RIVER & LAKE ECOLOGY

"THERE ISN'T PLENTY OF FISH IN

THE SEA": A CASE OF OVERFISHING
IN FRESHWATER BODIES

2010-2021 // IRENE JEAN LAGUMBAY & ELISSA PELSMAEKERS

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION 3

II. OVERFISHING, A WORLDWIDE ISSUE? 3

OVERFISHING OF FRESHWATER FISH

III. THE CONSEQUENCES OF OVERFISHING 5

FISHING DOWN THE FOODWEB

NUTRIENT DYNAMICS

FOOD SECURITY AND HEALTH RISKS

IV. CASE STUDIES 8

LAKE VICTORIA

LAKE TAIHU

V. WHAT CAN WE DO? 9

VI. REFERENCES 10

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Freshwater bodies provide sources of food and income for millions of people inhabiting the
surrounding areas. These freshwater systems are progressively put under more pressure due to the
rapid increase in population density, expanding industrial, agricultural, fishing and other
anthropogenic activities (ALLAN et al., 2005).

Increased product demands and better fishing gear technology used by fisheries has led to a global
increase in fish production in both marine and freshwater settings. Numerous studies have focussed on
marine environments. However, freshwater bodies are being investigated to a lesser extent, even
though more and more fish stocks are being depleted (ALLAN et al., 2005). Overexploitation of
freshwater bodies has several consequences, including modification of structure and function of
freshwater environments in terms of changes in trophic levels, nutrient dynamics and economic and
social aspects of local communities (MCINTYRE et al., 2007; VANNI, 2002; ALLAN et al., 2005).

This essay will briefly discuss the global issue of exploitation of fish stocks in freshwater bodies with
special mention of the consequences. We will also discuss the importance of acquiring information on
the conservation status of fish species and their environment, the involvement of local stakeholders
and monitoring of management activities.

Fishing activities, including processing, packing, transport and retail, play a vital role at many levels,
from village economies to national and international economies (ALLAN et al., 2005). Freshwater
fishes are used for many purposes, ranging from being used for recreation to having scientific values.
However, it’s mostly used as a food source for humans and agricultural food for animals (REID et al.,
2013). Furthermore, fishing is also a mean of income for low-income families in rural areas as it
provides job opportunities (KURA et al., 2004).

Industrialisation, starting from the late 18th century, led to rapid growth in the human population and
product demands. This also increased the need for the use of more sophisticated fishing technology,
giving rise to industrial scaled fishing activities and putting more pressure on fish communities
(PITCHER, 2012; LAM & PITCHER, 2012).

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According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), inland fisheries
contributed between 7 and 11.5% to the annual fish production in 1950, which yielded around 4.2
million tonnes of fish. This increased to 11.63 million tonnes in 2012, with an average growth of
approximately 2-3% yearly (FAO, 2014). Asia and Africa experienced the most growth, accounting
for 90% of the total fish catch (BARTLEY et al., 2015). Finally, trade of inland fish species is also
hazardous for fish communities, with South-east Asia and South-America being the largest exporting
regions. Approximately 315-350 million fishes are traded annually (REID et al., 2013).

Overexploitation of fish in freshwater bodies is of global concern as 75% of the world’s monitored
fisheries have almost succeeded in their maximal sustainable yield (REID et al., 2013).
Two main types of overfishing exist. The intensive fishing of targeted species, which leads to a
decline in catch per unit effort and size of individuals captured and assemblage or ecosystem
overfishing, which is characterised by declines of species and in their mean trophic levels and
alteration in tolerance of communities to environmental fluctuations (ALLAN et al., 2005).

The use of new technology and the expansion of fishing territories have enabled a rapid increase in
fish catch rate. However, lately, more and more fish stocks are being depleted. This raises some
concerns on the maintenance of the increasing product demands and market supplies which creates
pressure to harvest more fish and, in turn, results in the use of even more precise technological fishery
gadgets and higher catch rates (positive feedback) (PITCHER & LAM, 2015; JACKSON et al., 2001;
REID et al., 2013).

However, little public awareness has been raised, and many of the consequences of overfishing in
freshwater bodies are still poorly understood. This has led to global misunderstandings and differences
in quality of information on freshwater body statuses between different regions of the world
(BARTLEY et al., 2015; ALLAN et al., 2005; COASTES, 2002; REID et al., 2013).

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The functioning of freshwater ecosystems is jeopardised by anthropogenic activities, including
pollution, degradation of ecosystem resources, the building of dams, introduction of exotic species and
exploitation of fish stocks. Over the past few decades, numerous studies focussed on human impacts in
marine environments. Yet, there is still much to learn about the consequences of overfishing and other
activities in freshwater bodies (ALLAN et al., 2005).

Overfishing has led to a significant decrease in species abundances and fish stocks. This, in turn, has
many consequences discussed in this chapter.

