A Survey of Railway Signaling and Control

IEEE,OF THE
PROCEEDINGS VOL. 56, NO. 4,653

APRIL 1968
speeds can be carried out as seen inFig. 8. From the spectral be large and dependent upon the damping ratio 5 when the
density of track excitations S,,(p) one obtains the spectral spectrum band passes over a resonance of the system, and
density against frequency for various speeds V by the rela- will be smaller and dependent upon thevalue of the natural
tion frequency when the band extends further where the transfer
function decreases or stabilizes.
This shows that a suspension system like an air cushion
has inherent filtering properties and provided its natural f
frequency is lowered enough by some leakage control sys-
This spectral density is dependent upon L (the length over tem it can accommodate wide track form’s tolerances.
which the average is computed) and is related to the air-
cushion length. One sees that the amplitudes and the exten- CONCLUSION
sion of the spectrum depend upon L. The filtering property From an analysis of the forces and power requirements
of the air cushion is therefore included in the spectrum. On we arrived at the conclusion that the TACV differs from
the axis of frequencies one sees the natural frequency of the other vehicles only in the induced drag due to the air supply
vehicle f, and of the track fT and the feeding time constant for air cushions. However, TACV are bound to be much
tL which represents the upper cutoff frequency.The transfer lighter in structure which implies less power installed to
function can also be plotted as shown. Finally, the mean keep the same acceleration.
square value of the acceleration can be computed for each The output characteristics of a transportation system are
speed V and plotted on the same graph for the frequency most influenced by the size ofthe vehicle, by the suspension
corresponding to a given length i . This last curve then characteristics, and by the speed.
represents the variation of the mean square of acceleration The track form’s tolerances that an air-cushion suspen-
against speed. sion can manage while providing good riding comfort are
From the expression of the mean square of acceleration very wide.This is due tothe natural filtering property of the
[ y z ] it can be seen that its value will steadily increase as the air cushions and to the lips system which allowsfor a simple
speed increases due to the simultaneous extension of the and efficient means of controlling the suspension stiffness.
bandwidth with speed. When the speedis such that all The influence of the suspension stiffnesson the vehicle
natural frequencies are passed, the response may decrease response for a given track has been experimentally verified
with speed. The slopes or the rate of increase with speed will and can be computed for different vehicle speeds.
A Survey of Railway Signaling and Control
Abstract-Railway signaling originated from the basic weds of safety, automation, to which railway systems are particalarty adaptable, but there
but its development has permitted the exploitation of wider facilities, m the are still many unsolvedproblems In signaling ad coeunrmicatio~~, manage-
form of considerable ecowmies and n i ch e 3 i c i i y , coupled with the ments have not only the best possible insoraore policy, but an i n d i i b l e
attainment of higher speeds and improved control It is closely supported by tool for commercial viability; these two assets win play a large and vital
telecommrmicPtim techniques, both m pneillruy f ~ ~ ~ ~ and
t i omn scharacter- role in the imminenttramport explosion of the future.
istic railwaycommrmicption networks, using land and radio trammission
media. Signahg is based 011 the principle of “fail-safe” ad complete 1. FOREWORD
reliability; at first it was e
d
i
led by mecbanicplmeans, but subsequently
1.1
supported and replaced by electrical means, the latter methodproving
itself, by meam of speeializod application and metbod, to be the most suitable
for the very exacting performance demanded. The introdwtimand improve-
mentof electronics is now playing aniucreasing part in the operation of
railways, and holds much promise forgreaterapplicatioa in the future,
T HE ORIGINAL concept, and primary objective, of
railway signaling was safety. Wider development and
use ofsignaling devices has, however, facilitated many
other applications, so that economy, efficiency, and flexi-
taking underits w i q not only mhd and peripbernlinstallations as they are
knom today, but also new capabTties in the formofrevenue collection, bility can also be achieved. The following are examples of
data handling, aod streamlined administration. ’Ibe recent trend is toward these extended applications :
Manuscript receivedDecember5,1967;revised February 2, 1968.

a) increase in speed
The author is with Frederic R. Harris, Inc., Consulting Engineers, The b) greater line capacity
Hague, The Netherlands. c) improved control andeconomy of train operating by :
Authorized licensed use limited to: UNIVERSIDADE DE SAO PAULO. Downloaded on July 29,2022 at 23:48:16 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
654 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, APRIL 1968
i) consolidation of interlockings tection is necessary not only as for double lines but also to
ii) remote control guard against a head-on collision. Junctions and intersec-
iii) optimum use of trackage, sometimes effecting a tions also require protection from conflicting movement.
reduction 2.1.1: On unidirectional lines, the original method of
d) automation of marshaling yards handling traffic was by a time interval, whereby successive
e) automatic train control, open or closed loop trains were dispatched after a specifiedlapseof time.
f) important smaller installations which may be part of Clearly, this could be neither speedy nor efficient because
the above or separate in themselves, such as automatic as soon as train characteristics differed and speedswere
levelcrossing protection, automatic warning systems, other than slow, the method was of little value. It was not
and train describers. long, therefore, before an interval of space became estab-
lished, in which the line was divided into convenient sec-
I .2 tions, each one under the control of an individual with some
Associated with all these features and included here be- form of signal, and fundamentally arranged so that only
cause they usually fall withinthe responsibility of the signal one train at a time could occupy one section; if itwas
engineer is the railway telecommunications system,em- blocked by a train (or part of a train), a second was not
bracing such items as : permitted to proceed. The space interval became known as
a block section; it still existstoday in its original concept on
a) the ancillaries required by the above, i.e., line wires, all lines signaled by the older mechanical methods. Even
cables, telephony, and telegraphy on those lineswhere high speeds obtainand the most
b) the railway control and other individual telephone sys- modern signaling is installed, the principle is still main-
tems (some larger railway administrations have their tained.
own trunk telephone networks separate from the na- 2.1.2: On single lines the same applies, namely one sec-
tional) tion, one train. But a different method is needed to enforce
c) the telegraph complex, including teleprinters, data it, particularly because trains are dispatched from opposite
preparation andtransmission, and computer interface ends of the section onto the same portion of running line.
d) land transmission in various forms The British adopted a token, Le., some form of tangible ob-
e) radio communications-VHF,microwave, etc., for ject in the hands of the driver as his authority to enter the
links existing on their own or as communication chan- single-line section. Originally, only one token was used per
nels for other facilities section, but naturally development of traffic flow in one
f) train-board communications (telegraph and tele- direction demanded that trains could follow one another
phone). without the need to return the token each time.Thus tokens
were made to be available from electrical magazines placed
I .3 at each endof the single-line section, both instruments
Railway signaling isa highly specializedtechnique and as holding a number of similar tokens but electrically con-
such does not lend itself to other transport systems. This nected in such a way that only one can be released at a time
paper examines something of what is involved. It should, by cooperation of the operators. This method is still widely
perhaps, be explained that the use and handling of signaling used, the token varying in form, e.g., staff, tablet, key, or
to regulate and control the passage of trains is an operating ball. The token is passed betweenground and train, usually
function, while the technological sideis an engineering by hand in a suitably looped pouch or camer, but occa-
matter. The signal engineer must, of course, concern him- sionally by fixed apparatus for “automatic” exchange, in
self to a great extent with both forfull coordination. which case speeds during transfer can naturally be higher
than those achieved by individuals. In contrast is the
European Continental system whereby trains are admitted
2. THETHEORY
OF SIGNALING
to the single-line section on a clear signal only, the respec-
2.1 tive starting signals (i.e.,section authority) being electrically
The history and evolution of signaling from the original interlocked to avoid opposing movement.
use of a policeman to the modern, sophisticated, and com- 2.1.3: Of vital importance in these systems, all still in
plex systems isa most fascinating subject, but this paper is operation in various forms in different parts of the world,
concerned only with those parts which make the funda- are the following:
mental requirements understandable and which are the
foundations of subsequent developments. Basically, so long a) the check that a train is complete on exit from the
as one train only is in possession of a stretch of line, no block section, which isthus proved clear
signaling or control is needed, but as soon as more than b) some arrangement made to reduce the effectsof a
one train is involved, prevention from collision becomes train overrunning the end of the block section,
necessary. On double lines, where one direction of traffic is usually done by provision of an “overlap,” but
concerned, provision must be made to guard against one sometimes abrogated subject to automatic control of
train colliding with the rear of a preceding train, while on a train braking andthe display of a specialsignal
single line, over which trafficworks in both directions, pro- aspect.
ROL CUNLIFFE:
AND RAILWAY SIGNALING 655
arms act for daylight indication only, night conditions be-

