chapter 3 Classification and Partition ‘Two techniques of analysis that can be very effective in technical writing are classification and partition. They are useful for developing discussion about a complex subject in that they divide the subject into logical parts so that each part can be considered separately. Classification sorts a number of units into categories; partition divides a single unit into component parts. With either technique, the writer must use a systematic principle of analysis. That principle is the key to the analysis and must be chosen with both the writer’s purpose and the audience's needs in mind. Here is a short list of the types of questions readers will raise when you use classification or partition. 1. Why do I need to know why something is broken down into categories or parts? 2. Into how many categories or parts is something broken down? 3. In what order are these categories or parts listed? Why? 4. Whai is the relationship of these categories or parts to each other? 5. Are there any subcategories or subparts? How do they relate to the major categories or parts? Both classification and partition thus help readers to understand concepts, equip- ment, and different kinds of organizations. But how exactly does partition differ from classification? Classification sorts multiple items into groups to show their relationship, most often their similarity. Classification groups corn, squash, potatoes, lettuce, and artichokes into classes : of vegetables. Partition, on the other hand, concentrates on a single item to divide it into component parts in order to explain it. Partition peels away the 8990 (Classification and Partition layers of a single artichoke to show, say, its structure. As you read this chapter, here is an easy way to keep the two techniques straight. Only plural nouns {plural in form and meaning—sinks, fish, plastics) can be classified, and only singular nouns (a sink, a fish, a plastic object) can be partitioned. CLASSIFICATION Classification creates a workable system to explain diverse materials. It is like replacing a group of random numbers with a neat computer printout divided into organized columns. Or, to use another comparison, using classification is like running an optical scanner to sort mail. As zip-caded letters pass through the scanner, they are routed to appropriately labeled bins, from which they will be shipped to their destination. A letter without a zip code is automatically kicked out of the system. Many kinds of mail in different sizes and shapes pass. through the scanner and are sorted according to numerical patterns of zip codes. When you classify, you act like a scanner. You sort, or group, different items (the letters) into categories (the bins) to reveal how the items are alike (have clustered zip codes) and why they belong together (in the same truck for delivery to adjacent areas). Classification is indispensable to the process of discovering and organizing knowledge. The Dewey decimal system, for example, classifies all books into ten main groups and numerous subclasses. If libraries did not follow some classi- fication system, it would be impossible to find books in them. Imagine the chaos : that would result if all the books in an engineering library were simply shelved : alphabetically according to title. Other reference works— indexes, abstracts, alma- { nacs, codes—are also classified systematically to help users locate information t quickly and accurately. : i The scientific method is firmly grounded upon classification. The Linnean taxonomic system classifies animals into phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species, thus showing how animals are related to one another. The Linnean : system explains how seorningly diverse animals are related; human beings, the whale, and the duck-billed platypus, for example, are all mammals; snakes and turds are both reptiles, In the same way, the periodic table of the elements classifies the elements according to their atomic number; engines are classified on the basis of internal or external combustion; and plastics can be divided between those that can be melted and recycled (thermoplastics) and those that cannot (thermosets). In writing, classification helps a reader to see relationships and to draw conclusions based on those relationships. Consider the bewildering array of financial transactions (accounts payable, accounts receivable) that a large con- struction company incurs with each new job—items for architectural plans, materials, equipment, energy, transportation, and labor. If these transactions were unclassified, it would be difficult, if not impossible, for a crew chiof to write a progress report, for a business manager to pay subcontractors in full, Establist How to!OL ‘Classification and Partition or for an accountant to balance the books at the end of the fiscal year. When organized into categories, the company’s expenses are easier ta monitor and remit’ Establishing the Basis for Classification Your classification should be appropriate to your audience's needs and the pur- pose of your communication. Remember that one group of items may be classified . in many different ways depending on your purpose and your reader's needs. Bridges in your town, for example, could