INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL

Psychology plays a very important

role in understanding the teaching
and learning process.
Many innovations in the learning
process have been made possible
because of the contributions of
psychology. Psychology is a branch
of science that studies human
behavior, and helps educators
and teachers to understand the nature
of diversity of learners. Teachers are
now more confident
and competent to teach because of a
deep understanding of their learners.
They can facilitate
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learning according to the

learners’ needs. History has
been witnessed as to how
concepts,
information, and studies in
psychology have helped immensely
in understanding the nature of the
human being. They are bases for
innovations and reforms in
teaching. Teaching strategies are
made more appropriate for every
learner. Part of human nature is
learning, which has been made
interesting because of the
application of knowledge
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obtained from psychology.

Studies are
continuously undertaken to enhance
knowledge about the teaching and
learning process.
COURSE: EDUC. 104- FACILITATING LEARNER- CENTERED TEACHING
PROFESSOR: LORNA S. SALCEDO

PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF LEARNER- CENTERED TEACHING

Psychology plays a very important role in understanding the teaching and learning
process. Many innovations in the learning process have been made possible because of the
contributions of psychology. Psychology is a branch of science that studies human behavior and
helps educators and teachers to understand the nature of diversity of learners. Teachers are
now more confident and competent to teach because of a deep understanding of their
learners. They can facilitate learning according to the learners’ needs. History has been
witnessed as to how concepts, information, and studies in psychology have helped
immensely in understanding the nature of the human being. They are bases for innovations and
reforms in teaching. Teaching strategies are made more appropriate for every learner. Part of
human nature is learning, which has been made interesting because of the application of
knowledge obtained from psychology. Studies are continuously undertaken to enhance
knowledge about the teaching and learning process.
In the early 1990s, the American Psychological Association (APA) appointed a group, a
Task Force on Psychology in Education, to conduct further studies in both psychology and
education. The purpose of this group was to conduct studies that could further enhance the
current understanding of educators on the nature of the learners about the teaching and
learning process. The end goal was to improve the existing school practices so that learning
becomes more meaningful to all kinds of learners. The 4 Learner-Centered Psychological
Principles are categorized as follows: (1) cognitive and metacognitive factors; (2) motivational
and affective; (3) developmental and social; and (4) individual difference factors. All these
principles influence the teaching and learning process (APA, 1997).
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A. COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS

Cognitive factors refer to the mental processes the learners undergo as they
process information. The way learners think about their thinking as they engage in mental tasks
is the concern of the metacognitive factors.
1. NATURE OF LEARNING PROCESS
The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional
process of constructing meaning from information and experience. Teachers play a
significant role in guiding their learners to become active, goal-directed, and self-
regulating, and to assume personal responsibility for their learning. The learning
activities and opportunities provided by the teacher are very important situations where
learners can integrate knowledge and concepts to their experiences. Whenever teachers
plan their lessons and topics, they always need to consider how they can bring reality in
the classroom. Learners need to have a clear and concrete understanding of knowledge
and concepts presented so that they would also know in what situations they have to
apply them. Learning through experience is the most effective way of teaching. An
intentional learning environment is one that fosters activity and feedback and creates a
culture that promotes metacognition, that is, one in which the learner becomes aware
of his or her learning process and can use tools to enhance this learning
process(Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1989).

2. GOALS OF THE LEARNING PROCESS

The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance,
can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge. Learners need to be
goal-directed. Teachers have to guide learners in terms of determining their personal
goals. They need to set their goals, not dictated by others, to ensure their
willingness to achieve them. Meaningful learning takes place when what is presented to
learners is very much related to their needs and interests. When learners have good
understanding of the concepts discussed in school, they can reach long-term goals most
likely. Indeed, it is challenging to motivate learners to succeed.

3. CONSTRUCTION OF KNOWLEDGE
The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful
ways. In planning a new lesson to be presented, teachers would usually find it more
effective when they connect the learners existing knowledge to new
information. The integration of prior experiences to a new concept to be learned is
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a way of making connections between what is new and what is already known. That
new knowledge is created from old knowledge is the very heart of constructivism.
Teachers should initiate more opportunities for learners to share ideas,
experiences, observations, and readings as the need arises. Sharing prior knowledge can
be done in creative strategies like concept mapping, group activities, and other
collaborative techniques where learners are also able to learn from each other's
experiences.

