IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 43, NO.

8, AUGUST 2007 3435

Design Consideration to Reduce Cogging Torque in Axial Flux

Permanent-Magnet Machines
Delvis Anibal González, Juan Antonio Tapia, and Alvaro Letelier Bettancourt

Electrical Engineering Department, University of Concepcion, Concepción Chile

In designing new topologies for permanent-magnet machines based on rare earth magnets, it is necessary to diminish the undesired
cogging torque. This paper presents a 3-D finite-element analysis to evaluate the effect of magnet shape and stator displacement on
cogging torque reduction, for axial flux machines. It analyzes the final electromagnetic torque for the proposed configurations. Finally,
it presents the resultant cogging torque waveform for a 5.0 kW prototype, based on our optimization techniques.
Index Terms—Axial flux machine, cogging torque, permanent-magnet machine.

I. INTRODUCTION TABLE I
MACHINE DIMENSIONS AND MAGNETIC CHARACTERISTICS

T HE advancement in the manufacturing of permanent mag-

nets makes them available in different grades, which in-
clude a wide range of properties and application requirements.
The rare earth magnets, like neodymium-iron-boron (NdFeB)
and samarium-cobalt (SmCo), produced by sintering or bonding
techniques allow the obtainment of some interesting magnet
shapes.
The introduction of rare earth magnets into the market with — For the different magnet shapes analyzed the magnet/pole
low prices and diverse shapes has been stimulating the design ratio areas were around 5/6, in order to maintain the elec-
optimization of permanent-magnet machines for industrial ap- tromagnetic torque development.
plications. The new age of permanent-magnet machines is char- — For the simulations the elements numbers in the volume’s
acterized by high flux density in the air gap. These are very at- region were the same.
tractive machines due to their high power density. — All of the presented analyses were compared with the cog-
However, the permanent-magnet machine presents two unde- ging torque in the trapezoidal magnet, not a skewed ma-
sired pulsating torque components. The first is produced from chine. Its maximum point was considered the base value.
the harmonic content of the voltage and current waveform. The
other, called the cogging torque, is caused by the interaction
between the magnet flux and the stator anisotropy, due to the II. COGGING TORQUE IN PM MACHINE
slotting. Therefore, the slotless machines are not affected by
cogging torques. The cogging torque is caused by the variation of the
In this paper, the cogging torque reduction is studied, partic- magnetic energy stored in the air gap, due to the permanent-
ularly, by the influence of the magnet shape. The analyzed con- magnet flux with the angular position of the rotor. In more detail,
figuration was an axial flux machine (AFM) with two rotors and it appears that due to the interaction between the rotor magnetic
double central stator. These topologies allow for the introduc- flux and the variations of the stator’s reluctance , by
tion of a displacement between both stator sides, reducing the the slotting
resulting cogging torque.
The study is based on finite-element analysis (FEA), using
3-D simulation. In order to obtain a comparative result from (1)
the studied topologies, some considerations were taken into
account. The number of periods of the cogging torque waveform in the
— In all studied cases the machine’s dimensions and mag- number slots can be given in [1], by
netic characteristics were the same (see Table I).

(2)

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TMAG.2007.899349 where and are the stator slot and the pole number, respec-
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online tively, and the denominator is the highest common dividend be-
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. tween and .
0018-9464/$25.00 © 2007 IEEE

