Blue Notes and Blue Tonality

Author(s): William Tallmadge

Source: The Black Perspective in Music , Autumn, 1984, Vol. 12, No. 2 (Autumn, 1984),
pp. 155-165
Published by: Professor J. Southern (Managing Editor-Publisher)

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1215019

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 Blue Notes and Blue Tonality
BY WILLIAM TALLMADGE

EARLY ALL FORMS of Afro-American music in North Amer-

ica, including worksongs, hollers, ballads, spirituals and
hymns, chanted sermons with congregational response,
blues, jazz, and rock contain pitches that are inflected by perform-
ers in ways quite foreign to regular melodic practice in Western
art music. Early descriptions of the singing of Negro slaves mention
this practice and the difficulty, if not impossibility, of transcribing it
in notation. William Francis Allen in Slave Songs of the United States
(1867) observed that the notation of Negro singing could "convey
but a faint shadow of the original .... And what makes it all the
harder to unravel the thread of melody out of this strange network
is that, like birds, they seem not infrequently to strike sounds that
cannot be precisely represented by the [gamut] scale, and abound
in slides from one note to another, and turns and cadences [the rise
and fall of pitch] not articulated in notes."1
Allen's observation is significant in that it cites two aspects of
black performance that have generally remained undifferentiated
in subsequent discussions of the subject, and the failure to differ-
entiate between these two related, but separate, performance
practices has resulted in considerable confusion and error. One
need only read a number of different authors' treatment of blue
notes, blues scale, and black melodic practice to discover the general lack
of agreement that exists within this subject area.
One aspect of black performance cited by Allen is the tendency
of black musicians to "play" with pitch; that is, to treat pitches as
mobile, unstable units instead of treating them as discrete points in
a scale. Abbe Niles noted in 1926 the "tendency of the untrained
Negro voice when singing the third degree of the scale to worry it,
slurring or wavering between flat and natural."2 This variable
treatment of the third degree of the scale can be heard on many
recordings of black music. Example 1 illustrates the "worried" third
sung by responders in the prison worksong, "I Need More Power."
Speaking from the viewpoint of eighteenth- and nineteenth-
century European harmonic and melodic practice, the leader's
statement in Example 1 is in C minor; the responders' reply begins
in C minor but ends in C major. The piece "Grizzly Bear" on the
same album begins with the leader singing the minor third, and the
responders sliding up to the major third as was done on Example 1.
Halfway through the performance a new leader takes over. He

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156 THE BLACK PERSPECTIVE IN MUSIC

Example 1

Leader

e1 U nu1 ?w .u-)
Responders

continues for a time like the first, but then he gradually slides the
pitch higher until both he and the responders are singing the major
third to the end of the song. The first half of the selection seems to
be in minor; the second half, in major; and a considerable portion,
in an indeterminate modality. The passages in both selections re-
flect an Afro-American modification of the European system of
tonality, harmony, and melody; and as yet we have no adequate
terminology to describe the tonal effects of this alternate musical
system. The terms blue notes, neutral pitches, indeterminate pitches, blue
coloration, blue tonality, and others have been devised to describe
such effects, but these terms have not proved altogether satisfac-
tory.
Recent examples of the mobile treatment of pitches are
everywhere present in various genres of Afro-American music. It is
very doubtful, for example, if Western music notation could do
more than approximate the pitch play of Stevie Wonder's "Maybe
Your Baby" or Sylvester Sly's performance of"Let Me have It All."
The second aspect of pitch described by Allen referred to the
sounding of tones not included in the Western music system. The
smallest musical interval in Western music is the half-step. But
music of the Orient, and particularly music of the Muslims of
North and Northwest Africa, employs smaller intervals, all of
which are roughly designated here as quarter-tones. The music of
the Muslims is also highly ornamented with melismas and other
ornamental devices.
Those who have analyzed black folk music, jazz, and blues hav
found that most tones of the European scale are occasionall
inflected (usually lowered) by a quarter-tone and also by a half-st
Since much Afro-American music is not notated, and since, when
is notated, quarter-tones are not available as notational symbols,
quarter-tone inflections are indicated in the notation by the inter
of a half-step. Thus, a pitch which, according to European expec
tions, would be a natural, is flatted; a flat would be double-flatted
sharp would become a natural.