ing met bythe use of an oil lamp of a very highly developed
and reliable type, except in special circumstances where an
electric “intensified” light is used, to show red/green,
yellow/green, etc., through the spectacle glass.
2.2.2 :Color light signals have followed mechanical sema-
phore practice, with one or two exceptions where the
changeover involved a complete alteration of the system,
expanding in some cases to present additional aspects and
sometimes to include speed signaling. Color light signals
are, of course, electrically lit, sometimes by batteries, but
usually by power ona low voltage (12 to 50 volts) ;the lamps
used are specially designedfor reliability and maycarry two
or three filaments, proved if necessary within the electrical
control circuitry. The signal units have a highly developed
A mechanical upper quadrant signal in the “off’ (clear) position, optical system for directional intensity of the beam, and
mounted on a tubular steel post. the lenses often have some deflecting arrangementfor close-
up observation. The advantages of the color light signal
over the semaphore are very numerous and mostlyobvious,
but naturally more costly.
2.2.3: Fig. 1 shows the development of the British system
of multi-aspect signaling; only the main aspects are shown
(many others exist including subsidiary signals, ground sig-
nals,junction and routing signals, etc.), being related mainly
to the concept of the block system and its application in
automatic working. It is to benoted that the maximum
number of signal aspects available for display is four,
although five and six aspects are used in other countries,
notably among which are the flashing light and combina-
tions of colors. American aspects are more complex and
numerous due to the greater amount of information to be
given to the driver.
2.2.4: Mention should be madeof cab signals; these gen-
erally are in miniature form in the driver’scab, either repeat-
ing those on the lineside or, where lineside signals are not
used, gving continuous appropriateindications. The bene-
fits of cab signaling are mainly on the side of safety, with
the added facility that automatic action on the power and
braking systems of the train can be taken in the event of a
signal being disobeyed, or speeds controlled when too high
to conform withthe stoppingdistance under the fixed block
and overlap arrangements.
3. ENGINEERING
THEORY
A four-aspect color light signal, surmounted by a directional route indica- 3.1
tor for high-speed running over a junction.At the lower left ofthe main The basic principle and fundamental concern of signal
unitis a subsidiary (shunt) signalwhichdisplays lunar whitelights
when in the “proceed” position. (AEZ-General Signal Ltd., Harrow, engineering is that should any item or function become
London, England.) faulty or fail, it will have the effect of restricting or stopping
2.2 train movement, and is known as the principle of “fail-
safe.” Additionally, the prevention of any conflicting move
Lineside signals originally varied from railway to railway is of paramount importance and, furthermore, the setting
and from country to country; signal arms, disks, boards, up of such conditions must be impossible. This applies to
flags, balls, and other objects were adopted. design as well as manufacture and circuitry, and affects
2.2.1: The semaphore arm of naval practice, originally mechanical, electrical, and electronic apparatus alike.
working in the lower quadrant, is now usually operated in
the upper quadrant. Three positions wereusedinsome 3.2
cases, but two positions have been generally favored, i.e., All forms of signaling started by being mechanical, of
horizontal for “on” and 45” to 60” for “off.” These signal which perhaps the most interesting part is the lever frame
t
EQUIVALENT
ASPECTS
ASPECT
kouRl lNDlC4TlON 1 PEMAPHORE I C/L x * DlST4NCLBLTWLENTWOBLOCKPOSTS lMANU4Ll
6 3 LLNOTU OF TR41N
P * OVLRL4P
d 8 SERVICE BRAKINO OISTANCE
i4P?ROPRlAT€ TO 8PLLDI
Is SlOHTlNO DISTANCE
b n HE4OWAI
Fig. 1. Line capacity and train headway. Development of two-, three-, and four-aspect signaling systems. British practice.
CUNLIFFE:RAILWAYSIGNALING AND CONTROL 657
i t
HECHWIC4L ELECTRIC LOCKWG
.CCXl..c. (WRITTEN CIRCUIT1
, LOCUS 3
i 3 LOCUS I1 (01
1 I
HECUANlCIL ELECTWIC LOCKlNG
LOCKING ( I e I T T E N CIRCUIT1
3 RELEASED B Y 6
( 6 R REL E 1 3 U ) Ib)
SYMBOLIC NOMENCLATURE FOR FIGS. 2 AND 5["

Symbol Meaning
TR track relay
TPS track repeat stick relay
KR point detection relay
GR signal relay, i.e., relay controlling the signal aspect
(NIL electric lock, operative in the normal position of the lever
DG green signal lamp, i.e.,D = green and G =signal
RG red signal lamp
N , R,A positions of the contractsof a circuit controller, i.e.,N = normal
lever position,R = reverse, A =normal check
E , Pi positive, negative feed, dc
[bi
EX. N X line. neutral connections, ac
(a) A modernpattern ofsignal cabin forelectromechanicalworking,
showing (b) the operatingfloor with its mechanical lever frame, electric
Fig. 2 . Mechanical tappet interlocking, showing electrical
track diagram, and various instruments.
circuit equivalent.
used to operate directly the points by rodding andthe signals
by wire. The stroke required for the operation of any par-
ticular function is obtained by normal leverage arrange-
ments, but the working of individual units varies and is
assisted as faras possible by suitable adjustment or counter-
balance, with temperature compensation. Most important,
however, is the actual locking by whch both false signals
and incorrect routes are prevented. Many forms of locking
exist, but, as asimple example,an element of tappet locking
isshown in Fig. 2, together with the equivalent electric
circuit. Tappets are connected either to the levers direct Fig. 3. Mechanical facing point locking apparatus.
or to the catch handle movement, and are slotted to accept
locks (so called) which are connected together by rods but also on the ground by the tongue of the point lock enter-
located in a trough at right angles in respect of the tappets, ing a slot of the stretcher bar between the switches. An
so that wronglevers cannot be moved, being said to be added precaution, effectedmechanically by lock-bar or
"locked." A furtherimportant element of mechanical electrically by track circuit, is the prevention of unlocking
protection is provided by the arrangement forfacing points the points while a trainis on orapproaching them, thus pre-
on lines carrying passenger traffic; the points are held in cluding a derailment by splitting them in front of or under
position by a facing point lock, which must be unlocked a moving train. Points are also detected (electrically or
before the switches can be thrown. This feature, illustrated mechanically) by signals leading over them in a facing
in Fig. 3, is provided for, notonly in the frame interloclung, direction.
3.3
On the electrical side,apparatus is similarly designed with
meticulous care where the safety feature is involved to avoid
mal-operation or fault likely to create what is known as a
“wrong side failure,” causing a “false clear.” It is not sur-
T-5-
prising, therefore, that the high reliability of relays is the u
basis of electric interlocking, but it is to be stressed that, TO CONTROL ) -
CIRCUITS I
because of their importance in the protection of life and
END FEED RELAY END
property, the specification of a signaling relay employedin
Fig. 4. Elements of a simple track circuit.
safety circuits is very much more stringent and exacting than
for any other application; the failure of a signaling relayin
a vital control circuit could cause a fatal accident. *
3.3.1: Signal circuitry is regarded in two different cate- IO
gories; vital (safety)circuits are those for control, interlock- T C x T. c ‘0’ ’ T C ‘C’
ing, and proving; nonvital circuits are those not concerned

with safety, e.g., supervisory and indication. Safety circuits
are always designed on the closedcircuit principle and to
appreciate the proper meaning of this, it is appropriate to
look at the simple track circuit, which, since 1872 (when
the first steady-energy track circuit appeared in the United
States), has been and still is,notwithstanding the form it may
take (namely ac, dc, or electronic), one of the most im-
portant methods of train detection when anything but the
most elementary is attempted. It consists of the following
elements, illustrated in Fig. 4:
feed (power source and adjustment)
rails and bonding (current path)
sleepers and ballast (insulation), or other type of forma-
tion, e.g., concrete
rail joints (isolation)
relay (for control of the dependent circuits).
7--------
Basically, a small electric current is continuously fed to the 3Mj]
rails, which holds the track circuit relay energized. Under .\ ,

