ony Bush is Professor of International and Comparative ‘Education at the University of Reading. He was previously Professor of Educational Management and Director of the Educational Management Development Unit at the University ‘of Leicester and, before that, senior lecturer in educational pol- icy and management at the Open University. He has experience asa teacher and middle manager in secondary schools and col- leges and as a professional officer with a local education authority. He has been a visiting professor in China, New Zealand and South Aftica and made invited keynote presenta- tions at conferences in Greece, Hong Kong, Portugal and ‘Singapore. He has published extensively on several aspects of ‘educational leadership and management. His main recent books are Managing People in Education (with David Middlewood), Educational Management: Redefining Theory, Policy and Practice (with Les Bell, Ray Bolam, Ron Glatter and Peter Ribbins) and The Principles and Practice of Educational Management (with Les ell). Theories of Educational Leadership and Management ‘Third Edition Tony Bush I Fecuidade de Psicotnaia fecidneies da Educacéo Universidade de Usboa | ‘BIBLIOTECATony Bah, 1995, 2005 is by Pel Chapman Pung Le Landon Tire pte $Sciy ad onde Be SP SAGE Rion ne 343 Tetra “Fanvend Ose Coen 13 S3en Ser 0505 ind “SAGE Pein A aie ad Sint H763 ek iy Caslaguing in Pubenin data i cael ra rts eae te Bo ay rary of Congres Canto! Number 2210970, rit fo inl eee ssw 720761940517 190 97— 7619-40534 “pet ane, eso pra, Senet Pd an tou n Gea Comedie bape Wihe ‘Contents Preface 1. The Importance of Leadership and Management for Education What is educational management? ‘What is educational leadership? Distinguishing educational leadership and management “The chronology of educational leadership and management Decentralization and self-management ‘The significance of the educational context Instructional leadership Conclusion 2 Models of Educational Leadership and Management ‘The theory/practice divide The relevance of theory t0 good practice ‘The nature of theory ‘The characteristics of theory Gender and educational leadership and management ‘Models of educational management: Models of educational leadership: an 3 Formal Models Central features of formal models Structural models Systems models Bureaucratic models Rational models Hierarchical models Formal models: goals, structure, environment and leadership Manageral leadership ‘The limitations of formal models. Conclusion: are formal models still valid? 4 Collegial Models Central features of collegial models Collegial models in higher education| ‘Theories of Educational Leadership and Management | Content Collegial models in secondary schools 0 i 8 Cultural Models 156 | Collegial models in primary schools z ‘What do we mean by culture? 156 Collegial models: Beals severe, ‘environment and leadership 72} } eel a ‘ satinal eu 57 “Transformational leadershij 6 tal features of organizational culture | Sarkpaive leadership 78 Handy’s four culture model 163 + Interpersonal leadership 79 : Developing a culture of learning in South Africa 164 Collegiality and gender 80 | Organizational culeure: goals, structure, environment a Limitations of collegial models 81 / and leadership Gg Conclusion: is collegiality an unattainable ideal? 85 | Moral leadership a) eal 17 jations of organizational culture | $- Political Models | Conclusion: values and action 174 Central features of political models | 's political mi 9 Conclusion 178 Soucs af power in edcrion ompaing the management nods ie Political strategies in education i ‘Comparing the leadership models 183 | ey eye gals structure, environment and leadership. aes a Sa schools and colleges 18 fansactional leadershi A ; “The limitations of politcal models | Using theory to improve practice eI Conclusion: are political models valid? | Subject idee 199 | 6 Subjective Models 113 | be Im ae Central features of subjective models 413 Es Applying the subjective model: Rivendell school 118 Subjective models and qualitative research 1a Subjective models: goals, structure, environment \ and leadership 33 | Pos:modern leadership The limitations of subjective models 128 \ Cotclusion: the importance of the individual 130 | 7 Ambiguity Models 134 ‘Central features of ambiguity models 134 ' | The garbage can model 141 Applying the ambiguity model: Oakfields School 143 Ambiguity models: goals, structure, environment | and leadership | Contingent leadership 50 ‘The limitations of ambiguity models 151 | Conclusion: ambiguity or rationality? 153 vi / vil‘Theories of Educational Leadership and Management Fe ccm cnc os ey ates ecm er. ine vn om bution of authority. (Lauglo, 1997, p, 3) ‘The main forms of decentralization are: + Federalism, for example in Australi, Germany, India and the Unit + Devotion, forcxample inte Used Kingdoms * Deregulation, for example in the Czech republic (Karstanje, 1998). ‘+ Deconcentration, for example in Tanzania (Therkildsen, 2000). + Participative democracy, involving strong participation by stakeholders at the institutional level, for example in Australia, Canada, England and ‘Wales, and South Africa (Sayed, 1999) " ‘+ Market mechanism, for example in Britain and the United States. ‘Two or more of these modes may coexist within the same edi tem For enue, the sional eanapemene aed many. somes {England and Wales Ansan, New Zealand, Hong Kong is underpinned by h participative democracy’ and the market mechanism. In England and Wales, schools and colleges are atthe heart of “the educational marker place’ with students and parents as customers, choosing from a range of providers. Caldwell and Spinks's (1992, p. 4) definition provides a clear link between self management and decentralization: ‘A selfmanaging school is @ school in 2 sate of education where sere hasbeen significant and consistent deen. tration tothe school level of authority to make deisions tclated tothe The research on selfmanagement in nd Wal that the shift towards school autonomy has been beneficial. These UK per- specs ae convene with. much of he