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 BLUE NOTES AND BLUE TONALITY 157

Writers have labeled these inflected pitches blue no

have found that the third tone of the scale is th
frequently lowered by a quarter-tone or a half-step.3
quency of alteration is the seventh degree, and beyond
no concensus on the frequencies of alteration of the
of the scale, though the fifth degree is mentioned mo
the sixth. The fourth is lowered in a so-called blues sc
Shining Trumpets by Rudi Blesh.4 And, while I have
first and second degrees listed in any source, Frank T
that "any chromatic note could be admitted [to the blu
clear example of the second degree of the scale perfor
note can be heard in Teddy Darby's singing of"Built R
Ground." The inflected pitch is the penultimate note
each stanza (see Example 2).
Example 2

John Lee Hooker's performance of "Nothin' But Trouble" is

illustrative in its combination of pitch play and pitch inflection. By
listening for pitch inflections in both Hooker's singing and guitar
playing, one hears that he inflects the first, third, fourth, fifth, and
seventh degrees of the scale. But Hooker's pitch articulation is so
fluid and mobile that it is often impossible to differentiate between
pitch play and discrete altered pitches.
This fluidity of performance is true of many other Afro-Ameri-
can performances as well, and this particular element of articula-
tion has caused some writers to define blue notes almost entirely in
terms of pitch play. Gilbert Chase avers that "it is not the flatted
third [or any other lowered interval of the scale] as such, but rather
this ambivalent, this worried or slurred tone that constitutes the true
'blue note'."6 Some bluesmen and jazz musicians, however, per-
form with little pitch play. John Fahey, who has analyzed and
enumerated all of the pitches recorded by Charley Patton, states
that, "Patton sings few neutral pitches [quarter-tones] other than in
slurs, and when he does, they are probably mistakes, . . . but rather
sings stable pitches that conform to those of the chromatic series
[scale]."7
Few would deny that most of the lowered thirds and many of
the lowered sevenths that Patton sings (and plays) create a blue
tonality, and many are, in fact, blue notes. But in view of the fact
that the pitches of all degrees of the major scale have been inflected
by performers in much the same way as they have inflected thirds
and sevenths, the question arises: are all such inflected pitches blue
notes? That is, does blue tonality appear whenever a pitch is

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158 THE BLACK PERSPECTIVE IN MUSIC