I
these conditions a mechanical function can be unlocked, a

route set and signal cleared to allow the passage of a train
(that is, the line isproved clear). When a pair of wheelsenters
the isolated area through which the current is flowing, the
L ________
SIGNAL
1
current, instead of passing through the relay coils,is diverted Fig. 5. Typical basic electric control circuit for a two-aspect color light
through the axles of the train andshunts the relay, which de- signal. (See Fig. 2 for nomenclature.)
energizes. A track occupied effect withthe appropriate con-
trols is then produced. Needless to say, because the circuit is be noted, however, that track circuit apparatus mustbe
normally closed, the failure of any component-that is, rail immune from all sources of interference.
breakage, bond, or lead; short circuit; or power failure- 3.3.2: A selection of elementary signaling circuits of the
will have the same effect as train occupation and cause the British type using symbols from British Standard No. 376,
control and signaling to be restrictive or prohibitive, thus Part II,[’lisgiveninFig. 5. It is to be stressed that the
giving what is known as a “safe-side’’ failure. There are, of actual wiring and testing of installations follows the same
course, many different types of track circuits, electric and care as the apparatus specifications and circuit design. The
electronic, depending upon their application, use, type of maintenance of safety circuits is of paramount importance,
traction, length, track condition, and availability of feed not only to avoid the possibility of mishap, but also to
power. Coded track circuits are used both to control way- keep traffic moving, and the cost of adequate provision of
side signals and, at the same time, provide energy for cab vital power supplies by duplicate mains feeders fully sup-
signaling. Single-rail track circuits are also employed, usu- ported by standby facilities inthe form of batteries, generat-
ally in electrified areas, where the return traction current ing sets,and/or alternative mains feeders is amply justified.
flows through one rail, and jointless audio-frequency track In the largest signaling installations, it is not unusual to
circuits are used to meet the requirements of continuous have two or more separate sources of mains supply, plus a
welded rail, but all adhere to the same principle. It is to dieseldriven generator setwhichcomes into use auto-
CUNLIFFE: RAILWAY SIGNALING AND CONTROL 659
matically on failure or dropin voltage, change in frequency, ever, because of the fundamental incompatibility between
etc., of the mains, together with automatic warning, both relay and static circuits, making it impossible to translate
audible and visible, to all concerned. one directly into the other, some rethinking is needed. More
important is the conception of reliability, specially applica-
3.4 ble to the signaling technique; this refers not to the usual
The use of electronics in railway signal engineering, al- concept of failure with respect to continuous working
though increasing, is not, up to thepresent time, very great. without change in characteristics, but, as has nowbeen
Whde signal engineers are conservative and careful people, made clear, to safety of operation. There are already a few
they are not blind to the importance of and possibilities completely electronic signaling systems in existence and the
offered by this comparatively new technology. But the spread of these techniques in vital circuit areas is bound
thermionic valve and tube-type apparatus was not suitable to grow.
forrailwayusein the field, due to the following main 3.4.3: There is no doubt that electronic components and
reasons : techniques will play an ever-increasing part in vital signal
circuitry and have much to accomplish in so doing. How-
a) the thrashing power Of the locomotive and ever, before the impetus is greatly increased, solid-state
heavy vibration inherent in a railway systemas against
circuitry and the associated apparatus will have to be im-
the relative fragility of the parts of the units concerned proved with respect to reliability and price; reliability is
b, the high power consumption and the need to
especially important hause although signaling cannot
it; the 'low heating Of the
afford the risk of failure, however this may be,
valve and consequent delay in operation
yet elaborate standby arrangements and duplication need
c, the proven very Of the and 'Ontact
to be to avoid excessive
costs. Although there
equipment and particular suitability to the tasks to be
are many operational and financial advantages in the use of
performed.
this equipment
. - (space and power economies, for example),
But postwar development of solid-state apparatusand current production of electronic circuit elements perse
logic circuits based on modular construction has brought does not yet allow for any reduction in capital expenditure,
new thinking in the signaling techniques, chiefly on account and it is too early to assess recurrent costs of maintenance
of speedin operation, low power requirements, miniaturiza- and renewals, vis-a-vis equivalent electromechanical com-
tion, the demands of electrification of traction, and reduced ponents.
maintenance.
3.4.1: With comparatively few exceptions, electronic ap-
paratus has been conlined to nonvital elements of the signal- 4. SIGNALING INPRACTICE
ing system, some of which are associated with ordinary sig- 4.1
naling functions and others of a peripheral nature under It is now appropriate to look briefly at practical applica-
signaling responsibilities.The following are a few examples : tions, representing important functions of signaling over
coded remote control of interlocking systems over a and above the basic safety element. It must be pointed out
minimum number (two or three) conductors, involving first, however, that higher standards of signaling bring in-
command and supervisory channels, for example by herently greater safety, as well as increased flexibility.
high-speed time multiplex, or frequency-shift carrier 4.2
systems, the vital (i.e., safety) circuits being handled
With improved and faster track (due largely to continuous
by conventional relay apparatus at the field site
welded rail) and longer switches, train speeds are rising, and
overlay or special track circuits, e.g., reed driven, for
it stands to reason that signaling has to be geared accord-
electrified traction territory
ingly. This involves not only apparatus design, but also ap-
apparatus used in various forms for,automatic opera-
propriate train spacing and quicker control; all these are
tion, on boththe track and train
essentially demanding of power workmg to provide com-
measuring and indicating devices as ancillaries in a
plete route selection and immediate clearing of signals un-
larger system, for example, control of level crossing
der safe conditions. Brake control is also becoming more
protection, hotbox detection, magnetic core matrix
important and the link between the train and the control
for information storageof wagon identification, Dop-
systemassumes larger proportions. Automatic warhing
pler radar for wagon speed detection in automated
systems and their automation are now in the forefront of
marshaling yards, etc.
development. Speed and its reciprocal, brake power, are
train describers
important in consideration of line capacity; as more traffic
systems control, e.g., computerization of an urban
offers, so utilization of the line has to be increased. Signaling
network.
is one method (but not the only one) of increasing line
3.4.2: The replacement of relay circuitry by electronic capacity and may be introduced-on i& own accountor in
logic, particularly where increased switchingspeeds are conjunction with modernization, such as electrification.
required, offers manymeasures of improvement by increas- This subject is developed separately in the Appendix. Fig. 1
ing diversity and extending the area of train control. How- shows how it has evolved from manual two-aspect mechani-
660 PROCEEDINGS
APRIL OF THE IEEE, 1968
track circuiting or some other system, of which the most

favored on the continent of Europe isby axle counting
(these systems,incidentally,are equally applicable to double
or multiple tracks). The author pioneered a new method,
namely magnetic tail checking, coupled with an automatic
block based partly on relays and partly on electronic units,
and installed the firstsystem of its kind on a main-line
passengercarrying railway.[21Since the timeitwas first
introduced, it has been repeated elsewhere due to its low
cost advantages. Automatic crossings on singlelines are
possible but require some form of traincomplete detection
apparatus.
I 4.3
Power simalinn” installations are used not onlv
V~
~ ~ ~~ ~
,to concen-
~~
M [iniature mosaic-type control panelfor the operation of a single-line ~ ~~
station together with the adjacent automaticblock sections. The right- trate controlin the hands of a central authority, thereby ob-
hand section stands clear for a train toenter (white route direction and taining higherefficiency and greater safety, but also to
green signal), while the left-hand section is occupied by a train, duly economize in operating manpower and other measures.
protected, proceeding away from the station (denoted by red direc-
tional arrow and starting signal standing at danger). The greater use of electronic apparatus forsupervision, and
transmission of command and data, due to its functional
working speed, is enabling the areas to be considerably ex-
tended, the ultimate being one central control for a com-
plete railwaysystem. It must be accepted that technical
maintenance is often thereby increased, both in number and
skills, but the overall result is usually well worthwhile.
4.3.1: Modem functional controls are mounted on a
panel or console integral with or close to an illuminated
diagram, whichis a replica of the controlled areaand
shows the position of all points, signals, routes set, train
occupation, usually with the train numbers described; all
movements are reproduced on the diagram immediately
they take place on the ground. Operating the functions is
done by push buttonsorthumb switches; the route is
selected and set up (usually illuminated in white lights when
established) and signals cleared by the simple movement of
push buttons or switches; routes are checked, set, and pro-
tected automatically through the interlocking circuitry and
apparatus. The positions of trains are indicated in redlights
and, after clearance, all functions are automatically re-
stored, leaving conditions available for another route,
which may already have been selected, in which case reset-
ting proceeds without further intervention. In such installa-
A tail magnet attached to an interlocking-type coupling, passing over a tions all signals are color light, and points worked by some
complementary ground-checking receiver. The vehicle is a diesel rail form of power (electro-pneumatic or electric motors)
car on meter gauge track.
with full continuous electric detection of points and point
locks.
cal signaling to the power-worked three- and four-aspect 4.3.2: Remote control can be operative over short or
British color light signaling system. This plan refers, of long distances; in the former, direct wire operation is
course, to double or multiple track working, andthe usually used for the supervision and indication circuits, in
method is but one of several for doing so on a main-line the latter, by some system of coding over a minimum of
railway carrying different classesof traffic, as often it must. conductors whilst the field interlocking remains conven-
Single lines, i.e., those carrying duodirectional traffic, due to tional. A very widearea may thus be covered from a central
their different operating characteristics, require special point. Munich, West Germany, is a typical modern exam-
considerations, but, in matters of capacity, an important plewhere control is exercisedover lo00 train and 5000
feature is quick exit of one train from, and entrance of an- shunting moves daily, involving 400 color lightsignals
other into, the single-line blocksection, i.e., arrival and de- and 300 sets of points, in safe and punctual conditions with
parture. This isbesteffectedby automatic checkingof maximum efficiency. The economic element is indicated by
train “completeness,” and accomplished by continuous the following comparative figures :
CUNLIFFE: RAILWAY SIGNALING AND CONTRPL
An electric point operating machine, the nearest section being the motor.
the center compartment carrying the driving gear and locking mecha-
nism, and beyond, the electric detector. Insulations areprovided on the
switch stretcher bars for track circuiting purposes.
Centralized trafficcontrol operator’s position for the Melbourne-Wodonga

