachers, or students with parents, or they may compare other
groups in educational and school settings. For example, one study compared 98 rural and
urban secondary Research Methods
school teachers from 11 school systems in Georgia and North Carolina
in terms of their sources of stress and symptoms of burnout (Abel & Sewell, 1999). This
Experiments
consisted (Creswell
of 52 rural&teachers
Guetterman,
and 462019)
urban teachers (a nonprobability sample) who
volunteered to participate in the study. The researchers delivered packets that included two
instruments,
„ Random theassignment
Sources of Stress Questionnaire and the Maslach Burnout Inventory, to
participating school districts. The teachers mailed the instruments back to the researchers.
„ Control over extraneous variables
The statistical analysis of the data showed significantly greater self-reported stress for urban
„ Manipulation
teachers of the treatment
than rural teachers because ofconditions
poor working conditions and poor staff relations.
„A Outcome measures
cross-sectional design can measure community needs of educational services as
they Group
„ relate tocomparisons
programs, courses, school facilities projects, or involvement in the schools
or „in community planning. For example, community needs of Hispanic, Spanish-mono-
Threats to validity
lingual residents in Florida were studied by Batsche, Hernandez, and Montenegro (1999).
The authors felt that survey researchers used methods for reaching Hispanic residents
that were more appropriate for non-Hispanic residents. To correct this problem, they
designed procedures for an assessment interview survey for identifying needs and priori-
ties for human service programs in the Tampa Bay, Florida, area. For example, they used
the name “Hispanic” because the survey participants accepted this term. The instrument
allowed individuals to identify themselves by both race and ethnicity. To identify the pop-
ulation to study, clubs and organizations were contacted by mail and asked to provide
lists of individuals known to be Spanish monolingual. The researchers first translated the
 310 PART 3 Research Designs
Quantitative Research Methods Quantitative Research Methods
TABLE 10.1
„ Experiments (Creswell & Guetterman, 2019) Types of Experimental Designs

Causal-
„ Between-group designs True Quasi- Comparative Repeated
Experiment Experiment Research Factorial Time Series Measures Single Subject
- True experiments (pre- and posttest, posttest only)
Random Yes No No May be No No No
- Quasi-experiments (pre- and posttest, posttest only) assignment used
- Causal-comparative research Number Two or Two or Two or more Two or One group One group One individual
of groups/ more more more studied at a
- Factorial designs individuals time
compared
Number of One or One or One or more Two or One or Two or One or more
„ Within-group or individual designs 312 3 Research
PART interven- Designs more
more interventions more more more interventions
tions used interventions interventions interventions interventions interventions
- Time-series experiments (interrupted, equivalent)
Number of Once Once Once Once After each After each Multiple points
- Repeated-measures experiments TABLE 10.3
times the
dependent
intervention intervention

- Single-subject experiments variables

Types of Between-Group Designs
measured/
observed
TrueControls
Experimental Designs
Pretest, Pretest, Matching, Pretest, Group Covariates Individuals
typically matching, matching, blocking, matching, becomes its become their
used blocking, blocking, covariates blocking, own controls own control
Pre- and Posttest
covariates Design
covariates Time
covariates

138 | Dr. Sandra Pauser 139 | Dr. Sandra Pauser

Random Control group Pretest No treatment Posttest
assignment
Between-Group Designs
Random Experimental group Pretest Experimental Posttest
The most frequently used designs in education are those where the researcher compares
assignment two or more groups. Illustrations throughout this treatment
chapter underscore the importance of
these designs. We begin with the most rigorous between-group design available to the
12 PART 3 Research Designs Posttest-Only
educationalDesign Time
researcher: the true experiment.

