ABSTRACT

ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH OF EMERGENT CULTURAL THEMES FROM

TECHNOLOGY-BASED INFORMAL EDUCATION IN A MUSEUM

By

Elaine V. Bernal

May 2013

Culturally contextualized, technology-based informal learning in settings such as

museums, science centers, zoos, and aquariums is a sustainable method that facilitates a

community’s learning needs. However, the lack of research about where technology-

based informal education and culture intersect presents an issue in having sound,

evidence based information to use in further developing such opportunities. The purpose

of this ethnographic study is to investigate processes in technology-based informal

education and explore the cultural dimensions in which it takes place. This ethnographic

research can provide better understanding into how and why to create technology-based

informal learning opportunities. The cultural contexts that enable those processes are

primarily social and relationship-based dimensions that allow for as many participants as

possible contribute and be involved in creating unique learning opportunities. In regards

to a technological platform, it is shown that social media is the most conducive

technology in the informal learning process.

 ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH OF EMERGENT CULTURAL THEMES FROM

TECHNOLOGY-BASED INFORMAL EDUCATION IN A MUSEUM

A THESIS

Presented to the Department of Advanced Studies in Education and Counseling

California State University, Long Beach

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Arts in Education Option in Educational Technology and Media Leadership

Committee Members:

Lesley Farmer, Ed.D (Chair)

Laurie Gatlin, Ph.D
Fran Lujan, M.A.

College Designee

Marquita Grenot-Scheyer, Ph.D.

By Elaine Bemal

M.S., 2005, University of California, Los Angeles

May 2013
 UMI Number: 1523337

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I am grateful for my thesis committee, a wonderful and

inspiring professional group of women. I am thankful for your encouragement, patience,

and understanding during the daunting process of writing this thesis. To Dr. Lesley

Fanner, you have been an amazing role model of what it means to be an effective and

creative educator who truly connects with students. To Dr. Laurie Gatlin, although our

interactions were brief, I genuinely felt connected the first I met you and knew you would

be an awesome mentor in this process. To Ms. Fran Lujan, who I have come to know

and love as Auntie Fran, I thank you for always reminding me of the big picture and the

end of the day. Your passion and commitment to community education drives me to

become a better teacher, and ultimately achieve my goal of having my own non-profit.

To the dedicated staff, volunteers, interns, docents, and community partners of the

Pacific Island Ethnic Art Museum (PIEAM), you are the heroes that made this work

possible. My work with you is a testament that educating the community can truly be

driven by the people, and for the people. A special thank you to Mr. Hugo Albarran, who

was always ready and made sure I had everything I needed to conduct my research at

PIEAM.

To my colleagues in the Educational Opportunity Program and the Department of

Chemistry and Biochemistry, thank you for being supportive as I juggled teaching 15

units and taking three graduate courses a semester for the last four semesters. You all are

amazing.
 To my sons, Maxwell and Marshall—this is Mommy’s gift to you. As I watch you

two grow to be strong, intelligent young men, I want you to know and be confident that

you can take your education into your own hands, and that you can truly learn what you

want, when you want, and share that experience with others.

To my husband and partner, Deraid—as you dedicated your thesis to me, I

dedicate this thesis to you. You have been my strongest supporter in this process, making

sure I had the time, energy, and resources that I needed to get my work done. Thank you

for the love, understanding, and encouragement you have given me.

Finally, to my Auntie Ima—although we lost you to cancer just 6 months ago, I

feel that you are always me, especially while writing this thesis. Throughout my

schooling, you have always been one of my biggest cheerleaders, you have been with me

throughout all my achievements, and you have served as an inspiration for me to keep

going with my education. Maraming salamat po, at ito ay para sa iyo.

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS........................................................................................ iii

LIST OF TABLES...................................................................................................... vii

LIST OF FIGURES.................................................................................................... viii

CHAPTER

1. INTRODUCTION........................................... :................... 1

Background............................................................................................... 1
Problem Statement.................................................................................... 1
Purpose of Study....................................................................................... 2
Guiding Questions.................................................................................... 2
Definitions of Terms................................................................................. 2

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE............................ 4

Introduction............................................................................................... 4
Review of Literature................................................................................. 4
What is Informal Education?.............................................................. 4
Informal Education Today and the Impact of Technology................. 7
The Importance of Cross-Cultural Considerations............................. 9
Ethnographic Study of Informal Education, Technology, and Culture 14
Summary................................................................................................... 15

3. METHODOLOGY.......................................................................................... 17

Introduction....................................................................... 17
Guiding Questions.................................................................................... 18
Site Description......................................................................................... 19
Participants................................................................................................ 21
Procedures.................................................................................................. 22
Choice of Data...................................................... 22
Data Collection Methods.................................................................... 23
Data Analysis...................................................................................... 23
Limitations to the Study...................................................................... 24
v
CHAPTER Page

4. FINDINGS AND RESULTS........................................................................... 25

Emergent Themes..................................................................................... 25
Internal and External Communication................................................ 25
Communication Channels............................................... 26
Knowledge Management.................................................................... 29
Collaboration....................................................................................... 30
Participants.......................................................................................... 30
Research Question 1 ................................................................................. 31
Research Question 2 ................................................................................. 35
Research Question 3 ................................................................................. 36
Major Impact to the Study: Elimination of the Museum Director’s
Position............................................................................................... 36
General Discussion................................................................................... 38

5. CONCLUSION................................................................................................ 39

Summary of Findings and Interpretation.................................................. 39

Conclusions............................................................................................... 39
Implications and Recommendations for Further Study............................ 40

APPENDICES ....................................................................................................... 42

A. PICTURES OF ARTIFACTS...................................................... 43

B. SAMPLE LESSON PLAN............................................................................. 45

C. SAMPLE TIMELINE OF EXTERNAL COMMUNICATION

REPRESENTATIVE’S PROJECTS........................................................ 50

D. SAMPLE DOCUMENT OFARTIFACT DESCRIPTIONS.......................... 52

E. SAMPLE DOCENT TRAINING AND SCRIPTS......................................... 54

F. RESEARCH SUMMARIES............................................................................ 57

G. SAMPLE SOCIAL MEDIA POSTINGS........................................................ 59

REFERENCES............................................................................................................ 64

vi
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE

1. Emergent Themes: Internal and External Communications.......................... 26

2. Emergent Themes: Communication Channels............................................... 29

3. Emergent Themes: Knowledge Management, Collaboration, and Participants 31

4. Emergent Themes Categorized by Kahane’s Code of Informality - Internal

and External Communication......................................................................... 32

5. Emergent Themes Categorized by Kahane’s Code of Informality:

Communication Channels, Knowledge Management, and Collaboration 33

6. Top Three Most Frequent Emergent Themes Within Kahane’s Code of

Informal Education......................................................................................... 35

vii
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE

1. Masi: A cloth made of mulberry tree bark.................................................... 44

2. Face mask from Fiji....................................................................................... 44

3. Sample Twitter feed with announcements...................................................... 60

4. Sample Facebook posting with workshops for the community..................... 60

5. Facebook posting with Pacific Islander Olympic athlete (left) and The BBQ
w/Q and Joe Sav (right)................................................................................. 61

6. Facebook posting of Pac Biz event with PIEAM (left) and cross-promotional
marketing with E Hula Mau hula competition (right).................................... 61

7. Facebook posting of parent and child interacting with Faces of

Ceremony Exhibit ......................................................................................... 62

8. Facebook postings of PIEAM volunteer at the Pacific Islander Festival

Association event (left) and Polynesian Tattoo demo (right).......................... 62

9. Facebook statistics of demographics reached................................................ 63

viii
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Background

Current research (Ambrosino, 2009; Ciotti 2010; Yocco, Danter, Heimlich,

Dunckel, & Myers 2011) shows that culturally contextualized, technology-based informal

learning in settings such as museums, science centers, zoos, and aquariums is a

sustainable method that facilitates a community’s learning needs as it emphasizes on

individuals’ unique interests and relationship based processes, and that it creates a rich

space in which people can learn on their accord, the opportunity to connect with others,

and share meaningful educational experiences.

Problem Statement

However, the lack of research about where technology-based informal education

and culture intersect presents an issue in having sound, evidence based information to use

in further developing such opportunities. Museums, science centers, zoos, and aquariums

(American Alliance of Museums, 2013; Association of Zoos and Aquariums, 2013) are

important spaces for informal learning, and play a vital role in educating millions of

people about a diverse array of current issues such as wildlife conservation, historical and

cultural preservation. Such educational institutions are vital resources for local

communities to connect to what is happening globally. Despite the broad scope of this

literature, little is known about how technology, informal education, and culture are

related, especially over a period of time. While evidence has supported technology-based
1
informal education as an effective instructional approach, its cultural dimensions have yet

to be examined.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this ethnographic study is to investigate processes in technology-

based informal education and explore the cultural dimensions in which it takes place.