international idee o sean ment and the Organization for Economic Co-oper : {GECD, 1994) concludes tha iis ly to be benehent ns DHPPMST rete i 1009 sronony in shook. Nea to pene effectiveness Ay ml efor bac eof ec 0 Polen mes sce il evel me Knowle eaters ad parent, 5 borer fan dco 10 we col ping snd impnennion wih ponte sce i of et (outcome and cd. (Quoted in Thomas Auronomous schools and colleges maybe rgarded as potentially more ef ient and effective but much depends on the nature and quality of internal management if ches potential benefits are wo be realized. Della’s (1998) search in 30 secondary schools in Australia, for example, shows that ‘site- 2 ‘The importance of leadership and management for education ‘based’ management was most successful where there was a positive school cli- trate and the involvement of staff and stakeholders in decision-making, ‘The significance of the educational context Educational management as a field of study and practice was derived from management principles first applied to industry and commerce, mainly in the lied States (see page 9). Theory development largely involved the appli cation o} ‘models ro educational settings. As the subject became Established as an academic discipline in its own tight, its theorists and prac- Gioners began to develop alternative models based on their observation of, land experience in, schools and colleges. By the twenty-first century the main theories, featured in this book, have either been developed in the educational Context or have been adapted from industrial models to meet the specific requirements of schools and colleges. “Educational leadership and management has progressed (rom being a new field dependent upon ideas developed in other setings to become an estab- lished discipline with its own theories and significant empirical data testing, their validity in education, Ths transition has been accompanied by lively frgument about the extent to which education should be regarded as simply another field for the application of general principles of leadership and management or be seen a5 a separate discipline with its own body of knowl- edge. ‘One strand of opinion asserts that there are general principles of man- agement which can be applieé ro all organizational settings. ‘Schools have mich in common with other organizations that bring people together for 2 purpose ~ be they hospitals, or businesses or government offices’ (Handy, 1984, p.26). The case for a common approach to the training and devel- ‘opment of managers rests largely upon the functions thought ro be common fe different types of organization. These include financial management, yhuman resource management and relationships with the organization's elients and the wider community. ‘This long-running debate about the most appropriare relationship between general management and that specific to education was rekindled from 1995 ‘Sith the TTA’s emphasis on the need to take account of “best practice outside Education’ in devising professional development programmes. For example, fis National Standards document states that ‘the standards . .. reflect the work undertaken on management standards by those outside the education profession’ (TTA, 1998, p. 1) and ‘the knowledge and understanding that headteachers need draw on sources both inside and outside education’ (ibid. p. 3). “Taking account of ‘best practice outside education’ appears uncontentious, a‘Theories of Educational Leadership and Management bur ie assumes that definitions of ‘best practice’ are widely understoo accepted. In practice, there are several problematic iueee 04 34 Who decides wha good, le lone ‘bes practic is * How is such good practice 10 be adapted for use in tra leaders and managers? m ining school * Ign poste # univer wat or does i depend onthe spe school In addressing this issue, Glater (1997) concludes with ewe cautions: Ie is not always lear what conse bes practice in management ou ton, As in eduction taco ae eflree aprons ee tone nk of thought... My bref overall conclusions are that, ist, idenlying bet prnces use edcaon wil quite the ugemenr oft Solonen snd eed wha elemens of this would really be of vahe in education tel vole sae nocon of curl compari, (later 19%, pe sara Glater and Kye (2003, p. 240) add that we do not suggest est practice” should never be use, simply that its oes ewploned ee non a with the Pais to mislead. It needs to be applied more rigorously clearly specified’, * Pass Msred “Peat” shouldbe "There are several arguments ments to support the notion that education has spe- cific needs that require a distinctive approach. These include: re the difficulry of setting and ci ng and messurng ducatonal cbjcivex, the presence of children and Young people atthe “orp cen edactional tatonay 7S POPE whe “opus or ‘en of the need for education professionals to the eed for education profesional to havea high depee of autonomy ‘the fact that many senior and middle managers, particularly in Primary schools, have little time for the managerial aspects of their work. Even more important than th hh ese issues is che requirement for educational leader nd manages fais on the specify etal ae a th work. The overriding purpose of schools and colleges is to promote effec five reaching and lenming. These core issues are unique to eddeation and ‘es practie ound ean’ sunita to be of any hep in addressing 1936) emphasis the ned for lenders vo foes on hee cdo et tate than the generic eas of managing af, nance and marketing (Bush, The NCSL has engaged with the business sector, UE NCRL be notably in preparing its but its Leadership Development Framework (NCSL, “The importance of leadership and management for education 2001b) advocates ‘instructional leadership’ by including it as one of its 10 leadership. propositions’. The business sector has little to offer in this ‘domain, although other ideas have been borrowed for use in education. Such ‘proaches include Total Quality Management (West-Burnham, 2002), hhutran resource management (Bush and Middlewood, 1997) and marketing (Foskert, 2002). However, the