inflected or treated in a fluid manner? If that questio

in the affirmative, then a great portion of the worl
which employs quarter-tones-would exhibit blue
indeed, in certain instances it seems to do so for a lis
mentally superimposing, or trying to superimpos
harmonic system upon such music.
Thus, Gunther Schuller could observe "that Indo-Pakistani
music is divided into six principal modes, three of which
afternoon modes-are nothing but the blues scale."8 Schuller di
not propose that a performance of one of the afternoon mode
exhibits blue tonality, but that implication is present nonetheless
Other writers have found blue notes (if not blue tonality) in the
music of Africa south of the Sahara. Atta Annan Mensah noted, fo
example, that "a variety of musical scales is used within sub
Saharan Africa. For instance, the seven-note scale with the so-calle
'blue' notes (neutral seventh and sometimes a neutral third as wel
is used by the Bemba of Zambia, the Luvale of Angola, the Baule of
Ivory Coast, the Chokosi of north Togo, and groups in other
areas."9
Those who would derive the blues scale from Africa have usu-
ally cited an article published in 1951 by A. M. Jones, wherein he
states, "I have lived in Central Africa for over twenty years but to
my knowledge I have never heard an African sing the 3rd and 7th
degrees of a major scale in tune.... Aural impressions do plainly
verify the widespread use of the two 'blue' notes among Africans in
Africa."10
Dale A. Olsen finds an occasional "blue third" in the scales of
South American folk music.1 And John Storm Roberts, in describ-
ing the black music of Brazil, cites the Brazilian musicologist
Oneyda Alvarenga as indicating that a major Africanism in Brazi-
lian music is the frequent "use of six-note scales with a flatted
seventh-note (usually held to be a hallmark of Afro-American
music and a feature of the 'blues scale' of the United States)."12
Bruno Nettl finds that the use of the neutral third pervades
primitive music everywhere. He notes that "one interval widely
used in primitive music but foreign to Western is the so-called
neutral third, which is roughly between the tempered major and
minor thirds."13 Unlike the writers mentioned above, Nettl does
not think it necessary to associate the neutral third with the North
American blues scale; nor is it particularly appropriate for the
others to have done so, since inflected pitches in themselves, apart
from Afro-American harmonic practice, have nothing whatsoever
to do with blue tonality.
Gunther Schuller's statement that "the blues scale does not exist
... in Africa, but developed out of melodic-harmonic practices
peculiar to African music only . . . upon contact with European har-
mony" (my emphasis), would have been more to the point had he

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 BLUE NOTES AND BLUE TONALITY 159

substituted the term blue tonality for blues scale.'4 Somet

similar to the pitches of the blues scale can be found i
music of the Savannah regions of West Africa. But the s
point is that if this music appears to have blue tonality, it
so for Europeans or Africans who approach it with ears a
the European or Afro-American harmonic system. In oth
tonality is a subjective element entirely determined by a
cultural orientation.
Nearly all writers have mentioned Africa as the original source
for the pitch play and pitch inflections that permeate Afro-Ameri-
can melodic practice, but all attempts to trace these melodic charac-
teristics to the rain-forest tribes of West Africa, an area which was
the predominate source of the slave trade, have been unconvinc-
ing. The essential problem is that pitch play and quarter-tone
inflections are generally absent from the musical practice of the
tribes in the rain forest areas. Noteworthy in support of this state-
ment is the fact none of the musical examples in either Nketia's
book, The Music of Africa or A. M. Jones's book, Studies in African
Music contain tones other than those in the regular diatonic of
pentatonic scales; nor does either author suggest in either of these
two books that quarter-tones were employed by the musicians.15
Compounding the problem is that notwithstanding the fact that
African retentions in Latin America are considerably stronger than
in North America, blues or blue tonality (with the exception of
North American imports) is not found in Latin America.
A reasonable solution to this problem did not appear until 1970
when Paul Oliver published a monograph, Savannah Syncopators.
Oliver explained that the appearance of a solution was delayed
because of the uncritical acceptance of a statement by Melville J.
Herskovits who, in considering possible retentions of their culture
by early Sengalese arrivals, maintained that "whatever was retained
of aboriginal custom was overshadowed by the tradition of the
more numerous Guinea Coast Negroes ... who came later."'6
Oliver does not dispute this statement as it applies to the slave trade
in the West Indies and South America, but, basing his conclusions
on Herskovits's studies of the slave trade and on later sources, he
maintains that the Mohammedan slave trade to North America was
far more substantial and pervasive than Herskovits believed.17
Oliver examines the literature treating African retentions as
they relate to blues and the history of jazz. After presenting evi-
dence that slaves coming from rain-forest areas could not have
provided the source for blues performance styles, he concludes
that it was the slaves from savannah areas who became the first
fiddlers, banjo players, and blues singers. A comparison of blues
singers in America with singers in Muslim areas tends to support
Oliver's argument. For example, there is an amazing similarity
between the following performances: a "War Song" from a Muslim

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160 THE BLACK PERSPECTIVE IN MUSIC

area near Timbuktu and an American Negro bal

Blues," sung by Charley Patton. Both performers si
limited tonal range with a similar vocal quality; bot
neutral third tone of the scale in the same way; both
type of boogie bass on their lute and guitar; and, w
remarkable coincidence, both sing and play alm
pitches.
If Oliver's argument be accepted, the question remains as to
how the Muslim proclivity for pitch play and inflected pitches was
maintained in North America in view of the more numerous
Guinea Coast Negroes who arrived later and who possessed no
such inflected tonal system. To answer that question we turn to the
folk music brought to this country by the English and the Scotch-
Irish settlers.