be classified in a variety of ways. An ‘engineering firm responsible for their construction or repair would classify them according to structural types—truss, suspension, cantilever, continuous, etc. Truck drivers, however, would find it helpful to have the same bridges classified according ta height or the amounts of weight they support. Simitarly, for the consumer, thermometers might profitably be classified according to use—cook- 8 ing (candy and meat being subgroups}, assessing illnesses, or measuring outdoor 2 temperatures. Physicists and chemists, however, would find a classification based y ‘on the method of operation (changes in a liquid, expansion of a gas, fluctuation of electrical resistance) more suitable. t 1 ’ 5 How to Use Classification 1. Select one basis of classification. This will be your basis for analyzing . a large and sometimes diverse group of items, the principle by which you will n sort individual items into groups. The basis might be chronological, geographic, structural, functional, numerical—to name some of the possibilities. In some n instances, a group of items may be classified according to two bases, as the s speech disorder model on pages 107-110 is. But make sure readers know why. o 2. Use a principle of classification that is meaningful to your audience and ‘a purpose. Classifying domestic beers according to one individual's preference ts would create an idiosyncratic system inviting disagreement. An insignificant 5 classification will result from selecting a basis too elementary for, or unimportant 4 to, your audience. For electronics specialists, you would not classify antennas a by color, construction materials, or place of manufacture. This audience is more concerned about operating frequencies or wavelengths than in manufacturers’ w addresses or the color of antennas. of 3. Maintain consistency among categories. Each category should be similar n in type (a catogory list of engineering firms should not include a technical college). 1s, Compare and contrast, your categories to see how they are alike or dissimilar. ns 7 As you start assembling items into different groups, you will need to determine to whether you are establishing a major category (coordination) or a subcategory a, (subordination). For example, a classification which includes France, Nigeria,92 (Classification and Partition Israel, England and Washington, D.C, elevates one member of that group (Wash- ington, D.C., a city) to the level of the other major classes (countries). Similarly, using a brand name to represent an entire group destroys the consistency of your categories. Classifying common cleaning agents into soap, alcohol, iodine, iodophors, and pHisoHex is misleading, for the last entry is a brand name and should be replaced with the more inclusive heading (hexachlorophene) to which it is subordinate, : 4, Make sure categories do not overlap. In other words, they should be separate as well as equal. Classifying types of household siding as frame, alumi- num, stucco, vinyl, and wood would be misleading because of duplication: Wood and frame refer to the same class of items. A zoning report classified into commer- cial, residential, business, and industrial sectors would also contain misleading duplications. A company included in both a commercial and business zone might be faced with following contradictory ordinances. A better zoning method would narrow the categories and make sure they do not overlap. For example, Residen- tial I (lots under fifty feet of frontage), Residential II (lots over fifty feet of frontage), Commercial, Medical, Light Industry, and Heavy Industry are more logical catego- ries because each is mutually exclusive. 5. Be inclusive, Be sure that your classification comprises all essential catego- ries. A classification of the new (artificial) sweeteners that omitted sorbitol or aspartime (Nutra Sweet) would be incomplete. Occasionally you may have a group that cannot be subdivided, such as a genus with only one species. But be sure to include relevant items. For example, a study that classified methods of food preservation by refrigeration, freezing, canning, and fermentation would, be incomplete. Dehydration, salting, addition of chemicals, and radiation should be included to make the classification complete and timely. Radiation has been added recently as a method, thus showing that classification systems change with time. It may at times be impractical to list all members, and every category of a class. For large subjects, determine how many items you can realistically offer your reader. For instance, it would be impossible to list every type of steel ever produced, as the authors of The Making of Steel, published by the American Iron and Steel Institute, suggest: But to think of stee!