installation, showing thetraindiagramand, on the console to the
operator’s right,theautomatic train recording graphs.Behind the
operator is the telephone concentrator, with connections to the entire
area under control.
(bl
(a) Electric signaling control panel, showing track diagram, push buttons
for operating,signal/track indications,and telephones. (b) Incor- ing to distance and circumstance, the latter being, for exam-
poratedtrain describer,with frontplateconstructedon themosaic ple, cold cathode tubes, time-frequency multiplex, or relays
principle (plugcoupled units), lending ease to layout amendments or similar to the telephone type. The author used a system
additions, as well as quick and simple lamp changing and fault atten-
tion. (Weslinghouse Brake and Signal Company, Ltd., London and based on electromechanical reed oscillators.[41Microwave
Chippenham, England.) radio, too, has been used in the recent past for signaling
control and telecommunications channels on a private rail-
Item Old -installation- New way in Liberia, where the construction of a physical pole
~~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~
line route was extremely ~ n d e s i r a b l e . ~ ~ ]
Number of signal cabins 17 1 4.3.4: The system called “Centralized Traffic Control”
length
Total of power
meters
75 10 meters
lever frames (panels) (CTC) is one by whicha single operator directly controls an
Operating personnel 155 58 almost unlimited number of stations and length of track,
Maintenance personnel 12 16 usually over a single line, having a complete display of all
conditions on a diagram before him. It has beenwidely
The overall reduction in personnel by 93 effects amortiza- adopted in the United States due to the use of an original
tion of the installation in 15 years.[31 method of train-order working which wasnot supplemented
4.3.3: Remote control can, of course, be small concerns by instruments until the system was completelyequipped in
from mechanical signal cabins and includes such layouts as comparatively modem times, and also due to the need to
simplejunctions orsiding, or a crossing loop in a single line. reduce trackage for economical reasons. The most modern
Here again, direct wires or coded impulses are used accord- CTC system the author hasbeen privilegedto see has com-
VEHICLES
I I
____
OTHER VARIABLES
WIND VELOCITY, ETC
NOT TO SCAG
Fig. 6. Automated marshaling yard; block schematic for computer control of wagon braking.
pletely electronic command and supervision, and is situated withadvancing techniques of data processing and com-
in South Australia, where the 188 miles of new standard- munications, particularly where State systems’ wagoninter-
gauge track between Melbourne and Wodonga is operated change is involved on a continental basis.
from a singleselective console complete with automatic
4.5
recording of all train movements, and with all strategic
locations covered by telephone. There are, of course, many peripheral items of signaling
equipment which aid the operating efficiency and improve
4.4 the safety of railways; two are worthy of mention here,
The equipment for the operation of an automated mar- namely automatic level crossing protection (grade cross-
shaling yard is one of the responsibilities of the signal engi- ings) and automatic warning systems.
neer. Briefly, the procedure is as follows: on arrival of a 4.5.1: Few people have escaped the frustrating effects of
freight train at the reception sidings, the wagons are un- railway level crossings, whose protection varies from
coupled and divided into “cuts” according to destination, nothing at all through (half or full) barriers to fenced track
and the trainpushed slowly over a “hump,” falling rapidly and heavy (usually manually operated) gates. Within the
by a steep down-gradient into thesorting sidings below. The last decade tremendous impetushas been given to automat-
highest level of automation of this type of yard is in the ing this protection, to be worked solely by the passage of
United States, but it is closely approached in many other trains. This is a “signaling” responsibility. At this compara-
parts of the world. Full track circuiting and quick acting tively new type of crossing, the driver of the train usually
points, operated from push buttons or thumb switches, or. receives no indication of its condition (but is often required
worked automatically from a data medium suchas punched to whistle) while the road user is warned of a train’s ap-
tape, effect the sorting, while electronicshandles the variable proach by two horizontal flashing red lights and a loud
information for computer input, which, in turn, controls sounding bell, followed by the lowering of a half or full
the wagon braking. Fig. 6 is an imaginary installation to bamer also carrying mihiature red lights. It is a funda-
show what is involved. To take automationa stage further, mental principle of these installations that the warning be
there are cases in West Germany where the “humping” operated as near as possible to the passage of the train across
locomotives are radio controlled, without drivers. Not yet the road. Thehalf barrier (as opposed to full) is provided to
connected with mechanized marshaling, but likely to be in give an escape route to a road vehicle; in some countries a
the near future, is the new technique of automatic wagon deterrent to zig-zag movements is made in the form of a
identification, for which several methods,all electronic, central curb, sometimes carrying sharp objects! The latest
have been produced for trials. So improvement of marshal- method ofcontrol in the United States is by a “predictor”-
ing techniques may well go on, to continue the electrical a small, fully transistorized analog computer which
and electronic processes of signaling and controlassociated excites the track with anac current using the rails as
CUNLIFFE: RAILWAY SIGNALING AND CONTROL 663
but whichever isadopted, two points are of leading impor-

tance :
a) The driver is the individual responsible for the ob-
servation of and adherence to signals, and any warn-
ing device is only to assist but not to relieve h m of
his responsibilities. The most modem methods still
allow the driver full freedom within the limits of safety.
b)Anysystemmust be absolutely reliable and trust-
worthy.
Onhigh-speedlines,special considerations are essential,
and are discussed in Section 5 .
4.6
All items of ancillary equipment cannot be included here
individually, but two which can contribute a great deal to
commercial viability are worth mentioning. They are wagon
identification and hotbox detection.
4.6.1: Both users and railway authorities need to know
the whereabouts of consignments, a matter which isnot easy
when related to a large wagonfleet, or where interstate
working is involved. To deal with this problem, there are
several systemsavailable, but basically theyamount toeach
vehicle carrying a static device by which itis identified, de-
signed and placed so that itmaybeinductively coupled
with a lineside recorder to pick up and transmit all data
respectingwagons passingit to a central point for dissemina-
tion and/or storage. By this means, a constantly updated
file may be kept of all wagonsand their movements. Such a
scheme is under study by many European countries whose
wagons are daily in international use.In October, 1967,
the Association of American Railroads announced a
standard type of ACI (automatic car or wagon identdica-
tion) to be gradually introduced on all U. S . railroads; this
is the “KarTrak,” designed by the Sylvania Electric Divi-
(b) sion of General Telephone and Electronics Corporation.r61
Automatically controlled levelcrossing (gradecrossing) protection con- 4.6.2: Delay in transit of urgent freight consignments is
sisting of loud-sounding bells, flashing lights, andhalfbarriers. (a)
Australian installation, usingacentralcurb in roadway. (b) British bad businessfor any railway administration and intolerable
installation. to its customers. Where long hauls of bulk freight obtains,
precautions must be observed against vehicles going out of
impedance; the change in magnitude of voltage received service. One cause of this that appears tohave plagued the
back resultant from a moving train is indicative of the railways of the United States is the development en route of
train’s movement, thus causing the warning arrangements overheating of axle boxes and journals by breakdown in
to function at the same precise time beforethe arrival of the lubrication. T h s can cause delay, damage, and possibly
train at the crossing, irrespective of its speed and all other derailments, and extremelyefficientapparatus-termed
variable conditions. Automatic level crossing apparatus is hotbox detectors-have been
developed to detect by
a great asset in railway operation because of its economy infrared technology the early stages of such a condition.
and efficiency, and an advantage to the road user as well, These units, electronically operated, are either connected
by decreasing delay both before the arrival of the train to the linesidesignaling to display a stopor identify-
and after its passage across the roadway. ing aspect, or relayed over a separate circuit to a central
4.5.2: With all the safety precautions inherent in the control, from which action can be taken to stop the train,
signaling system, it would appear that a link between the examine the vehicle, and take timely and appropriate ac-
lineside control devices and the train is ofsome importance. tion both on it and its contents.
How this matter is viewed varies from country to country,
5 . AUTOMATION
and indeed from railway to railway, but as speeds increase,
it becomesmore necessary. On a conventional system, there 5.1
are three main methods of dealing with this problem at the Railways, beinga system oftransportation thatmoves in
present time, namely, contactive, inductive, and train stop ; a single dimension (cf., ships and cars in two and aircraft in
664 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE,APRIL 1968
three) and-being guided.by rails, appear to.lend themselves computer,not small by any measure, needvery strong
freely to-automatic operation.But practice is complicated justification not only for the basic equipment but also its
by the very large number of separate linear movements in- transmission media, interface input and output units, their
volved, whichmust not conflict, but, depending on the type maintenance, and the dependence on “programs” which, in
of system involved, i.e., main line, suburban, urban, min- terms of labor, are specialized and well paid. It should be
eral, etc., accommodate a - variety of .ancillary processes mentioned, however, that the value of these operational
such as loading, unloading, revenue collection and check- functions decreases as the complexity of the network re-
ing, booking of traffic, marshaling, and many others, not duces; while a computer may well be of great value in con-
least of which isthe behavior of the customers ! Et goes with- trolling an intensive interconnected urban or metro net-
out saying, too, that safety must not be sacrificed; on the work, its use may not be justified at the outer limits of a
contrary, an automaticrailway must be safer than the con- main-line system. A simple shuttle service, too, can be
ventional one. operated automatically and unattended without the need
5.1.1: In thinking of automatic railways, it is first neces- for computer support.
sary to form.anidea of what this term actually means. One
school of thought by the lay public is that if railways were 5.2
“computerized” and “radarized,” all their traveling prob- Irrespective of the type of operation, be it human, semi-
lems would be solved! This is all very well in theory, but, automatic, or completely machine controlled, eommands
bearing in mind the diverse functions of traffic, particularly must be applied to the train with response and feedback.
on a main-line network, the size and complexity of the prob- Automatic train operationtakes two distinctive forms :
lem can be imagined from what little has been said in this
paper about signaling, being the means by which trains are a) “driverless” trains, or automatic driving
controlled and, together with the motive power element, the b) driver assistance and control override.
most involved and vital. 5.2.1: Automatic driving of trains offers the following
5.Z.2: Automatic operation can be applicable to a “line” advantages :
or toa whole network, but it seems hardly necessary to state
a) regularity of service, as a result of uniform driving
that its justification and value increase according to the
technique
complexities involved. It is pertinent to invite attention
b) assistance in the achievement of minimum headway
here to two points: first, that the human brain has the
and, thus, maximum line capacity
capacity of dealing with any new situation that may unex-
c) adherence to planned (or timetabled) performance
pectedly arise, pro&ed.hat it is not called upon to handle
with minimum possible energy consumpti&
too many such situations at any one time or too quickly.
d) enforced observance of speed restrictions
Such situations may well impose the most severe challenge
e) ability to provide for automaticrecovery from service
on any potential automated system. Secondly, wherever
delays
rail traffic operation has been partly or wholly automated,
f) reduced manpower requirements
it has so far always been essentialfor it to remain humanly
g) minimum power demand
“supervised,” this applying to both main-line and metro
h) smoothness of operation, and consequent increase in
systems.
passengers’ comfort due to the elimination of dis-
5.1.3: The value of automation in this sense increases
agreeable effectsof too-sharp acceleration and de-
with the number of variations possible, whether these be
celeration, or curves and other track irregularities or
simple junctions or coordination of movement; this is
jerking at station stops due to misjudgement of a
especially so if speed and efficiency are at stake, but essen-
human driver, and erratic braking
tially if the variation of one movement could cause changes
i) protection of equipment against undue wear
or dislocation in one or more of the others. The infinite
j) creation of completely crewless trains, or the possi-
number of variables thus possible is particularly applicable
bility of one-man train operation without the imposi-
to the capabilities of the computer, especially to its capacity
tion of undue strain.
for very quick and proper action according to a pro-
grammed situation, and represents the ultimate so far In many respects, automatic driving can do no better than a
known by which a whole network can be operated and con- really good human driver, but as human beings vary, so
trolled. In such an application, its use is valuable in con- does their driving, as any user of public transport will
trolling trains to a specific pattern; detecting varying testify, often to their annoyance. With automatic driving,
events and changing the operating procedure to suit; estab- not only is running performance maintained at a consistent
lishing priorities; setting routes; programming station level (a most important factor in a high-capacity sophisti-
stops; and making speed/distance calculations for driver- cated suburban ormetropolitan system) but also regulariza-
less trains. Post-operational simulation is also a feature of tion after abnormal influences becomes a practical possi-
stored information thus produced. Depending onthe bility. Fig. 7 shows a block schematic diagram of the ap-
amount of delegation to machines necessary or desirable in paratus carried on the train linking the signding( k K ?and
the interests of speed and efficiency, the costs will be af- automatic driving (ATO). There are three main waysof
fected.-But even basic captal and running expenditures of a achieving automatic driving, i.e., by a program carried out
CUNLIFFE: RAILWAY SIGNALING AND CONTROL
I I ' B R U E PCUER
r-r-ll
LOCATlON DETECTION I -
SPEED YAWYENT
I
A T 0
1-i -T
U
PLATFORM STOP
'sYOTORS
D SlGU4L ( A T C ) CONTROL
l DESIRED
L9
PROPULSW POWER
MO(YILATI0N
YOTOR CONTROL
i
BRAKE FORCE
YODULPITIOU a 0 L E m
I I
I ,
SPEED REGULATION
8 PROVING
I / I I
Fig. 7. Automatic train operation (ATO) and its relationship with automatic train control (ATC).
on the train, on the track, or centrally from a computer as