The neutral third, as Nettl's statement above indicated, is by no

means limited to the Afro-American musical culture. Cecil Sharp,
who collected folk songs in England and the United States, ob-
served:

It must be understood that the third is not a fixed note in the folk scale, as
it is in both of the modern scales. The English folk singer varies the
intonation of this particular note very considerably. His major third is
never as sharp as the corresponding interval in the tempered scale, to
which modern ears are atuned. On the other hand, it is often so flat that it
is hardly to be distinguished from the minor third. Frequently, too, it is a
neutral third, i.e., neither major nor minor.18

Sharp in his statement attempted to make too many pitch dif-

ferentiations between the major and minor third. Undoubtedly
such pitches are sounded, but few trained musicians in the West are
able to distinguish pitch differences less than a quarter-tone. The
term neutral, when used in this presentation, refers to pitches
midway between half-steps, that is, quarter-tones.
Annabel Morris Buchanan, after a study "of many thousand
folk tunes," found that neutral thirds and sevenths were often
employed, particularly by folk singers in Appalachia. She observed,
"I have long felt the need of a neutral mode [scale] for accurate
classification of the neutral 3rds and varying 7ths [minor, neutral,
and major] that constantly recur in our Anglo-American folk
music, especially in the Appalachians, and that other collectors
have also noted through oral tradition in both the old world and
new."19

It is enlightening to compare a blues scale (see Example 3a),

devised by Winthrop Sargeant from his analysis of jazz and blues
melodies with Buchanan's neutral scale (see Example 3b).20 I have
added a major seventh to Buchanan's scale because she stated that
"the major 7th of the tempered scale occurs occasionally as leading
tone or as auxiliary note."21 Otherwise, I have made no significant

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 BLUE NOTES AND BLUE TONALITY 161

Example 3a

Blues Scale Sargeant

Example 3b

Neutral Scale Buchanan

a t yniea osc. Th n Lt

alterations in either author's scale. The neutral pitches are indi-

cated with square note-heads, following Sargeant's practice.
It can be seen that both scales are essentially identical. The extra
flatted-seventh in Buchanan's scale is insignificant for purposes of
comparison and does not really differentiate one scale from the
other. The similarity of the two scales is indirectly indicated by
Buchanan, who observes that "having recognized this same neutral
mode in the tonal structure of American Indian, native African
and American Negro folk melodies, I conclude that it exists, doubt-
less, in other nationalities as well: a very early and prevailing mode
of the folk."22
Though it may seem rather paradoxical, the fact is that blue
tonality is generated when the tones of the blues scale are employed
by bluesmen, black folk musicians, and jazz performers; but no
such tonality arises when the very same pitches are employed by
Africans, Indo-Pakistanis, or by Anglo-American folk singers in
Appalachia. The reason for this apparent paradox is that blue
tonality can only arise when the inflected pitches are used in certain
ways within the European harmonic system.
British and American ballads, folk songs, and hymns with folk
tunes were widespread in this country during the eighteenth and
first half of the nineteenth centuries, and it can be assumed that
most of the folk tunes were sung with inflected pitches and with
considerable pitch play. The pitches of lining-hymns, in particular,
were treated in a very fluid and mobile manner just as they are
today in areas where the practice continues. Black singers absorbed
this folk material, and, though few British ballads and British folk
songs have been recorded by black singers on discs, folklorists
collected such material from black singers in the 1920s.23
Now we can better understand why pitch play and inflected
pitches are present in Afro-American music in North America.
When the savannah slaves arrived in this country, they found a
musical culture which, instead of suppressing their own inflected
musical practice, actually sustained and reinforced it. Later arrivals

