Food Chemistry 412 (2023) 135489

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Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem

Review

Coffee bean processing: Emerging methods and their effects on chemical,

biological and sensory properties
Noor Ariefandie Febrianto a, b, Fan Zhu a, *
a
School of Chemical Sciences, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
b
Indonesian Coffee and Cocoa Research Institute (ICCRI), Jl. PB Sudirman No. 90 Jember, East Java, Indonesia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Emerging processing methods have been applied in coffee bean processing for improved sensory quality. The
Anaerobic fermentation processes focus on optimizing the fermentation process of the coffee cherries and beans. This involves various
Carbonic maceration pathways, including the formation of volatiles, flavor precursors and organic acids and the reduction in the
Dry process
concentrations of bioactive compounds. Comprehensive information regarding the effect of these emerging
Wet process
processes on the chemical, biological and sensory properties of the coffee beans is summarized. Emerging pro­
Digested coffee
Coffea arabica cesses affected the coffee bean to various degrees depending on the raw material and the method used. The
Polyphenol emerging methods promoted the reduction of bioactives such as caffeine and phenolics in coffee beans. Sub­
Antioxidant activity stantial improvement of these processes is needed to obtain coffee beans with improved biological activities.
Anti-inflammatory activity Effort to simplify the methods and optimize the post-fermentation process is crucial for the methods to be easily
Caffeine accessible by the producers and to produce defect-free coffee beans.
Melanoidin
Robusta coffee
Chlorogenic acid
Arabica coffee

1. Introduction
The coffee market has drastically developed in recent years. The
price of coffee beans has reached its highest in 10 years at around 204.29
US cents/lb (ICO, 2022). The production of coffee beans was estimated
to be around 175,347 thousand bags (60 kg capacity), with a nearly
balanced consumption of 167,670 thousand bags (ICO, 2022). Nowa­
days, coffee beans are no more just considered a basic commodity. They
are an expression of art and craft and are an object of science. As con­
sumers seek a rewarding experience in their coffee consumption, coffee
with new sensory perception is highly sought after. The quality of coffee
beans is affected by various factors such as genetics, post-harvest pro­
cessing, and the brewing and serving methods (Pereira et al., 2019). The
body of knowledge regarding these aspects has been extensively devel­
oped (Bastian et al., 2021; Hall, Trevisan, & de Vos, 2022; Pereira et al.,
2019; Poltronieri & Rossi, 2016). There is rapid development in coffee
bean processing as there is an increasing demand for “emerging” coffee
products. The nutritional quality of coffee has also been an emerging
issue concerning the consumers.
Coffee bean genetics relate to their chemical and biological proper­
ties (Hall et al., 2022). Among numerous species of the genus Coffea,
Coffea arabica is the most commercialized species. The typical “coffee”
term in the market refers to Arabica coffee. Other species of significant
importance are C. canephora var. robusta (Robusta coffee), C. liberica
(Liberica coffee), and C. liberica var. dewevrei (Excelsa coffee) (Campa
et al., 2004, 2005; Ortiz et al., 2019). The sustainability of Arabica coffee
has been challenged by climate change. The rise in global temperature
leads to increased susceptibility of Arabica toward highly destructing
coffee leaf rust fungus (Hemileia vastatrix) (Castillo et al., 2020). The
utilization of other coffee genotypes and species needs to be explored
further. Exploring a new genotype of coffee is important to enrich the
breeding gene pool. This enrichment in the gene pool helps improve the
agricultural traits of coffee (e.g., yield, pest and disease resistance,
drought tolerance, and quality).
Coffee beans are rich in bioactive compounds. Caffeine is the most
noticed and studied compound in coffee (Caporaso, Whitworth, Cui, &
Fisk, 2018; Clark & Landolt, 2017). Caffeine is psychostimulant. It is
responsible for the “waking” effect of the coffee (Clark & Landolt, 2017).

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: fzhu5@yahoo.com (F. Zhu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.135489
Received 14 September 2022; Received in revised form 29 December 2022; Accepted 12 January 2023
Available online 16 January 2023
0308-8146/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
N.A. Febrianto and F. Zhu
Chlorogenic acid (CGA), cafestol, and kahweol are other bioactive
compounds in coffee beans. They have important biological and phar­
macological effects on human health (Açıkalın & Sanlier, 2021). Poly­
phenols, including feruloylquinic acid, dicaffeoylquinic acid, and the
lactones of CGA, were reported to present in significant amounts in
coffee brew (Fujimoto et al., 2021). The occurrence of those bioactives
and polyphenols in coffee beans was highly related to the taste of coffee
brew (Fujimoto et al., 2021). The bioactive compounds in Arabica and
Robusta coffee beans have been well identified and quantitated (Bad­
mos, Lee, & Kuhnert, 2019; Ortiz et al., 2019). However, less is known
for Liberica and Excelsa coffee beans. Further understanding is needed
to explore the potential use of coffee beans as a beverage and for func­
tional food formulations.
The processing of coffee beans at the smallholder level is a
straightforward process. It can be categorized into three main processing
methods (Pereira et al., 2019). The coffee cherries are first selected and
sorted by hand-picking or water submersion after harvesting. For the dry
process (DP) method (also known as the natural process), the cherries
are directly dried utilizing natural or artificial drying. Dried cherries are
then peeled to expose the green coffee beans (GCB) (Pereira et al., 2019).
Another method is the wet process (WP) method. In this process, the
cherries are first peeled to remove the skin, and then the wet parchment
coffee beans are fermented for a certain period. Fermented beans are
washed, dried, and peeled to obtain the GCB. Modification or addition to
the current process has been commonly applied. These modifications/
additions lead to the applications of more tailored methods such as semi-
dry process (honey process, semi-washed process, descascado), Bur­
undian process, and giling basah (wet hulling) process (Bastian et al.,
2021; Coulet, 2012; Poltronieri & Rossi, 2016). In general, the GCB
obtained from these processing methods are regarded as “coffee bean”
(Pereira et al., 2019). In this review paper, the term of “coffee bean”,
unless specified, refers to the raw and unroasted GCB. To meet the
increasing demand for unique and new sensory properties of coffee
products, various emerging processing methods (EPM) of coffee beans
have been developed in the industries (Junior et al., 2021; Martins et al.,
2020; Pereira et al., 2022; Raveendran & Murthy, 2021). EPM such as
carbonic maceration, anaerobic fermentation, and digestion method
have been developed to optimize the flavor and taste potential of coffee
beans.
Various reviews on coffee beans have been recently reported. They
were mainly focused on composition of coffee cherries and beans, the
effect of processing methods on the composition (Hall et al., 2022;
Munyendo, Njoroge, Owaga, & Mugendi, 2021), bioactive properties
(Carneiro, Oliveira, & Alves, 2021; Kusumah & Gonzalez de Mejia,
2022), authenticity (Ferreira, Galluzzi, de Paulis, & Farah, 2021), and
bioaccessiblity and bioavailability of bioactive compounds (Bastian
et al., 2021; Wu et al., 2022), analytical methods for volatiles (Pua et al.,
2022), and the management of coffee by-products (Campos, Pinto, Melo,
Rocha, & Coimbra, 2021). A comprehensive review of the chemical,
biological and nutritional properties of coffee beans related to the pro­
cessing factor is important to optimize the coffee quality and to better
understand coffee beans as a functional ingredient. However, the review
on the effect of EPM on the chemical composition, sensory quality, and
biological activity of coffee bean is not available yet. Comprehensive
information about these topics could help optimize the emerging pro­
cessing methods to obtain coffee beans with improved functional, sen­
sory and nutritional properties.
2. Scope and approach of the review
This review is focused on the applications of EPM in coffee bean
processing and their effects on the chemical, biological and sensory
properties of the beans. The EPM have been recently applied by the
farmers and at the industry level in the coffee supply chains, though
their application scales are still to be enlarged. The term (EPM) also
covers a modification of an existing method that is currently highlighted
2
Food Chemistry 412 (2023) 135489
due to several factors including their ability to produce coffee beans
with unique characteristics and increasing implementation due to rising
demand in the market. This paper also aims to identify the research gaps
in the current coffee-related studies. The results from the different
studies are critically compared and analysed. The reports presenting
comparative data are prioritized with an aim to provide fair and unbi­
ased information. The current and commonly used coffee bean pro­
cessing methods (dry process (DP); wet process (WP); giling basah
process; honey process (HP)) are not a focus of this review and they are
explained separately in the Supplementary Material. The literature
search was done employing various online databases. The detail of the
search is given in the Supplementary Material.
3. Quality aspects of coffee bean
The quality of coffee beans relates to their physical, chemical, and
sensory properties. Physical defects of coffee beans are due to agro­
nomical, processing, and storage treatments (BSN, 2008). The beans are
categorized based on their size, appearance, the severity of the defects,
and the occurrence of foreign materials. Coffee beans with little defects
and free of foreign matter are of high quality. Beans with uniformed size
are preferred (BSN, 2008). The physical characteristics of coffee beans
affect the choice of processing methods and the sensory properties of
end-products. In this regard, physical analyses based on International
Standard Organization (ISO) are done by trained panellists. This method
is labor-intensive and time-consuming. An effort to automate the anal­
ysis using hyperspectral means has been reported (Chen, Chiu, & Zou,
2022). The use of such an innovative method could ease the quality
determination of coffee beans.
There is no clear classification of coffee bean quality based on their
chemical compositions and biological activities on the market. For
example, high caffeine content does not necessarily make high-quality
coffee beans. It is mostly presented for the categorization of Arabica
(low caffeine content) and Robusta (high caffeine content) and as pre­
caution for potential psycho-stimulation effects in the final products
(Campa, Doulbeau, Dussert, Hamon, & Noirot, 2005; Carneiro et al.,
2021). Ochratoxin-A analysis is related to food safety (Ismayadi, Marsh,
& Clarke, 2005). The chemical composition of coffee beans significantly
affects their sensory properties (Barbosa, Scholz, Kitzberger, & Benassi,
2019; Sualeh, Tolessa, & Mohammed, 2020). The composition of sugars
and proteins is related to the flavor development of coffee beans through
the Maillard reactions. Phenolic compounds may contribute to the
bitterness and astringency of coffee products (Fujimoto et al., 2021;
Sualeh et al., 2020). Barbosa et al. (2019) found that high-quality coffee
beans had high sucrose/acid and cafestol/kahweol ratios, high cafestol
content, and low contents of caffeine, protein, and CGA. Coffee beans
with high contents of bioactive compounds represent high-quality ma­
terial to be used in functional food products. Bioactive compounds in
coffee beans contribute to their antioxidative, anti-fibrotic, anti-dia­
betic, neuro-protective, and anti-inflammatory activities (Carneiro
et al., 2021; Duangjai, Trisat, & Saokaew, 2021; Niezen, Mehta, Jiang, &
Tapper, 2021). On the other hand, some dominant bioactive compounds
in coffee beans, such as alkaloids and phenolics, can negatively affect its
sensory quality (Barbosa et al., 2019; Fujimoto et al., 2021). Suitable
methods to produce coffee bean with balanced sensory and biological
properties should be developed. Chemical composition and biological
activity data should be used to represent the quality potential of the
coffee bean. However, chemical and biological analyses are time-
consuming and expensive. The development of new rapid non-
destructive analysis such as NIR and hyperspectral-based analysis
(Caporaso, Whitworth, Grebby, & Fisk, 2018; Caporaso, Whitworth, Cui
et al., 2018; Caporaso, Whitworth, & Fisk, 2022; Chen et al., 2022) is
beneficial. Due to the importance of chemical composition to the sensory
quality, safety, and nutritional aspect of coffee beans, further consid­
eration to include the chemical composition as a quality parameter is
suggested to provide a more objective classification of quality.
N.A. Febrianto and F. Zhu Food Chemistry 412 (2023) 135489