already discussed. All of these have found application in
certain circumstances, but obviously the most versatile is
the last, for which interlinking equipment (train to train,
train to track) between the remote program store and the
propulsion/braking equipment, involvingtwo-way com-
munication with central control, is essential.The use of the
running rails for this purpose is limitedelectrically, and
although high-frequency track circuit equipment is now be-
ing offered to deal with the characteristic involved, other
means have been developed in the meantime, namely some
form of waveguide alongside the track or a lowcapacitance
dielectric cable laid in the track. The waveform induced by
the latter arrangement varies according to its physical
shape and position;Fig. 8 shows those already in operation.
These various waveforms are coupled to the train by means -.A
of pick-up coils mounted on the vehicle, thence to the con- Fig. 8. Waveforms of train/track inductive cable links.
trol and AT0 equipment.
5.2.2: Automatic train working, including driverless d) door control forpassenger trains
trains, thus is technically possible; its function, normally e) reversal in the case of shuttle-type services.
handled by the motorman, would include:
a)train protection and safety in accordance with the 5.2.3: Crewless passenger trains have not yet, with one
signaling system exception, been adopted; the shuttle service in New York
b) train movement and acceleration from full stop, from Times Square to Grand Central Station is the only
speed control while running near a speed limit, and case so far where a passenger train is in operation entirely
controlled bralung to a stop or slower speed without staff-a short distance only, at maximum speed of
c) programmed stops in which the train is caused to stop 30 mi/h. Although, with automatic driving, it is not tech-
at passenger stations, together with adherence to speed nically necessary to carry any train crew at all, it would
restrictions and stopping requirements at other loca- seem desirable to carry one man (not necessariIy a driver)
tions on each train to deal with an unusual stoppage or situation
(Cl (dl
TheMunich-Augsburg automatic traincontrolsystem for high-speed
operation. (a) The driver’s controls, including a train diagram, below
whicharethe special ATC indicators. (b) The locomotive-borne in-
ductor. (c) Oneof the locomotives. (d)The trackcable.
that may arise, whichcannot be handled by or is incompati- to close and, when proved, the train to start, or,alter-
ble with the automatic equipment, such as an emergency natively, firstto cause the doors to close by a separate
caused by a passenger, fire, and other similar causes. More action)
important istheneed to move a train (although under c) open his own door onstation stop, with the possibility
special precautions) for humandangeror operational of opening the train doorsalso if this is not done auto-
reasons. Furthermore, it would appear that in spite of the matically
highly sophisticated state now reached in the automation d) take over train for manual driving in the event of any
of transport, humanity as a whole is not psychologically disruption of the automatic controls, lineside or train-
geared to accept it without the attendance of or supervision borne; this includes any item such as irregularity in
by a human being. This individual must therefore be given braking or running (which could be effected, for ex-
certain duties to do to keep him from boredom (always a ample, by a fault in the coupler), or other safety pre-
dangerous elementin the supervision of any automated cautions
process) and, apart from a vigilance system to ensure that e) look for obstruction on the line; this will necessitate
he is in his proper place, aliveand alert, his duties wouldbe his traveling in a front cab of the train, so that the
some or all of the following: effective controls must be placed there according to
direction of travel
a) initially to establish the direction in which the train f) be available to deal with any unusual event, particu-
is to run larly an emergency
b) start the train (one movement to cause an acoustic g) communicate with the passengers, if necessary, by a
warning to be given, then, after slight delay, the doors trainborne public address system
OL CUNLIFFE:
h) cooperate with control, whenspecial occasion de- high-speed locomotive on the German Federal Railway
mands, by radio from the train, or lineside telephone with an automatic control system for starting, running at
i) trip out traction power if an emergency justifies such constant speed, and fixed-point braking, allbeing com-
action. manded from a program stored in punched tape form and
carried on the locomotive.
5.3
5.3.3: There is also scope for driverless locomotives in
In some measure, automation on railways is already an marshaling yards and mineral railways. The former are
accomplished fact; it may, for example, be a surprise to already in operation in West Germany, used for “humping”
know that the Post Office underground railway in the heart trains in an automated classification complex. In such a
of London (for the carriage of mail only), operating since case, it is usual for these locomotives to be controlled by
1923, is entirely automatic, although it cannot be seriously radio from the yard supervision since the parameters in-
classed as an automatic system from the modern point of volved are few and localized. Of particular interest in the
view.L71 automatic mineral systems is the Carol Lake automatic
5.3.1: The following are examples of automated systems iron ore railway in Labrador; here rakes of wagons are
of an urban nature atpresent in operation : hauled by diesel locomotives from the mine to the railhead,
a)LondonTransport already controls several of its being loaded, unlocked, and reversed automatically, super-
junctions by “program machine” (a purely signaling vision being remote, giving 96 percent utility of the system.
exercise), but its Victoria Line, scheduledfor full open- 5.4
ing in1969, on which trains will run automatically
after a start button has been pressed by a traveling From the above, two points emerge: first, that railway
attendant, will be the closest approach to rail automa- automation is in its comparative infancy and, second, that
tion in the United Kingdom to date. Coded track cir- there are many applications of it and many meansof putting
cuit equipment with solid-state elements in the code them into effect. It is certain, however, that the future of
generation and detection will be used. railways, and their viability, liesin automated processes
b) The so-called “automatic pilot” on the Stockholm of various choices of system whether they be concerned with
Underground, which assists the driver in optimum any or all ofthe three main fields, viz.:
safety and control, and in obtaining precision, reliabil-
ity, and running economy. a) the‘traction vehicle
c) Experimental systems on the Paris Metro with auto- b) the track
matic driving and also automatic traffic control. c) the control center.
d) The automatic train control selected for the BARTD
system at San Francisco, referred to elsewhere in this 5.4.1: It is therefore appropriate to summarize the main
issue.[*] advantages of railway automation :
There are, of course, many others, separating or combining a) safety is increased since human error is eliminated;
the two different functions of control, namely automatic automatic systems replace the human operator as the
driving to follow a predetermined speed/time curve, and controlling element either partially or completely-
automatic traffic control governing the timing and routing at most his task is reduced to a supervisory function
of trains. b) economy is achieved through optimum train running,
5.3.2: In the realm of main-line railways, complete requiring less energy, and protecting equipment
automation has not yet been justified(although it is techni- against undue wear
cally possible); rather, automationhas been used for safety, c) line capacity is maximized byincreasing traffic density,
particularly where speedsabove the normal signaling provi- reducing or eliminating completely delays, and by
sions areattained,and for obtaining optimal train per- greatest use of trackage in minimizing the distance
formance. Thesesystems,which are largely automatic, between trains
still retain a driver who is permitted to operate withm the d) punctuality is ensured since the schedule is kept under
limits imposed by the system, which may vary from a simple constant supervision and adjusted as necessary
automatic warning system (whereby, on passing an adverse e) traoeling comfort is maintained at the same high level
signal, a driver receives an alarm followed by a brake for all trains, as acceleration and especially bralung
application if he fails to take action) to methods whereby are no longer dependent on an individual driver’s skill
the driver has nothing to do but start the train on full f) sauing of personnel is effected by their release from
throttle and keep watch for obstruction on the line ahead. routine work, thus reducing recurrent costs.
He is, ofcourse, given fullinformation on a set ofindicators,
based on the calculations made by a computer carried on the 5.4.2: Automation offersreal advantages inrailway
train, and retains liberty of control within the applicable operation, bringing improvements and financialsavings
limits. Typical of the latter is the fully electronic system to justify its implementation. And, lest it be forgotten,
used on the Japanese New Tokaido Line, described else- it is largely a part of signal engineering, and certainly a
where in t h s issue.1g1Another example isthe equipping of a sphere into which this discipline will expand in the future,
668 PROCEEDMGS OF THEIEEE,APRIL 1968
TABLE I
R A ~ W A YOPFRKTIONAL S
TELEPHONE Y ~
(Excluding Railway Trunks and National Connections)
System 1 Between I Remarks
Control Control office, signal cabins, wayside stations, goods stations, Grouped as necessary on “omnibus” or selective ringing (
dia
lor
locomotive carriage
depots, sidings, etc. selector) circuits.
Cabin to cabin Mainly in connection with block working, but applicable also to One to one, sometimes superimposed on the block line wires.
widely spaced cabins working remote installations.
Cabin and intermediate siding, controlled crossing, remote junc- For local switching in/out, for taking over control from main
tion or subsidiary wayside station. station for stationworking, or intermediate siding for refuge or
shunting.
Enginemen’sBetween individual signal locations andcontrolling signal cabin Secret and special positive identitication of caller to avoid doubt
I for train crews’ use. as to his position and instructionsissued.
Electrification Lineside locations, stations, etc., and electric substations and Can and should be used for other purposesin emergency.
control panels of power supplies, dealing with traction power
network.
Portable Permanent way gangs,maintenance staff, etc., working inthe field Usually connected into the control pair by plug/socket arrange-
for connection with control. On some systems, also issued to ments, or by extension poles for clipping to actual line wiring.
running trains.
Maintenance In large installationsfor signaling maintenance staff.