—even in its raw stage—as a single product is most misleading. ‘Actually there are several hundred grades of standard stecls and the addition of proprietary grades would bring the total up inta the thousands. The grades just ‘mentioned (earlier in the text) are by chemical classifications alone. Shaping these steels and heat treating them by a wide variety of facilities brings the ultimate _number of these steels almost to infinity. Quite literally, it is possible to order steel to perform under most conditions known to man. There are special grades of steel to perform at ultra-high temperatures and very low temperatures; steels for strength; steels for electrical conductivity and electrical resistance; steels to resist impact or abrasion or corrosion; steels to take and hold a fine edge; steels to shape other steels, PARTITIC93 Classification and Partition ‘At times you will have to exclude items no longer in use or techniques too specialized for your audience. Whenever your classification is restricted, tell the reader why and choose an appropriate title: “Selected Characteristics of North Sea Dredging” or “Major Features of Plant Toxicology in Southern Ilinois.” 6. Present your categories in a logical order. Order should be systematic, not random or haphazard. The order of your categories should help a reader to understand and follow ther. Sometimes your topic will suggest the order to follow: chronological or spatial, for example. Categories might also be arranged from most to least farniliar or from the most frequently used to the least. PARTITION Just like classification, partition is a basic technique of analysis, although it operates entirely differently from classification. Unlike classification, which groups many and diverse objects, partition helps readers to see how a single object is broken into its components. We saw (pages 89-90) that a classification system like the Dewey decimal system sorts books into categories. Using partition, an author would divide a single book into individual chapters to help organize information for readers and to make it easier for them to follow and find. Diction- aries, too, would be impossible to use were it not for the principle of partition that divides information in them according to alphabetical letters. In business and industry, a large company is partitioned into many different levels or offices— management, engineering, maintenance, training, sales, public relations—that can be graphically represented on an organizational chart. ‘To be effective, both classification and partition must follow a principle consistently, but keep in mind that it is the number of objects being studied according to that principle that separates classification from partition. For exam- ple, a classification of light bulbs could be made according to filament dimensions (for electronics experts), by wattage or safety factors (for someone in mainte- nance), or by shape and color (for interior decorators). If you were to partition ‘one incandescent lamp, you would take its component parts and discuss each according to a specific purpose and design. For example, your partition might be organized according to the way each piece is constructed. The cutaway draw- ing and callouts (labels identifying the parts) in Figure 3-1 graphically illustrate one way of partitioning a lamp. Partition and classification are frequently used together. Read the following information that appears on a can of paint: Pigment (by wt) 39% | : Titanium dioxide (Type 111) 158 Silicates 20%, Silica % Vehicle (by wt! ex Styrene butadiene copolymer resin 12% Water 49% 00% 100%eGCoOoO--— wooo a4 ‘Giassfcation and Partition Sorting the various ingredients into the large categories of pigment and vehicle would analyze each of them according to a p employs the classification process. However, partition is used when listing the percentage | of volume in one can of paint. Fore : individual ingredients that compose each separate class—titanium dioxide, sili- ing every silicate] might be divided and subdivi cates, and silica for the pigment, and resin and water for the vehicle. Both ture, porosity, or elasticity. The various systen techniques would be employed in a feasibility report to a utility company outlin- according to physiological function: respirati ing the advantages and disadvantages of purchasing certain types of generators. systems can in tum be partitioned. The ner iy ‘To evaluate the generators according to their energy efficiency would require be partitioned in at least three different ways: classification; but the report writer might also use partition to show the internal 1. Collutar partition mechanism of an individual generator. ‘a, Neurons—units that gonerate and as synthesize neurotransmitter su b. Glial elements—non-neuronal cell. Establishing the Basis for Partition ‘An abject can be partitioned in many ways, depending on the principle you use, which in tum depends upon your audience's needs. If you were partitioning the ingredients in the previously mentioned can of paint for a chemist, you i i: \ } “EXHAUST TURE’ } RE Sarees Cae ied wes lcd impulse conduction speed, ete. 2. Structural partition & Central nervous system—the ner cord, b. Peripheral nervous system—in ger tem not within the brain and spir 3. Functional partition a, Voluntary—the part of the nervou controlled. Autonomic—the part of the nervou “automatic” functions of the body This part is further subdivided int sympathetic, The entire nervous system is represented by partitioning it. Each way incorporates the cor but partitions them according to a different « by structure, or by function). How to Use Partition 1. Select a single object to partition. A bic) calculator, trombone, or stereo are all examp