Authorized licensed use limited to: Centro Universitário Fei. Downloaded on November 04,2022 at 12:22:12 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
3436
Fig. 1. Magnet with a rounded border.
Fig. 2. Cogging torque for a rounded border magnet.
III. MAGNET SHAPE INFLUENCES
As was explained in the previous section, the cogging torque
depends on two parameters. The first was flux imposed in the
air gap by the magnet. In order to increase the power density, it
is necessary to get a high air-gap flux. Therefore, it is required
to diminish the effect of the other parameter, the reluctance, to
reduce the maximum cogging torque.
In the AFM, the basic shape of the magnet and teeth are trape-
zoidal. In this case, the interaction between the complete magnet
border and a tooth occurs at the same time, producing a max-
imum cogging torque. This effect is reduced if a whole magnet
edge does not move in front of a tooth at the same time. It can
be used to modify the magnet or the tooth shape. Four configu-
rations of magnets were studied using FEA, and the results are
explained below.
With the purpose of minimal diminishment of the electromag-
netic torque, only a portion of the magnet, equivalent to one slot
pitch , was modified. For the proposed machine topology
the slot pitches are 7.5 .
A. Magnet With a Rounded Border
The first configuration analyzed was the magnet with a
rounded border, depicted in Fig. 1. The parameter is the
length of the rounded portion. The cogging torque waveform
was presented for another two intermediate values of as a
percent of the slot width , shown in Fig. 2.
If the border of magnet was rounded the interaction with
the teeth increased gradually, not instantaneously. While the
Authorized licensed use limited to: Centro Universitário Fei. Downloaded on November 04,2022 at 12:22:12 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 43, NO. 8, AUGUST 2007
Fig. 3. Magnet with a rounded face (concave).
magnet moves toward the tooth, the reluctance varies slowly and
the maximum cogging torque decreases.
With the augment of the length of the rounded portion, the
cogging torque is reduced. The maximum reduction is to 63.0%,
obtained for . Notice that the waveform is enhanced in
the rounded border configuration.
B. Magnet With a Rounded Face (Concave)
Another way to get a gradual interaction between the teeth
and the magnet is with rounded magnet faces. In this case, the
magnet has a concave rounded face (See Fig. 3). A suitable
choice between both the borders of the magnets and its corre-
sponding teeth is important to obtain a minimal reluctance vari-
ation. The magnet force with the coming tooth and of the salient
tooth should be of the same magnitude, but opposite directions,
to get the total cogging torque reduction.
The parameter , in Fig. 3, is the length of the rounded por-
tion of the magnet. The cogging torque waveform is depicted in
Fig. 4. The magnet with a rounded face introduces a significant
reduction of maximum cogging torque value. In the proposed
topology and for , it is possible to diminish the max-
imum cogging torque magnitude by up to 40%.
C. Magnet With a Rounded Face (Convex)
The magnet with a rounded face, with a convex arc on one
edge, was also analyzed. Similar to the previous case, is the
length of the rounded portion of the magnet and its maximum
value corresponding to one slot width. In Fig. 5, the magnet is
depicted with a convex shape.
The resulting cogging torque waveforms for three different
values and trapezoidal magnet is presented in Fig. 6. The convex
magnet introduces a displacement to the left for the maximum
cogging torque value with respect to a trapezoidal magnet wave-
form. It is due to the displacement of magnet area with respect
to the angular position.
In the convex magnet, the reduction of the cogging torque ca-
pability is similar for a concave shape. The maximum cogging
torque reduction, for , is 60% compared with a trape-
zoidal magnet. So, other factors, like an electromagnetic torque
GONZÁLEZ et al.: DESIGN CONSIDERATION TO REDUCE COGGING TORQUE IN AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT-MAGNET MACHINES
Fig. 4. Cogging torque with a rounded face magnet (concave).
Fig. 5. Magnet with a rounded face (convex).
or a magnet price, should be more important when choosing be-
tween both configurations.
D. Skewed Magnet
The skewed magnet or teeth was a technique presented in
previous work. Both of them produce the same result in cog-
ging torque reduction. This paper shows the effect of the skewed
magnet in the studied machines. Fig. 7 depicts the magnet con-
figuration and the stator teeth. The parameter is the inclina-
tion angle of both magnet edges. The minimal cogging torque
is obtained when is equal to the period of the cogging torque
waveform [1], but it introduces an important reduction to the
electromagnetic torque as well
(3)
The corresponding cogging torque waveforms, obtained for
three different values of as a percent of slot pitch and
for an unskewed magnet, are compared in Fig. 8.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Centro Universitário Fei. Downloaded on November 04,2022 at 12:22:12 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
3437
Fig. 6. Cogging torque with a rounded face magnet (convex).
Fig. 7. Skewed magnet.
The skewed magnets generate a displacement of the cogging
torque waveform in the same way, referring to Fig. 8. On the
other hand, the skewed magnet to one slot pitch produces a 61%
cogging torque reduction, in the analyzed topology.
IV. STATOR DISPLACEMENT
The AFM studied is composed of two lateral rotors and a dual
central stator. Therefore, the interaction of each rotor magnet
with the corresponding stator teeth produces a cogging torque
waveform in both sides of the machine. The sum of these is the
total cogging torque development of the machine.
If a displacement between both stator sides is introduced,
each cogging torque keeps their waveform, but appears to phase
out in time. Consequently, the total cogging torque is reduced.
A displacement factor can be defined now by the rela-
tionship between the displacement angle and the slot pitch
(4)
3438 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 43, NO. 8, AUGUST 2007