4. STRATEGIC THINKING
The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and
reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals. Strategic thinking is a person's
ability to use knowledge in different ways to solve problems, address concerns and
issues, decrease difficulties in certain situations, and make sound decisions and
judgments in varied conditions. Strategic thinkers do not easily give up even
in difficult situations. They are more challenged to find ways to solve a problem no
matter how many times they already failed. They are not afraid to commit
mistakes because they perceive them as meaningful learning experiences to
continuously discover other ways of arriving at solutions. Teachers are
supposed to give them as many opportunities to learn, experiment, solve, and
explore new ideas and concepts. Thus, to motivate and encourage the learners to be
more creative and innovative in their ideas, opinions, and responses are musts for
teachers.

5. THINKING ABOUT THINKING

Higher-order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations
facilitate creative and critical thinking. One of the most challenging roles of the teachers
is to develop among their learners' higher order thinking skills (HOTS). It means that
their learners can do evaluation, synthesis, analysis, and interpretation of varied
concepts, information, and knowledge. As previously mentioned, learners develop their
thinking skills when they are provided with opportunities and learning experiences to
process varied events and situations, specifically if given real problems. This context
means that aside from mastering information, discovery, problem-solving, creation, and
evaluation should also be integrated into their learning experiences. Assessment
tools in school should be authentic. Students can make inferences, sound judgments,
and relevant conclusions, and use their learned knowledge to varied situations. HOTS
are very much needed in this fast-changing world
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6. CONTEXT OF LEARNING
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology,
and instructional practices. Learning does not only take place inside the classroom.
Much of what learners learn in the classroom with their teachers can only have
meaning once they see them concretely in their everyday life. Examples given
in the classroom should be a reflection of their actual life experiences. The
digital tools and instructional practices must be carefully selected to facilitate a
motivating, stimulating, and encouraging learning environment geared toward effective
acquisition of knowledge, concepts, and skills among learners

B. MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS

How the learners push themselves to learn and how they value learning are the concerns of the
motivational factors. Meanwhile, the affective factors relate to the attitude, feelings, and
emotions that learners put into the learning task.

1. MOTIVATIONAL AND EMOTIONAL INFLUENCES ON LEARNING

What and how much are learned are influenced by the learner's motivation. Motivation to
learn is influenced by the individual’s emotional stat beliefs, interests and habits of thinking.
Motivation plays a very important role in learning. It pertains to an individual ‘sinner
drive to do something, accomplish something, pursue a goal, learn, and master a skill, or just
discover without necessarily being forced or pushed by anyone. The level of one’s
motivation would also determine the extent of his or her ability to accomplish desired tasks.
The way teachers motivate their learners is then crucial to make them actively engaged in the
learning process. In lesson planning, the motivation part of the lesson sets the
positive mindset of the learners. No matter how new, challenging, and technical a topic is,
if the level of their motivation is high, they would always find the interest to participate and
get themselves engaged. Meanwhile, if there were no efforts to motivate learners, then, there
would also be no engagement to learning. Teachers and parents' encouragements, praises,
and rewards can boost the learner’s confidence. They can also establish positive
emotional states and good habits of thinking in individuals. Learners will always
feel that mistakes and errors are normal parts of learning. Teachers should also use
learning materials and strategies that would eradicate learners ‘anxiety, panic, and even
insecurities.

A. INTRINSIC MOTIVATION TO LEARN

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The learner's creativity, higher-order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to the
motivation to learn. There are two kinds of motivation - intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
Intrinsic motivation is manifested when an individual engages in an activity or task that is
personally gratifying. It is personally rewarding, and there is no expectation for any external or
tangible reward.

B. EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
Meanwhile, is its direct opposite. A person engages in a task or activity to
earn external rewards or to avoid punishments in some situations. Intrinsic motivation is
stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and
providing for personal choice and control. As teachers and mentors, the most important way
to motivate the students to learn is to present the value of that knowledge or concept to their
life. Learning is not only about getting good grades or complying with requirements, but it is
more of knowing why they need to learn such and to what specific instances in their lives that
they would be able to use them. When what is being taught to the students is presented
creatively, it stimulates their HOTS, enhances their curiosity, and heightens their interest to
learn more about it. Teaching strategies that allow personal choice and control, collaboration,
and creation for learners contribute to a more heightened intrinsic motivation for
learning.

EFFECTS OF MOTIVATION ON EFFORT

Acquisition of sophisticated knowledge and skills requires extensive learner's effort
and guided practice. The learners' motivation to learn is also partnered by their
extended efforts. Teachers facilitate learning opportunities and experiences that encourage
learners to exert time and effort and at the same time commitment and enthusiasm toward a
task they have to do and a concept they have to learn. It is through the teachers'
encouragement that they will have to do tasks with quality and not just for compliance's sake.
Teachers can praise works that have been done well. They can also acknowledge every
little achievement of a person. Teachers can use the students' errors or mistakes as
opportunities for mentoring. All these raise a person's motivation to learn. Positive
emotions establish in the classroom as well as with others make learning interesting for
everybody in general. The learning environment can also foster positive emotions when there is
no competition between and among learners, and numeric grades are just secondary
considerations as pieces of learning.

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EXPERIENCE
Learners acquire knowledge and skills from the experiences that they actively engage in.
This scenario demands the teachers to be in an active role as well to effect the intended
positive changes to the learners. Initially, teachers' awareness of students' background or
characteristics is vital input in instructional design. Common experiences shared by
teachers in seminars and trainings reveal the varied methodologies and strategies
they have proven in their action research to be effective. Cognition is triggered by
the varied types of motivation used by teachers and the strategies they use to build a
more positive affect among the learners. Likewise, prior knowledge has been found useful
in the learners’ metacognitive thinking. The stock knowledge and skills have developed
greater confidence for the learners to hurdle the task-in the planning of the strategies to solve a
task, in their monitoring of their solving processes, and in evaluating their output. Based on
common experiences by teachers, learners achieve more if they exert effort in the tasks given
to them. The teachers should consider all the major elements of the cognitive and
metacognitive factors of learning as follows: nature of the learning process, goals of
the learning process, construction of knowledge, strategic thinking, thinking about thinking,
and the context of learning. Each teacher's learning plan should be carefully checked
as to its appropriateness and effectiveness in lesson delivery. Mentoring of new teachers
by seasoned teachers should also be a good practice that needs to be observed in schools.
Teachers have best practices in motivating and stimulating their learners depending on
their age and grade levels. Sometimes, extrinsic motivation works effectively among those
in the lower grades, like giving tokens, stars, or any tangible reward. As they progress
from one grade level to the other, teachers also modify motivation from being
extrinsic to intrinsic because they are now becoming more matured learners. Their
interests as well as the commitment to finish their tasks are now more critical rather than just
the concrete rewards.

C. DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS/

Development and social factors as well as individual differences are
considered critical factors in the capacity of learners to engage in learning. These principles
include the following:
1. DEVELOPMENTAL INFLUENCES ON LEARNING
As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for learning.
Learning is most effective when differential development within and across physical,
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intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account. Knowledge on the
physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains of the learners is an excellent springboard
for planning learning activities, materials, and assessment. Often, some learners are not
learning well because there is a mismatch between the learning activity and the learners'
developmental stage. Teachers are persons and professionals who should be
knowledgeable of the various developmental milestones of learners. They should not
be working alone along instructional planning. They should always collaborate with the
school administrators, guidance counselors, learners' parents, guardians, and even family.
Specifically, teachers should always investigate the readiness of the learners through keen
observations, diagnostic tools, authentic assessments, and the like. All of these will help to
create optimal learning contexts and environment.
2. SOCIAL INFLUENCES ON LEARNING
Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication
with others. Collaboration is a 21st century skill. All learners should learn the skill of working
with others in an instructional setting. This ability will prepare them for the real world where
they are expected to interact effectively to a community of diverse people. Collaborative
skills encompass social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication. Learning
activities in the classroom should offer opportunities for such collaborative skills. Group
works, group dynamics, as well as group tasks are examples of situations where such can be
developed. When learners work with their peers and classmates, they learn to appreciate and
respect diversity. They practice their listening skills and at the same time consider
each other's perspectives and contributions on the task to be completed. When adequately
facilitated by the teacher, this ability contributes to a positive and healthy learning such as
respect for each other’s opinions, give-and-take relationships, and taking responsibility for
assigned tasks to develop the interpersonal relationships of the learners.

D. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES FACTORS

1. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING

Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a function
of prior experience and heredity. Diversity is a natural part of life. The learning
environment is the best example where diversity is manifested between and among
learners. Each learner has his or her learning style, intelligence, potential, skills, talents, learning
preferences, as well as cognitive abilities, which are the effects of both experience and heredity.
Theories on multiple intelligences, learning styles and the differentiated instructions are all

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to be considered when planning the delivery of lessons. Teachers assist and support
their learners in identifying their most effective learning style, dominant intelligence,
skills, and potentials, and help them identify the ways and means on how they can use them to
maximize learning. Current trends in teaching encourage teachers to apply concepts on
multicultural teaching, differentiated instruction (D), and the Universal Design for
Learning (UDL). All these principles support the premise that teachers should be creative,
innovative, and supportive of the individual differences of their learners. These trends in
teaching offer various, options and ways by which diversity can best be used for meaningful
teaching and learning.

2. LEARNING AND DIVERSITY

Learning is most effective when differences in learners" linguistic, cultural, and social
backgrounds are considered. Multicultural teaching encourages teachers to consider their
learners' linguistic, cultural, and social backgrounds. Language can be a barrier in
learning when learners cannot express themselves properly and when the learning
material is not also related to their social context. Examples given may be too vague or
abstract because their most specific application cannot be found outside of the school. Cases
and situations should be contextualized and localized. When learners find that their lessons are
also concretely seen in their places and are closely related to their environment, the more they
can appreciate learning. Culture makes one person distinct from other people.
Students manifest differences in language, values, belief systems, and way of life. An
inclusive classroom is one that welcomes and respects these differences, which are
incorporated into their learning activities. They are also used as actual examples of concepts
presented during discussions. Students do not feel discriminated upon and ridiculed because of
their uniqueness as an individual. When each learner feels valued, accepted, and appreciated
for what he or she is, this affirmation contributes to a positive learning environment

STANDARDS AND ASSESSMENT

Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well
as the learning progress-including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment-are
integral parts of the learning process. Assessment and evaluation are essential pats of the
teaching and learning process. The results of assessments conducted are used to gauge the
learners' strengths, weaknesses, imitations, and areas of difficulties. Teachers can also
determine what kind of support and scaffold the learners need. This process also includes

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knowing which instructional material would best assist a learner for better school
performance
Assessment should be an ongoing process. Whether it was formative or summative,
results should be used as a means of improving the teachers' strategies and techniques in
teaching. Low results may not always be attributed to students' negligence and
difficulties but may also be because the teacher's strategy was not effective during the
delivery of the lesson. Assessment, therefore, is for both the teacher and learner.

EXPERIENCE
Teaching is a complex process. It can be observed that there are teachers who enter
their classrooms without much preparation on how they could make learning more
interesting and engaging in varied kinds of learners. It is the very reason why institutions
preparing pre-service teachers at present have continuously introduced innovations on their
teacher education programs to prepare them for this complex task. The teachers are immersed
as much as possible to actual classroom situation so that at an early stage of their training, they
can already see the realities in the teaching and learning process. Teachers learn from their
experiences as teachers because they meet different kinds of learners every day. The
learners' developmental stages are highly considered. Teachers prepare them for more difficult
tasks but in a meaningful and interesting way. Learners are individually different from each
other. Some are fast learners; some are quite slow, too. Teachers should then derive ways and
means on how both groups can be assisted. A classroom is a place where diversity is
appreciated and respected. It is never a place where learners are discriminated upon or
ridiculed because of their unique way of life, social background, beliefs, value systems, and
traditions

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