True Experiments
Random True Control groupcomprise the most
experiments Norigorous
treatment Posttest
and strong experimental designs because
TABLE 10.3 assignment of equating the groups through random assignment. The procedure for conducting
Quantitative Research
Types of Between-Group Designs Methods Quantitative Research Methods
Random major forms of true group
Experimental experiments and quasi-experiments, viewing them
Experimental in terms of activ-
Posttest
ities from the beginning of the experiment to the end, is shown in Table 10.3. In true
assignment treatment
experiments, the researcher randomly assigns participants to different conditions of the
True Experimental Designs experimental variable. Individuals in the experimental group receive the experimental
Quasi-Experimentaltreatment,
Designswhereas those in the control group do not. After investigators administer the
Pre- and Posttest Design Time treatment, they compile average (or mean) scores on a posttest. One variation on this
Pre- and Posttest
design is Design Timemeasures or observations. When experi-
to obtain pretest as well as posttest
menters collect pretest scores, they may compare net scores (the differences between
Random Control group Pretest No treatment Posttest the pre- and posttests). Alternatively, investigators may relate the pretest scores for the
Select control Pretest No treatment Posttest
assignment control and experimental groups to see if they are statistically similar and then compare
group the two posttest group scores. In many experiments, the pretest is a covariate and is sta-
Random Experimental group Pretest Experimental Posttest tistically controlled
assignment treatment Select experi- Pretestby the researcher.
Experimental Posttest
mental group Because you randomly assign individuals
treatmentto the groups, most of the threats to internal
validity do not arise. Randomization or equating of the groups minimizes the possibility
Posttest-Only Design Time
Posttest-Only Design Time
Random Control group No treatment Posttest
assignment Select control group No treatment Posttest
Random Experimental group Experimental Posttest Select experimental group Experimental treatment Posttest
assignment treatment M10B_CRES9364_06_SE_C10.indd 310 13/12/17 3:50 PM

Causal-Comparative Research
Quasi-Experimental Designs
Pre- and Posttest Design Time
Pre- and Posttest Design Time
140 | Dr. Sandra Pauser 141 | Select group
Dr. Sandra Pauser A Pretest Grouping variable of interest Posttest
Select control Pretest No treatment Posttest (e.g., no intervention)
group Select group B Pretest Grouping variable of interest Posttest
Select experi- Pretest Experimental Posttest (e.g., received intervention)
mental group treatment
 Select control Pretest No treatment Posttest
group
Select experi- Pretest Experimental Posttest
mental group treatment

Posttest-Only Design Time

Select control group No treatment Posttest

Quantitative Research Methods Quantitative Research Methods
Select experimental group Experimental treatment Posttest
„ Advantages of Experiments
Causal-Comparative Research

Pre- and Posttest Design Time „ Generate data that capture the relevant theoretical constructs

Select group A Pretest Grouping variable of interest Posttest „ Isolate the key mechanisms that the researcher wishes to study, and remove the
(e.g., no intervention) confounding effects that are inevitably present with real-world data
Select group B Pretest Grouping variable of interest Posttest
(e.g., received intervention)
„ Introduce additional controls to take into account factors that may interact with
Posttest-Only Design Time the main effects

Select group A Grouping variable of interest
(e.g., no intervention)
Select group B Grouping variable of interest
(e.g., received intervention)
Posttest „ Establish causal relationships more conclusively
Posttest
„ Can replicate experiments (Ghauri, Grønhaug, and Strange, 2020)

is used, it introduces all these factors as possible threats to validity. Instrumentation exists
142 | Dr. Sandra Pauser 143 | Dr. Sandra Pauser
as a potential threat in most experiments, but if researchers use the same or similar
instrument for the pre- and posttest or enact standard procedures during the study, you
hold instrumentation threats to a minimum.

Quantitative Research Methods Quantitative Research Methods

06_SE_C10.indd 312 13/12/17 3:50 PM
„ Experiment - Example: „ Experiment - Example:

Pauser, S., and Ebster, E. (2015). The depiction of individuals and bundled presentations in online- Pauser, S., and Wagner, U. (2020). Judged by its look: Assessing the comprehensibility and
perceived appearance of sign language avatars, Marketing ZFP – Journal of Research and
catalogues. AIMS International Journal of Management, 9(3), 101-108.
Management, 42(3), 48-62. doi: 10.15358/0344-1369-2020-3-48.

144 | Dr. Sandra Pauser 145 | Dr. Sandra Pauser

Quantitative Research Methods Quantitative Research Methods
„ Experiment - Example: „ Correlational Research:
„ provide an opportunity to predict scores and explain the relationship among
variables

„ Characteristics:
- Associations between scores (direction, form, and strength)
- Displays of scores (scatter plots and matrices)
- Multiple variable analysis (partial correlations and multiple regression)

„ The two primary correlation designs are explanation and prediction (Creswell &
Guetterman, 2019, p. 343-347)

Pauser, S., and Wagner, U. (2020). Judged by its look: Assessing the comprehensibility and
perceived appearance of sign language avatars, Marketing ZFP – Journal of Research and
Management, 42(3), 48-62. doi: 10.15358/0344-1369-2020-3-48.

