Dr. S. M.

Dhavale
Assistant Professor,
Department of Science & Computer Science, MIT ACSC, Alandi(D), Maharashtra, India
 UNIT 4

Computer Networking
 UNIT 4: Computer Networking ( 10 L)

Introduction to Computer Networks

Types of Networks : LAN, MAN, WAN, Wireless networks, Switching, Internet

Network topology : point to point, Star, Ring, Bus, Mesh, Tree, Daisy Chain, Hybrid

Network devices : Repeater, Switch, Networking cables, Router, Bridge, Hub, Brouter, Gateway.

Wired LANs:-

Ethernet: Ethernet protocol, standard Ethernet, 100 MBPS Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, 10 Gigabit
Ethernet,
Computer Network Model: OSI and TCP/IP.
 Chapter 4 : Computer Networking

Objectives :

1. To understand the basic concepts of computer networking

2. To know the operating technology of networking

3. To study the OSI and TCP/IP models of networking

 What is a Computer Network?

A network consists of 2 or more computers connected together and they can communicate
and share resources (e.g. information).
 • Sharing hardware or software
E.g. print document

• Centralize administration and support

E.g. Internet-based, so everyone can access the same administrative or

support application from their PCs
Key features of computer network:
Performance : can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response time.
• Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another.
• Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.
• The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including the number of users, the type of
transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.
• Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and delay. We often need more
throughput and less delay is expected for better performance.

• Reliability : In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the
time it takes a link to recover from a failure
high reliability ensures that network devices, data and link available at all times.
• Security : Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data
from damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from
breaches and data losses.
• Physical Structures : Before discussing networks, we need to define some network attributes.
• Resource sharing: The goal is to make all programs ,data and equipment available to anyone of the
network regardless of the physical location of the resource and the user.
• Expandability: The size and the performance could be enhanced by gradually adding more hardware
devices and advance software.
 How many kinds of Networks?

• Depending on one’s perspective, we can classify networks in different ways

• Based on transmission media: Wired ( coaxial cables, fiber-optic cables) and Wireless.

• Based on network size: LAN and WAN (and MAN).

• Based on management method: Peer-to-peer and Client/Server.

• Based on topology (connectivity): Bus, Star, Ring …

 Advantages of Installing Networks

• 1.Speed

Networks provide a very fast method for the exchange and transfer of files. Without a network, the files

by dragging them on memory cards or disks, then take or send the disks from one computer to another

split. This method of transferring files (as sneaker-net "called) can be very long.

• 2. Cost

Network versions of many popular software programs are substantial savings compared to buying

individually licensed copies available.

 Advantages of Installing Networks

3. Security

The files and programs on a network as a means to prevent "copy" are so that you do not make the
illegal copying of programs. Moreover, passwords for certain directories can be created to restrict
access to authorized users

4. Centralized management software

One of the biggest advantages for the establishment of a network is that all software can be downloaded
to a computer (file server). This eliminates the need for time and energy installing updates and tracking
files on independent computers throughout the building.
 Advantages of Installing Networks

5. Sharing of resources

Sharing resources is another advantage of the educational networks. The Most schools are unable to afford
enough laser printers, fax machines, modems, scanners, CD players and for every computer. However, if these
or similar peripherals are added to a network, they can be shared by several users.

6. E-mail

The presence of a network provides the hardware for a system of e-mail to install. E-mail communication aids
personal and professional school for all staff and facilitate the dissemination of general information for school
personnel. E-mail to a LAN to enable the students to communicate with teachers and colleagues in their own
school. If the LAN is connected to the Internet, students can communicate with others around the world.
 Advantages of Installing Networks

7. A flexible approach

Networks allow students to access their files from computers in the school. Students may begin a
task in their classroom, save part of it on a publicly accessible area network, then proceed to
complete the Media Center after school work. Students can also work on the network.

8. Workgroup Computing

Collaborative Software allows multiple users to work on a paper or project at the same time. For
example may serve to help educators in different schools in a community whilst helping their ideas
for new curriculum for the same document, spreadsheet or website.
 Disadvantages of Installing Networks

• Expensive to Install. Although a network will generally save money over time, the initial
costs of installation can be prohibitive. Cables, network cards, routers, and software are
expensive, and the installation may require the services of a technician.

• Requires Administrative Time. Proper maintenance of a network requires considerable

time and expertise. Many schools have installed a network, only to find that they did not
budget for the necessary administrative support.
 Disadvantages of Installing Networks

• Expensive to Install. Although a network will generally save money over time, the initial
costs of installation can be prohibitive. Cables, network cards, routers, and software are
expensive, and the installation may require the services of a technician.

• Requires Administrative Time. Proper maintenance of a network requires considerable

time and expertise. Many schools have installed a network, only to find that they did not
budget for the necessary administrative support.
 Disadvantages of Installing Networks

• File Server May Fail. Although a file server is no more susceptible to failure than any
other computer, when the files server "goes down," the entire network may come to a halt.
When this happens, the entire school may lose access to necessary programs and files.

• Cables May Break. The Topology chapter presents information about the various
configurations of cables. Some of the configurations are designed to minimize the
inconvenience of a broken cable; with other configurations, one broken cable can stop the
entire network.

• Must Monitor Security Issues. Wireless networks are becoming increasingly common;
however, security can be an issue with wireless networks.
 Introduction to computer networks
• Two devices are in network if a process in one device is able to
exchange information with a process in another device.

• Networks are known as a medium of connections between nodes (set

of devices) or computers.

• A network is consist of group of computer systems, servers,

networking devices are linked together to share resources.