This exploratory research can provide better understanding into how and why to create

technology-based informal learning opportunities for institutions such as museums.

Guiding Questions

This study seeks to resolve the following questions:

1. In what ways are culture and technology-based education linked?

2. Based on those linkages, what can potentially be beneficial practices in

developing culturally-relevant technology-based informal education?

3. Specifically, what are possible effective culturally-relevant technology-based

informal education practices for museums?

In answering these questions, this study seeks a comprehensive, system and

process-oriented view of how culture, technology, and community education are tied. A

holistic and organic view of how instructors and learners use technology in an informal

and culturally contextualized setting can give a more practical insight to best practices

and how to design innovative educational opportunities for a dynamic audience.

Definitions of Terms

The following terms will aid the reader in understanding the study:

1. Informal education: a spontaneous process of helping people to learn. This

2
type of education works through conversation, the exploration and enlargement of

experience, and its purpose is to cultivate communities, associations and relationships

that make for human flourishing.

2. Community education: education within the community, for the community,

by the community. Community education is usually associated with community-based

non-formal adult education.

3. Cultural dimension: Cultural dimensions are mostly psychological

dimensions, or value constructs, which can be used to describe a specific culture.

4. Social media: forms of electronic communication (as websites for social

networking and microblogging) through which users create online communities to share

information, ideas, personal messages, and other content (as videos).

With the findings from this study, communities can provide sound, guided input

in creating technology-based informal learning opportunities. Researchers will gain a

better understanding of how technology-based informal educational works and the

contexts influencing that process.

3
 CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Introduction

This chapter is divided into four sections - the first section details the theoretical

framework of informal and community education, the second section feature examples of

informal education today and the impact of technology on such learning environments,

the third section examines the significance of analyzing technology-based informal

education through cross-cultural communication frameworks, and the fourth section

discusses why an ethnographic research design is necessary to further investigate

technology-based informal education in the context of cross-cultural dimensions.

Review of Literature

What is Informal Education?

Informal education has a broad definition, generally referring to activities outside

of a classroom or structured institution, including “varying phenomena as school-

sponsored field trips, literacy programs for adults in developing countries, certain aspects

of social work, alternative classrooms, and learning which occurs in daily experiences

and interactions” (Cohen, 2001, p. 358), “activity where learning occurs, but does not

stem from any formally organized learning programs or events44(Dudzinska-Przesmitzki

& Grenier, 2008, p. 10), and “learning based outside classrooms, conferences,

workshops, and other settings of planned, purposeful education” (Jubas, 2011, p. 226).

4
While there is no set or planned curriculum for informal education, there is an emphasis

on certain tenets (Jeffs & Smith, 2011):

1. Work for the well-being of all;

2. Respect the unique value and dignity of each human being;

3. Dialogue;

4. Equality and justice;

5. Democracy and the active involvement of people in the issues that affect their

lives.

These values are vital in building community-based education, which is defined

as, “a philosophical concept which serves the entire community by providing for all of

the educational needs of all its community members” (Minzey, 1972, p. 150), and

furthermore as:

a process designed to enrich the lives of individuals and groups by engaging with
people living within a geographical area, or sharing a common interest, to develop
voluntarily a range of learning, action and reflection opportunities, determined by
their personal, social, economic and political needs. (Scottish Community
Education Council, 1990, p. 2)

In facilitating community education, certain characteristics become emergent

(Jeffs & Smith, 2011):

1. Conversation is placed at the centers of activities. Community education

operates in a wide range of settings—often within the same day. These include centers,

schools and colleges, streets and shopping malls, people's homes, workplaces, and social,

cultural and sporting settings.

2. Community education creates or deepens situations where people can learn

spontaneously, explore and enlarge experience, and make changes.

 3. Community education places a special emphasis on building just and

democratic relationships and organizations that allow people to share in community.

4. Community education uses a variety of methods including groupwork, casual

conversation, play, activities, work with individuals and casework. While their work for

much of the time is informal, they also make use of more formal approaches to facilitate

learning.

5. Community education works with people of all ages although many will

Specialize around a special age range, e.g. children, young people or with adults. In other

words informal education is lifelong education.

6. Community education develops particular special interests such as in

children's play and development, community development and community action,

literacy and basic education, advice, outdoor and adventure activities, arts and cultural

work, and youth work.

Kahane (1975) developed a code of generalized principles that can be used to

describe activities and behaviors in an informal education setting. The code consists of

eight structural components of informality, which are voluntarism, multiplicity,

symmetry, dualism, moratorium, modularity, expressive instrumentalism, and symbolic

pragmatism. Kahane (1997) further asserted that the structural components could be

used to analyze any informal program, regardless of time, place, or content, and explains

what kinds of impact is expected when each is applied to an organization.

1. Voluntarism is the constraint-free decision-making process in which

one can choose according to his or her interests, from among a wide range of role

options;
 2. Multiplicity refers to a wide spectrum of activities relatively equivalent in

their value and importance;

3. Symmetry is a pattern of mutually accommodated expectations

and values of exchange held by actors with relatively equivalent resources such as power,

prestige and wealth;

4. Dualism refers to the coexistence of different or even opposite behavioral

orientations, each holding equal weight;

5. Moratorium is the institutionalized pattern of suspended obligations, therefore

providing an arena for trial and error within flexible boundaries;

6. Modularity is the ability to improvise and take advantage of situational

opportunities;

7. Expressive instrumentalism refers to activities and tasks performed both for

their own sake and a means of achieving future goals which have rewarding power and

instrumental value both in the present and in the future; and

8. Symbolic pragmatism, which is the ascription of symbolic meaning to

activities and of functional meaning to symbols and values.

Informal Education Today and the Impact of Technology

Technology has made a significant impact in facilitating community education

opportunities, particularly becoming indispensable in community environmental

education (Yocco et al., 2011). Radio frequency identification (RFID) radio and cell

phone tours, videos, and touch screen computer kiosks are used in zoos, science centers

and natural history museums to create interactive exhibit experiences for patrons.

Technology integration in community education offers cost-effective means to update

and share information across institutions. For example, at the Florida Museum of Natural

History, the public can text or phone in questions about displays, download mobile apps

about exhibits, and record observations of targeted animals (which provide data points for

the museum’s scientists). Visitors were surveyed regarding the advantage of

incorporating technology into exhibits, and positively responded to factors such as having

more opportunities to learn and perceived alignment with their learning preferences. It

has been demonstrated that the combination of technology and institutions such as zoos,

science centers, and natural history museums afford a rich medium and space for

community education (Yocco et al., 2011).

Farmer (2012b) stipulates that such successful efforts usually include the

following factors: “local needs, local resources, local broad-based planning, partnerships

among organizations, accessible and appropriate technologies, opportunities for

community building and socializing, and locally meaningful content and outcomes” (p.

23). This is further supported by Ciotti (2010) in a case study of the ‘Imiloa Astronomy

Center, a cultural science museum and planetarium, and Ambrosino’s (2009)

phenomenological study of the Smithsonian Folklife Festival. In Ambrosino’s study

participants were asked to take photographs during their visit to the 2-week festival and

these images were used to stimulate post visit interview recall and discussion. Individual

processes emerged from study participants’ experiences and researcher observations,

such as the meaning-making efforts of the participants that were both guided by and

filtered through their personal characteristics, past experiences, and unique ways of

viewing the world, and social processes were evident such as learning from interaction

with program participants and fellow visitors. Results suggested that the Smithsonian
Folklife Festival offered more than museum visits; it provided dynamic and authentic

opportunities for cultural contact and socially situated cognition.

Ciotti (2010) looks at the case of the ‘Imiloa Astronomy Center, where Hawaiian

community and astronomers can come together to discuss and mitigate the cultural rift

between the two groups, which is that, “traditionalists regard this mountain as the altar of

Wakea, the Polynesian sky god and father of all indigenous Hawaiians, while

astronomers extol its lofty summit as a premier platform for astronomical observations”

(Ciotti, 2010, p. 1). The ‘Imiloa Astronomy Center is a state-of-the art institution that

combines science, technology, and culture opened in 2006, and has been demonstrated to

provide a safe, informal, non-conffontational venue for people to gather and air their

differences; and this is proving more fruitful than the contentious atmosphere felt at

adversarial public meetings. Although no formal evaluation has been conducted to assess

the success of ‘Imiloa, Ciotti was still able to cite anecdotal evidence supporting the

positive impact already made by this facility four years after its opening.

The Importance of Cross-Cultural Considerations

Yocco et al.’s (2011), Ambrosino’s (2009), and Ciotti’s (2010) studies also

suggest that culture, technology, and education are inextricably linked. Culture can

dictate the decision-making process of whether or not to pursue post-secondary education

(Finnie, 2012), shapes curriculum as far as early childhood education (Gilliard & Moore,

2007), and instructor beliefs can contribute to the facilitation of technology integration

(Kim, Kim, Lee, Spector, & DeMeester, 2013). Cummins and Sayers (1995) asserted

that the power of the Internet combined with globally networked educational settings has

the potential to overcome cultural illiteracy and discusses several success stories
including breaking down interethnic stereotypes, developing empathy and understanding

among war-torn countries, and being able to learn technology as a global community.