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162 THE BLACK PERSPECTIVE IN MUSIC

from the rain-forest areas of the Guinea Coast, eve

came in overwhelming numbers, were unable to
suppress the combined tonal practice of the whi
Scotch-Irish folk singers and savannah Negro sla
worked the other way. The later arrivals adopted
tonal system of the Muslim slaves and white folk s
It was previously stated that inflected pitches apa
pean harmony cannot give rise to blue tonality and
not be considered to be blue notes. In addition, it is maintained
here that not all inflected thirds, sevenths, and other degrees of the
scale are blue notes, even when they appear in an accompanied
blues.
Hi Henry Brown stresses the lowered seventh (E-flat) in his
singing of the blues, "Skin Man." Example 4 illustrates the melody
sung by Brown, together with the chords played by the two guitars.
The E-flats in measures 1 and 2 are sevenths of the chord. The
flatted-seventh of the 17 chord is a fairly common harmonic orna
ment in European harmony, and, as such, these are not blue notes
nor does blue tonality appear. The E-flats in measures 5 and 6 are
quite different in tonality, as E-flat is not a member of the IV chor
(B-flat D F). Here, the vocal line continues to outline the I7 (F A C
E-flat) chord with the flatted seventh. Consequently two different
chords are heard simultaneously, a polychordal effect quite unlike
traditional European, nineteenth-century harmonic practice. Such
polychordal effects in Afro-American music give rise to various
degrees of blue tonality, and the E-flat is a blue note.
The E-flats in measures 9 and 10 outline a C E-flat G (minor)
chord, but the harmony played by the guitar is C E G (major). This
too, is a polychordal effect; the E-flat is a blue note, and blue
tonality is present.

Example 4

fi I . I

! IW 4H -' - W i

I11 IV 1 h I

"A" - - I _1
Iv

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 BLUE NOTES AND BLUE TONALITY 163

The melody of "Skin Man" centers about the l

but blues melodies centering about the lower
numerous. The harmonic and melodic conside
blue notes and blue tonality, however, are much t
(and all other inflected pitches) as for the inflect
of the scale. When the lowered third is the seventh of the IV7
chord, which it often is, no blue tonality exists. When it is part of a
polychordal effect, it is a blue note and blue tonality is present.
An unique Afro-American polychordal effect is occasioned by
discrete neutral pitches sounding against the regular pitches of the
accompanying chords. Because of this, a degree of blue tonality
arises whenever such pitches are present; and all discrete neutral
pitches, when regular chords are present or implied, are blue notes.
Pitch play, in itself, does not create blue tonality. However, pitches
subjected to a wavering, "worried" articulation are blue notes and,
in conjunction with European harmony, do give rise to different
degrees of blue tonality because they create an unique Afro-
American polychordal effect.
The effect of blue tonality, as has been implied throughout, is
quite subjective and culturally determined. The character-the
"blueness"-of an inflected third is quite different from that of an
inflected seventh, and the same qualification holds for other
inflected (or "worried") degrees of the scale. Also, the quality of
"blueness" varies with the specific chord which supports the
melody. Likewise, the degree of blues tonality present varies ac-
cording to which tone of the chord (the root, the third, the fifth,
etc.) is inflected. Indeed, it is quite possible that some listeners
would deny any blue coloration to an inflected first degree of the
scale, or a second or fourth degree. On the other hand, some
listeners may hear such inflected pitches as blue notes.
In essence, then, blue notes exist only in conjunction with a
harmonic substructure, and the total sonority (blue tonality) is
created by means of an Afro-American polychordal practice ini-
tiated in North America.