Sensory quality is the most crucial quality parameter of the coffee
products and one of the most important determinants for coffee price.
Arabica coffee is considered to have higher quality than Robusta due to
its richer sensory profile (Hall et al., 2022). Sensorial quality of coffee
beans is determined using the brew of the roasted beans. Brews of
Arabica beans are mainly characterized by acidic and fruity taste, while
those of Robusta beans are primarily bitter and heavily bodied (Sunar­
harum, Williams, & Smyth, 2014). Taste-wise, high-quality coffee brew
is defined as complex, balanced, and “pleasant”. Low-quality coffee
brew is mainly defined as flat, unbalanced coffee with defects and ex­
hibits an “unpleasant” sensation. However, the quality of coffee bean is
significantly related to their roasting degree (Yang et al., 2016) and
brewing mechanisms (Zhang, Linforth, & Fisk, 2012). Sensory analysis
based on Specialty Coffee Association (SCA) is one of the most per­
formed (Baqueta, Caporaso, Coqueiro, & Valderrama, 2020). Sensory
quality analysis based on the volatiles analysis has also been extensively
developed (Agnoletti et al., 2022; Pua et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2022).
The analysis characterizes coffee brews based on several taste parame­
ters including fragrance, flavor, acidity, body, aftertaste, sweetness,
balance, cleanliness, and uniformity on coffee beans with certain de­
grees of roasting and brewing (SCA, 2022). High-quality Arabica and
Robusta coffee brews (with a cupping score of>80) are labeled as

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of current and emerging coffee bean processing. Summarized from Dong, Hu, Chu, Zhao, and Tan (2017), Kulapichitr, Bor­
ompichaichartkul, Suppavorasatit, and Cadwallader (2019), Bastian et al. (2021), Evangelista et al. (2014), Silva, Batista, Abreu, Dias, & Schwan (2008), Yusianto
and Widyotomo (2013), Bressani et al. (2020), Pereira et al. (2019), Poltronieri and Rossi (2016), Ismayadi et al. (2005), Raveendran and Murthy (2021), Murthy
et al. (2019), Lee et al. (2016a), Wang et al. (2020a; 2020b), da Mota et al. (2020), Martinez et al. (2021), Mulyara and Rahmadian (2021), Junior et al. (2021),
Prono-Widayat et al. (2021), Sulaiman et al. (2021), Coulet (2012), Pereira et al. (2022), Elhalis, Cox, and Zhao (2022).

3
N.A. Febrianto and F. Zhu
’specialty coffee’ and ’fine Robusta’, respectively. The occurrence of
defects in coffee beans is a crucial factor dividing high and low quality in
this method (SCA, 2022). Improvement and innovation in coffee bean
processing remain to be explored to obtain coffee brews with special and
desired sensory characteristics.
4. Emerging coffee bean processing methods
4.1. Digestion method
Digestion method (DM) involves animals or microorganisms/en­
zymes from animal gut or the use of commercial microorganisms/en­
zymes/chemicals for coffee bean incubation (Raveendran & Murthy,
2021) (Fig. 1, green-colored arrow). Civet coffee beans, ivory coffee
beans (elephant dung coffee beans), jacu coffee beans (jacu bird’s dung
coffee beans), and monkey parchment coffee beans belong to this cate­
gory (Raveendran & Murthy, 2021). These coffee beans have special
sensory characteristics and are highly priced. Their quantity limitation,
labor-intensive process, and authenticity protection effort have
contributed to the high price. Animal fermented coffee beans can only be
collected following proper animal ethical rights. This is done by col­
lecting the faeces in the wild or by feeding the animals with coffee
cherries without interfering with their habitual diet. Several factors have
been proposed as the key factors affecting the quality of naturally
digested coffee beans. The natural instinct of the animals allows them to
get the best and perfectly ripe coffee cherries for consumption. This
ensures the optimal conditions of coffee cherries to be harvested. The
beans are consumed either peeled or whole for digestion for up to 70 h in
the animal digestive tract (Raveendran & Murthy, 2021). The indigested
beans are excreted intact by the animals at the end of the process. The
beans are then collected for washing and drying. The combination of gut
microbiota and digestive enzymes is one of the most influential factors
affecting the quality of digested coffee beans. Wild civet coffee beans
had different characteristics to caged civet coffee beans, mainly due to
the differences in the habitual diets of the animals affecting their
digestive systems (Febrina, Happyana, & Syah, 2021). Due to these
factors, high variability in the quality of naturally digested coffee beans
may be expected.
Studies to mimic the in vivo digestion process of animals in coffee
processing have been done with a focus on replacing the animal
involvement (Table 1). This included the utilization of animal gut mi­
croorganisms or enzymes, commercial strains of microorganisms, en­
zymes or chemicals to mimic the digestive system of animals in in vitro
condition (Lee, Cheong, Curran, Yu, & Liu, 2016a; Murthy, Sneha,
Basavaraj, & Kusumoto, 2019; Wang, Sun, Lassabliere, Yu, & Liu,
2020a). Simulated DM offered flexibility to scale up and achieve
controllable production. GCB rather than freshly de-pulped beans were
used for the in vitro digestion. The processes produced coffee beans with
improved flavor characteristics from inferior coffee beans (Larassati,
Kustyawati, Subekti, Sartika, & Suharyono, 2021). Wang et al. (2020a;
2020b) found that the use of yeasts (S. cerevisiae and P. kluyveri) with or
without lactic acid bacteria (Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris) led to the
formation of flavor attributes previously non-existent in untreated coffee
beans. The utilization of microorganism strains with specific chemical-
generating ability should be further studied to obtain coffee beans
with targeted sensory or functional properties. In another study by Liu,
Yang, Linforth, Fisk, and Yang (2019), weak acetic acid solutions (up to
5 %) were used to incubate dried Robusta beans for 2 h. This resulted in
the alteration of the sensory profile of the Robusta beans to be closer to
that of the Arabica beans. The acid addition may limit the production of
Maillard reaction products by reducing the reactivity of amino groups
during the roasting (Liu et al., 2019).
4.2. Anaerobic fermentation
Anaerobic fermentation (AF)/anaerobiosis refers to the fermentation
4
Food Chemistry 412 (2023) 135489
of wet parchment coffee beans (WPCB) or coffee cherries under oxygen-
deprived conditions. The processing method of AF is similar to that of DP
and WP, except that the fermentation is done in a closed bioreactor (da
Mota et al., 2020; Martinez et al., 2021; Pereira et al., 2022) (Fig. 1,
blue-colored arrow; Table 1). A bioreactor may be constructed from
stainless steel (Martinez et al., 2021), a high-density plastic container
(da Mota et al., 2020), or a plastic bag submerged in water (Mulyara &
Rahmadian, 2021) with or without the addition of starter cultures such
as S. cerevisiae and T. debrueckii. The duration of fermentation may vary
between 16 and 90 h. Pereira et al. (2022) found that the microbial
diversity of the coffee pulp/beans in the AF method was mainly
composed of yeast, mesophilic and lactic acid bacteria. Among the mi­
croorganisms, Hansemiaspora opuntiae, S. cerevisiae, Lactiplantibacillus
plantarum, Staphylococcus warneri, Levilactobacillus brevis, Weisella ciba­
ria, Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Candida glabrata, and Bacillus subtilis were
dominant in AF-processed coffee cherries and pulped beans.
Processing coffee beans in a modified atmosphere environment such
as AF and carbonic maceration (CM) induces changes in the chemical
composition by three mechanisms, namely, the changes in the con­
sortium of microorganisms, in the metabolisms of microorganisms, and
in the metabolisms of the coffee cherries/beans. Oxygen-deprived con­
ditions limit the growth of aerobic microorganisms. On the other hand,
yeast and bacteria can survive anaerobic conditions despite their
changes in metabolisms. Anaerobic conditions optimize ethanol pro­
duction by yeast, especially S. cerevisiae (Huang & Tang, 2007). Mean­
while, lactate is produced by lactic acid bacteria mainly via the lactate
dehydrogenase pathway under anaerobic conditions (Gänzle, 2015). In
the plant tissue and fruits, the cells switch to anaerobic glycolysis to
compensate for the lack of aerobic energy. These fermentative pathways
can cause the acidification of the cytoplasm and the production of
ethanol, alanine, malate, and succinate from pyruvate (Benkeblia,
2021). Depending on the tolerance of the plants, anaerobic conditions
may limit the breakdown of starch (Benkeblia, 2021).
A prolonged fermentation period involving only bacteria and yeast
may be the most important feature in the AF method. The oxygen-
deprived condition in AF is unfavorable for the growth of filamentous
fungi such as Aspergillus and Penicillium, hence optimizing the meta­
bolism of bacteria and yeast. da Mota et al. (2020) found that natural
and inoculated AF increased the fermentation temperature from 18 ◦ C in
the beginning to 22 ◦ C in the middle and 30 ◦ C at the end of fermen­
tation. The higher temperature at the end of fermentation may lead to
optimum microorganism activities. Martins et al. (2020) and Pereira
et al. (2022) found that anaerobic fermentation increased bacterial ac­
tivity, resulting in more bacterial metabolites. These bacterial metabo­
lites and anaerobic conditions restricted fungal infections that caused
over-fermentation. Over-fermentation in aerobic fermentation of cof­
fee beans is indicated by the presence of mold and filamentous fungi
(Ismayadi et al., 2005; Maman et al., 2021; Sulaiman, Erfiza, & Mou­
lana, 2021). They contribute to the occurrence of off-flavors (musty,
earthy, and moldy) and harmful substances such as aflatoxins (Ismayadi
et al., 2005; Maman et al., 2021; Sulaiman et al., 2021).
Longer fermentation duration of AF compared to that of WP may
contribute to enhanced formation of flavor precursors, increasing the
formation of Maillard-related flavors during the roasting process. A
previous study by Martinez et al. (2021) showed that furans, acids, and
pyrazines dominated the volatiles of AF-roasted coffee beans. These
compounds contributed to the dominance of caramel, chocolate, and
acidic flavour/taste of the beans. Prolonged yeast fermentation may also
contribute to formation of more esters, intensifying fruity property of
anaerobic processed coffee to a larger extent compared to those of
normal WP and DP (Martinez et al., 2021). The use of closed bioreactor
offered some advantages to the process. Important parameters such as
temperature, aeration, and stirring treatment can be controlled. How­
ever, since the fermentation duration of AF is relatively longer than that
of typical DP and WP, the drying process should be done in a timely
manner to avoid over-fermentation. Further study is needed to optimize
 N.A. Febrianto and F. Zhu
Table 1
Examples of emerging processing operations in coffee beans.
Process Samples Enzymes/chemicals/microorganisms inoculant Incubation/fermentation treatment Drying References
description

Digestion Robusta coffee bean Commercial Flavourzyme (1000 LUPA) (6.6 × Coffee beans (200 g) were added with enzymes in 90 mL of distilled water. Oven-drying (45 ◦ C) until a Murthy et al.
method 103 nkat/mL as positive control) and The incubation was done at 35 ◦ C for 60 to 120 h with stirring every 1 h final moisture content of ~ (2019)
Flavourzyme from Aspergillus oryzae (1.9 × 103 10 %
nkat/mL)
Digestion Arabica coffee bean Rhizopus oligosporus Arabica coffee beans were soaked in deionized water (20 % w/v) at 4 ◦ C for Oven-drying (70 ◦ C) until a Lee et al. (2016a)
method 24 h. The beans were then steamed at 80 ◦ C for 40 min. Cooled beans were final moisture content of ~ 7
then inoculated with R. oligosporus (104 CFU/g CGB) and incubated at 30 ◦ C %
for 5 days. After fermentation, the beans were steamed and dried
Digestion Arabica coffee bean Saccharomyces cerevisiae MERIT (7.6 log CFU/mL) Fermentation was done using a single microorganism as starter culture. Oven-drying (45 ◦ C) until a Wang et al.
method and Pichia kluyveri FROOTZEN (7.6 log CFU/mL) Whole coffee beans were submerged in deionised water and then autoclaved final moisture content of ~ (2020a)
at 100 ◦ C for 30 min. The sterilised mixture was then added with glucose 10 %
solution (0.5 % of final mixture) and added with 100 mL of sterile water.
Inoculation was done as follows:

1. FSc: 1 % of S. cerevisiae with initial population of 5.6 log CFU/mL and

incubated at 20 ◦ C for 6 days;
2. FPk: 1 % v/v of P. kluyveri with initial population of 5.6 log CFU/mL and
incubated at 20 ◦ C for 6 days
Digestion Arabica coffee bean Lactococcus lactis subs. Cremoris (9.4 log CFU/ Fermentation was done using a combination of microorganisms. Whole Oven-drying (45 ◦ C) until Wang et al.
method mL), coffee beans and deionised water mixture were autoclaved at 100 ◦ C for 30 final moisture content of ~ (2020b)
Saccharomyces cerevisiae MERIT (7.6 log CFU/ min. The sterilised mixture was then added with glucose solution (0.5 % of 10 %
mL), and Pichia kluyveri FROOTZEN (7.6 log CFU/ final mixture) and added with 100 mL of sterile water. Inoculation was done
mL) as follows:

1. FYco: 1 % and 0.1 % v/v of S. cerevisiae and P. kluyveri, respectively

5

(initial population of 5.6 log CFU/mL and then incubated at 20 ◦ C for 6

days);
2. FLYco: FYco + 1 % v/v of Lc. Lactis with initial population of 7.6 log CFU/
mL and then incubated at 30 ◦ C for 24 h. The mixture was then added with
FYco culture. Incubation was continued at 20 ◦ C for 6 days
3. FL: 1 % v/v/ Lc. lactis with initial population of 5.6 log CFU/mL and then
incubated at 30 ◦ C for 24 h. The mixture was then added with FYco
culture. Incubation was continued at 20 ◦ C for 6 days
Digestion Arabica coffee bean Yarrowia lipolytica Arabica coffee beans (800 g) were rehydrated with water at 4 ◦ C for 24 h. The Oven-drying (70 ◦ C) with a Lee et al. (2017)
method bean was then steamed at 80 ◦ C for 40 min. Cooled bean were then final moisture content of ~ 7
inoculated with Y. lipolytica (105 CFU/g bean) and incubated at 30 ◦ C for 5 %
days. After fermentation, the beans were steamed at 100 ◦ C and then dried
Digestion Robusta coffee bean Acetic acid solution (1–5 %) Robusta coffee bean was soaked in acetic acid solution for 2 h. Drying in desiccator for 15 Liu et al. (2019)
method days until the moisture
content of 11.5 %.
Anaerobic Whole Arabica coffee cherries S. cerevisiae CCMA 0543 and T. delbrueckii CCMA Coffee bean samples (approx. 40 L) were inoculated with starter culture (107 Not specified da Mota et al.
fermentation and de-pulped Arabica coffee 0684 cells/g coffee bean) and fermented in cylindrical high-density polyethylene (2020)
bean bioreactors (50 L capacity) for 70 h
Anaerobic Whole Arabica coffee cherries S. cerevisiae CCMA 0543 and S. cerevisiae CCMA Coffee bean samples (approx. 300 L) were inoculated with starter culture Sun-drying until the moisture Martinez et al.

Food Chemistry 412 (2023) 135489

fermentation and de-pulped Arabica coffee 0535 (107 cells/g coffee bean) and fermented in stainless steel tank (300 L content reached 11 % (2021)
bean capacity) for 16 h (whole cherries) and 8 h (de-pulped bean)
Anaerobic Whole Arabica coffee cherries None Coffee bean samples (approx. 40 L) were fermented in cylindrical high- Not-specified, presumably Pereira et al.
fermentation and de-pulped Arabica coffee density polyethylene bioreactors (50 L capacity) for up to 87 h sun-drying (2022)
beans
Anaerobic Whole Arabica coffee cherries, None Samples were placed in polyethylene plastic (75 cm × 50 cm, 200 µm thick) Sun-drying in drying house Mulyara and
fermentation de-pulped Arabica coffee and submerged in water (60 L bucket) for up to 48 h until moisture content of 17 Rahmadian
beans, and black honey coffee % (2021)
beans
(continued on next page)
N.A. Febrianto and F. Zhu Food Chemistry 412 (2023) 135489

this processing method to compensate for a longer processing time due

to the AF treatment.

Sulaiman et al.
Prono-Widayat
Martins et al.

et al. (2021)
Junior et al.
References
4.3. Carbonic maceration

(2020)

(2021)

(2021)
Carbonic maceration (CM) in coffee bean processing refers to the
fermentation under a rich CO2 environment (Tesniere & Flanzy, 2011).
Sun-drying until the moisture

Sun-drying until the moisture

Ambient temperature drying

CM of coffee cherries is done as a preparative step prior to DP, WP, and
content reached 11–12 %
HP processing (Fig. 1, red-colored arrow; Table 1). The coffee cherries

followed by dry-hulling
content reached 14 %
are first stored in a bioreactor or plastic bag, where the air inside is
removed via suction or vacuum. CO2 is then injected into the reactor to
obtain a complete CO2 environment (Junior et al., 2021; Tesniere &
Not-specified

for 21 days
Flanzy, 2011). The reactor or plastic bag is incubated from 24 to 120 h at
Drying

18 to 38 ◦ C. The fermented cherries are further processed using DP, WP,

and HP. A CM-DP trial on Arabica coffee cherries showed that fermen­
tation for long duration (120 h) at high temperature produced coffee
Mature coffee cherries (2.6 kg) were placed in propylene plastic bags plastic

cherries were placed in plastic bags and fermented for 15. 25, 35, and 45 days

The cherries were fermented in glass bottles, cans, and plastic sacks for 7 days
(40 cm × 50 cm, 18 mm thick). The temperature of fermentation was set at

beans with optimum sensory properties (Junior et al., 2021).

The whole coffee cherries were pre-dried (sun-drying) for 4 h. Three kg of

Similar to the AF process, the enrichment of CO2 can affect the

growth of microorganisms in the coffee beans. Zhang, Samapundo,
Coffee bean samples (20 kg) was fermented in bioreactor for 72 h

Pothakos, Sürengil, and Devlieghere (2013) found that CO2 enrichment

affected yeast metabolism by inducing respiro-fermentative meta­
18, 28, and 38 ◦ C and incubation period was up to 120 h

bolism. This resulted in the development of volatile metabolites via the

Ehrlich pathway, producing fusel alcohols, acids, and aldehydes (Zhang
et al., 2013). The addition of CO2 to obtain a CO2-rich oxygen-free
environment can also affect fruit metabolisms. High CO2 concentra­
tion lowered the respiratory activity of the beans (Teixeira, Santos, Jú­
nior, & Durigan, 2018) and delayed the fruit ripening process. This led to
Incubation/fermentation treatment

changes in fruit metabolism from respiratory mode to fermentative

mode (intracellular pre-fermentation) (Tesniere & Flanxy, 2011; Santin,
Brizzolara, Castagna, Ranieri, & Tonutti, 2022). The delay in fruit
ripening resulted in a longer period of intracellular (pre)fermentation
process. Its application in grapes induced the reduction in the produc­
tion of free volatile phenols, free organic acids, and ethyl esters that
were associated with negative attributes of wines and increased the
concentrations of compounds with positive attributes, such as alcohols
and terpenoids (Santin et al., 2022). The changes in this metabolism may
be a main reason affecting the flavor formation in coffee beans. Under
low oxygen concentrations, glycolytic flux in the plant tissue resulted in
Enzymes/chemicals/microorganisms inoculant

the conversion of pyruvate to lactate, acetaldehyde, ethanol, and ethyl

acetate (Boeckx, Hertog, Geeraerd, & Nicolaï, 2019). Carbohydrate,
organic acid, amino acid metabolisms during the fermentation resulted
in coffee beans with reduced concentrations of organic acids, elevated
levels of ethanol and sugar alcohols, and changes in the composition of
lipids and amino acids (Brizzolara, Manganaris, Fotopoulos, Watkins, &
Tonutti, 2020). A deeper understanding of the dynamics of chemical
compounds in coffee cherries during CM processing is needed to
enhance knowledge of this process.
In winemaking employing the CM method, grapes in the reactor exist
in 3 different conditions: intact and in contact with CO2 (top section),
intact submerged in grape must (mid-section), and crushed grapes in the
None

None

None

None

must form (bottom-section). The different status types of the grapes

resulted in complex maceration (intact grapes in grape must) and
Whole Arabica coffee cherries

fermentation (yeast fermentation in grape must) conditions due to the

and de-pulped Arabica coffee

contact of the grapes in different environments (Tesniere & Flanzy,

Whole Arabica cherries

Whole Arabica cherries

2011). Coffee cherries have physical characteristics different from

grapes. The former is firmer in texture and has less sugary pulp/flesh
Whole cherries

than the latter. It is most unlikely for CM to provide coffee cherries with
environmental conditions similar to that of grapes in winemaking. The
Samples

study regarding the physical changes in coffee cherries affected by CM

beans

should be done. These changes in coffee cherries may affect the per­
Table 1 (continued )