Virtually every field and discipline has become dependent on electronic networks that

transcend a wide variety of national and cultural boundaries (Cummins & Sayers, 1995).

Olson (1976) contended that technology has the ability to shape culture in regards

to cognition and communication because it allows an individual to go beyond their

personal experiences, limitations, and biases to logically assess and explore their reality.

Farmer (2012a) stated that the importance of addressing culture in technology education

as technology has evolved into a conventional means of delivering education; learners are

encountering a diverse array of cross-cultural educational experiences especially in

professional development because many socioeconomic groups are represented. In that

context, educational settings integrating technology must account for cross-cultural

dynamics in terms of the learner, educator, and culturally relevant content.

Leading researchers of cross-cultural dimensions include Hofstede (2001) and

Trompenaars and Hampden-Tumer (Trompenaars & Hampden-Tumer, 1998). Their

approaches propose a set of cultural dimensions along which dominant value systems can

be ordered. These value systems affect human thinking, feeling, and acting, and the

behavior of organizations and institutions in predictable ways. Hofstede developed five

value dimensions of national culture.

1. Power distance. Power distance describes the degree to which people in a

country accept that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally. A

high rating on power distance means that large inequalities of power and wealth exist and

10
are tolerated in the culture, as in a class or caste system that discourages upward mobility.

A low power distance rating characterizes societies that stress equality and opportunity.

2. Individualism versus collectivism. Individualism is the degree to which

people prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of groups and believe in

individual rights above all else. Collectivism emphasizes a tight social framework in

which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and

protect them.

3. Masculinity versus femininity. Masculinity is the degree to which the culture

favors traditional masculine roles such as achievement, power, and control, as opposed to

viewing men and women as equals. A high masculinity rating indicates the culture has

separate roles for men and women, with men dominating the society. A high femininity

rating means the culture sees little differentiation between male and female roles and

treats women as the equals of men in all respects.

4. Uncertainty avoidance. The degree to which people in a country prefer

structured over unstructured situations defines their uncertainty avoidance. In cultures

that score high on uncertainty avoidance, people have an increased level of anxiety about

uncertainty and ambiguity and use laws and controls to reduce uncertainty. People in

cultures low on uncertainty avoidance are more accepting of ambiguity, are less rule

oriented, take more risks, and more readily accept change.

5. Long-term versus short-term orientation. This dimension measures a society’s

commitment to certain values. Cultures with long-term orientation look to the future and

value thrift, persistence, and tradition. In a short-term orientation, people value the here

and now; they accept change more readily.

 Trompenaars and Hampden-Tumer (1998) identified similar cultural dimensions

as Hofstede; each dimension was described by a continuum bounded by two extreme

behaviors and thought patterns. In contrast to Hofstede, Trompenaars and Hampden-

Tumer asserted that the scales were complementary rather than opposing. Trompenaars

and Hampden-Tumer’s approach offers further flexibility for the analysis of cultural

preferences (Edmundson, 2004).

1. Universalism versus particularism describes how people judge others’

behavior. The Universalist highly values the observance of rules, and that in rule-based

societies there are certain absolutes that apply across the board. A Universalist will

typically apply the same rules in all situations. Wherever possible, personal feelings and

emotions are put aside and situations are perceived objectively. Particularist cultures

prefer to assess specific circumstances or personal backgrounds.

2. Individualism versus collectivism. Individualism refers to the tendency to

Perceive oneself as either an individual or as a member of a group, in which members

express interest in personal achievement and are accustomed to taking personal

responsibility. Members of such cultures tend to be motivated by personal rewards and

recognition. Collectivism prioritizes the achievement of group goals, and the success of

individual members is tied to the success of the group. Decisions are made via

consensus, and members are motivated by cohesiveness and teamwork than individual

accomplishment.

3. Neutral versus emotional. This dimension addresses the importance of

feelings and relationships. In a neutral culture people do not carry out their feelings but

keep them carefully controlled and subdued. Members of cultures who are in the

12
emotional end of the spectrum demonstrate their feelings plainly by laughing, smiling,

grimacing, scowling and gesturing. When expressing feelings, an emotional person is

looking for corresponding emotions in the person they are interacting with or for a direct

emotional response against their emotion and vice versa.

4. Specific versus diffuse. In specific-oriented cultures areas of life such as

work and family are recognized widely. A member of a specific-oriented culture is more

open in the public space but very closed in the private one. Other characteristics of

people in such a culture are directness, being to the point and purposeful in relating.

There are often principles and consistent moral stands independent of the person being

addressed. In diffuse-oriented cultures areas of life such as work and family are closely

linked. A diffuse-oriented person is more closed in public space but is very open in

private space.

5. Achievement versus ascription. This dimension refers to the question of

whether the status of an individual results from their background, or if the status has

mainly to do with their own performance. In achievement-oriented cultures a title is used

only when it is relevant to the competence an individual brings to the task. Respect is

based on the individual's knowledge and skills. Decision-making is challenged on

technical and functional grounds. In this kind of dimension the status of an individual

refers mainly to his own performance. In ascription-oriented cultures a title is

extensively used to distinguish one in an organization and respect for a person is based on

seniority and hierarchy.

6. Sequential versus synchronic. This dimension deals with the question of how

13
people in various cultures manage time. Managing time sequentially refers to time as a

series of passing events, and a sequential person has a path worked out in advance with

times for the completion of each stage. For synchronic time management, events have a

past, present and future that are interrelated, and such that ideas about the future and

memories of the past shape present action. Multitasking is preferred as opposed to

conducting activities individually. In contrast to sequential cultures, the giving and

receiving of time to one another is valued over just the passage of time.

7. Internal versus external control. A culture high on internal control believe

that they have significant control over the outcome of events, and cultures directed

toward external control believe that there is an external influence over their lives.

Cultures with high internal control aggressively try to manage situations whereas those

directed toward external control are more comfortable with sudden changes and are

flexible in their responses to them.

As informal education is a democratic and shared process, it can be expected that

organizations that participate in informal and community learning will exhibit cultural

dimensions such as collectivism, particularism, diffuse-oriented, and achievement

oriented. Such organizations may also show both internal and external control meaning

that they have control and say over the implementation of learning processes, yet be

comfortable with the spontaneity of informal education.

Ethnographic Study of Informal Education. Technology, and Culture

An ethnographic research design is most appropriate as this study seeks a

comprehensive view of how culture, technology, and community education are tied.

Ethnographic research is a procedure for, “describing, analyzing, and interpreting a

14
culture-sharing group’s shared patterns of behavior, beliefs, and language that develop

over time” (Clark & Cresswell, 2010, p. 244). In order to understand the patterns of a

culture-sharing group, the ethnographer spends considerable amount of time in the field

interviewing, observing, and gathering documents and artifacts about the group in order

to understand their culture-sharing behaviors, beliefs, and language. The purpose of this

study is to capture a portrait of technology-based informal education in a museum within

the cultural contexts in which it exists. With the lack of available research linking

technology, cultural dimensions, and informal education, this study can provide a

reference or a baseline for determining best practices in such learning environments.

Summary

The emphasis on individuals’ unique interests and relationship based processes

make informal education a viable method that suits a community’s learning needs.

Informal education provides an encouraging and engaging space in which people can

learn on their accord, the opportunity to connect with others, and share meaningful

educational experiences. Technology and institutions such as museums have been shown

to facilitate rich and sustainable platforms for informal education, and the cross-cultural

dimensions of those learning spaces must be accounted for. The literature discussed

establishes the need to determine the relationships among informal education,

technology, museums, and culture in order to maintain and sustainably develop

technology-based informal education.

The aforementioned literature review serves as a basis for the methodologies

presented in the third chapter and the framework for analysis in the fourth chapter.

Kahane’s Code of Informality serves as a guide to explain activities and behaviors within
a technology-based informal education setting, and the cross-cultural dimensions as

outlined by Hofstede and Trompenaars are used to explain emergent cultural processes

and trends from such an environment. A discussion of where Kahane’s, Hofstede’s, and

Trompenaars’ theoretical frameworks intersect in technology-based informal education is

presented in the concluding fifth chapter.

16
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

Introduction

This subsection briefly reviews the research problem, presents the guiding

questions for the study, and details the methodology used to answer the research problem.