I Forimmediatecontactin case of faultsandtesting;instruments
can be fixed or portable.
’
Level crossing Sometimes provided at automatically worked protection for use Can also be used by temporary attendant for manual control
under emergencies or failure conditions. during maintenance or repairs.
Radio a) Communications with or between moving trains. Telephone and telegrams for operational andpassenger use.
b) YardMaster Tra5c Inspector andshuntinglocomotions, Particular and special apparatus only. In certain circumstances
e.g., in a mechanized marshaling yard, for speech or absolute, used between a controller and locomotive driver, also between
and guard
control. driver. Replacement
wires of line and cables.
i c) Railwayportsfor own vessels such as tug fleet. Also ship to shore.
1d) Road motor fleet.
bringing its experience in safety, control, cybernetics, com- cabins, marshaling yards, camage sheds, locomotive depots,
munications, and operations. some stations, and all strategic operating points for the
purpose of giving instructions andreceiving information on
6 . COMMUNICATIONS
trainrunning.It also looksafter stock (passenger and
6.1 goods), both demand and supply, and deals with rostered
It is not proposed to deal in detail with the railway com- train crews. Needless to say, the whole situation is main-
munications system, but only sufficiently to complete the tained diagramatically up-todate so that quick decisions
overall operational picture. Generally, railway communica- are possible when circumstances warrant.Inthe more
tions follow established practices, adapted as necessary for sophisticated systems, much of this data is machine stored
the specialized applications, and are the responsibility of and handled.
the signal (sometimes called signal and telecommunications) 6.1.2: Thereare several minorbutnotunimportant
engineering department. Naturally,when a large interlock- separate telephone networks, details of which are sum-
ing complex is established on modem lines, it is the normal marized in Table I. One important point tobe made here is
practice to house the telephone (and perhaps teleprinter) in connection with the enginemen’s telephones located at
exchange, together with allthe line transmission equipment certain signals, particularly in complicated interlocking
and multiplex and carrier apparatus, in the same building consolidations. Itis that each circuit is separate andsecret,
(the “signal cabin”) as that housing all the signal and con- and identified in such a way that there canbe no mistake as
trol functions.These are for therailway trunk communica- to the location of the caller, thus avoiding the giving of
tions as well as local services inthe area concerned. wrong instructions to traincrews in charge of trains.on the
6.1.1: Quite the most important circuitin the actual line. This is important as the use of these telephones is
running of the trains is what is known as the control tele- rare, and usually under failure or abnormal conditions.
phone. Usually, the railway network is divided into control Identification is sometimes effectedby a describer board
areas, lines or equivalent, each responsible for the organiza- giving an illuminated reminder of the caller’s physical
tion oftraffic according to schedule, and perhaps more geographical position. Because radio is extensively used by
momentous, when the schedule breaks down. From a cen- railways,mainly for voice communications, it has been
tral office emanate telephone linkscoveringallsignal added to Table I to describe its main operational values.
OL CUNLIFFE:
tions as such, the subject is dealt with here as a technique

not involving safety and being, separate from the actual
The Plessey “Identifone,” a high-security, selectivecalling, self-identifying

to the line on which each isrunning, as shown in Fig: 9. As
party line systemfor railway operations based on siliconized electronic
components,and using 2 by 20 Ib/rni conductor wires. (Plessey, it proceeds, the description is stepped according to the
actual movement of the train, thus giving the operating
Fabrieken N . V . , The Hague, The Netherlands, representing the Plessey
Group of Great Britain.) staff the immediate position of all trains under their control
and supervision, with the details of each one. The sine
TRAH DESCRIPTION qua non for t h s to be introduced is complete train recording
by continuous track circuiting or other appropriate train
___. -~ detection method, to put the stepping into effect. The
TRACK CIRCUIT NUYEER
modem way of initiating descriptions is by telephone dial
or numbered push buttons coupled to a uni-selector or
similar apparatus, the procedure being to set up the
description and then, after checking its display on a local
indicator, to press a further buttonto insert it into position
at the location appropriate to the train. It should be ob-
served that such a system ismost useful to operating staff in
signal cabins who, incidentally, in these days when wide
T C NO areas are controlled from a single position, sometimes
remotely, may never seea train atall!
6.3.3: It is not unnatural to go a stage further and make
, 4 the train description system take over automatically the
T C NO work of routing the trains and t h s is actually done in prac-
Fig. 9. Methods of train describer display on track diagram. tice. In larger complex interlockings, it is now arranged
that each train, according to its description, sets up its own
6.2 route ahead and, subject to the line being safely clear, pro-
Fromthe very early days of railways, “telegraphs” ceeds to the end of the control area without any action on the
played an important role in their operational and com- part of the operator. All movements are, of course, centrally
mercial needs; in fact, the first block system for passing supervised by operating staff who can override the auto-
trains between adjacent signal cabins wasbased on tele- matic settings if necessary. But due to the reduced amount
graphic instruments. Station-to-station communication was of regular work thus to be performed, the number of opera-
also effected by the Morse code. The wider implications tions required is lower, leading to a smaller staff with in-
still apply to railway workmg (but not in the actual opera- creased efficiencyand speed, and leading also, perhaps, to a
tion or control of trains on the track) in the use of tele- reduction in apparatus, thereby making a s i d c a n t con-
printers and their ancillaries, data-handling apparatus, con- tribution to an automated railway system.
nection between centralized booking and reservations sys-
6.4
tems, carrier and multiplexing equipment, and associated
requirements of traffic in a large commercial organization, There are few organizations which do not require some
and follow well-known standard practice. quantity of paper work, and the larger the administration
the greater the volume and thewider the coverage required.
6.3 One means of local distribution is by pneumatic message
This paper would not be complete without the mention tube, which, as an instrument of communication, is part of
of train describers. Although not strictly telecommunica- the responsibilitiesof the signal engineer.
7. ANCILLARIES paratus involved and operations performed is an ideal