formance of the following processes: de-pulping, fermentation, and

drying, and hence the quality of coffee beans.
fermentation

maceration

Wine process

Wine process
description

Anaerobic

Carbonic

4.4. Other emerging processing methods

Process

There are some experimental processing methods currently applied

6
N.A. Febrianto and F. Zhu
by coffee farmers. Most of the methods are modified from the current
common processes with the fruit/bean fermentation becoming a focus of
attention (Fig. 1). Wine coffee beans are produced from aerobically/
anaerobically fermented coffee cherries (Fig. 1, purple-colored arrow;
Table 1). This process is similar to AF, except that it can be done in
partial aerobic conditions. Coffee cherries are pre-dried for 4 h before
being placed in the fermentation chamber. The fermentation is done for
1–6 weeks before drying (Prono-Widayat, Arpi, Andini, Muzaifa, &
Gunawan, 2021). This resulted in brownish to blackish-colored cherries.
Fermentation of the pulp and skin of the cherries resulted in coffee beans
with a winey and fermented taste (Sulaiman et al., 2021). However, long
fermentation duration may lead to over-fermentation, resulting in flavor
defects and stinky and musty taste of the cherries. Furthermore, an
infestation of filamentous fungi and maggots may occur from prolonged
aerobic fermentation, possibly compromising the safety of the coffee for
consumption (Maman et al., 2021). In this method, extra care in
fermentation and drying should be done to prevent over-fermentation
and the infestation of unwanted organisms.
Burundian coffee processing is another variation of WP, commonly
known as the double fermentation or double soak method (Fig. 1,
yellow-colored arrow; Table 1). The WPCB are fermented in water
submersion for 24 h before the water is drained for the washing process.
The water is then refilled into the fermentation tank, and the grading
process is commenced by removing the floating seeds. The second
fermentation process is done by soaking the remaining beans for a
certain period (Coulet, 2012). The drying process is done as in DH-WP.
Unfortunately, there is a scarcity of information regarding this process.
The effect of the second fermentation step on the physicochemical
properties of the coffee beans needs further studies.
5. Chemical composition of coffee bean
Great variations in chemical composition of coffee beans have been
reported (Supplementary Table 1). The chemical composition of Arabica
and Robusta coffee beans were the most reported due to their significant
market share. Chemical information on Liberica and Excelsa beans is
scarce. Limited information on Excelsa coffee beans may be contributed
by its misclassification as Liberica beans. Furthermore, Excelsa beans are
only cultivated in specific areas (Campa et al., 2004, 2005). Variations in
the chemical composition of coffee beans are affected by genetics, ori­
gins, growing environment, and processing method. Previous reviews
have been published on the chemical properties and composition of
coffee beans (Carneiro et al., 2021; Hall et al., 2022; Kusumah & Gon­
zalez de Mejia, 2022; Munyendo et al., 2021; Pua et al., 2022), and thus
this is not focused here. A summary of the chemical composition of
coffee beans is presented in the Supplementary Materials.
6. Effect of emerging coffee processing methods on chemical
properties of coffee bean
6.1. Effect of digestion method on chemical composition of coffee bean
Jumhawan, Putri, Yusianto, Bamba, and Fukusaki (2015) reported
significant differences in the chemical composition between civet coffee
beans and regular Robusta and Arabica beans, especially in the con­
centrations of organic acids (Table 2). Civet coffee beans had more malic
and citric acids than the regular beans (Jumhawan et al., 2015). Mar­
cone and Alrifai (2019) found that civet coffee beans generally had less
protein than the regularly processed beans. Breakdown of acidic and
basic subunits of storage protein (30,000 and 20,000 Da, respectively) to
amino acids was found in coffee beans produced from Indonesian palm
civet and African civet. This may be due to the leaching of protein and
the presence of proteases in the digestive tract of the civet. Febrina et al.
(2021) did not find any qualitative differences in the chemical compo­
sition between Arabica coffee beans obtained from caged civets, wild
civets, and WP. Quantitatively, civet coffee beans had more alanine,
7
Food Chemistry 412 (2023) 135489
asparagine, gamma-aminobutyric acid, malic acid, quinic acid, choline,
trigonelline, and less 5-caffeoylquinic acid (5-CQA), sucrose, and
caffeine than WP processed beans (Febrina et al., 2021). Elephant dung
coffee beans (Arabica) had more phenolics, flavonoids, and tannins than
WP and DP processed beans (Haile, Bae, & Kang, 2020). Elephant dung
coffee beans contained unique volatiles such as 2-hydroxymethylpyr­
role, 3-methylfuran, 2-methylfuran, 2-ethyl-3-methylpyrazine, 2-hexa­
nol, propionic acid, 4-ethylguaiacol, 1-furfurylpyrrole, and 2-
methylphenol, which were not found in DP and WP processed beans
(Haile et al., 2020). This indicated their different sensory properties.
Enzymes and microorganisms were used to digest coffee beans to
obtain altered chemical composition. The use of carboxypeptidase (from
Aspergillus oryzae) and flavourzyme on Robusta coffee beans signifi­
cantly decreased the concentrations of polyphenols, proteins, sugars and
increased the content of total soluble solids (Murthy et al., 2019). The
degradation of proteins and sugars contributed to the formation of more
volatiles such as pyrazine from the Maillard reactions. Lee et al. (2016a)
reported that using Rhizopus oligosporus to ferment Arabica coffee beans
(giling basah process) decreased the concentrations of organic acids,
sugars, and phenolic acids but increased that of total volatiles in the
beans. Similarly, the use of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pichia kluyveri
as individual starter culture resulted in decreased concentrations of
soluble carbohydrates (sucrose, glucose, and fructose), organic acids
(except for lactic acid), phenolic compounds, and amino acids in giling
basah Arabica coffee beans (Wang et al., 2020a). More volatiles such as
2,3-butanedione, ethyl octanoate, 2-phenylethyl acetate were also found
in S. cerevisiae and P. kluyveri-treated roasted coffee beans. Lee et al.
(2017) used Yarrowia lipolytica as starter culture to increase the forma­
tion of 4-vinylguaiacol, 4-vinylphenol, γ-butyrolactone, and sulfur-
containing compounds during light roasting of the treated beans. Add­
ing enzymes and starter cultures resulted in the formation of more
volatiles, indicating improved sensory quality. More studies are needed
to better understand their fermentative pathways and to better modulate
the flavor composition of the coffee beans, hence obtaining desired
sensory quality.
6.2. Effect of anaerobic fermentation on chemical composition of coffee
bean
Pereira et al. (2022) showed that the coffee beans treated with AF
followed by DP and WP process had more CGA, sucrose, lactic acid, and
trigonelline and less glucose than control (natural and pulped naturally
without AF treatment). AF treatment differs from the normal process by
prolonging yeast and bacteria fermentation under a deprived oxygen
environment (Table 2). This condition increases LAB activity, resulting
in high lactic acid concentration in AF-treated coffee beans. Inoculation
of various microorganisms affected the AF processed beans in certain
degrees. Coffee beans treated with AF and inoculated with S. cerevisiae
CCMA 0543 or Candida parapsilosis CCMA 0655 or Torulaspora del­
brueckii CCMA 0684 or their combination generally resulted in dried
beans with a lower concentration of citric, malic, succinic, lactic, and
acetic acids compared to those made from spontaneous fermentation
(Bressani, Martinez, Sarmento, Borém, & Schwan, 2020). Inoculation of
S. cerevisiae for AF treatment significantly increased the concentrations
of acids, furanone, ketones, lactones, phenols, and pyrazine in roasted
beans (Bressani et al., 2020). Neto et al. (2019) employed a combined
aerobic and anaerobic fermentation on de-pulped Arabica coffee beans
inoculated with Lactiplantibacillus plantarum. This resulted in 2–3-fold
increase in the concentration of D-limonene, twofold increase in those of
benzaldehyde and nonanal, 1.5-fold increase in that of phenyl­
acetaldehyde and the formation of 2-phenethylacetate in the coffee
beans. Direct comparison on the changes of the chemical composition as
affected by current processing and AF method remains to be studied to
exploit the potential of this process for coffee bean improvement.
 Table 2

N.A. Febrianto and F. Zhu

Effects of emerging processing methods on chemical composition and sensory properties of coffee beans and coffee brews.
Emerging Processing conditions Samples Major findings References
processing
methods

Digestion Caged civet coffee, wild civet coffee, and WP Arabica coffee beans Arabica coffee beans Caged and wild civet coffee beans showed increased concentrations of Febrina et al.
method alanine, asparagine, GABA, malic acid, quinic acid, choline and trigonelline (2021)
and decreased the concentrations of caffeine, sucrose and 5-CQA compared to
regular Arabica coffee beans
Digestion Commercial regular civet coffee beans. Regular and authentic civet coffee Arabica and Robusta coffee beans Civet coffee beans (authentic and commercial) had more malic acid and citric Jumhawan
method beans were used as standard acid compared to regular coffee beans et al. (2015)
Digestion Wet Arabica parchment coffee beans (10 kg) were fermented twice using a Arabica coffee beans. Unfermented Fermentation using the mixture of microorganisms induced the formation of Towaha and
method mixture of microorganisms isolated from civet’s intestinum tenue for 4, 5, 6 coffee beans and caged civet coffee acetic acid and butyric acids in the coffee beans. Significant reduction in the Rubiyo. (2016)
and 7 days. It was then followed by a second fermentation using a beans were used as a control levels of oxalic, formic, citric and lactic acids was observed in fermented
microorganisms mixture isolated from civet’s caecum for 4, 5, 6, and 7 days. coffee beans compared to unfermented control
The fermented parchment coffee beans were then washed and dried until 12
% of moisture before dehulling
Digestion Arabica coffee bean were sterilized and inoculated with yeasts Coffee beans Treated coffee beans had less soluble carbohydrates (sucrose, glucose and Wang et al.
method (Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pichia kluyveri). Untreated coffee bean and fructose), citric, malic, quinic, succinic acid, and amino acids. Increased (2020a)
sterilized unfermented coffee bean were used as a blank and control, concentration of lactic and formic acid was observed from coffee bean treated
respectively by yeasts. Treated samples also had alpha-ketoglutaric acid which was absent
in control
Roasted coffee beans Roasted coffee beans obtained from P. kluyveri and S. cerevisiae treatments
had more esters, pyrazines, pyrroles, and sulfurous volatiles but had less
organic acids than blank
Coffee brew Coffee brew from treated coffee beans exhibited more nutty, roasted, and
smoky attributes but had less acidic and sweet attributes than blank
Digestion Arabica coffee bean were sterilized and inoculated with yeasts Coffee beans Treated beans had less sucrose, glucose, fructose, CGA, caffeic acid, ferulic Wang et al.
method (Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pichia kluyveri) and Lactococcus lactis subs. acid and coumaric acid compared to control. Fructose was absent in the coffee (2020b)
cremoris in different combination. Untreated coffee bean and sterilized beans fermented with L. Lactis subs. cremoris. Significant increase in citric
8

unfermented coffee bean were used as a blank and control, respectively acid, lactic acid and alpha-ketoglutaric acid were observed in treated samples.
Less amino acids were observed in treated coffee beans compared to blank.
Fermentation resulted in the formation of more volatiles such as isoamyl
acetate, ethyl octanoate, 2-phenethyl acetate, acetic acid, octanoic acid, 2-
phenlethanol and 4-vinylguaicol
Roasted coffee beans Roasted coffee beans had less sucrose, glucose, fructose, succinic acid, formic
acid, quinic acid, citric acid and malic acid than blank. Significant increase in
the concentration of esters (isoamyl acetate, 2-phenethyl acetate, and ethyl
octanoate), maltol and furfuryl were observed in treated samples. Samples
fermented with L. lactis subs. cremoris exhibited less pyrazine formation
during roasting
Coffee brew Coffee brew obtained from L. lactis subs. cremoris and yeast treated coffee
bean exhibited more intense winey and fruity flavor than blank, control, and
other treated samples
Digestion Elephant dung coffee. WP and DP coffee bean were used as control Coffee beans Elephant dung coffee beans showed higher TPC, total flavonoid content (TFC) Haile et al.
method and total tannin content (TTC) value compared to WP and DP coffee beans (2020)
Roasted coffee beans Roasted elephant dung coffee beans exhibited higher TPC and TFC values at
all different degrees of roasting (light, medium, and dark roast)
Coffee brew Significant increase in the concentrations of amines, ketones, phenolics,

Food Chemistry 412 (2023) 135489

pyrazines, pyridines and pyrolles volatiles was observed in extensively
digested coffee beans
Digestion Arabica coffee beans were sterilized and fermented using Rhizopus oligosporus. Coffee beans Rhizopus treated coffee beans had more alcohols, esters, and phenol volatiles Lee et al.
method Untreated coffee beans and sterilized unfermented coffee beans were used as but had less pyrazines. Fermented samples had fewer total acids, sugars, and (2016a)
a blank and control, respectively phenolic acids but had more amino acids than blank and control samples. The
concentrations of citric acid, glucose, sucrose and CGA in coffee bean were
observed to be significantly reduced after fermentation
(continued on next page)
 Table 2 (continued )

N.A. Febrianto and F. Zhu

Emerging Processing conditions Samples Major findings References
processing
methods

Digestion Arabica coffee beans were sterilized and fermented using Rhizopus oligosporus. Roasted coffee beans Roasted treated coffee beans generally had fewer total volatiles (measured as Lee et al.
method Coffee beans were roasted in different roasting degrees such as light, medium total peak area) compared to control in all different roasting degrees. Major (2016b)
and dark roast. Roasted untreated coffee beans and sterilized unfermented reduction was observed in carbonyls, furanones and furans volatiles.
coffee beans were used as a blank and control, respectively Significant increase in the concentrations of pyrazines and phenols volatiles
in fermented samples was obtained. No significant changes in the
concentrations of phenolic acids and amino acids concentration were
observed between treated samples and blank
Coffee brew Fermented samples showed an increasing intensity on caramel, nutty and
sweet attributes depended on the roasting degree. In general, fermented
samples had less intensity of berry-like, buttery, roasty, smoky, spicy, and
sulfury attributes compared to that of blank and control
Digestion Robusta coffee beans were treated with flavourzyme isolated from Aspergillus Coffee beans Flavourzyme-treated coffee beans showed reduced pH value, total Murthy et al.
method oryzae. Untreated coffee beans were used as blank. Control was treated with polyphenol, total protein and total sugars contents (2019)
commercial flavourzyme
Roasted coffee beans Roasted treated coffee beans had more pyrazines than untreated samples.
Significant increases in concentrations (measured as peak area) were also
observed for acetic acid, 2-furanmethanol 2-furanmethanol acetate,
butyrolactone and 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol volatiles
Coffee brew Coffee brew from treated samples was preferred by the panelists in term of
softness, flavor, mouthfeel, aftertaste and overall characteristics
Digestion Arabica coffee bean was fermented using Yarrowia lipotyca as the starter Roasted coffee beans The total concentration of volatiles (measured as peak area) of the roasted Lee et al. (2017)
method culture fermented samples were lower than that of the unfermented samples. In light
roasting degree, roasted fermented coffee beans had concentrations of
organic acids, phenolic acids and amino acids similar to those of unfermented
samples
Anaerobic Arabica coffee cherries and wet parchment beans were fermented in Coffee beans Raman spectrometry analysis showed that the biochemical composition of Martins et al.
9