It is evident from the review of literature that culturally contextualized, technology-based

informal learning is a sustainable method that suits a community’s learning needs as it

emphasizes on individuals’ unique interests and relationship based processes, and that it

facilitates a rich space in which people can learn on their accord, the opportunity to

connect with others, and share meaningful educational experiences. However, the lack of

research about where technology-based informal education and culture intersect presents

an issue in having sound, evidence based information to use in further developing such

opportunities. Museums, science centers, zoos, and aquariums are crucial spaces for

informal learning, and play a vital role in educating millions of people about a diverse

array of current issues such as wildlife conservation, historical and cultural preservation.

With over 200 accredited zoos and aquariums just in the United States (Association of

Zoos and Aquariums, 2013) and 17,500 museums (American Alliance of Museums,

2013), these organizations have a major responsibility in educating the general public.

Educational institutions such as aquariums, zoos, historical sites, and museums are vital

resources for local communities to connect to what is happening globally, and in that

context technology can play a pivotal role in community education.

17
 The need for additional research and new perspectives on technology-based

informal education has been emphasized in recent scholarship. Ambrosino (2009) cited a

need for narratives in regards to why people engage in informal education and how

participants would use electronic resources to access background information in

preparation for informal learning settings. Charitonos, Blake, Scanlon, and Jones (2012)

called for the need to explore how online, social media, and mobile technologies can help

recover visitors’ meanings about aspects of their museum experience, and

Diamantopolou (2008, p. 308) asserted that social and mobile technologies in museum

settings are not only interest-driven and cater to multi-modal learning but are also “multi-

discursive” and can be of considerable use in designing experiences for meaning making

across contexts.

While evidence has supported technology-based informal education as an

effective instructional approach, little is known about how technology, informal

education, and culture are related. Further research is needed to provide informal

educators with information that they can use to make sound decisions about design,

selection, and implementation of programs and strategies. With the findings from this

study, communities can provide sound, guided input in creating technology-based

informal learning opportunities. Researchers will gain an understanding of how

technology-based informal educational works and the contexts influencing that process.

Guiding Questions

Through an ethnographic research design, this study evaluated and assessed the

participation of the researcher, museum staff, exhibitors, event speakers, event

participants, and patrons through the following guiding questions:

 1. In what ways are culture and technology-based education linked?

2. Based on those linkages, what can potentially be beneficial practices in

developing culturally-relevant technology-based informal education?

3. Specifically, what are possible effective culturally-relevant technology-based

informal education practices for museums?

Site Description

The site selected is the Pacific Island Ethnic Art Museum (PIEAM), a small

museum in Long Beach, California. PIEAM is the newest museum in Long Beach

having only opened in 2010, and is the sister museum of the Museum of Latin American

Art located across the street. Both museums are funded under the Dr. Robert Gumbiner

Foundation.

PIEAM evolved from the private collection of the late Dr. Robert Gumbiner and

the Ethnic Art Institute of Micronesia (Pacific Island Ethnic Art Museum, 2013). Dr.

Gumbiner was the founder of FHP, a pioneer in the health maintenance (HMO) industry.

Gumbiner’s healthcare work in the early 1970s led him to Guam, and from there he

explored the other islands in Micronesia. During his travels, Dr. Gumbiner was intrigued

by the island of Yap, one of the four states of The Federated States of Micronesia (FSM)

known as the most traditional island in Micronesia. In 1994, he founded the Ethnic Art

Institute of Micronesia (EAIM) to preserve and revive the lost arts of Micronesia and

serve as a base for training a younger generation of artists. The EAIM’s primary function

was to revive the traditional cultures of Micronesia through the restoration, recreation,

and revival of indigenous arts, dance, and customs. Recreations included men’s meeting

houses, cookhouses, and men’s carving huts. An active guild of artisans was established
through EAIM to accurately and exclusively reproduce Pacific Island arts and crafts in

traditional modes using indigenous materials, including sculptures, carvings, fabrics, and

story boards. During that time, he was given a unique opportunity as the only foreign

investor in Yap, to build a 22-room boutique hotel, Traders’ Ridge Resort, which opened

in late 1999. These two ventures provided the opportunity to offer island guests a unique

cultural experience (through the EAIM) and brought traditional island arts to the outside

world. During his travels, Dr. Gumbiner amassed an impressive private collection of

work, previously located in a private gallery in his home on Naples Island, Long Beach,

California, and the collection was gifted to PIEAM with his passing. In addition to his

collection, Dr. Gumbiner provided funds to launch the museum.

Long Beach is an urban city part of Los Angeles County and in Southern

California, on the Pacific coast of the United States. The city is the 36th-largest city in

the nation and the seventh largest in California (City of Long Beach, n.d). As of 2010, its

population was 462,257. In addition, Long Beach is the second largest city

within Greater Los Angeles Area, after Los Angeles, and a principal city of the Los

Angeles-Long Beach-Santa Ana metropolitan area. The 2010 United States

Census reported that Long Beach had a population of 462,257. The racial makeup of

Long Beach was 213,066 (46.1%) White, 62,603 (13.5%) African American, 3,458

(0.7%) Native American, 59,496 (12.9%) Asian (4.5% Filipino, 0.9% Vietnamese,

0.6% Chinese, 0.6% Japanese, 0.4% Indian, 0.4% Korean, and 5.2% Other Asian), 5,253

(1.1%) Pacific Islander (0.8% Samoan, 0.1% Guamanian, 0.1% Native Hawaiian, 0.1%

Other Pacific Islander), 93,930 (20.3%) from other races, and 24,451 (5.3%) from two or

more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race was 188,412 persons (40.8%). Among the

20
Hispanic population, 32.9% are Mexican, 0.7% Puerto Rican, 0.3% Cuban, and 7.0%

Other Hispanic or Latino.

PIEAM’s staff is comprised of three full time staff members: Museum Director,

External Communications Representative, and Operations Supervisor. PIEAM’s

Volunteer Program is three-fold (Pacific Island Ethnic Art Museum, 2013). One area of

volunteering supports daily operations and assists in special events by helping with

registration and ushering. In the Docent Program, individuals must be able to commit to

4 consecutive weeks training course 1 day per week for 3 hours. Docents are expected to

commit to 2 years of service and conduct a minimum of two tours a month. Prospective

docents are taught about the artistic traditions of the Pacific Island including common

themes and historical impact. PIEAM’s 6-month Internship Program allows interns to

work in various departments of the museum and is a more comprehensive experience.

Volunteers, docents and interns are non-paid positions.

Participants

Participants in the study included the researcher, museum staff, docents, interns,

volunteers, exhibitors, event speakers, event participants, and patrons. The researcher

and museum staff are Long Beach residents who live in close proximity to PIEAM. Other

participants also live in Long Beach and throughout Southern California. The researcher

has been a PIEAM volunteer since May 2010, and is responsible for technical aspects of

daily operations such as website maintenance and social media marketing. PIEAM’s

Museum Director had been in charge of the EAIM before the transition to PIEAM, the

External Communications Representative has extensive experience in graphic design and

communications in practice and in academia, and the Operations Supervisor had several

21
years of experience working with PIEAM’s sister museum, MoLAA. All of staff has a

widespread reach in the local community, with the Museum Director and External

Communications Representative particularly having strong ties to the Asian and Pacific

Islander communities locally, nationally, and internationally.

Procedures

The purpose of this ethnographic study is to investigate processes in technology-

based informal education and explore the cultural dimensions in which it takes place.

This exploratory research can provide better understanding into how and why to create

technology-based informal learning opportunities for institutions such as museums.

Choice of Data

Ethnographic research study was chosen as the most suitable research design

since it allows for the evolution of new variables that may not have been apparent or

considered at the beginning of the study, and allows for a comprehensive picture of the

nature of technology-based informal education.

Three forms of data were used to answer this study’s research questions.

Fieldnotes were used to collect the participant researcher’s observations; informal

interviews with staff, exhibitors, interns, patrons, and event speakers and participants

were conducted for better understanding of observations; and electronic documentation of

artifacts such as pictures from events and exhibits, social media and website screen shots,

and sample electronic files and archives that are necessary to the daily operations of the

museum was collected. Based on the researcher’s volunteer experience with PIEAM and

the types of data that are appropriate in ethnographic studies, the researcher determined

that the type of data collected would give the best picture of the technology-based

22
informal education processes within the cultural context it exists. PIEAM relies heavily

on electronic communication and documentation, and collaboration among staff, the

researcher, volunteers, and exhibitors for museum operations and event and exhibit

planning.

Data Collection Methods

Data were collected over a period of several months from June 8 to November 23,

2012. The researcher was at the museum on average three days a week, and on average 3

hours a day. The total hours of observation total were over 150 hours. The researcher

documented fieldwork notes during every data collection period, which included

observations, conversations with staff, exhibitors, interns, patrons, and event speakers

and participants. Electronic documentation of artifacts such as pictures from events and

exhibits, social media and website screen shots, and sample electronic files and archives

that are necessary to the daily operations of the museum was collected (Appendix A-G).