Fig. 10. Maximum torque value for the analyzed magnet configurations.
Fig. 8. Cogging torque with a skewed magnet.

where is the rms current in the coil, is the flux density im-
posed by the magnet, and the is the portion of the coil that has
direct interaction with the magnet flux. Therefore, if the magnet
shape is modified to reduce the total amount of contact with
the teeth borders to diminish the cogging torque, at the same
time the interaction between magnet flux and is also reduced.
So, the maximum electromagnetic torque should be decreased.
In Fig. 10, the maximum torque value for all of the analyzed
magnet configurations is depicted.
From the finite-element analysis, the maximal torque reduc-
tion is produced by a rounded face magnet with a convex shape.
The electromagnetic torque drops about 7.6%. Nevertheless, in
the concave magnet the reduction is 5.5%.
The rounded magnet edge produces a torque value 4% less
than the rate value, while the skew of magnet only reduces the
maximum value of the electromagnetic torque to 3.3%, for an
inclination angle of 7.5 .
Fig. 9. Cogging torque peaks for the variations of K. Introducing a displacement between both stator sides affects
the maximum electromagnetic torque also. With no displace-
ment between the stator sides, each set of stator winding MMF
Then, the factor was varied from 0.0 to 1.0 and the peak and rotor magnet are interacting at the same time, generating
magnitudes of cogging torque achieved is shown in Fig. 9. The 50% of total torque. But, if one stator side is displaced to reduce
smallest value obtained was 0.38 pu, from . the cogging torque, both torque components appear in different
It is important to know that the displacement of stators also moments. Consequently, the total torque produced by the ma-
reduces the maximum electromagnetic torque. This effect will chine is reduced.
be explained in the next section. Fig. 11 shows the resultant torque as the displacement factor
increases. As was depicted in Fig. 9, a minimum cogging torque
is produced from 0.25 to 0.75 of values. For this range, the
V. ELECTROMAGNETIC TORQUE maximum torque reduction is only 2.3%.
The torque development in the axial flux machines depends
on the multiplication of the electromagnetic force and the VI. PROTOTYPE
radio,
Based on the obtained results, a 5.0 kW, 8-pole prototype was
(5) built. In order to reduce the cogging torque, two studied tech-
niques were employed: skewing the magnet and displacement
However, the vector can be calculated as of the stator side.
The presented prototype has the capability to extend the speed
range over the rate value. The high-speed operation needs to
(6) control the air-gap flux, keeping the voltage at 1.0 pu. Using the