The classic model for fishing in freshwater lakes anticipates an increase in fish catches with increasing
fishing activities until a maximum in sustainable yield is reached. When the fishing effort keeps rising
until far beyond the maximum, a collapse in total catches will be expected (ALLAN et al., 2005).
The Mekong River, located in Southeast Asia, is known for its rich biodiversity and large freshwater
fish species. Due to overfishing in the lake, the abundance of several species has declined severely,
and some are close to extinction, including the endemic Mekong giant catfish Pangasianodon gigas,
Chevey, 1931. The classic trend was revealed by recent data with an increase in fish catches per unit
effort followed by a steep decline in captures with continued fishing effort (Fig. 1). The same pattern
is followed by other species inhabiting the river (ALLAN et al., 2005).

Figure 1: Mekong giant catfish (Pangasianodon

gigas) yield (number of specimens per boat), in
function of effort (number of boats). The graph
shows an initial increase of catches with increasing
effort, followed by a decline in catches with
continuous sustained effort (ALLAN et al., 2005).

However, an increase in effort may not directly result in a decline in fish catches. Instead, removal of
top predators can lead to an apparent, yet misleading increase in the number of fish captures. As the

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number of species in higher trophic levels goes down, organisms situated in lower trophic levels can
flourish. Consequently, a shift in species captured by fisheries occurs. However, this eventually leads
to ecosystem collapses in the long term. This phenomenon is known as “fishing down the food web”
(Fig. 2) (ALLAN et al., 2005).

Figure 2: Graph showing the characteristics

of fishing down the food web. a: total catch;
b: mean maximum length of catch (ALLAN,
et al., 2005)

Time line of exploitation

Thus, overfishing can bring along trophic cascades by increasing the abundance of small predators
controlling herbivores, resulting in changes in algal communities. Alterations in piscivorous fish
populations can have consequences for primary production activities and the presence of resources
(ALLAN et al., 2005).

Fish species play an essential role in biochemical activities that occur in inland waters. Elements can
be transformed and exchanged between different components of the environment during a process
called nutrient cycling. This process can be influenced in many ways (MCINTYRE et al., 2007; VANNI,
2002).

Organisms ingest nutrients, such as nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), which can be returned to their
surroundings by egestion of waste or decomposition of their organic material due to assimilation of the
nutrients in their tissues (MCINTYRE et al., 2007; VANNI, 2002). Another, more direct way of
excretion is through dissolved form via the kidneys or similar structures (VANNI, 2002). These
elements can, in turn, be used by heterotrophic microbes and primary (MCINTYRE et al., 2007; VANNI,
2002). As high levels of variation exist among fish species in the rate of nutrient recycling, changing
community dynamics can alter biochemical properties and processes, including nitrogen and

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phosphorus availability in freshwater bodies. This in turn, disrupts the functioning of primary
producers (MCINTYRE et al., 2007; VANNI, 2002; ALLAN et al., 2005).

Indirect effects of organisms on nutrient cycling include their influence on food webs in the way they
regulate the trophic levels beneath them (i.e. trophic cascades). Studies have suggested that changes in
biomass of primary producers, resulting from removal of top predators, can also depend on shifts in
nutrient availability (VANNI, 2002; ALLAN et al., 2005).

Finally, exploitation of fish stocks may lead to vast economic losses in the long term and threaten food
security for many vulnerable local communities dependent on freshwater bodies as their primary food
source. A study conducted on seasonal variation in fish catches by local communities in the Brazilian
Amazon forest investigated the potential link between reduced catch rate and food security. Due to
seasonal fluctuations, fish abundances experience temporary drops resulting in a lower number of fish
catches and reduced food security. Accordingly, this trend could create uncertainty in the future
regarding the decline in fish species abundance (TREGIDGO et al., 2020).

Overfishing also negatively impacts the health of the human population. For instance, schistosomiasis
is a disease caused by an infection by the parasite Schistosoma. More than 70 countries are affected by
the disease, including parts of Africa, South America and subregions of North-America. Particular
snail species (e.g. Biomphalaria, Oncomelania, Bulinus and Tricula sp.) are needed by the parasite to
complete its life cycle (ALLAN et al., 2005; STAUFFER et al., 1997). These populations of snails are
generally kept stable through consumption by cichlid fish. However, due to overfishing of these fish
species, there has been an increase in schistosomiasis cases as a result of increases in vector snail
populations, being less affected by predation (ALLAN et al., 2005).

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Lake Victoria is one of the biggest lakes in the world (68 800 km ). Located in Eastern Africa, it is
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shared between three countries; Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. The catchment area also extends
towards Rwanda and Burundi. The lake is of great economic value as it serves as a major food source
for millions of people, with its major commercial fish species including the Nile perch Lates niloticus
(Linnaeus, 1758), the cyprinid Rastrineobola argentea (Pellegrin, 1904) and the Nile tilapia
Oreochromis niloticus (Linnaeus, 1758) (NJIRU et al. 2008).