Berea College

NOTES

1. Slave Songs of the United States, ed. by William Francis A

Pickard Ware, and Lucy McKim Garrison (New York: Books F
Press, 1971 reprint of 1867 edition), iv-vi.

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 164 THE BLACK PERSPECTIVE IN MUSIC

2. Abbe Niles, "Introduction" in Blues: An Anthology, ed. William

opher Handy (New York: Albert and Charles Boni, 1926), 17.
3. See John Fahey, Charley Patton (London: Studio Vista, 1970)
Winthrop Sargeant,Jazz: A History (New York: McGraw-Hill Book
pany, 1964), 161, 169; and Rudi Blesh, Shining Trumpets (New
Alfred A. Knopf, 1953), 106.
4. Blesh, Shining Trumpets, Music Example 14c.
5. Frank Tirro,Jazz: A History (New York: W. W. Norton & Co
1977), 120.
6. Gilbert Chase, America's Music: From the Pilgrims to the Present, 2nd ed.
rev. (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1966), 453.
7. Fahey, Patton, 34.
8. Gunther Shuller, Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical Development (New
York: Oxford University Press, 1968), 61.
9. Atta Annan Mensah, "Music South of the Sahara" in Musics of Many
Cultures, Elizabeth May, ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press,
1980), 185.
10. A. M. Jones, "Blue Notes and Hot Rhythm," African Music Society
Newsletter 1 (June, 1951), 10.
11. Dale A. Olsen, "Folk Music of South America" in Music of Many
Cultures, Elizabeth May, ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press,
1980), 400.
12. John Storm Roberts, Black Music of the Americas (New York: William
Morrow & Company, 1974), 72-73.
13. Bruno Nettl, Music in Primitive Cultures (Cambridge: Harvard Univer-
sity Press, 1956), 47.
14. Schuller, Early Jazz, 47.
15. J. H. Nketia, The Music of Africa (New York: W. W. Norton & Com-
pany, 1974); A. M. Jones, Studies in African Music vols. 1, 2 (London:
Oxford University Press, 1959).
16. Melville J. Herskovits, The Myth of the Negro Past (Boston: Beacon
Press, 1958), 52-53.
17. Paul Oliver, Savannah Syncopators (New York: Stein and Day, 1970),
86-91.

18. Cecil J. Sharp, English Folk Song: Some Conclusions (London: Simpkin
Company, 1907), 71.
19. Annabel Morris Buchanan, "A Neutral Mode in Anglo-American Fo
Music," Southern Folklore Quarterly 4 (1951), 81.
20. . "A Neutral Mode," 83; Winthrop Sargeant, Jazz: Hot a
Hybrid (New York: Arrow Editions, 1938), 134.
21. Buchanan, "A Neutral Mode," 82.
22. Ibid., 84.

23. Dorothy Scarborough, On the Trail of Negro Folk-Songs (facsimile

1925 ed., Hatboro, Pa.: Folklore Associates, 1963), 33-64.

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 BLUE NOTES AND BLUE TONALITY 165

Bluesman "Mississippi" Fred McDowell. Courtesy

Rick Stafford, Photographer.

RECORDINGS CITED

1. Hi Henry Brown, "Skin Man," St. Louis Town 1929-193

1003.

2. Teddy Darby, "Built Right on the Ground," St. Louis Town 1929-1933,
Belzona L 1003.

3. John Lee Hooker, "Nothin' But Trouble," Dark Muddy Bottom Blu
Specialty SPS 2149.
4. "I Need More Power" and "Grizzly Bear," Negro Prison Camp
Songs, Folkways P 475.
5. The Masked Marvel (Charley Patton), "Boweavil Blues," American
Music 1, Folkways P 475.
6. Sylvester Sly, "Let Me Have It All," Sly and the Family Stone: Fresh
KE 32134.

7. "War Song," African Music, Folkways FW 8852.

8. Stevie Wonder, "Maybe Your Baby," Talking Book, Tamla T 319

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