146 | Dr. Sandra Pauser 147 | Dr. Sandra Pauser

Quantitative Research Methods Quantitative Research Methods

„ Correlational Research: „ Correlational Research:
„ An explanatory research design is a correlational design in which the „ The purpose of a prediction research design is to identify variables that will predict
researcher is interested in the extent to which two variables (or more) covary an outcome or criterion.

„ Explanatory designs consist of a simple association between two variables „ The investigator identifies one or more predictor variable and a criterion (or
(e.g., sense of humor and performance in drama) or more than two (e.g., outcome) variable. A predictor variable is a variable used to make a forecast about
pressure from friends or feelings of isolation that contribute to binge drinking) an outcome in correlational research.
(Creswell & Guetterman, 2019, p. 345)

148 | Dr. Sandra Pauser 149 | Dr. Sandra Pauser

 tern exists in which the points move in the same or opposite directions. In a positive
correlation (indicated by a “ + ” correlation coefficient), the points move in the same
direction; that is, when X increases, so does Y, or, alternatively, if X decreases, so does Y.
In a negative correlation (indicated by a “ - ” correlation coefficient), the points move
in the opposite direction; that is, when X increases, Y decreases, and when X decreases,
Y increases. If scores on one variable do not relate in any pattern on the other variable,
then no linear association exists.

What Is the Form of the Association?

Correlational researchers identify the form of the plotted scores as linear or nonlinear.
For example, a positive linear relationship means that as scores on one variable increase,
scores on the other variable increase at a steady rate. This type of relationship is only one
of several possibilities that might result from actual data. In reality, the relationship might CHAPTER 11 Correlational Designs
Quantitative Research Methods assume any one of the forms shown in Figure 11.1.
Quantitative Research Methods
„ Correlational
FIGURE Research:
11.1 „ FIGUREResearch:
Correlational 11.4
Patterns of Association between Two Variables
Simple Regression Line
(a) Positive linear (r = +.75) (b) Negative linear (r = –.68) (c) No correlation (r = .00)

Depression Scores
Regression Line
50
41
40

30 Slope
(d) Curvilinear (e) Curvilinear

20

10
Intercept
5 10 14 15 20

Hours of Internet Use per Week

(Creswell & Guetterman, 2019, p. 348) (Creswell & Guetterman, 2019, p. 355)
150 | Dr. Sandra Pauser 151 | Dr. Sandra Pauser

The calculation of this line holds value for predicting scores on the outcome (i.e.,
M11_CRES9364_06_SE_C11.indd 348 13/12/17 4:18 PM
depression) with knowledge about the predictor (i.e., hours of Internet use per week).
Based on a mathematical formula, a researcher can calculate an equation that expresses
this line:
Y (predicted) = b (X ) + a
where
Y = predicted score on depression
X = actual score on number of hours of Internet use
b = slope of the regression line (called the unstandardized regression coefficient)
a = the intercept or a constant, the value of the predicted Y (depression) score
when X = 0
We would expect an individual who uses the Internet 14 hours per week to have a
depression score of 41. This score can be estimated by drawing a vertical line from the
score for the X-axis variable up to the regression line and over to the Y-axis variable.
Alternatively, using the regression formula,
If a = 6, b = 2.5, and X = 14,
Then Y (predicted) = 2.5(14) + 6 = 41.
Consider a more complicated situation where multiple independent variables may
combine to correlate with a dependent variable. Multiple regression (or multiple
correlation) is a statistical procedure for examining the combined relationship of multiple
independent variables with a single dependent variable. In regression, the variation in
the dependent variable is explained by the variance of each independent variable (the
relative importance of each predictor) as well as the combined effect of all independent
variables (the proportion of criterion variance explained by all predictors), designated by
R2 (Kline, 2016). Similar to the regression equation mentioned earlier, predicted scores on
an outcome can be generated using an equation that is similar to the simple regression