The researcher wrote additional notes at the end of each observation period, including

personal reflections for most observations.

Data Analysis

The data were analytically coded in two phases: open coding and focused coding.

In open coding, the fieldnotes are read line-by-line to identify and formulate themes. In

focused coding, fieldnotes are analyzed again line-by-line on the basis of topics that have

been identified as being of particular interest. Code and integrative memos are created to

clarify and link analytic themes. The emergent themes were further categorized under the

Kahane’s code of informal learning in order to ascertain informal education processes.

Trends in Hofstede’s and Trompenaar’s cultural dimensions will be ascertained in the

23
informal education processes categorized under Kahane’s Code of Informal Education.

A discussion of the emergent themes and intersections between culture, technology, and

informal education in light of the guiding questions are presented in the fourth and fifth

chapters.

Limitations to the Study

As a volunteer with PIEAM for over two years and having positive existing

professional and personal relationships with staff and some of the participants, this

positionality may create bias. The researcher was only able to conduct participatory

research based on her availability pending employment and academic scheduling so that

observation periods were not consecutive or consistent. More specifically, during some

weeks the researcher was only able to conduct research during weekdays, and some

weeks during the weekends as well. The hours of observation were also not consistent.

This inconsistency affects the type of data collected, as certain times and days in the

museum are busier than others. On the other hand, their relative randomness could be

construed as a representative sample. The researcher was able to attend major events and

exhibits in the duration of the study, but was not able to participate in much of the

planning processes for those exhibits and events.

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 CHAPTER4

FINDINGS AND RESULTS

This chapter presents a discussion of the emergent themes and intersections

between culture, technology, and informal education in light of the guiding research

questions. Fieldnotes were used to collect the participant researcher’s observations;

informal interviews were conducted for better understanding of observations; and

electronic documentation of artifacts such as pictures from events and exhibits, social

media and website screen shots, and sample electronic files and archives that are

necessary to the daily operations of the museum was collected.

The data were analytically coded in two phases: open coding and focused coding.

Code and integrative memos are created to clarify and link analytic themes. The major

themes arising from the data were internal communication, external communication,

communication channels, knowledge management, collaboration, and the different types

of participants in the study (Tables 1,2, and 3).

Emergent Themes

Internal and External Communication

Internal and External Communication themes are presented in Table 1. Internal

communication included face-to-face staff meetings, emails, and phone calls.

Information communicated within the organization primarily consisted of exhibit

development, event and program planning and implementation, and daily operations of

the museum. External communication, which is information disseminated to the

25
community, consisted of information about the museum such as exhibits, tours, event and

program information, cross-promotional marketing with partner Pacific Island

organizations, and calls to local Pacific Island artists for collaboration. External

communication was similar to internal communication such that it included emails, phone

calls, and face-to-face meetings. However, external communication, particularly for

collaboration (such as the call for artists and working on the new community exhibit,

planning new event and programming with new community partners) seemed to require

more phone calls and face-to-face interaction. External communication also included

monthly newsletters and posting information, video, and pictures of events on social

media.

TABLE 1. Emergent Themes: Internal and External Communications

Internal Communication External Communication

Exhibit development, event and program planning Information on current exhibits, tours, event and
and implementation, museum daily operations. programming, cross-promotional marketing, and
calls to local Pacific Islander artists.
Face-to-face staff meetings Face-to-face meetings

Staff-to-staff e-mails E-mail correspondence

Staff-to-staff phone calls Phone calls

Monthly newsletter

Social Media posts

Communication Channels

Major communication channels included Face-to-face interactions, Phone, and

Electronic as listed in Table 2. Face-to-face comprised of conversations, tours, inquiries,

26
and presentations during events; the phone, which included staff office phones and

mobile phones, a call-in audio tour, and electronic communications including e-mail, the

museum website, and social media.

An example of a face-to-face interaction was the Book Launch of ‘Akua. ‘Akua

was written by a local author from Carson, California. The author discussed that the

book explored the clash of native myths and modem island culture, and is based from a

personal journey. The researcher took pictures of the event, which included visitors

gathering and socializing.

Many of the conversations and inquiries observed were by phone. For example, if

there were quick questions in regards to planning events and exhibits, the External

Communications Representative used the phone. The phone was used for conference

calls with the Museum Director if they were going from meeting to meeting. The audio

tour, named, “Sharing Story,” had been currently available via OnCell and could be

accessed by calling in or using the OnCell app available for Android or iOS mobile

devices. Participants who were pre-recorded on the audio tour were asked to share a

story about their heritage.

Examples of electronic means of communication include the researcher’s ongoing

volunteer responsibilities in website management, social media marketing and

communications, and online exhibit development; communications for donors and the

collection acquisition process are primarily conducted by phone and email. E-mail is a

primary means of contacting for potential exhibits and events; for example, the External

Communications Representative updated me exclusively by email on the progress in

regards to contacting speakers for a movie screening about a major choral competition in

27
the Kamehameha Schools in Oahu. She was able to contact the headmaster of the

Kamehameha Schools in regards to contacting the former headmaster; the External

Communications Representative was requested by Museum Director to find the last quote

of the movie, and External Communications Representative was looking to ask

permission to use the quote said by the former headmaster featured in the documentary.

It was surprising for the External Communications Representative that the headmaster

featured in the movie got back to her right away. The External Communications

Representative noticed that former headmaster featured in the movie, his email was sent

from his iPad. We had briefly discussed the contrast to the recent call for artists; before

the movie screening inquiry, only one or two had inquired after a few months, however in

contacting for the movie screening, it was easier to reach people.

An example of all communication channels being observed was in the “The BBQ

w/ Q and Joe Sav” aired via Betelnut Internet Radio. The purpose of the program was to

create awareness about the Pacific Island community by featuring a wide range of

professionals of Pacific Islander descent including politicians, musicians, religious

leaders, and attorneys. The show was divided into three segments. The radio hosts and

their guests arrived two hours before the start of the show, setup their audio visual

equipment which included laptops, sound boards, speakers, microphones. They began

with several sound checks, microphone checks, and video checks. The researcher took

pictures of the event and uploaded images on Facebook and Twitter throughout the show.

For the show observed by the researcher, there was a phone interview with President of

Guam society from Washington DC. Updates throughout the show are posted on

Facebook and Twitter.

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TABLE 2. Emergent Themes: Communication Channels

Face-to-face Phone Electronic

Conversations On-Cell Audio Tour Email

Tours Office Phone Website

Inquiries Mobile Phone Social Media

Presentations

Knowledge Management

Knowledge management is summarized in Table 3. PIEAM’s material resources

include print, audio-visual, and digital information. Museum information such as

operating hours, exhibits, tours, events, programming, and facility rental are available

through PIEAM's website. Docent guides, collection acquisition, volunteer and intern

hours are in print, artifact information is available via print and digital format, documents

concerning museum operations such as daily reports, budgets, and most internal

communications are digital, and audio visual resources include background music such as

traditional Hawaiian Chants and ocean sounds, as well as videos from past events and

promotional pieces. An example of how both print and digital resources are managed is

the process of collection acquisition.

The researcher had interviewed the External Communications Representative

regarding how current collections were acquired. For example, the Bell-Tumer

collection was acquired when one of the family members owning the collection contacted

PIEAM. The family member was a travel agent and had seen an advertisement for

PIEAM in a visitor’s bureau magazine. A form called “Deed of Gifts” was completed, as

29
well as Power of Attorney forms from the other family members owning the collection.

Donors are asked to be able to trace the history of each artifact to the original artist,

village, as well as measure the dimensions of the artifact. Inventory is documented

electronically and on print.

Artifacts were categorized as collections, retail, or library items. The trend was

such that the more history available about the artifact (oral, print, or digital) the more

likely it was categorized as “collection.” All digital files were accessible on a networked

server. Files were organized by user, event, and year. Research on artifacts were further

conducted via textbooks from the PIEAM's library, Internet, and working with staffs

professional and personal network within the Pacific Islander community.

Collaboration

Collaboration was categorized into collaboration among staff, among staff and the

researcher, the staff and exhibitors, and staff and volunteers as listed in Table 3. Existing

and potential collaborators were identified by either PIEAM reaching out to their

professional and personal networks, or members of the community having approached

PIEAM. This process is evident in PIEAM’s exhibit development and planning for

events and programming. For example, the upcoming community exhibit was developed

as a result from a call to local Pacific Islander artists, and the Radio Show was a result of

the Radio Show hosts approaching the Museum Director and the External

Communications Representative.

Participants

Participants observed in the study included the researcher, staff, exhibitors, event

participants, museum visitors, and volunteers (Table 3).