7.1 application of the knowledge and facilities of the signal and
communication engineer, particularly where the system is
The responsibility of the signal engineerdoes not end with anything more than basic.In this respect there are two
the systems used in signaling and communications; there main developments, as follows:
are many important ancillaries whose technological com-
position and operational function are most suited to and
a) Flat fare system, in which a ticket is purchased from a
compatible with signaling techniques. Some of these are
machine and, on being placedin a checker, is examined
nowexamined only briefly,becausethey are fairlywell
known. for validity and cancelled. At the same time, entrance
to the system, by turnstile, gate, or other movable
7.2 physical barrier, is permitted by the barrier’s release
Closedcircuit television is being usedmore and more by (controlled by the ticket checker).
railways, both main line and urban, for remote supervision b) Graduated fare system, where a ticket must be ex-
of yards, sidings, station areas, metro vestibules, and other amined on entry, and also on exit from the system, to
places of strategic importance. Let it beclear, however, that check that the correct fare has been paid (or to delete a
its function is no more than supervisory, and it doesnot, nor quantity of travel according to the type of ticket in use,
ever will, replace the automatic systems such as the track of which there are many varieties) and then to hold or
circuit. Another most useful function of closedcircuit tele- release the barrier.
vision is to assist the electrical or track engineer to examine
his apparatus under running conditions. The former has Such processes lend themselves to electronic techniques:
used it to observe the action of the pantograph with the first, they must be very quick (especially when there are a
conductor wire, or the contact shoe with the traction rail on number of variables to be checked before a passenger is
electric railways-a most useful facility in performance and permitted to proceed), and this includes the coding of the
maintenance. Thelatter, while he has at his disposal ticket itself, which can be done physically, optically,
recording vehicles giving print-out data of the character- magnetically, or by other means, such that it can be elec-
istics of the track, can observe for himself at close hand, tronically “read” by the checking apparatus; and second,
through a television camera andmonitor, not only the they must provide the basis of data preparation and trans-
action of the wheels onthe rail, but also the track fastenings mission for a variety of purposes-traffic analysis, revenue
and fittings. Its use, too, is possible in goods and parcel returns, operational research, and planning. At present
handling, especiallywhere economy in manpower is re- these methods are more suitable for and therefore being
quired. It is, of course, particularly useful in research; the more quickly adopted by metro systems, being completely
author was privilegedto witness manytrials on the first test closed and totally confined. However, their use is bound to
section on the New Tokaido Line in Japan, including the spread to main lines, wherethe ingenuity required to guard
behavior of the pantograph, on the closed-circuit television against fraud and misuse will be taxed far more than at the
screen carried on the prototype train at speed. present time, which anyhow is considerable.
7.3 7.6
Little need be saidabout electric clocks, usually taken for Behind almost all devices so far mentioned is the need
granted on a railway system, but none the less important, for reliable power supplies. This does not mean merely the
not only in operational efficiency but also from the publicity main supply, but also the conversion of power into the form
point of view.The subcircuits of an impulseclock systemare required, with appropriate stability, standby, and reliabil-
distributed over the communications network-able or ity. Batteries of all types are part of this commitment, to-
overhead-to the various slave clocksthroughout a yard or gether with charging arrangements. Additionally, the con-
interlocking complex area. trol and supervision of the power supply and distribution
systemis a telecommunications technique and responsi-
7.4 bility, by the application of standard terminal apparatus and
Public address equipment, also taken for granted, is appropriate transmission media.
another important element in railway working, not only
in stations, yards, sidings, etc., but also on the trains them- 8. THEFUTURE
selves.Sometimes, too, thesemust be portable units
8.1
for emergency use, or temporarily installed for “works”
purposes. In mechanized marshaling yards, talk-back loud- With surface transport becoming more and more con-
gested and slow, especiallyin urban areas, the author firmly
speakers perform a most useful part in the efficiency of the
undertaking. believes that the next two decades will witness an expansion
which amounts to a development explosion from present-
7.5 day practice, not only in the form of rapid transit systems
In the search for economy of manpower made possible by but also transcontinental high-speedlines. Never, since
automated processes, much attention is now being given their invention, have railways been in such a strong and
to automatic fare collection. Here again, the type of ap- indeed vital position, not just tospeed the path of progress,
CONTROL
CUNLIFFE: RAILWAY
AND SIGNALING 67 1
but to prevent a breakdown in the world’s transport sys- vehicle, and to enable any such transit system to move with
tems. That they will prove equal to the challenge iscertain, maximum speed and safety. There isonly one question:
but whether they can do so at a reasonable cost, in view of cost? The author is in a position to see, from the outside as
the expense of rail construction and automation today, is it were,the points of view ofboth management and engineer
doubtful. From a technological point ofview,however, on this subject; managements ask the engineer, “What
the many capabilities described in this paper, and their facilities can you giveme”? The engineer now replies,“Any-
continual improvement, will be in the forefront of achieving thing at a price.” If railways are to exploit their advantagc
all theseobjectives; it isto be hoped that the costs will not be and privilege of solving the terrestrial transportation prob-
unreasonably high, as sometimes they are at the present lems of humankind, this answer is just not good enough,
time, thus detracting from their advantages and value. and if this paper has done no more than to establish an
awareness of this problem relative to the needs of the future,
8.2
namely to increase speeds and safety at lower cost, it will
The future railway systems will, of course, take many not have been written in vain.
forms, each suited to its own particular purpose or applica-
tion, as forecast in IEEE SPECTRUM, September, 1967.1101
But it is significant
that two ofthe most modern in the world 9. CONCLUSION
today, representing up-todate main-line and suburban
9.1
rapid transit practice, namely the New Tokaido Line
(Japan) and BARTD (United States), are both of the con- Such israilway signaling (and communications); this
ventional duo-rail type, but with highly sophisticated and, paper cannot possiblygiveevery detail ofsuch a large
indeed, costly control systems. While these projects are to subject, one which, sometimes, is misunderstood or little
be much admired, it is appropriate to sound a warning on known, but it tells something of what is involved and how
such costs, to ensure that, in the future, they are not too high it is achieved. It is not, of course, exhaustive nor does it
for the as yet uncommitted planner to be able to take a purport to deal with the finer details, particularly of the
favorable view of the expenditure involved in achievingthe engineering side, such as, for example, packagedgeographl-
high degree of automation and safety so necessary for the cal circuitry, power supplies and distribution, pre-wiring
speeds achieved.The hope is again expressed that these costs and pre-assembly of apparatus, testing, inspection and
can be reduced so as not to jeopardize the chances of rail- maintenance, workshops, the organization of staff, and
ways exploiting the situation. many other details and developments. Nor has the con-
nected subject of operating rules and regulations been
8.3 examined. However, it is hoped to have shownthe vital part
It will perhaps have been noticed that little has been said of signaling and communications in railway working as a
about radar, atechnique so significantly successful inother whole, and its importance not only as the best possible in-
forms of transport. The reasons for this omission are several, surance for the safety of life and property against mishap
the two most important being the inability to control the and damage, but also as an indispensable tool of manage-
direction (or bending) of the beam and to differentiate be- ment for the efficiency and economy of the whole system.In
tween objects. Experiments have been proceeding for some fact, it may be said that signaling (and indeed, communica-
time on guided radar systems, but to date no viable success tions) is one of the most important contributions to the
has been achievedto enable it to be placed in railway service. viability of any railway administration.
Undoubtedly it has great promise for two reasons: first, it 9.2
may permit trains to run at hlgh relative speeds and close to
one anotherand, by eliminating feedback to a central Looking ahead, at one side, conventional signaling will
computer for control, may reduce the costs of operation; continue to exist for a long time to come; at the other ex-
second, it may be used as an improved form of communica- treme, references have been made to automatic railways in
tion between track and train, thus eliminating some of the several forms,[111a subject which will increasingly occupy
present more elaborate trackborne apparatus. Certainly it much thought and practical application in the future. It is
holds great promise from all points ofview. It might be felt that remote control will become more extensive and
asked, what of the radar screen? Obviously this will be an rationalization of circuits within and beyond present-day
entirely new departure and the author offers his own feel- forms will gradually take place, particularly as solid-state
ing on the matter, namely that it will take the form of a apparatus becomes more acceptable, and will tend to
specialized “head-up’’ display associated with the indicator transfer from line wires and cables to microwave radio
of the automaticcontrol system and integrated with it. links where distances justify or necessitate so doing. Gen-
erally, however, one thing is certain: any idea that railways
8.4 are obsolete is not valid in these days when road conditions
With the advent of guided selective radar, it can be said are rapidly approaching a conglutinated nightmare. Rail-
with certainty that the signal and communication profession ways have now a distinct advantage provided they are pre-
will be poised, with the capability now at its command, to pared to give good service equal or better than other forms
deal with any new type of rail transit system, be it conven- of transportation, and seize the opportunity to do so at
tional, monorail, high-speed tube, or turbojet propelled reasonable cost; evidence from many parts of the world not
only proves their present need but also demands urgently c) providing greater flexibility in the spacing of signals
their new construction and exploitation. according to local requirements, e.g., station, junc-
tions, etc., and simplification of junction indications.
APPENDIX
The formula for line capacity for this four-aspect system is
LINECAPACITY associated with the headway, thus:
Much capital equipment goes into the construction of a
railway whatever the form it takes, and it therefore may be h = L + p + s + , 3d
important to maximize the trafficcarrying ability of the L
line. This is one of the major facilities of a signaling system. or