fermentation bioreactor for 72 h followed by drying
Anaerobic Cherries and wet parchment Arabica coffee beans were fermented in closed
fermentation bioreactor. Normal DP and WP coffee bean were used as control
Anaerobic Arabica coffee cherries and wet parchment beans from different producing
fermentation regions were fermented in bioreactor. Saccharomyces cerevisiae and
Torulaspora delbrueckii were used as starter cultures. Coffee beans fermented
without the addition of starter culture was used as the control
Anaerobic Arabica coffee beans (DP and WP) were fermented in stainless steel bioreactor
fermentation with the addition of S. cerevisiae CCMA 0543 and CCMA 0535. Fermentation
coffee beans varied depending on the growing altitude. Coffee beans grown at (2020)
high altitude had more CGA and fatty acid content.
Coffee brew The flavor profile of coffee brew varied based on the growing altitude. Brew
obtained from AF-WP coffee beans was dominated by chocolate, almonds,
citric, sugar cane and floral notes. Brew from AF-DP coffee beans had
almonds, chocolate, liqueur, caramel and sugar cane as the dominant
attributes
Coffee beans Treated samples had higher intensity (measured by 1H NMR) of signals for Pereira et al.
CGA, sucrose, lactic acid and trigonelline signals than control beans (2022)
Coffee brew Treated samples (AF-DP) had significant difference in temporal dominance of
sensations compared to the control with fruity, wine, and caramelized sugar
notes being more dominant. WP processed AF coffee bean’ brew was
dominated by fruity, woody and caramelized sugar attributes
Coffee beans The chemical composition of the treated coffee beans varied based on the da Mota et al.
production region. In general, the chemical composition of the treated coffee (2020)
beans was rich in ethanol, glucose, fructose, acetic acid, lactic acid and
succinic acid
Roasted coffee beans Treated coffee beans had more organic acids compared to control. AF-DP Martinez et al.
treated with CCMA 0535 had more pyrazine. AF-WP coffee beans treated with (2021)

Food Chemistry 412 (2023) 135489

without the addition of starter culture was used for control starter had less pyrazine than the control WP beans
Coffee brew Brew from AF-WP beans treated with S. cerevisiae had higher cupping score
with more chocolate, caramel and floral flavor attributes compared to that of
AF-WP control beans. Brew from AF-DP treated beans with starter culture had
citric, floral, prune, peach and cereal attributes which was absent in the brew
from AF-DP control beans
(continued on next page)
N.A. Febrianto and F. Zhu Food Chemistry 412 (2023) 135489

6.3. Effect of carbonic maceration on chemical composition of coffee bean

* WP, wet process; GABA, γ-aminobutyric acid; 5-CQA, 5-caffeoylquinic acid; CGA, chlorogenic acid; DP, dry process; TPC, total phenolic content; AF-WP, anaerobic fermentation-wet process; AF-DP, anaerobic
Sulaiman et al.
Junior et al. (2021) found that CM treatment prior to natural process

Junior et al.
References
affected the chemical composition of Arabica coffee beans in a time- and

(2021)

(2021)
temperature-dependent manner (Table 2). The beans treated with CM
fermentation at higher temperature (>28 ◦ C) had more alkaloids, phe­
nolics, acids, and sugars and less hydroxymethylfurfural than the CM-

120 h resulted in highest global score of 85.15 represented excellent grade of

cupping score (83.00 and 84.00, respectively) compared to that of fermented

brew with higher global score in sensory properties. Incubation in 38 ◦ C for

Coffee brew from coffee beans fermented in glass bottle and can had higher
Long duration of incubation in high temperature condition produced coffee

in sack (64.00). Coffee cherries fermented in sack were found to be moldy

treated ones at lower temperature (18 ◦ C). Increasing fermentation
period (>96 h) led to enhanced formation of formic acid, lipids, caffeine,
and phenolics in the beans (Junior et al., 2021). This was contributed by
extensive carbohydrate degradation, microbial metabolisms, and
migration of lipids from the endosperm to the surface of coffee beans.
Despite the increased interest of coffee producers to adopt this method,

resulting in the occurrence of faulty sensory attribute

scientific knowledge regarding its effect on the chemical composition of
coffee beans is scarce.

6.4. Effect of other emerging methods on chemical composition of coffee

bean

Burundian coffee beans had more sucrose, citric acid, malic acid,
acetic acid, quinic acid, trigonelline and fatty acids, and less caffeine,
asparagine, GABA, and CGA compared to commercial Colombia and
specialty coffee bean

Guatemala coffee beans (Kwon et al., 2015). The processing method was
Major findings

found to affect the bean metabolites. However, the chemical composi­

tion of the beans was more contributed by their differences in genotypes
of different varieties (Burundian (bourbon variety) and Colombia
(caturra, castillo, and Colombian variety).

7. Sensory properties of coffee brews affected by emerging

processing methods

7.1. Digestion method

Sensory properties of coffee brews from the beans obtained the

enzyme/microorganism-based DM were previously reported (Lee,
Coffee brew

Coffee brew

Cheong, Curran, Yu, & Liu, 2016b; Lee et al., 2016a; Murthy et al., 2019)
Samples

(Table 2). However, comparison between animal-digested coffee and

regularly processed ones is limited. Giling basah processed Arabica coffee
brew was characterized by balanced acidity, sweetness, nutty, roasted,
Arabica coffee cherries were fermented in glass bottle, can and plastic sack for

and caramel taste. Incubation of the aforementioned coffee beans with

Arabica coffee cherries were placed in plastic bags, vacuumed and injected

S. cerevisiae and P. kluyveri as starter culture significantly reduced the

acidity and sweetness and increased the nutty, roasted, and caramel
taste of the resulting brews (Wang et al., 2020a). The addition of LAB in
with CO2. The incubation was done at 18–38 ◦ C for 24–120 h.

the incubation increased winey and fruity notes (Wang et al., 2020b). On
the other hand, the use of carboxypeptidase for the incubation of
Robusta coffee beans increased the overall sensory properties and at­
tributes of aftertaste, mouthfeel, flavor and softness (Murthy et al.,
2019). Carboxypeptidase induced the release of amino acids from pep­
fermentation-dry process; NMR, nuclear magnetic resonance.

tides and proteins, enhancing their availability as flavor precursors for

seven days before 21-days drying process.

Maillard reactions. The sensory characteristics of the coffee made from

the DM method are highly dependent on the bean variety and the starter
culture used for the digestion.

7.2. Anaerobic fermentation

Processing conditions

Pereira et al. (2022) found that the use of AF in coffee bean

fermentation enhanced the sensory quality of the specialty coffee. AF-
treated DP and WP Arabica coffee beans had more fruity flavour than
regular DP and WP-processed beans (Table 2). Furthermore, AF-treated
coffee bean exhibited richer sensory profile. The AF treatment enhances
Table 2 (continued )

the sensation of fruity, winey, woody, caramel, and caramelized sugar

taste (Pereira et al., 2022). Some of those attributes are preferred in
maceration

Wine process

Arabica coffee brew. The addition of starter culture in AF treatment

processing
Emerging

Carbonic

contributed to coffee brew with richer and more complex sensory notes
methods

than that of AF without starter culture (Martinez et al., 2021). The

addition of S. cerevisiae CCMA 0543 and CCMA 0535 in AF-treated HP

10
N.A. Febrianto and F. Zhu
coffee beans increased the sensory score of the brew to 83.25 and 84.33,
respectively (SCA score standard) from 82.60 (non-AF-HP) and to 83.41
and 84.00 from 82.60 in AF-treated DP coffee, respectively. The use of
S. cerevisiae CCMA 0535 gave additional caramel and floral sensory
notes to the HP coffee brew. Furthermore, it removed the occurrence of
off-flavors such as greenish and woody notes while adding floral, citric,
prune and peach sensory notes to the DP coffee brew (Martinez et al.,
2021). The implementation of AF in coffee bean processing could
enhance the Arabica-specific sensory attributes such as fruity, floral, and
acidic attributes.
7.3. Carbonic maceration
Coffee brew from the beans treated with CM prior to DP had a high
sensory score of>80 (specialty coffee), with the one incubated at 38 ◦ C
for 120 h had the highest score (85.15, excellent grade specialty coffee)
(Junior et al., 2021) (Table 2). This was related to the suitable bacterial
diversity during fermentation at optimum temperature. Junior et al.
(2021) found that the temperature of 38 ◦ C provided suitable environ­
ment for bacteria growth since the early stage of fermentation. Hence,
the production of flavor metabolites from the fermentation was maxi­
mized, resulting in improved fragrance and aftertaste attributes. How­
ever, since there was no comparison with non-CM-treated DP coffee
beans of the same origin, the extent of improvement contributed by CM
treatment toward current processing remains to be studied.
7.4. Other processes
The brew of Arabica coffee beans obtained from wine process
exhibited higher sourness, more fermented flavor, and less sweetness
compared to HP Arabica coffee beans (Sunarharum & Farhan, 2020).
Longer fermentation in the wine process induced the formation of more
organic acids, resulting in excessive sourness and fermented flavor at­
tributes. Faulty sensory attributes such as mouldy note was found in the
wine coffee fermented in partial anaerobic condition (Sulaiman et al.,
2021).
7.5. General discussion on different emerging processing methods
It has become apparent that the EPM can improve the sensory quality
of coffee. The enzyme/microorganism-based DM is suitable to be used
for Robusta coffee bean processing, especially to process the inferior
samples. They enhanced the formation of Maillard reaction-related fla­
vors related to nutty, roasted, and caramel attributes (Lee et al., 2016a;
2016b). These sensory notes are preferred for Robusta coffee. This
method also improved the quality of inferior coffee beans obtained from
poor post-harvest handling (Larassati et al., 2021). Its utilization on
Arabica coffee beans should be carefully considered since it reduces the
diversity of organic acids in the beans (Wang et al., 2020a; 2020b),
hence reducing the sensory quality of the brew.
The AF and CM methods can complement the method of current
Arabica coffee bean processing. AF process helped maximize the yeast
and LAB fermentation, while limiting the growth of filamentous fungi by
quorum sensing (Pereira et al., 2022). CM optimized the bean fermen­
tation, enhancing the formation of flavor volatiles and flavor precursors
(Junior et al., 2021). The AF and CM methods improved the sensory
notes preferred in Arabica coffee brew, such as fruity, floral, and citric
attributes. Furthermore, it reduced the occurrence of off-flavors (Junior
et al., 2021; Martinez et al., 2021). AF process, in particular, also allows
better control in fermentation. It is suitable for obtaining consistent
quality for highly priced commodities such as Arabica coffee beans.
11
Food Chemistry 412 (2023) 135489
8. Biological activities of coffee affected by emerging processing
methods
8.1. In vitro studies
In vitro studies on coffee beans and the coffee-derived products
showed various beneficial health effects of coffee consumption. The
implementation of EPM affected the biological effects of the coffee beans
and coffee-derived products to some extents (Table 3). Many previous
studies showed that extracts of green and roasted coffee beans (CBE)
were antioxidant, anti-cancer, immune-modulator, immune-stimulator,
anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, anti-diabetic and anti-
hyperlipidaemic (Narayanperumal et al., 2022; Montenegro et al.,
2021; Toydemir et al., 2021; Funakoshi-Tago et al., 2020; Passos et al.,
2021; Tasew et al., 2020; Li et al., 2021; Duangjai et al., 2021).
8.1.1. In vitro biological activities of coffee beans from digestion method
The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of coffee beans are
mainly contributed by the polyphenols (especially of CGA group). Most
of DMs reduced the contents of polyphenols in coffee beans (Febrina
et al., 2021; Lee et al., 2016a; Murthy et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2020b).
This decrease may lead to reduction in the anti-obese and anti-cancer
activities. Li et al. (2021) found that the polyphenols, mainly CGA,
acted as enzyme inhibitors by occupying the active and inactive sites of
the enzymes, inhibiting starch digestion. CGA also induced apoptosis in
prostate cancer cells (Montenegro et al., 2021). Ivory coffee beans
extract had elevated concentrations of polyphenols (measured by TPC),
especially flavonoids and tannins (Haile et al., 2020). This contributed
to the higher antioxidant activity of ivory coffee beans than DP coffee
beans. Another study found that the reduction of CGA in DM coffee
beans did not necessarily reduce their antioxidant activity (Febrina
et al., 2021). This indicated the antioxidant role of compounds other
than CGA which remains to be studied. Febrina et al. (2021) found that
civet coffee beans had more antioxidants than regular coffee beans. The
increasing concentration of malic acid was proportional to the increase
of the antioxidant activity. Other DMs were reported to produce coffee
beans with more organic acids and higher antioxidant activities than
regular coffee beans (Jumhawan et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2020b).
Montenegro et al. (2021) found similar ORAC values in CBE regardless
of the degrees of roasting, which may be contributed by Maillard reac­
tion products in the form of melanoidins (Montenegro et al., 2021).
Furthermore, Daglia et al. (2018) found that melanoidin-rich extract of
coffee beans had high protective activities towards lipid peroxidation.
Melanoidins may contribute to the anti-inflammatory activity of the
roasted CBE (Funakoshi-Tago et al., 2020). Several DMs promoted the
formation of Maillard reaction products by the enrichment of the pre­
cursors (mainly amino acids) (Lee et al., 2016a; 2016b). Similarly, the
increase in the content of melanoidins in coffee beans from DM may lead
to improved immune-modulatory and blood-lipid regulation activities of
coffee. Passos et al. (2021) found that polysaccharide-melanoidin com­
plexes in the HMW fraction of coffee extract were immune-stimulant in
LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells. Melanoidins, especially from dark roasted
coffee beans, inhibited pancreatic lipase activity and reduced lipid
digestion. As asparagine content was increased in wild civet and
Rhizopus oligosporus treated coffee beans (Febrina et al., 2021; Lee et al.,
2016a), the increase of acrylamide formation in coffee beans during
extensive roasting would be expected with increased toxicity.
8.1.2. In vitro biological activities of coffee beans from anaerobic
fermentation
Coffee beans from AF may have biological activities similar to those
of regular coffee beans. The increased concentration of organic acids in
the coffee beans from AF (Martinez et al., 2021) may contribute to the
antioxidant activity. AF coffee beans showed high concentrations of
CGA (Martins et al., 2020; Pereira et al., 2022). While direct comparison
of AF coffee beans with regular coffee beans is scarce, AF coffee beans
 Table 3