30
TABLE 3. Emergent Themes: Knowledge Management, Collaboration, and Participants

Knowledge Management Collaboration Participants

Artifact Information Staff Researcher

Lesson Plans Staff and Researcher Staff

Volunteer Training Staff and Exhibitors Exhibitors

Email Correspondence Staff and Volunteers Event Participants

Research Museum Visitors

Future Exhibit Ideas Volunteers

Upcoming Exhibit Planning

Print, digital, audio formats

Research Question 1

To answer, “In what ways are culture and technology-based informal education

linked?” the emergent themes listed in Tables 1,2, and 3 were categorized according to

the definitions of Kahane’s Code of Informality as seen in Tables 4 and 5. Hofstede’s

and Trompenaars’ cultural dimensions were then related to the emergent themes

connected to Kahane’s code of informality. The links between culture and technology-

based informal education linked can be seen in social and collaborative processes, with

social media as a primary technology platform. An overall trend is that informal learning

processes are supported by cultural dimensions that maintain and develop strong

relationships among participants such as collectivism, particularism, diffuse-orientation,

and achievement orientation.

31
TABLE 4. Emergent Themes Categorized by Kahane’s Code of Informality - Internal
and External Communication

Internal Communication External Communication

Voluntarism Exhibit development, event and Information on current exhibits,

program planning and tours, event and programming,
implementation cross-promotional marketing,
calls to local Pacific Islander
artists.
Face-to-face meetings
E-mail correspondence
Phone calls
Multiplicity Exhibit development, event cross- Face-to-face meetings, Phone
promotional marketing and calls
program planning and
implementation
Symmetry Exhibit development, event and Face-to-face meetings, Phone
program planning and calls
implementation
Dualism Exhibit development, event and Face-to-face meetings
program planning and
implementation
Moratorium Exhibit development, event and Face-to-face meetings
program planning and
implementation, Face-to-face
staff meetings
Modularity Exhibit development, event and Face-to-face meetings, cross-
program planning and promotional marketing
implementation, Face-to-face
staff meetings
Expressive Exhibit development, event and Face-to-face meetings, cross-
program planning and promotional marketing
implementation, Face-to-face
staff meetings
Symbolic Pragmatism Exhibit development, event and Cross-promotional marketing
program planning and
implementation

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TABLE 5. Emergent Themes Categorized by Kahane’s Code of Informality:
Communication Channels, Knowledge Management, and Collaboration

Communication Channels Knowledge Management Collaboration

Voluntarism Email, Face-to-face, Social Future Exhibit Ideas, Researcher, Staff, and
Media Lesson Plans Volunteers
Multiplicity Social Media, Lesson Plans, Volunteer Exhibitors
Presentations Training
Symmetry Conversations, Email, Volunteer Training, Researcher, Staff, and
office phone, mobile phone Future Exhibit Ideas Exhibitors

Dualism Social Media, Upcoming Exhibit Researcher, Staff,

Presentations Planning Volunteers, and
Exhibitors
Moratorium Social Media Upcoming Exhibit Researchers, Staff,
Planning, Future Exhibit Volunteers, Exhibitors,
Ideas and Visitors
Modularity Presentations, Social Upcoming Exhibit Researchers, Staff,
Media Planning, Future Exhibit Volunteers, Exhibitors,
Ideas and Visitors
Expressive Social media, Upcoming Exhibit Researcher, Staff,
conversations, office Planning, Future Exhibit Exhibitors, Volunteers,
phone, mobile phone Ideas Event Participants,
Visitors
Symbolic Social media, presentations Upcoming Exhibit Researcher, Staff,
Pragmatism Planning Exhibitors, Volunteers,
Event Participants,
Visitors

In light of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, the trends are low power distance, a

collectivistic and feminine organization, a high degree of uncertainty avoidance, and both

long-term and short-term orientation. Low power distance, collectivism, and high

femininity were noted in the use of social media. Social media was a platform for cross­

promotion among PIEAM and other Pacific Islander community groups and

organizations, and a place to easily inquire and discuss events and programs at the

museum. These trends were demonstrated in planning for upcoming and future events

and exhibits. There is a trend for low power distance and collectivism as far as working

together, contribution, and discussion about ideas, and the high degree of uncertainty

33
avoidance among collaborators was very apparent and grew more frequent especially if

there were deadlines to be met.

For example, the researcher had assisted with reviewing and compiling

documentation and a promotional video for a grant proposal PIEAM was working on.

The purpose of the grant was to fund the Pasifika Living Arts Festival for 2013. The

grant ultimately included over 300 pages consisting of several pieces of evidence of work

that PIEAM has done; letters of support from participating artists, service fee invoices for

each artist, a two-minute video and PowerPoint presentation featuring the Pasifika Living

Arts Festival were to be submitted for the proposal. Staff and the researcher had roles in

which documents to compile, what to research, and whom to contact; however, there was

high uncertainty avoidance among staff about reaching the deadline. The grant was

ultimately submitted on time.

In context to Trompenaars’ cultural dimensions, the trend among the emergent

themes were particularist, collectivist, both neutral and emotional, diffuse, achievement

oriented, synchronic, and internal control. The particularist, collectivist, diffuse,

achievement orientation, synchronic, and internal control dimensions were observed in

collaborative processes such as planning for upcoming exhibits and events. These

dimensions were also present in social media usage. For example, Facebook postings

primarily consisted of museum events, and demonstrations of how people staff and

volunteers are working with the community (Appendix G). Major trend in the Facebook

postings were pictures of community partners in museum events, such as the Pac Biz

Mixer, showing a strong working relationship with the museum. This trend in

collectivism supports the egalitarian nature of informal education.

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 Research Question 2

To answer, “Based on those linkages, what can potentially be beneficial practices

in developing culturally-relevant technology-based informal education?” the frequency of

emergent themes were analyzed through Kahane’s framework (1975) in Table 6.

TABLE 6. Top Three Most Frequent Emergent Themes Within Kahane’s Code of
Informal Education

Frequency

Social Media 8

Event and program planning and implementation 8

External Communication - Face to face meetings 7

Social media, planning for upcoming future events and programs, and Face to

face external communication were the most recurrent themes among all informal

education processes as outlined by Kahane (1975). For example, Facebook posts

primarily consisted of calls to the community for participation in future events, event

participants interacting with each other, and volunteers interacting with the community

through Pacific Islander cultural festivals.

The emergence of social media and working together to plan and implement

future events and programs suggest that the themes connected to the informal education

processes are activities and behaviors that allow for optimal informal learning. With

social and collaborative processes being the links between collectivistic and diffuse

cultures and technology-based informal education as discussed in the previous

35
subsection, and having social media as a primary technological platform, beneficial

practices can include learning projects that bring community members together, and

using social media as a primary means of communication and delivering information.

Research Question 3

The question, “Specifically, what are possible effective culturally-relevant

technology-based informal education practices for museums?” can be answered by

inspecting Tables 4, 5, and 6. PIEAM specific activities that were highly recurrent in

informal learning processes were Face-to-face activities such as presentations,

collaboration among all of staff, volunteers, and exhibitors especially in the case of

museum event and exhibit planning, and the utilization of social media to promote

PIEAM events and programs. This question can be further addressed in context of the

elimination of the Museum Director’s position due to the funding constrictions of the

Gumbiner Foundation.

Major Impact to the Study: Elimination of the Museum Director’s Position

Towards the end of this ethnographic study, the Museum Director’s position was

eliminated due to budget cuts in the Gumbiner Foundation. This organizational change

impacted internal and external communication, made conflict in cultural dimensions as

defined by Hofstede apparent, and created heavier reliance on social media, particularly

Facebook. This section will present the impact of the Museum Director’s departure, and

discuss the possible effective culturally-relevant technology-based informal education

practices for museums.

Internal and external communication changed such that there was higher

uncertainty avoidance. As the Museum Director position was eliminated, all funding and

36
logistics for future exhibits were now to be approved by the Gumbiner Foundation. Since

the Museum Director’s departure, staff has only met with the decision-maker in the

Gumbiner Foundation twice in a five month period since the conclusion of the study as

described by the External Communications Representative. This lack of contact has

created high uncertainty avoidance in external communications as staff cannot say with

certainty if ideas for future exhibits will come into fruition.

Based on informal interview, staff has perceived that the Gumbiner Foundation

did not share the same collectivistic and particularist values as they did since meetings to

plan and implement future events, exhibits, and programming were rare, and always

postponed. The External Communications Representative, volunteers, and other

community partners have expressed doubt in regards to the whether PIEAM is truly

community driven, or if control is solely under the Gumbiner Foundation.

The departure of the Museum Director impacted changes in social media usage.

The researcher noticed more posts as it was not necessary to have posts approved by the

Museum Director. At a certain point, the OnCell audio tour was eliminated and the

museum website and email server was made unavailable due to budget cuts and social

media was heavily relied on to stay in touch with the community.

The emergence of these results suggest that possible effective culturally-relevant

technology-based informal education practices for museums is to use social media for

multiple purposes - communication, calling to the community for participation, and using

social media such as Facebook to manage information about current and past exhibits,

events, and programming. Such practices will allow for delivery of informal education

independent of funding and organizational culture constraints.