special characteristics of schools and colleges jmply caution in the application of management models or practices drawn from non-educational settings. As the leading American writer Baldridge sug- gested more than 20 years ago, careful evaluation and adaptation of such fnodels is required before they can be applied with confidence to educational ‘organizations. “Traditional management theories cannot be applied ro educational instutions with- ‘out carefully considering whether they will work well in that unique academic set- ‘We therefore must be extremely careful about attempts to manage ot improve. education with ‘modern mangement’ techniques borrowed from bust tems, for example, Such borrowing may make sense, but it must be approached ‘ery carefully. (Baldridge, etal, 1978, p.9) Instructional leadership ‘There are several models of educational leadership and these will be intro- duced in Chapter 2. Most of the models will be discussed in detail in sub- sequent chapters. However, instructional leadership does not fit the framework for this book, because it focuses on the direction of influence, rather than its nature and source, so it will be addressed here. “The increasing emphasis on managing teaching and learning as the core activities of educational institutions has led to ‘instructional leadership’ being ‘emphasized and endorsed, notably by the English NCSL, as we noted above. Halinger (1992) argues that instructional leadership has been supplanted by transformational leadership (see Chapter 4) in the United States bur these medels are not seen as incompatible by NCSL. ‘Leithwood, Jantzi and Steinbach (1999) point to the lack of explicit descriptions of instructional leadership in the literarure and suggest that there ‘may be different meanings of this concept. Their definition is: Instructional leadecchip .. eypically assnmes that the extcal focus for aten- thon by ledets the Behaviour of teachers as they engage in actives directly ecting the growth of students. (bid p. 8). Southworth (2002, p.79) adds that ‘instructional leadership ... is strongly concerned with teaching and learning, including the professional learning of teachers as well as student growth’. Bush and Glover's (2002) definition stresses the direction of the influence process:‘Theories of Educational Leadership and Management Instructional leadership focuses on teaching and learning and on the behaviour of reachers in working with students. Leaders’ influence is targeted at student learning via teachers. The emphasis is on the direction and impact of influence rather than the influence process itself. (Ibid., 2002, p. 10) Hallinger and Murphy (1985) state that instructional leadership comprises three broad categories: pone ‘+ defining the school mission; ‘+ managing the instructional programme; + promoting school climate. Blase and Blase's (1998) research with 800 principals in American elemen- tary, middle and high schools suggests that effective instructional leadership behaviour comprises three aspects: ‘talking with teachers (conferencing); ‘+ promoting teachers’ professional growth; * fostering teacher reflection. Southworth's (2002) qualitative research with primary heads of small schools in England and Wales shows that three strategies were particularly effective proving teaching and learning: modelling; ‘= monitoring; ** professional dialogue and discussion. Souhworth’s third category confirms Blase and Blase's (1998) first point but his other strategies introduce new notions of which instructional leadership practices are likely to be successful. He also concurs with Hill (2001, p. 87) that ‘school leaders may lack sufficient knowledge of teaching and learning to provide adequate, let alone successful, instructional leadership’ and advo- cates that this dimension should be included in leadership development pro- grammes In contrast, Leithwood (1994, p. 499) claims that ‘instructional leadership images are no longer adequate’ because they are ‘heavily classroom focused" sand do nor address ‘second order changes ... [such as, organization build- ‘ng’ (bid., p. $01). He adds that the instructional leadership image ‘is now showing all the signs of a dying paradigm’ (ibid. p. 502) Despite these comments, instructional leadership is a very important dimension because it targets the school’s central activities, reaching and learn- ing It may ao be undergoing 2 renaissance in England, not lest because Of is specific endorsement by the National College for School Leadershi (NCSL, 20018) Howeves, this paradig understmaxs other ampect of The importance of leadership and management for education school life, such as socialization, student welfare and self-esteem, as well as, the wider school-level issues referred to by Leithwood (1994), Conclusion Effective leadership and management are essential if schools and colleges are to achieve the wide-ranging objectives set for them by their many stake- holders, notably the governments which provide most of the funding for pub- lic educational institutions. In an increasingly global economy, an educated workforce is vital to maintain and enhance competitiveness. Society expects schools, colleges and universities to prepare people for employment in a rap- idly changing environment. Teachers, and their leaders and managers, are the people who are required to deliver higher educational standards. 'As these environmental pressures intensify, managers require greater under- standing, skill and resilience so sustain their institutions. Heads, principals and senior staff need an appreciation of the theory, as well as the practice, ‘of educational management. Competence comprises an appreciation of con- cepts as well as a penchant for successful action. The next chapter examines the nature of theory in educational management and its contribution to good. practice. References Babyegeya, E. (2000) Education reforms in Tanzania: from nationalisation ro decen- ction of choos Itemationl Sinden Educational Administration, 28 210. 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