N.A. Febrianto and F. Zhu

In vitro studies of biological activities of coffee beans and coffee-derived products and the effects of emerging processing methods.
Bioactivity Sample type Major findings Proposes key bioactive References Emerging process effect Proposed biological activity
compounds

Immune- Green coffee bean extract (GCE)
modulatory, containing 61.68 % of total CGA. The
anti- extract had a residue of the solvents
inflammatory (methanol and ethyl acetate, 50 and
12 ppm, respectively)
Antioxidant, anti- Coffee bean extract (CBE) was
cancer obtained via microwave-assisted
extraction of green beans and roasted
beans (light, medium and dark
roasted). The extractions were done
using 50 % ethanol (ethanolic
extract, EE) and water (aqueous
extract, AE)
12
Cytotoxicity of GCE was noticed at the
concentration of ≥ 100 μg/mL. GCE
showed anti-inflammatory function in
RAW264.7 cells. GCE enhanced the
immunity by upregulating phagocytic
activity and pathogenic clearance of
monocytes, modulating balanced
release of TH1 and TH2 cytokines, and
increasing the production of IgG
antibody
High AA of CBE was observed. CBE
from green and lightly roasted beans
had the highest AA. EE had higher AA
than AE, in general. CBE from green,
light, medium, and dark roast had
similar ORAC value. Viability study
showed that CBE from green beans and
lightly roasted beans caused the
highest reduction in PC-3 cell viability
with 53.5 and 45.2 %, respectively,
and 56.6 and 52.4 %, respectively for
DU-145 after 48 h incubation. CBE was
observed to cause cell cycle arrest and
induced apoptosis in DU-145 cells with
CBE from lightly roasted beans (5000
μg/mL) had the largest reduction of
CGA
CGA, caffeic acid, Montenegro et al.
trigonelline and phenolic (2021)
acids-melanoidin complex.
Acrylamide was suspected to
cause non-apoptotic cell
death
Narayanaperumal, EPM reduced the polyphenol content, Melanoidins rich extract of coffee beans
D’souza, Miriyala, while increasing the formation of
Sharma, and Gopal melanoidins
(2022)
Coffee beans treated with EPM
resulted in various changes in
phenolic acids, organic acid and
melanoidin precursors. Some EPM
promoted the formation of asparagine
had high protective activity towards lipid
peroxidation. Its antioxidant activity was
related to the anti-inflammatory activity.
Hence, coffee beans from EPM would still
exhibit anti-inflammatory activity since
the role of CGA may be compensated by the
melanoidins
Natural civet coffee beans had higher
antioxidant activity compared to that of
regular beans due to the increased
concentration of malic acid (Febrina et al.,
2021). Increasing organic acid content due
to AF and CM processes may contribute
positively to the AA of the coffee bean.
Increasing amino acids content in coffee
bean treated with digestion method (DM)
may promote the formation of
melanoidins, hence increasing the
probability to form melanoidin-phenolic
acid complexes formation. Formation of
asparagine can promote the formation of
acrylamide during roasting

viable cells (58.83 %). Non-apoptotic

Antioxidation and Freeze dried coffee brew from
detoxification Turkish coffee (10 g/130 mL water),
filter coffee (Java preanger Arabica)
(8 g/140 mL water) and instant
coffee (nescafe gold blend) (2 g/150
mL water)
cell deaths were observed in the
treatment of CBE from the roasted
beans
Freeze-dried coffee brew showed Caffeine, trigonelline, CGA, Toydemir et al. (2021) AF treated coffee beans showed AF treated coffee bean may show improved
comparable AHR-activation potency cafestol, kahweol higher signals intensity of 1H NMR antioxidant and detoxification activity.
compared to positive control. The signals on CGA and trigonelline However, other emerging methods
highest activity was shown by Turkish attributes, representing high generally result in coffee bean with less
coffee samples (79 % of positive concentration of such compounds in CGA content, hence reducing phenolic
control). Coffee drinks also induced the coffee beans. acids-induced antioxidant activity
AHR pathway genes in intestinal cells.
Coffee treated cells showed higher
AHR activity in the basolateral
chamber after 24 h of Cacao-2 cells
incubation, indicating AHR ligands in
coffee were predominantly
transported to the serosal side of
polarized epithelial monolayers. This
increased the chance of AHR ligands to

Food Chemistry 412 (2023) 135489

Anti-inflammatory Aqueous green and roasted coffee
extracts were prepared by brewing 8
g of coffee with 140 mL of hot water
(95 ◦ C). The concentration of dry
matter in the solution was 8.4 mg/mL
interact with immune and other cells.
Coffee also activated Nrf2 pathway
Roasted coffee extract inhibited anti-
inflammatory activity on RAW264.7
cells after LPS induction by inhibiting
the secretion and mRNA expression of
CCL2, CXCL1, IL-6 and TNFα. It also
suppressed NF-κB activation by
inhibiting IKK activation. Roasted
Pyrocatechol, melanoidins
Funakoshi-Tago et al. Coffee beans processed by in vitro
(2020) digestion method generally had
higher concentrations of amino acids
compared to the untreated. Volatile
analysis on these coffee beans showed
more intensive pyrazine formation,
Improved melanoidin contents in the
coffee beans processed by DM may
increase the melanoidin-induced anti-
inflammatory activity
(continued on next page)
 N.A. Febrianto and F. Zhu
Table 3 (continued )
Bioactivity Sample type Major findings Proposes key bioactive References Emerging process effect Proposed biological activity
compounds

coffee beans exhibited better indicating more intensive Maillard

inhibition activity towards NF-κB
activation and Nrf2 expression
compared to that of green coffee beans
Immune- Espresso and instant coffee brew Raw246.7 cells lines incubated with
stimulatory and fractions of samples were obtained HMW fraction of espresso and instant
anti- through ultrafiltration to obtain a coffee showed immune-stimulatory
inflammatory series of LMW to HMW fractions activity (>6.2 μM of nitrites).
Raw264.7 cells induced by LMW
fraction of espresso and instant coffee
exhibited significant decreases on
nitrite production when induced with
LPS, indicating anti-inflammatory
activity
Anti-bacterial and Methanolic extract was prepared MIC and MBC of roasted coffee extract
antioxidant from green coffee beans and roasted were found to be at 31.25 and 62.5
coffee beans from Ethiopia (25 g in mg/mL, respectively for E. coli, S.
250 mL of methanol). Methanol was aureus and P. aeruginosa and 15.62 and
evaporated by means of rotary 31.35 mg/mL, respectively for
evaporator and oven drying S. typhimurium. anti-bacterial activities
of green and roasted coffee extract
were comparable to that of positive
control. IC50 of green and roasted CBE
13
reactions
Polysaccharides, caffeine Passos et al. (2021) DM treated coffee beans (in vitro) had
and CGAs more amino acids than regular coffee
beans. Amino acids as Maillard
reaction precursors contributed to the
formation of HMW fraction during
roasting process
unspecified Tasew et al. (2020) The EPM, especially DM, decreased
the content of polyphenols but
increased those of organic acids and
melanoidins precursors in coffee
beans
The decrease of bioactive in LMW fraction
of coffee brew obtained from EPM coffee
bean may result in less LMW induced-anti-
inflammatory activity. More intensive
HMW formation may increase the
immunostimulatory and melanoidin
induced-anti-inflammatory activity
Polyphenol based-antioxidant activity was
reduced in EPM coffee beans compared to
regular coffee beans. However,
melanoidins can act as antioxidants. Malic
acid was found to increase the antioxidant
activity of civet coffee bean (Febrina et al.,
2021)

were at 167.5 and 294.7 μg/mL

Anti-diabetic Roasted CBE was prepared by Increasing concentration of coffee CGA Li et al. (2021) The EPM decreased polyphenols Anti-diabetic activity of EPM coffee beans
diluting 100 g of ground coffee and extract contributed to lower concentration in coffee beans was suspected to be lower than that of
its insoluble residue with 1 L of percentage of starch hydrolysis. Coffee regular coffee beans
distilled water at 100 C for 10 min. extract increased Michaelis-Menten
◦

The filtrates were collected, vacuum constant of PPA and AMG indicating
and freeze dried to obtain dried reduced binding affinity of the
coffee extract enzymes to the substrates
Anti-diabetic and Roasted coffee bean extract was Coffee extract exhibited inhibition unspecified Duangjai et al. (2021) EPM promoted the formation of Melanoidins were suspected to contribute
anti- prepared from coffee with different towards α-amylase and α-glucosidase melanoidins via Maillard reactions significantly to the blood-lipid regulation
hyperlipidaemic roasting degrees (light, medium, and activity with dark coffee (DC) extract during roasting process activity of the coffee beans. The increase of
dark). Ground powder was extracted (10 min at 80 ◦ C) having the highest melanoidins content in EPM coffee beans
with water (1:5 w/v) by ultrasound inhibition of α-amylase (33.8 %) and may increase the activity
assisted extraction in various DC extract obtained from 20 ◦ C for 20
temperatures and durations (20, 40, min showing the highest α-glucosidase
and 80 ◦ C and 5, 10 and 20 min). inhibition (19.7 %). Coffee extract
Dried extracts were obtained by increased the size of cholesterol
freeze-drying the filtered solution micelle with the light-roasted coffee
extract showing the highest activity,
and reduced the solubility of