37
 General Discussion

The results show that specific museum practices and technologies are conducive

to facilitating informal learning processes. The cultural contexts that enable those

processes are primarily social and relationship-based dimensions that allow for as many

participants as possible contribute and be involved in creating unique learning

opportunities. In regards to a technological platform, it is shown that social media is the

most conducive technology in the informal learning process.

38
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

Summary of Findings and Interpretation

The major themes arising from the data are internal communication, external

communication, communication channels, knowledge management, collaboration, and

the different types of participants in the study. Within those major themes, the activities

and behaviors that allow for optimal informal learning are social and collaborative

processes. The results show that social media is a rich platform for informal education.

The cultural contexts that enable those processes are primarily social and relationship-

based dimensions that allow for as many participants as possible to contribute and be

involved in creating unique learning opportunities.

Conclusions

This study showed that while informal learning has no set curriculum and does

not stem from any structured learning programs or events, the cultural dimensions and

technological basis which best facilitate informal learning process are quite specific.

Social media is recurrent in the informal learning process, and cultural analyses within

Hofstede’s and Trompenaars’ theoretical frameworks reveal that informal learning

processes are linked to social and relationship-based dimensions such as collectivism and

particularism, and the cultural trends that emerge are in alignment with the community

driven principles of community education as defined by Jeffs and Smith (2011). The

39
findings reveal that social media, most prominently Facebook, is a rich platform that

promotes informal education in the community. The results show that social media is not

only used to deliver information, but to facilitate interaction among participants of

informal learning.

Implications and Recommendations for Further Study

The study implies that technology-based informal learning is a social and

collaborative. The research supports that such learning must be culturally contextualized

and that informal learning is a democratic process as discussed in Chapter 2. Overall, the

results of this ethnographic study show that informal learning allows people of various

cultural, professional, and demographic backgrounds to work together. Social media

serves as a rich, technological platform for the community-driven and relationship-based

cultural processes prominent among PIEAM and its collaborators. Further implication of

this research is that in the process of implementing technology, rather than asking, “How

can certain technologies be used or integrated in a museum,” a more effective question

can be, “What technologies are available to support the culture of an organization or a

learning environment?” In the case of PIEAM, social media technologies and tools

would work best. Based on the results of this study, further research can be conducted in

how social media facilitates informal education. The study revealed that social media

became vital in communicating with the community, especially with the departure of the

Museum Director.

With those findings, PIEAM can expand on its current practices by creating a

social media plan. Events such as the book launch could be made available via UStream

and YouTube. Video testimonials of visitor experience can be made to engage users.

40
With the sheer amount of information for collections and museum event and

programming, a wiki or blog can be created for knowledge management. For security

purposes and to maintain the integrity of information editing can be limited to PIEAM

staff only and trusted community partners. PIEAM can invite patrons to come to the

museum to have their video testimonials recorded. With promising social media projects

to expand educational technology use in PIEAM, opportunity to create a technology plan

and apply to grants accordingly in order to update serves, computers, and audio visual

equipment to professionally produce social media. Having a social media and technology

plan is an opportunity to optimize professional development for the organization and for

the community as well. PIEAM can develop best practices based on experience, and

possibly train local artists and non-profits within the local community about how to best

maximize technology for their respective organizations.

41
APPENDICES
 APPENDIX A

PICTURES OF ARTIFACTS

43
FIGURE 1. Masi: A cloth made of mulberry tree bark.

FIGURE 2. Face mask from Fiji.

44
 APPENDIX B

SAMPLE LESSON PLAN

45
From Warrior to Worship: Understanding Polynesian
Dance Types
SUMMARY
Dances in Pacific cultures reflect life events ranging from the extraordinary to the mundane.
In Dances o f Lifethere are warrior dances, birth dances, ancestral dances, dexterity dances,
dances created for fun and enjoyment, ritual dances, etc. In this lesson, students will compare
and contrast the various dances that they view in the film, reflect on the cultures that those
dances represent and create oratory and movements that have meaning for them.

AUDIENCE Grades 6-8

TIME NEEDED 6-8 hours

OBJECTIVES Students will:

• Familiarize themselves with various types of dance shown in the film

(New Zealand, Palau, Samoa, New Caledonia, and Guam - listed in order of
appearance).
• Compare and contrast the various types of dances presented in the film.
• Discuss the role of dance within its cultural context.
• Create poetry and movements that illustrate an event in the student's life.

MATERIALS NEEDED Dances of L

ifeVHS Tape or DVD

PROCEDURES

1. View film Dances of Life

2. Compare and contrast the various types of dances presented:

• What are the similarities in expression, movement, gesture, music making, and
messages between these cultures?
• What are the differences?

46
3. Discuss the cultural meaning of the dances presented:

• What role might these dances play?

• In society?
• In preparation for war?
• In oral histories?
• In celebrations?
• How do you suppose these dances developed?
• What other types of dances not mentioned here might there be?
4. Create a poem/story/chant that illustrates an event in your life:

• Compose a poem, story or chant that illustrates an event that you would like to share
with your classmates, family, and or community.
• Create a vocal rhythm for your oratory.
• Develop ways in which your body (facial expressions, hand movements, foot
movements, etc.) might reflect your oratory and help illustrate its meaning.

5. Perform and evaluate your composition:

• How would you classify your dance?

• What was the role of your dance? How did your dance develop? What was the process
that you went through to create your unique composition?
• How well did you communicate your story through your dance and oratory?
• How did performing an original composition make you feel?

ASSESSMENT Student performances will be assessed according to the following:

• Quality and depth of research

• Quality of evaluation/research insights
• Quality of performance
• Personal insights
• Creativity
• Effort
• Execution of oratory
• Physical expression

47
EXTENSION ACTIVITIES Students can:

1. Devise an instrument out of ordinary items you might find at home. Create rhythmic
patterns using your homemade instrument.
2. Create poi balls. Simple poi balls can be made by putting a tennis ball into the foot of a
tube sock, then tying a small knot at the top. Try the movements yourself. A beatiful
example of poi dancing is performed by Ngati Rangiwewehi at the Aotearoa
Traditional Maori Performing Arts Festival, held in Rorotua in 1996. Observe the
skill, poise, grace and timing of these women. Notice the different types of poi they
perform. (This may take a minute or two to download).
www.maori.org.nz/waiata/video/rangiwewehi.mpg
3. Research dances of your own cultural heritage. Learn and perform these dances in
groups or individually.

RELEVANT CURRICULUM STANDARDS

From National Dance Standards for the Performing Arts

http://artsedge.kennedv-center.org/teach/standards.cfm

Dance Standards

Standard 1: Identifying and demonstrating movement elements and skills in performing

dance.

Standard 2: Understanding choreographic principles, processes, and structures.

Standard 3: Understanding dance as a way to create and communicate meaning.

Standard 4: Applying and demonstrating critical and creative thinking skills in dance.

Standard 5: Demonstrating and understanding dance in various cultures and historical

periods.

Standard 6. Clearly identify commonalities and differences between dance and other

disciplines with regard to fundamental concepts such as materials, elements, and ways of

communicating meaning.

Standard 7: Making connections between dance and other disciplines.

Culture Standards

48
Standard 8. Compare and contrast how meaning is communicated in choreographic works.

Standard 9. Analyze issues of ethnicity, gender, social/economic class, age and/or physical

condition plays a part in relation to dance.

49
 APPENDIX C

SAMPLE TIMELINE OF EXTERNAL COMMUNICATION

REPRESENTATIVE’S PROJECTS

50
January Deadline Notes
Write & Design 1/4/2012
Final Edits 1/5-7/2012
Approval/Distribution 1/8/2012 Sunday

February
Editorial calendar review 1/25/2012
Write & Design 1/25-27/12
Final Edits 1/27/2012
Approval/Distribution 2/1/2012

January Deadline Notes

Map ideas review 1/5/2012 Include budget
Contact vendors (smart
boards) for demo 1/6/2012
Community exhibit ideas 1/5/2012

February
Map budget approval 2/1/2012
Big exhibit ideas 2/3/2012

January Deadline Notes

Review optimal list, distribution
methods, pitch 1/6/2012
Review next session dates 1/6/2012 March
Gather contact list info 1/11-13/2012
Design flyer 1/15/2012
M ater Dei High School group 3:30-4:30,12 students, 2 adults
tour 1/12/2012

February
Email pitch to optimal list 1/19/2012
design flyer 1/20/2012
Post flyer to bulletin board 2/3/2012

51
 APPENDIX D

SAMPLE DOCUMENT OFARTIFACT DESCRIPTIONS

52
Lvos Idol or M onkey Man

This Lyos, or "spirit image," from the island of Ulithi, an o u ter island of Yap, was dubbed
"Monkey Man" by early visitors to the Islands. It is a protective spirit, m ost likely an ancestral
image whose function it was to protect the family or relatives of the deceased. The function of
such household spirits could change with context and this Lios might also be a guardian of
dwellings or of spirit houses. Of the many types of Lios found in Micronesia, the so-called
monkey man, carved from indigenous wood, is one of the m ost enduring.