The densely populated areas surrounding the lake make it susceptible to severe anthropogenic
activities, such as the introduction of exotic species, environmental degradation, pollution,
eutrophication and increased fishing pressure. These activities have negatively impacted fish species
abundances, catch rates and altered the overall ecology of the lake (NJIRU et al. 2008; MKUNA &
BAIYEGUNHI, 2019).

Introduction of the Nile perch in the late 1950s led to a rapid increase of fish catches in the lake which,
in turn, led to an economic boost to many local fisheries and establishment of many job opportunities.
However, local businesses were soon taken over by large scale operators for world-wide export of
products. This eventually resulted in an unequal distribution of income and represented a significant
economic loss for local communities (NJIRU et al. 2008). Additionally, the increase of fishing
pressure, uncontrolled access to the lake and use of illegal fishing gear, quickly affected fish stocks,
resulting in a rapid decline in Nile perch fish catches (NJIRU et al. 2008; MKUNA & BAIYEGUNHI,
2019). This, in addition to the fish stocks being used more for global consumption, has led to food
insecurity for people inhabiting the areas surrounding the lake (NJIRU et al. 2008).

Recent evidence also suggests that due to overfishing and other deteriorating activities, the water
quality has changed dramatically over the past few years. High levels of the cyanobacteria Microcystis
are occurring in the lake as a result of low phytoplanktivore and detritivore fish and different algae
species, insect larvae and freshwater shrimp are now flourishing (NJIRU et al. 2008).

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Lake Taihu (2338 km ) is located in China, where it exists as the third largest lake in the country. It is
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situated in the Changjiang district, which represents a highly urbanised and industrialised area. It
serves as a water source for several cities and sustains local tourism, recreation, aquaculture and flood
control. Additionally, it provided economic growth for the community through fishing practices (LI et
al., 2010; QIN et al., 2007). However, most of the traditional fish stocks have been rapidly depleted,
which resulted in small species starting to dominate the fish catches (LI et al., 2010).

A study concerning changes in trophic interactions and community structure of Lake Taihu also
showed an increase in biomass of phytoplankton and small fish species from 1960 to 1990, while the
biomass of larger fish species decreased significantly over time. Additionally, there was a higher rate
of fishing mortality in the lake due to changes in catch rates, unrelated to predation morality which, in
turn, was reduced. These indications provide evidence of overfishing in Lake Taihu (LI et al., 2010).

Monitoring and research on freshwater bodies have gained popularity over the years. However, there
is still need for more environmental assessments, and the development conservation strategies remains
challenging. It is difficult to gain a general overview of the number of threatened fish species in the
amount of time available to take the necessary actions (REID et al., 2013).

Management of inland fisheries has become of great importance for both the economy and people who
benefit from the ecosystem services they provide. Accordingly, the participation of many different
stakeholders in freshwater ecosystem management may lead to a more succesful implementation of
strategies (ALLAN et al., 2005). Improved assessment of population genetics and geographical
distribution and identification of fish species in need for conservation will be fundamental (PARENTI &
EBACH, 2009; REID et al., 2013).

For example, in Sabah, Malaysia, the Department of Fisheries (DOF) Malaysia and the State
Governement of Sabah introduced aquaculture and the concept of community-based fishery resource
management as an attempt to revive the Sabah’s freshwater fishery resources. The river was divided
into three areas; green, yellow and red zones. The green zones permitted fishing for the entire year

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(“open fishing zone”), the yellow zones were open periodically, and the red zones were closed for
public. In this way, the local communities could sustainably catch fish all year round. Additionally,
giving the authority to communities to protect and conserve their little spots of the river and the
introduction of penalties such as fines and imprisonment of offenders increased public awareness.
Since the implementation of the system, many indigenous fish communities have already been able to
recover partially (WONG et al., 2009).

Allan et al. suggest four principles to be followed regarding the management of inland fisheries,
including sustainability of harvest, maintenance of biodiversity, protection from anthropogenic
activities that cause environmental stress and supply of socioeconomic benefits to consumers. This
should go accompanied with implementation of management targets and systematic evaluation of the
environmental status (PIKITCH et al., 2004; ALLAN et al., 2005).

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32-43.

BARTLEY, D.M., G.J. GRAAF, J. VALBO-JORGENSEN & G. AND MARMULLA. (2015). Inland capture
fisheries: status and data issues. Fisheries Management and Ecology. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 71-77.

FAO. (2014). State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations. 223 pp.

JACKSON, J.B.C., KIRBY, M.X., BERGER, W.H., BJORNDAL, K.A., BOTSFORD, L.W., BOURQUE, B.J.
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LENIHAN, H.S., PANDOLFI, J.M., PETERSON, C.H., STENECK, R.S., TEGNER, M.J. & WARNER, R.R.
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KURA, Y. C. REVENGA, E. HOSHINO, & G. MOCK. (2004). Fishing for answers: making sense of the
global fish crisis. Washington (DC): World Resources Institute.

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LI, Y., B. SONG, Y. CHEN, L. CHEN, N. YU & D. OLSON. (2010). Changes in the trophic interactions
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