Food Chemistry 412 (2023) 135489

cholesterol up to 15.43 %

*EPM, emerging processing methods; AA, antioxidant activity; IL, interleukin; AHR, aryl hydrocarbon receptor; PCR, polymerase chain reaction; LPS, lipopolysaccharides; NO, nitric oxide; SiRNA, small interfering RNA;
CCL2, chemokine (C–C motif) ligand; CXCL, chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand; NF-κB, nuclear factor kappa B; TNF, tumor necrosis factor; Nrf2, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2; LMW, low molecular weight;
HMW, high molecular weight; MIC, minimum inhibitory concentration; MBC, minimum bacterial concentration; IC50, half-maximal inhibitory concentration; PPA, pancreatic α-amylase; AMG, aminoglucosidase.
N.A. Febrianto and F. Zhu
should have anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity, and anti-cancer activities
similar to that regular coffee beans. AF produced more amino acids in
coffee beans. This would lead to extensive formation of melanoidins
during roasting, contributing to improved immune-modulatory and
blood-lipid regulation activities of coffee.
8.1.3. In vitro biological activities of coffee beans from carbonic maceration
Reports on the comparison of the chemical composition between CM
coffee beans and regular coffee beans are scarce. The in vitro biological
activity of CM coffee beans is still to be better understood.
8.2. In vivo studies
The consumption of coffee beverages and related supplements was
associated with immune-modulation, anti-inflammation, body weight
regulation, seizure modulation in patients with drug-resistance seizure,
blood lipid modulation, anti-hypertension, anti-anxiety, radio-
protective activity, and reduced risk of liver and cardiovascular dis­
eases. The implementation of EPM affected the in vivo biological prop­
erties of the coffee beans and coffee-derived products (Table 4).
8.2.1. In vivo biological activities of coffee beans from digestion method
Similar to in vitro biological activity as described in the previous
section, the decrease of polyphenol contents in coffee beans from DM
may result in lower in vivo antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities
compared to that of regular coffee beans. However, these functions may
also be improved by the increased formation of melanoidins as found in
beans subjected to DM (Lee et al., 2016a; 2016b; Mesias & Delagado-
Andrade, 2017). Vitaglione et al. (2010) reported that the coffee mela­
noidins inhibited the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1a,
IL-1b, TNF-α, IL-4 and IL-10) in high fat diet treated rats. Hence, the
increase of melanoidins content in DM coffee beans may exhibit sig­
nificant anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activities. Furthermore,
coffee volatiles have anti-anxiety effects (Pachimsawat, Tangprasert, &
Jantaratnotai, 2021). Murthy et al. (2019) found that flavourzyme-
treated roasted coffee beans had more pleasant volatiles. This may
contribute to increased anti-anxiety effect of the treated coffee.
8.2.2. In vivo biological activities of coffee beans from anaerobic
fermentation
Increased melanoidin content in AF coffee beans is beneficial for
obesity and high blood-lipid treatments. Vitaglione et al. (2010) re­
ported that body weight and blood-lipid regulation mechanisms were
related with the polyphenols and melanoidins in coffee beans. The
treatment of high-fat diet (HFD) fed rats with melanoidins decreased the
triglycerides levels more than polyphenol treatments (Vitaglione et al.,
2010). Furthermore, melanoidins may act as dietary fiber in the form of
“Maillardized dietary fiber” (Mesías & Delgado-Andrade, 2017). Coffee
beans obtained from AF may be useful for obesity and high blood lipid
alleviation. The AF can provide optimum conditions for the formations
of Maillard reaction precursors (mainly amino acids) and melanoidins
during roasting. The increase of melanoidin content in AF coffee beans
should compensate for the decrease of polyphenols content for anti-
obesity and blood lipid regulation applications.
Anti-fibrotic activity of coffee beans could be related with caffeine
(Niezen et al., 2021). AF produced coffee beans with lower caffeine
content than regular one (Bressani et al., 2020; Pereira et al., 2022).
Tang, Sun, Cornuz, Yu, and Lassabliere (2021) found a reduced con­
centration of caffeine in coffee beans treated with Aspergillus luchuensis,
A. oryzae, and Mucor plumbeus (535, 608 and 667 mg/100 g sample)
compared to control (760 mg/100 g). Considering these findings, coffee
beans obtained from AF are expected to exhibit less anti-fibrotic activity
on the same weight basis. However, since the anti-fibrotic activity of
coffee beans is dose-dependent and can be achieved in moderate con­
sumption of coffee (4 cups/week to 3 cups/day) (Niezen et al., 2021),
normal consumption of coffee from AF beans may provide anti-fibrotic
14
Food Chemistry 412 (2023) 135489
activity similar to that of regular coffee. The decrease of caffeine con­
tent in coffee beans obtained from AF may increase the anti-
hypertension and artery dilation activity of coffee. Naylor et al. (2020)
found that consumption of coffee bean extract obtained from decaf­
feinated beans increased artery dilation activity after acute ingestion.
The effect was highly associated with the CGA content and the absence
of caffeine in the beans (Naylor et al., 2021). Excluding caffeine from the
coffee beans is beneficial in this particular matter.
Interestingly, while the caffeine in coffee bean was highly associated
with anxiety, the caffeine-free volatiles of roasted coffee beans exhibited
an anti-anxiety effect in dental patients who had undergone dental
probing and scaling treatment (Pachimsawat et al., 2021). Coffee beans
obtained from AF with improved flavor characteristics (Martinez et al.,
2021) may have higher anti-anxiety effect.
Recent cross-sectional studies have provided better understanding of
the effect of coffee incorporation in human diet. Moderate coffee con­
sumption (1–3 cups/day) is beneficial for human health. The health
benefits were mostly contributed by caffeine, polyphenols and diter­
penes in coffee (Barré et al., 2022; Miranda, Goulart, Benseñor, Lotufo,
& Marchioni, 2021; Niezen et al., 2021). Even though AF promoted the
degradation of those compounds, the resulting beans still contained a
considerable amount of bioactive components (Haile et al., 2020; Lee
et al., 2017; Pereira et al., 2022). Since the health benefits could be
obtained from moderate coffee consumption (1–3 cups/day), coffee
beans obtained from AF should provide these health benefits on similar
consumption doses. Since the cross-sectional-based studies relied mainly
on self-reported data from the participants, an effort to convert the
coffee consumption scale used in these studies to a more definite dose
remains a challenge. Furthermore, the effect of coffee consumption in
relation to dietary habits remains to be studied. These factors should be
considered in developing coffee-derived products for nutritional
purposes.
8.2.3. In vivo biological activities of coffee beans from carbonic maceration
Junior et al. (2021) found that brews from CM-treated coffee beans
had improved flavor quality. Implementing this EPM may positively
influence the anti-anxiety effect of coffee. The extent of changes in the
chemical composition of CM coffee beans is unknown, and their in vivo
health benefits should be further studied.
8.2.4. Strategies to improve the biological activities of coffee beans from
EPM
For the development of coffee beans as a functional food product,
modifications of AF, CM and DM are needed. The use of enzymes and
microorganisms in coffee bean processing is promising due to their
flexibility to obtain products with desired characteristics. Studies are
needed to obtain coffee products with desired composition for a specific
purpose. Furthermore, microbial metabolites affected by the use of
inoculum should be studied since they may exhibit antagonistic or
synergistic activity with natural compounds in the coffee beans. For
daily consumption purposes, adjustment on the EPM may be directed to
obtain coffee products with low levels of alkaloids, high amounts of
polyphenols, and enhanced sensory profile.
9. Disadvantages of emerging processing methods and strategies
to overcome them
The DM processes especially those involving a particular animal may
produce coffee beans with varied quality. Jumhawan et al. (2015) found
significant variations in the flavor profile of commercial and authentic
civet coffee from Indonesia. Similarly, Thammarat, Kulsing, Wongravee,
Leepipatpiboon, and Nhujak (2018) found that the elephant dung coffee
beans obtained from two different production years had significant
differences in the volatile composition. The differences in the quality of
the coffee bean could be contributed by numerous factors such as vari­
ations of digestive activity among the animals (Marcone & Alrifai,
N.A. Febrianto and F. Zhu Food Chemistry 412 (2023) 135489

Table 4
In vivo studies of biological activities of coffee beans and coffee-derived products and the effects of emerging processing methods.
Bioactivity Sample type Major findings Proposes key References Emerging process Proposed biological
bioactive effect activity
compounds

Immune- Green coffee bean Supplementation by GCE CGA Narayanaperumal EPM coffee beans had Melanoidins produced
modulatory, extract (GCE) containing improved the circulation of et al. (2022) more Maillard rection during extensive roasting
anti- 61.68 % total CGA and CD16/CD NK cells and precursors especially provided anti-
inflammatory residue solvents of enhanced NK cell activity, amino acids and less inflammatory activity by
methanol and ethyl indicating the activation of CGA than regular coffee inhibiting the expression of
acetate (50 and 12 ppm, innate immune responses beans pro-inflammatory
respectively) after vaccination. CGE cytokines. CGA induced-
supplementation did not anti-inflammatory activity
alter the CD4/CD8 ratio. It of EPM coffee beans were
strengthened CMI less than that of regular
responses. Improvement of coffee beans
IgA production was
observed on subjects with
250 mg GCE
supplementation,
indicating increase in
mucosal immune
responses. No changes in
IgG production compared
to placebo. Reduction of IL-
6 cytokine and TNF-α
secretion indicated anti-
inflammatory activity
Antifibrotic Coffee beverages Coffee consumption of>3 Caffeine Niezen et al. (2021) EPM produces coffee Less anti-fibrotic activity of
(unspecified, cups/day was associated bean with slightly EPM coffee bean compared
presumably commercial with reduced liver stiffness. reduced amount of to the regular coffee bean
coffee brew), No association was found caffeine on the same weight basis is
decaffeinated coffee and between coffee expected. However, similar
tea. Coffee consumption consumption with effect is expected on
patterns were divided controlled attenuation moderate consumption of
into 4 categories: parameter (dB/m), coffee brew
nondrinker, < 1 cup/ indicating no effect of liver
day, 1–2 cups/day, > 3 fat composition
cups/day. Caffeine
consumption was
converted based on the
food and nutrition
database for dietary
study by USDA
Antioxidant and Freeze-dried powder of Coffee supplementation unspecified Ramos, da Costa, EPM promoted the The increase of Maillard
body-weight 10 % coffee solution improved blood serum total and Arruda (2022) production of reaction precursors may
regulation (Arabica coffee from antioxidant activity (11.76- melanoidins via the contribute to the formation
Brazil). fold) compared to other formation of Maillard of “Maillardized dietary
treatments. Coffee reaction precursors fiber”, increasing the
inhibited α-glucosidase during coffee bean amount of fiber in the
activity in small intestine, processing, especially coffee bean which
hexokinase activity in fermentation positively contributed to
muscle of obese rats, and body-weight regulation
the expression of serum IL- activity
6 in obese rats. Increased
insulin secretion was
observed promoting muscle
glycogen synthesis and
improving glucose
oxidation in non-high fat-
diet treated rats
Seizure Coffee beverages Moderate coffee unspecified Bourgeois-Vionnet EPM produced coffee EPM coffee consumption
modulation (unspecified, consumption related to the et al. (2022) beans with reduced gave similar effect to that
presumably commercial decrease of focal to amount of caffeine and of regular coffee in normal
coffee brew). bilateral tonic-clonic polyphenols. Despite the consumption dose
Concentration of coffee seizures (FBTCS) reduction, EPM treated
beverages was based on frequency. High coffee coffee beans still had
the intensity of consumption was considerable amounts of
consumption and associated with increasing caffeine and
divided into 4 FBTCS intensity polyphenols
categories: none, rare
(<1 to 3 cup/week),
moderate (4 cups/week
to 3 cups/day), high (>4
cups/day)
Blood-lipid Coffee beverages Coffee consumption unspecified EPM promoted the Melanoidins in EPM coffee
modulation (unspecified, decreased serum TAG level, formation of bean contributed to the
(continued on next page)