though, that you are not misled by a term that Ic crime, energy, soil. These terms include num would be impossible to break down if they we object. If you were asked to write about the pro be misleading to bring in details about a subsi 2. Divide the components according to as tent with the audience and your purpose. In t98 Classification und Partition ‘would analyze each of them according to a principle more rigorous than their percentage of volume in one can of paint. For example, each component (includ- ing every silicate) might be divided and subdivided accarding to molecular struc- ture, porosity, or elasticity. The various systems of the body might be classified according to physiological function: respiration, circulation, excretion. These systems can in turn be partitioned. The nervous system, for example, might be partitioned in at least three different ways: 1. Cellular partition ‘a, Neurons—units that generate and conduct nerve impulses, as well as synthesize neurotransmitter substances and hormones. b. Glial elements—non-neuronal cells that serve to protect, to modify impulse conduction speed, etc. 2. Structural partition a. Centra) nervous system—the nerves within the brain and spinal cord. b. Peripheral nervous system—in general, any part of the nervous sys- tem not within the brain and spinal cord. Functional partition a. Voluntary—the part of the nervous system that can be consciously controlled. b. Autonomic—the part of the nervous system that controls the various “automatic” functions of the body, such as digestion or sweating. This part is further subdivided into the sympathetic and the para- sympathetic. ‘The entire nervous system is represented by any one of these three ways of partitioning it. Each way incorporates the components of the nervous system but partitions them according to a different organizational principle (by cell, by structure, or by function}. How to Use Partition 1. Select a single object to partition. A bicycle, clock, egg, computer, pocket calculator, trombone, or stereo are all examples of single objects. Be careful, though, that you are not misled by a term that looks singular but is really plural— crime, energy, soil. These terms include numerous and complex classes that would be impossible to break down if they were treated as subparts of a single object. If you were asked to write about the products of your company, it would be misleading to bring in details about a subsidiary or parent company. 2, Divide the components according to a systematic principle that is consis- tent with the audience and your purpose. In the example of the incandescent light on page 93, the author is writing to a group of lighting specialists who are interested in the construction of the individual parts of the light. To partition96 Glasaification and Parition these parts according to cost or place of manufacture would not help the audience as much as the principle the author chooses. If you were writing about a copying machine for a decision maker, however, you might partition the individual parts according to their replacement value or according to their life span. 3. Make sure that components do not overlap. One of the most misleading things for readers is to see a part listed in two different places. Partitioning a lawn mower into the base, the motor, the carburetor, and the handle is misleading, because the carburetor is actually a part of the motor, Similarly, listing the cursor as being a part of the keyboard and the video display screen is an example of overlap. 4. Make sure that you include all components. If you omit a part, readers will not have a clear and complete picture of the object. A partition of a minicom. puter that omitted the disk drive would be incomplete. Note that even though the gas in the incandescent light on page 94 is unseen, the author includes it as an important part of the object. If a part is optional or found on only a certain model or piece of equipment, tell readers so. 5. Follow a logical order of presentation. For a piece of equipment you might arrange your discussion from the inside to the outside. A chronological order would be most appropriate for partitioning a plant according to its life cycle. A CLASSIFICATION AND PARTITION CHECKLIST 1. Use classification for analysis of multiple items; use partition for analysis of a single item. 2. Decide upon a basis for analysis with your purpose and the audience's needs in mind. 3. Be sure that your categories are consistent. 4. Be careful that categories do not overlap. 5. Make certain that categories are inclusive. 6. Decide upon an order that is logical and helpful to the reader. CLASSIFICATION This table appeared in a publication entitled Health Bulk Petroleum Plants, published by the National Institute and Health (NIOSH). This guide is read by safety enginee responsible for the transportation, storage, and use of be note at the bottom of the table explains, these products a according to their flash point, or the lowest temperature vapors ignite in the air. The boiling point is not a conside Classes 1C, 2, and 3. Being mixtures, products in these cl. range of boiling points from very low (naphtha) to very h Moreover, it is their flash point (not boiling point) that dete danger, NIOSH Fact Sheet