Authorized licensed use limited to: Centro Universitário Fei. Downloaded on November 04,2022 at 12:22:12 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
GONZÁLEZ et al.: DESIGN CONSIDERATION TO REDUCE COGGING TORQUE IN AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT-MAGNET MACHINES
Fig. 11. Resulting torque reduction by displacement between the stator sides.
Fig. 12. AFM prototype: (a) rotor with skewed magnet and (b) trapezoidal
stator teeth.
vector control technique a negative flux is injected in -axes, re-
ducing the final air-gap flux [4]. However, the magnet imposes a
high reluctance path for the negative flux. So, the rotor pole had
another modification. A portion of the magnet was substituted
by an iron piece [5] (see Fig. 12). Finally, the rotor magnet was
skewed to 7.5 .
The presented prototype had a displacement between both
stator sides. The displaced angle was 3.5 , corresponding to
. technique can be used to generate a good result.
The measurements of the cogging torque were compared
with the FEA simulations results and both waveforms are
shown in Fig. 13 [6]–[8]. The maximum values of the cogging
torque measurement and FEA results were 4.75 and 4.0 Nm,
respectively. In the simulation of prototype with not skewed
magnet and without stator displacement, the peak value of
cogging torque was 18.2 Nm. Therefore, the final reduction of
cogging torque was to 73.9%.
VII. CONCLUSION
In this paper, the influence of the magnet shape and displace-
ment of the stator sides to reduce the cogging torque was investi-
gated. The effect of the proposed techniques in electromagnetic
torque, for axial flux machine, was studied also. From the ob-
tained result, the magnet skew and the stator side displacement
are excellent techniques to reduce the cogging torque, keeping
Authorized licensed use limited to: Centro Universitário Fei. Downloaded on November 04,2022 at 12:22:12 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
3439
Fig. 13. Measurement and simulated cogging torque for the presented
prototype.
Fig. 14. Axial flux permanent-magnet prototype.
the electromagnetic torque at a high value. The combination of
these can produce a minimal cogging torque magnitude.
The concave and convex shape modification of the magnet
face generates the same cogging torque reduction, about 60%.
But the concave magnets remain in the electromagnetic torque
of 2.0% of the upper convex configuration.
On the other hand, the magnets with rounded borders do not
produce a high cogging torque reduction, but keep a fine value
of the electromagnetic torque. The combination with another
Finally, the results had been used to build a 5.0 kW, 8-pole
axial flux machine prototype, with extended speed range, shown
in Fig. 14. The design included the skewing of the magnets and
the displacement between stator sides. These modifications gen-
erate an important reduction in the final cogging torque.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was supported by the Chilean Research Council
(Fondecyt), through the Project # 1070493 and Direccion de
Investigación, University of Concepción, through Project # 206.
092.047-1.0.
REFERENCES
[1] N. Bianchi and S. Bolognani, “Design techniques for reducing the cog-
ging torque in surface-mounted PM motors,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl.,
vol. 38, no. 5, pp. 1259–1265, Sep./Oct. 2002.
3440
[2] M. Aydin, R. Qu, and T. Lipo, “Cogging torque minimization technique
for multiple-rotor, axial-flux, surface-mounted-magnet-PM motor: Al-
ternating magnet pole-arc in facing rotors,” presented at the IEEE In-
dustry Application Conf. Annu. Meeting, Oct. 2003.
[3] Z. Q. Zhu and D. Howe, “Influence of design parameters on cogging
torque in permanent machines,” IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 15,
no. 4, pp. 407–412, Dec. 2000.
[4] S. Morimoto, Y. Takeda, T. Hirasa, and K. Taniguchi, “Expansion of
operating limits for permanent magnet motor by current vector control
considering inverter capacity,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 26, no. 5,
pp. 866–871, Sep./Oct. 1990.
[5] J. A. Tapia, D. A. González, R. R. Wallace, and M. A. Valenzuela,
“Axial flux surface mounted PM machine with field weakening capa-
bility,” Recent Developments on Electrical Drives, Springer Editorial
Aug. 2006.
[6] C. S. Koh, B.-K. Kang, J.-S. Ryu, and J.-S. Seoul, “The effects of
the distribution of residual magnetization on the cogging torque and
switching signals in permanent magnet (PM) motors,” IEEE Trans.
Magn., vol. 38, no. 2, pp. 1217–1220, Mar. 2002.
[7] Y. Yang, X. Wang, R. Zhang, T. Ding, and R. Tang, “The optimization
of pole arc coefficient to reduce cogging torque in surface-mounted
permanent magnet motors,” IEEE Trans. Magn., vol. 42, no. 4, pp.
1135–1138, Apr. 2006.
[8] C. Schlensok, M. H. Gracia, and K. Hameyer, “Combined numerical
and analytical method for geometry optimization of a PM motor,” IEEE
Trans. Magn., vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 1211–1214, Apr. 2006.
Manuscript received April 22, 2006; revised May 1, 2007. Corresponding
author: D. A. Gonzalez (e-mail: degonzale@gmail.com).
Authorized licensed use limited to: Centro Universitário Fei. Downloaded on November 04,2022 at 12:22:12 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 43, NO. 8, AUGUST 2007
Delvis Anibal González was born in Santa Clara, Cuba. He received the Elec-
trical Engineer degree and the Master of Science degree from the Central Uni-
versity of Las Villas, Cuba, in 1997 and 2001, respectively. Currently, he is pur-
suing the Ph.D. degree from the Electrical Engineering Department, University
of Concepcion, Chile.
His research interests include design, optimization, and control of electrical
machines.
Juan Antonio Tapia (M’03) was born in Concepcion, Chile. He received the
B.E.E. and M.E.E degrees in electrical engineering from the University of Con-
cepcion, Concepcion, Chile, in 1991 and 1997, respectively and the Ph.D. de-
gree from the University of Wisconsin, Madison, in 2002.
Since 1992, he has been with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Uni-
versity of Concepcion, as an Associate Professor. His primary areas of interest
are electromechanical analysis and electrical machines design for AC adjustable
speed applications.
Alvaro Letelier Bettancourt was born in Vallenar, Chile. He received the Elec-
trical Engineer and the Master of Science degrees from the University of Con-
cepcion, Chile, in 2004 and 2005, respectively.
He was a Training Engineer at BHPBilliton, Escondida, Chile. His areas of
interest are control and design of electrical machines.