15
N.A. Febrianto and F. Zhu Food Chemistry 412 (2023) 135489

Table 4 (continued )
Bioactivity Sample type Major findings Proposes key References Emerging process Proposed biological
bioactive effect activity
compounds

presumably commercial increased plasma FFA level, Gebeyehu, Feleke, melanoidins in coffee melanoidins induced-
coffee brew). Coffee and increased HDL- Molla, and Admasu beans during roasting blood-lipid regulation
consumption was cholesterol level. Coffee (2020) process
divided into 4 consumption was not
categories: none, low- associated with total
drinker (1–2 cups/day), cholesterol, LDL, fasting
moderate-drinker (3–4 blood glucose and insulin
cups/day), and high- level
drinker (>5 cups/day).
Cup was in the capacity
of 100 mL
Antifibrotic Coffee beverages Lower AST, APRI and FIB-4 Caffeine, Barré et al. (2022) EPM produced coffee Less anti-fibrotic activity of
(unspecified, values were observed in polyphenols beans with reduced EPM coffee bean was
presumably commercial high-consumption coffee and amount of caffeine and expected compared to that
coffee brew) drinkers (4–7 days/week). diterpenes polyphenols. Despite the of the regular coffee bean
Consumption of coffee ≥ 3 reduction, EPM treated on the same weight basis.
cups/day was associated coffee beans still had However, similar effect
with lower risk of considerable amounts of was expected on moderate
significant fibrosis in HBV- caffeine and consumption of coffee
treated participants polyphenols brew
Antihypertension Coffee beverages Moderate consumption of CGA Miranda et al. Coffee processed using The coffee bean from
(unspecified, coffee (1–3 cups/day) with (2021) EPM had reduced emerging process still had
presumably commercial no smoking status amount of CGA CGA in significant amount
coffee brew). decreased the risk of compared to coffee to exhibit antihypertension
Concentration of coffee hypertension made from regular activity
beverages were based on process
the intensity of
consumption and
divided into 4
categories: never, ≤ 1
cup/day), 1–3 cups/day,
> 3 cups/day
Anti-anxiety Roasted coffee essential Coffee-treated patients had Volatiles Pachimsawat et al. The use of EPM Improved flavor properties
oil, obtained from CO2 decreased levels of sAA and (2021) significantly improves of coffee may result in
extraction of Arabica sCort compared to the the sensorial properties more intense relaxing
coffee bean. The sample control. They also had the roasted coffee bean effect of the coffee bean
was distributed by lower pulse and blood and the coffee brew essential oil
means of diffuser in the pressure during scaling
treatment room treatment
Cardiovascular Decaffeinated green Consumption of DGCE CGA Naylor et al. (2021) EPM in general The reduction of CGA
health coffee (DGCE) extract extract increased the FMD promoted the reduction content in coffee bean
containing total CGA of (%) value with the onset at of CGA treated with EPM may not
156.4, 312.8, and 439.9 8–12 h after consumption. changes the cardiovascular
mg A concentration of CGAs at protective ability of the
156.4 mg resulted in coffee brew. This was due
highest FMD % value to the cardiovascular
protective activity of coffee
bean already being at
optimum in low dose of
CGA (156.4 mg)
Radio-protective Green coffee bean Long term consumption of Caffeine and Ansari et al. (2021) EPM promoted decrease Antioxidant activity
activity ethanolic extract. Dried coffee bean extract resulted CGA in caffeine and CGA related to CGA of EPM
extract was obtained in lower % DNA in tail, concentrations coffee bean may be lower
through evaporation lower % of fragmented than that of regular coffee
using rotary evaporator nuclei compared to control bean resulting in the
of the untreated irradiated decrease of radio-
group. protective activity.
However, melanoidins in
EPM coffee bean may
substitute CGA in
providing antioxidant
activity

* EPM, emerging processing methods; CD, cluster of differentiation; NK, natural killer; CMI, cell mediated immunity; Ig, immunoglobulin; IL, interleukin; TNF, tumor
necrosis factor; PCR, polymerase chain reaction; FFA, free fatty acids; TC, total cholesterol; TAG, triacylglycerol; HDL, high density lipoprotein; LDL, low density
lipoprotein; VLDL, very low density lipoprotein; AST, aspartate aminotransferase; FIB, fibrosis; GPR, gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase; FMD, flow mediated dilation;
CGA, chlorogenic acid.

2019), habitat (wild and cage-raised) (Febrina et al., 2021) and bean
varieties (Jumhawan et al., 2015). There are limitations on the pro­
duction of caged-animal based coffee beans due to ethical rights. Stan­
dardization of the bean quality for large-scale production through the
farming is not feasible. However, since natural DM coffee is highly
regarded for its uniqueness and rarity, exploring the coffee beans made
using wild animal-based DM for a specified niche market could be a
sustainable option.
The use of starter culture in in vitro DM may produce coffee beans of
inferior quality. For example, using S. cerevisiae and P. kluyveri in

16
N.A. Febrianto and F. Zhu
processing of Arabica coffee beans resulted in the brews that had sig­
nificant loss in their distinct fruity, sweet, and acidy attributes. The
distinct flavor was replaced by dominant attributes of nutty, roasted,
caramel, and smoky flavor (Wang et al., 2020a). Similarly, the use of
Y. lipotyca as starter culture in DM of Arabica coffee beans produced
brews with high levels of pyrazines. It was related to high intensity of
roasted and chocolate notes (Lee et al., 2017). The addition of lactic acid
bacteria in the starter culture could retain and improve the fruity and
sweet notes of Arabica coffee beans (Wang et al., 2020b). More intensive
fermentation resulted in a dominant winey attribute (Wang et al.,
2020b). The starter culture and raw materials of DM for coffee bean
fermentation should be chosen carefully to avoid those effects. In vitro
DM is not suitable for Arabica coffee beans but suitable for quality
improvement of inferior Robusta coffee beans (Larassati et al., 2021).
Inferior coffee beans have low sensory quality. The implementation of
DM could help develop flavor precursors during digestion process,
increasing the formation of flavor volatiles during roasting.
The AF and CM methods are more suitable for the quality improve­
ment of Arabica coffee beans. An anaerobic condition during fermen­
tation of coffee cherries and WPCB can lead to extensive fermentation
and bean metabolisms. This can optimize the formation of volatile me­
tabolites and flavor precursors. Several studies reported the production
of coffee beans with specialty grade-cupping scores using AF and CM
methods (Bressani et al., 2020; da Mota et al., 2020; Junior et al., 2021;
Neto et al., 2019). However, these processes need to be closely moni­
tored. Longer fermentation may lead to the formation of undesirable
volatiles and flavors. AF and CM methods produce more organic acids
such as acetic acid, lactic acid, and succinic acid. Excessive concentra­
tions of these acids in coffee beans could result in a sourish attribute in
the brew. Furthermore, the addition of starter culture in AF and CM
fermentation could produce coffee beans with increased amino acid
concentrations. This could result in the formation of more volatiles from
Maillard reactions, enhancing the roasted, chocolate, and caramel at­
tributes (Martinez et al., 2021). These sensory attributes may mask the
fruity and acidy attributes of Arabica coffee beans. To obtain coffee
beans with balanced flavor characteristics, process control should be
better understood.
The wine process may be the most vulnerable emerging process with
a high probability of producing faulty coffee bean. Sulaiman et al.
(2021) found that the coffee beans obtained from the wine process with
plastic sack resulted in significant faulty sensation, mainly due to mold
infestation. This may be contributed by the plastic sack used in the
study, which did not provide complete anaerobic condition. Further­
more, this process involves the most prolonged fermentation period
compared to other emerging methods. Fermentation media and the
period of the fermentation should be chosen carefully to avoid mold
infestation on the coffee cherries during the process. The use of assisted
drying is recommended to accelerate the drying process and reduce the
time of the aerobic phase, minimalizing the mold infestation (Maman
et al., 2021; Pereira et al., 2019).
10. Applications of emerging processing methods on coffee bean
from industrial point of view
The EPM of the coffee beans require the use of a dedicated inert
container as the fermentation bioreactor. Detailed techno-economic
analysis of modern fermentation systems for coffee beans was done by
Júnior et al. (2021). A cutting-edge fermentation system suitable for
spontaneous and inoculated fermentation with a capacity of 63 tonnes
on a daily basis would cost around US$ 1.4 million. However, these
processes could produce coffee beans with a high SCA score of 85.5 to
91.0 (excellent grade specialty coffee). These coffee beans can be sold at
US$ 41/kg (optimist scenario), contrasting to its production cost of only
US$ 2.45/kg (Júnior et al., 2021). Applying the EPM is prospective for
large-scale coffee bean industries with highly-priced commodities such
as Arabica beans. They may not be suitable to be implemented on
17
Food Chemistry 412 (2023) 135489
Robusta coffee beans due to the constraints from the price and the bean
properties. Furthermore, the flexibility to control the process operations
could be a bonus point for the industries. It can assure the consistency of
the products and fabricate specific products with the desired charac­
teristics. However, the implementation of this method may be a chal­
lenge in some coffee-producing areas. Smallholder-based farmers may
not be able to afford such an investment. A simplified method remains to
be developed, which can be implemented in a more accessible way with
less maintenance. Mulyara and Rahmadian (2021) reported that it was
possible to use cheap materials such as a plastic bag to perform sta­
tionary AF. This approach may also be suitable for CM. Further
comparative studies between the industry-level method and that of
simplified processes are needed to better understand their effects on
coffee beans.
The implementation of DM on coffee beans at the industrial level
may not be as easy as AF and CM methods. The ability of DM to improve
inferior Robusta coffee beans may be overshadowed by the current
utilization of Robusta beans as ingredient for instant or formulated
coffee. A modified DM combined with bioactive extraction suggested in
cocoa bean processing may be extended to include coffee beans
(Febrianto, Wang, & Zhu, 2021). In this proposed process, inferior
Robusta beans can be first extracted for their bioactive compounds, and
the residue can be digested (by enzymes or microorganisms) and roasted
to generate the flavor precursors. The roasted residue can be sold as
decaffeinated coffee powder, and the coffee extracts can be used for
food, nutraceutical, pharmaceutical and cosmetic ingredients.
11. Conclusions and future research directions
EPM can complement the current coffee bean processing methods to
improve coffee quality. The DM, AF, and CM can improve the sensory
quality of coffee beans through several mechanisms, including the for­
mation of flavor and flavor precursors, optimizing the fermentative
pathway of the coffee beans and microorganisms, and limiting the for­
mation of off-flavors. The drawback of these fermentation-based
methods is the reduction in the levels of bioactive compounds (espe­
cially polyphenols) in coffee beans. It may lead to decreased biological
activities of EPM processed coffee beans compared to regular coffee
bean. The increased formation of melanoidins due to increased levels of
Maillard reaction precursors in EPM processed beans may compensate
for the loss of polyphenols in providing health benefits. Implementation
of EPM should consider the interplay between the raw materials and the
operation parameters of the selected process. In vitro DM is suitable for
the quality improvement of Robusta coffee beans (especially the inferior
ones). On the other hand, Arabica coffee beans are more suitable to be
processed using AF, CM, wine process, and Burundian methods. The
EPM have been mainly focused on the fermentation optimization. Post-
fermentation treatments such as drying should be done effectively avoid
the disadvantages of extensive fermentation on coffee beans.
In order to optimize the EPM of the coffee beans, the following as­
pects should be considered: 1). Improvement of post-fermentation pro­
cess to minimize bean spoilage and off-flavor formation; 2) Comparative
studies of chemical composition and sensory properties on coffee beans
processed by various methods; 3) Process modification to optimize the
use of bioactive compounds; 4) Simplification of the operations of EPM
to be easily applicable among smallholder-level farmers; 5) Utilization
of other flavor-generating enzymes and microorganisms for
fermentation.
Funding source
N.A.F. is financially supported by a New Zealand Aid under the term
of NZ ASEAN Scholarship.
N.A. Febrianto and F. Zhu Food Chemistry 412 (2023) 135489

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