In main lines, whether single orunidirectional, this is 3d
known as “line capacity” and expressed intrains per hour ; L. L + p + s + -,
h
I1 2
L
in suburban and metro systems it is usually known as “train H=-=
t’ U
interval,” expressed in minutes or seconds. In order to ap-
preciate the implications and factors involved, the func- Therefore the capacity (per hour) becomes
tions influential in consideration of this important aspect of
railway operation will now be examined.
To determine line capacity, it is necessaryto define “train
headway;” for unidirectional working, this can be de-
scribed as the distance between the front of one train and in which the expression 3d/2 is used because each signal is
the front of one following it next in order, both running spaced d/2 apart, three of which are necessarybetween
under clear signals. In terms of time, headway isthe number trains to give a clear signal to a second train, to produce a
of minutes (or seconds) in whichthe front of a second train proper (unrestricted) headway.
arrives precisely at a point previously occupied by an im- To achieve the best results from this system, the spacing
mediately preceding train, again running under clear signals. between alternate signals must bed appropriate to v (never
Taking Fig. 1, which represents the British system, for a less), and so the signal spacing z is obtained from the
conventional main line, the various elements involved are formula
the following:
3600v
h = headway distance RC =
H = headway time (seconds) L+p+s+3z’
C=capacity of the line in trains per hour where RC is the required capacity and z is equal to or
L = length of train greater than d/2.
p = overlap C has a maximum (i.e., the limit of a four-aspect system)
21 = speed (feetper second) relevant to the optimum speed; in order to ascertain what
d= service braking distance appropriate to v (SBD) this is, the assumption is made that d=kv2. Thus ( 3 ) be-
s = sighting distance. comes
This system is developed in stages, based on four-aspect 3600v
signaling, as follows : CH = (5)
3kv2
L+p+s+-
ks Meaning
No. Aspect
2
bsoluteDanger1 Red stop

for high-speed traffic while
2 Yellow
Caution-next
signal SBDmedium-speed
for
3600um
at stop trains c, =
3 Two yellowsPreliminarycaution-One or two yellowlights 2d
(vertical)
next
signal
restric-
at next
at
signal; SBD L+p+s+-
trains
fastfor
aspect
tive 2
exhibiting
a signal
4Next
Proceed
Green
for medium-speed traffic.
proceed indication
All the preceding equations are given without regard to
(British Railways Rule 43 applies.) any time allowed for manual operation ; indeed, in auto-
matic systems there is no need to include such a factor as
The system has the following features:
aspect change is almost instantaneous. But where manual
a) reducing the train headway working obtains, the time taken for the manipulation of
b) catering at one and the same time for an intensive instruments and/or leversmustbe taken into account,
medium-speed serviceand high-speed traffic by giving adding the appropriate amount according to circumstances
shorter and longer braking distances, respectively, and staff concerned, by increasing the headway time, i.e.,
provided the speeds and brake power of the slower in ( 2 ) it would be convenient to make H = h/(u+ 20), 20
trains can act effectively on the second (inner) warn- seconds thus being allowed. The characteristics of the line
ing aspect ( Y ) vis-a-vis gradients, curves, sighting distances, as well as the
CUNLIFFE:RAILWAYSIGNALING AND CONTROL 673
T IS STATION
STOP TIME
H' IS HEMWAY (ASSUMED) R E L A T M TO

FIXED BLOCK SECTDN
I
1 STATION ] ' DISTANCE
trains' capabilities such as brake power, length, and other distance curves in Fig. 10. This distance is dependent on the
features must also be taken into account. running characteristics and conditions of that particular
Turning now to rapid transit systems, rather different part of the line, subject to its being continuously checked
conditions apply, anditbecomes opportune to take ad- for the speedlimitsinforce, and from this distance the
vantage of methods more suited to regular and unvarying headway between the two trains can be obtained from the
types of traffic and to adopt aids designed either to reduce following equation :
the effects of, or eliminate entirely, some or all the influential
factors previously mentioned. It is thusappropriate to
adopt automatic train control with cab signals (probably
with no lineside signals), or an equivalent system, arranged
so that a train can be permitted to approach the rear of a where
preceding train involved in station delays as close as it is H = headway time
safe to do so. The significance of this is shown in the time/ T= station stoppingtime
L =length of train
S = minimum permissible distance between trains
a = rate of acceleration and deceleration, which are
equated for this purpose This arrangement, being one of constant variation, neces-
Y = time required for the driver to act on the signal, and sitates a continual stream of information being transmitted
for his actions to take effect. between train/track and track/train, using the computer to
evaluate all the variables involved. It is, in effect, a “moving
This formula demonstrates the advantages to be gained by block.”
cab signaling, there being no adverse effect of sighting dis- Having obtained the value of H for any particular case,
tance, block length, or arbitrarily established overlap, and is the interval or capacity can then be calculated as before.
compared in Fig. 10 with the hypothetical case of a train
on fixed block signals. REFERENCES
[l] Wiring Symbols and Written Circuits, British Standard No. 376, pt.
The next stage is a fully controlled system, i.e., some form
11. London: British Standards Inst., 1954.
of automatic driving, in which case the symbol Y is no I2) “Malayan Railway signalling,”The Railwlay Gazette (London), pp.
longer applicable and is replaced by another factor relevant 560-564, November 16,1962.
to the automatic drive ( Z ) ,to represent the apparatus func- “Single line signalling-operating rules for auto block,” The Rail-
way Gazette(London), pp.94-95, July 26, 1963.
tion and proving time. With electronic logic, this period is “Central signal cabin Miinchen main station,” Siemens & Halske
short, but nevertheless important, since some time still is Ag. Braunschweig, circaOctober 1964.
taken before the controls are put into effective operation. 14] “Remote control relay-interlocking on Malayan Railways,” The
Railway Gazette (London), pp. 3639, July 12, 1963.
They are, however, much quicker than human reaction and Is]“Ruling the rails,” descriptive pamphlet by Philips on the Lamco
action time. Equation (7) therefore becomes : Project, circa 1963.
“CommentaIy on the L a m a railway,” The Railway Gazette (Lon-
don), pp.699-703, September 3,1963.
H = T + 2 J F + Z . (8) 16] “Signalling.The key termsare precise controland fail-safe,”
Internat’l Railway J. (New YorkandLondon),pp. 3742, November
1967.
This represents, so far as method is concerned, the penulti- [’I “Automatic railways,” Proc. Inst. Mechanical Engrs. (London),
mate step before completeautomation by computerization. vol. 179, pt. 3A, 1965.
This latter concept changes the method from translating Is]B. R. Stokes, “BART: The new look in rapid transit,” this issue,
page 616.
the track conditions directly to the train, to a continuous [91 M. Fujii, “New Tokaido Line,” thisissue, page 625.
communication betweenthemvia central interpretation. llolG. T. Friedlander, “Railway versus highway,” IEEE Spectrum,
Thus complete automation, including driverless trains, vol. 4, pp. 62-76, September 1967.
I l l 1 D. N. Aboudara, C. W. Woods, R. S. Silner, and J. S. Beckett,
realizes the possibility of achieving headway very near to “Mass rapid transit,” IEEE Spectrum, vol. 4, pp. 60-70, January 1967.
the minimum, or, taking technological advantages further,
by eliminating the consideration of speed altogether by the BIBLIOGRAPHY
action of the first train initiating appropriate movements of [lZ1 A. S. LangandR. S. Soberman, Urban Rail Transport. Cam-
bridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1963.
the second through the computer. Therefore the only 0.S. Nock, Single Line Railways. Newton Abbott, England:
factor bywhich the minimum theoretical headwayis David and Charles, 1966.
[14] Proceedings and Lecture Booklets of the Institution of Railway
affected is the time delay in the means of communication
Signal Engineers, England (published regularly).
between the two trains, and the margin of safety involved. [15] Proceedings of theAssociation ofAmerican Railroads(Com-
If these are represented by R, (8) becomes altered as follows : munications and Signal Section), Chicago, Ill. (published regularly).
to: UNIVERSIDADE DE SAO PAULO. Downloaded on July 29,2022 at 23:48:16 UTC from IE

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IEEE,OF THE

PROCEEDINGS VOL. 56, NO. 4,653

A Survey of Railway Signaling and Control

Manuscript receivedDecember5,1967;revised February 2, 1968.

arms act for daylight indication only, night conditions be-

SYMBOLIC NOMENCLATURE FOR FIGS. 2 AND 5["

ing, and proving; nonvital circuits are those not concerned

rails, which holds the track circuit relay energized. Under .\ ,

these conditions a mechanical function can be unlocked, a

track circuiting or some other system, of which the most

M [iniature mosaic-type control panelfor the operation of a single-line ~ ~~

Centralized trafficcontrol operator’s position for the Melbourne-Wodonga

but whichever isadopted, two points are of leading impor-

on the train, on the track, or centrally from a computer as

System 1 Between I Remarks

Maintenance In large installationsfor signaling maintenance staff.

tions as such, the subject is dealt with here as a technique

The Plessey “Identifone,” a high-security, selectivecalling, self-identifying

7. ANCILLARIES paratus involved and operations performed is an ideal

line. This is one of the major facilities of a signaling system. or

bsoluteDanger1 Red stop

H' IS HEMWAY (ASSUMED) R E L A T M TO

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