Tapuana Mask Idol

The Tapuana or "sacred spirit", idol was use by a secret society of w eather magicians, the
Soutapuanu in Chuuk. The idol was housed in the magicians hut, and was used to ward off the
hurricanes and typhoons in betw een the chanting ritual w here the use of the Tapuanu Mask was
deem ed necessary.

Lava Lava

Believed to be a gift from the gods, the art of weaving is highly esteem ed in Micronesia. Loom
weaving spread throughout the Caroline Islands and becam e a part of their culture. Banana and
hibiscus fiber are the traditional materials of Micronesian weavers, but today colored cotton
thread is also used.

Canoe Bailer

Functional yet beautiful objects, such as this canoe bailer, were a common part of daily life for
Micronesians before metal containers appeared. The artistic lines of carved bailers are seldom
seen in modern Micronesia with the proliferation of plastic bottles th at can be modified to serve
the same purpose.

Basket

Fancy sewing baskets woven of pandanus around coconut ribs, are fashioned into many sizes
and shapes. Some are trim m ed in tortoise shells, while others may utilize a weaving art with the
various kinds of cowries. The top of many baskets are crocheted of pandanus fiber in intricate
designs. Some w eavers add borders of contrasting colors.

53
 APPENDIX E

SAMPLE DOCENT TRAINING AND SCRIPTS

54
Things to R

1. You should take a genuine interest in the subject or field. Your group will be able
to tell if you’re not happy.
2. You should agree or sympathize with the institution’s mission and purpose.
3. Do the suggested readings and independent research. The museum staff doesn’t
know everything about the subject. Go find the answer yourself. Be prepared for
questions.
4. Know that by signing up for a training session, you might be signing your life
away for an agreed upon length of time. Make sure you have the time and stamina
to commit to a certain number of tours.

Getting the Job Done

More than likely, the vast majority of your tours will be conducted for school groups,
generally public schools, and for a particular grade level whose curriculum includes the
subject of interest for the museum. Other groups - private schools, homeschool co-ops,
families, adult tourists, college students looking for extra credit, Boy and Girl Scouts
troops, etc. - are a lot less common, especially for small-time local museums. Depending
on the organization, you may or may not know who you’ll be guiding until the tour
actually begins. It’s always a good idea to prepare some ideas about how to tailor your
content at the last minute to engage 3-year-olds or college professors. The last thing
you’d want is someone to get bored.

Things to Remember

1. Keep abreast with seasonal changes in exhibits. Timely notification by the

museum staff should be expected, but it often isn’t reality. (Believe me, this one
can take you by surprise!)
2. Learn how curriculum standards and “common knowledge” are tied to the
contents of museum’s exhibits. Then you’ll be able to gage beforehand what kind
of prior knowledge your audience has and how best to approach different topics.
3. Remember that little children will be more interested in what they see rather than
what you’re saying.
4. Remember that you’re discussing real people, real events, real situations, real
discoveries.. .really fun stuff!

One Final Comment

55
Sometimes docents can be obnoxious. (Remember, I’m speaking as both producer and
consumer.) Sometimes they’re just not interested in putting any extra effort into the job.
Other times they make negative assumptions about the group that feed into their
presentations. Don’t let your behavior spoil other people’s experience. You want them to
return next year.

Things to Remember

1. Try not to assume too much or too little. Ask your group questions initially to
gage what they might know about the subject. Then you’ll be able to adjust your
comments accordingly.
2. Be honest when you don’t know the answer to a question. Offer to ask another
docent, or suggest a source for more information. Sometimes people are happy
just to discuss about possible explanations and interpretations rather than to
receive a dry textbook answer.
3. Don’t take offense if people look bored. They might just be listening intently...or
they might really be bored. Use signs of waning interest as a clue that you need to
move faster, spend less time on a topic, etc. - that is, improve.

Have fun!

56
 APPENDIX F

RESEARCH SUMMARIES

57
 Arts of Melanesia

The arts of Melanesia are highly complex and perhaps the most striking of all the arts in
Oceania because their diversity, decorative brilliance, and imaginative ornamentation. Their
enormous variety is due in part to the fact that Melanesia is one of the most diverse linguistic
areas in the world, if not the most diverse, with over one thousand languages. Approximately one-
quarter of those are spoken in the world today. Melanesia is also one of the oldest inhabited
regions of the world, with settlement on the north coast of New Guinea archaeologically dated to
approximately 40,000 years ago.

The first evidence of the existence of any form of art in Melanesia is with the use of
pigments, probably for personal decoration, in the eastern Highlands of Papuan-speaking New
Guinea dating to 15,000 B.C. Other examples of early art include stone carvings comprised of
anthropomorphic and zoomorphic images in the central Highlands and rock art in the form of
pictographs and petroglyphs, but these artifacts remain undated. Also archaeologically
significant is the distinctive pottery called Lapita discovered in the islands to the north and east of
New Guinea dating to around 2,000 B.C. which have been associated with the movement of
Austronesian-speaking peoples through Melanesia and the eventual colonization of Polynesia.

Melanesian art forms are typically associated with ancestors, spirit cults, and hunting
(formerly including human headhunting) executed in a highly decorative manner, portraying
exaggerated forms, and often displaying sexual themes. Ritual masks, stylistically demonical in
appearance, are commonly made for initiations and elaborate festivals. Wood carvings of
sculpted ancestor figures and human heads are prominent throughout the region. The most basic
med ium of all is the human body which may be ornamented with temporary and permanent
decorations, often to spectacular effect, including tattooing and scarification. To the Western eye
unfamiliar with their symbolism, the visual intensity of the art forms can be a startling
experience. Which may account for why, in the early part of the 20th century, Melanesian art
was the inspiration for a number of Surrealist artists in the West — Constantin Brancusi, Max
Ernst, Alberto Giacometti, and Henry Moore, among others.

Written by Eric Metzgar

For PIEAM Contract No. 4

58
 APPENDIX G

SAMPLE SOCIAL MEDIA POSTINGS

59
FIGURE 3. Sample Twitter feed with announcements.

&SWfey i§ sag
sH*8?aiS.FS£AM

>Vfs Cjcsmnsls^

#L ^

r\M
TUNE-UP
m Wf m^m mM m WF mm
Th e T r a v e l in g A r t s I n f o r m a t io n W o r k s h o p s
F o r A r t is t s & S mall B u d g e t O rg a n iza tio n s

FIGURE 4. Sample Facebook Posting with workshops for the community.

FIGURE 5. Facebook posting with Pacific Islander Olympic Athlete (left) and The BBQ
w/ Q and Joe Sav (right).

jsfe fee t«>r at Ipm. «

1imvk sssssmm

rsmdisvg ® Iha 9®cBa mm'

KitMk: IM M titfe-fiie .%t ^f»<as

Mmx> psmeaH i Ns>«

Miimm.ttmaa*tmmm

FIGURE 6. Facebook posting of Pac Biz event with PIEAM (left) and cross-
promotional marketing with E Hula Mau hula competition (right).

61
FIGURE 7. Facebook posting of parent and child interacting with Faces of Ceremony
Exhibit.

tut m am m

mk&m, or pfc -a tm v z m d Tmha im k^mm4

FIGURE 8. Facebook postings of PIEAM volunteer at the Pacific Islander Festival

Association event (left) and Polynesian Tattoo demo (right).
 Hi Padlk Intend tttmk Art M<.< ^
MmmIII
Overview l&es Fa&Fra} Abotjr This Check-ins
ill 1,136,807
4 j 09/24/2012 - 11/23/2012 ► t Fsqxtff Ck«;t &* ' ■■-:"WT<i?*

IVfKt Y<se tOCStfcW) ;:i;*<>;.*:

|!li!i;:»t f:?r

; Advertise Yotit Page ;

Gemier and Age

■ s e n
m e 36.4%

Countries’’ aoc.i languages

568 urstsd states d An-vrm 166 i.m CA 598 €fi#sh (iJ%)
105 Indonefta 163 iersg fSeach, CA 101 irdcreesan
12 Mesv&sifeivJ 44 Attakjfigan, Uasspymj, irkfcrsesa 7.6 Sr«feh (u«)
8 Federated States ofWcroi 26 Career, CA 6 Spare*
7 ftsfcpj**. 2 ?. ?$kafcn$an ±am imj&h. indonestr 2 Fistch (Ffsifv
6 APKxata 13 las Vegas, NV 1 Russian
12 Am<m>. c a 1 £Adsh (Ptrac:

FIGURE 9. Facebook statistics of demographics reached.

63
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