• The connections of these networks are established either by

Cable/Wired media or Wireless media.
Types of Networks

LAN (Local Area Network)

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
WAN (Wide Area Network)
 NETWORK

It is a set of devices (referred as nodes) connected by media links.

TYPES OF NETWORKS

• LAN

• MAN

• WAN

• INTERNETWORKS(INTERNET)
Local Area Network (LAN)
• A local area network (LAN) is a collection of devices connected together in one
physical location, such as a building, office, or home. A LAN can be small or
large, ranging from a home network with one user to an enterprise network with
thousands of users/devices in an office or school.
• Regardless of size, a LAN's single defining characteristic is that it connects
devices that are in a single, limited area.
• A LAN comprises cables, access points, switches, routers, and other components
that enable devices to connect to internal servers, web servers, and other LANs via
wide area networks.
• LAN offers high speed communication of data rates of 4 to 16 megabits per
second (Mbps). IEEE has projects investigating the standardization of 100 Gbit/s,
and possibly 40 Gbit/s.
• There are basically two types of Local Area Networks
namely: ARCnet and Ethernet.
• ARCnet is one of the oldest, simplest, and least expensive types of Local-
Area Network protocol, similar to Ethernet or Token Ring.
• ARCnet was the first widely available networking system for microcomputers and
became popular in the 1980s for office automation tasks.
• ARCnet was introduced by Data-point Corporation in 1977.
• A special advantage of ARCNET is that it permits various types of transmission
media – twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, and fiber optic cable – to be mixed on the
same network.
• A new specification, called ARCnet Plus, will support data rates of 20 Mbps.
• Ethernet is a family of computer networking technologies for local area networks
commercially introduced in 1980. Standardized in IEEE 802.3
• Ethernet has largely replaced competing wired local area network technologies.
Ethernet uses a bus or star topology and supports data transfer rates of 10 Mbps.
• Ethernet Network uses the CSMA/CD access method to handle simultaneous
demands.
• A newer version of Ethernet Network, called 100Base-T (or Fast Ethernet), supports
data transfer rates of 100 Mbps.
• And the newest version, Gigabit Ethernet supports data rates of 1 gigabit (1,000
megabits) per second.
There are two main categories of local area network (LAN):
• Client / server LANs: This type of local area network consists of several devices,
which are also known as clients which are connected to a central server. This server
manages all the file storage as well as functions like printer access and the network
traffic.
• Peer to peer LANs: The peer to peer local area networks do not have a central
server. Devices access the network as required, and they manage the access that is
needed. The devices share resources and data through a wired or wireless connection
to a router. Most home networks are peer to peer networks as the usage is low.
 Local Area Networks

Two broadcast networks

(a) Bus
(b) Ring
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• MAN or Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area than that of a
LAN and smaller area as compared to WAN.
• It connects two or more computers that are apart but resides in the
same or different cities.
• It covers a large geographical area and may serve as an ISP (Internet
Service Provider).
• MAN is designed for customers who need a high-speed connectivity.
• It is costly and may or may not be owned by a single organization.
• Devices used for transmission of data through MAN are: Modem and
Wire/Cable.
Example of MAN
•Cable TV network
•Telephone networks providing high-speed DSL
lines
•IEEE 802.16 or WiMAX, that provides high-
speed broadband access with Internet connectivity
to customer premises.
Metropolitan Area Networks
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
• A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a large geographical area comprising a region, a
country, a continent or even the whole world. WAN includes the technologies to transmit data, image, audio and
video information over long distances and among different LANs and MANs.
• The distinguishing features of WAN are
• WANs have a large capacity, connecting a large number of computers over a large area, and are inherently scalable.
• They facilitate the sharing of regional resources.
• They provide uplinks for connecting LANs and MANs to the Internet.
• Communication links are provided by public carriers like telephone networks, network providers, cable systems,
satellites etc.
• Typically, they have low data transfer rate and high propagation delay, i.e. they have low communication speed.
• They generally have a higher bit error rate.
• Example of WAN
• The Internet, 4G Mobile Broadband Systems, A network of bank cash dispensers.
 Wide Area Networks

Relation between hosts on LANs and the subnet.

 LINE CONFIGURATION
• Point -to-point
- It provides a dedicated link between two devices that mean the entire capacity
of the channel is reserved for transmission between two devices.
• Multipoint
- Here, more than two specific devices share a single link that mean the capacity
of channel is shared.
 Network Topology
• A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network devices are
connected to each other. Topologies may define both physical and logical aspect of the network.
• Point to Point Topology
• Point to Point topology is the simplest topology that connects two nodes directly together with a
common link.
• The entire bandwidth of the common link is reserved for transmission between those two nodes.
• The point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but
other options, such as satellite links, or microwaves are also possible.
• Point-to-point networks contains exactly two hosts such as computer, switches or routers, servers
connected back to back using a single piece of cable. Often, the receiving end of one host is
connected to sending end of the other and vice-versa.
• Advantages of Point to Point Topology:
1. Highest Bandwidth because there is only two nodes having entire bandwidth of a link
2. Very fast compared to other network topologies because it can access only two nodes.
3. Very simple connectivity
4. Easy to handle and maintain
5. Node Can be Replaced in few seconds
• Disadvantages of Point to Point Topology:
1. This topology is only used for small areas where nodes are closely located.
2. The entire network depends on the common channel in case of link broken entire network will
become dead.
3. There is another major drawback of this topology there are only two nodes if any of the node stops
working, data cannot be transfer across the network.
 TOPOLOGY
• A network configuration is called as network topology.

• A network topology is the shape of network ( or the physical

connectivity) of the network.

• The network has two major goals when establishing topology

of network.
1. Provide the maximum possible reliability to assure proper receipt of traffic.
2. Root the traffic across least cost path.
 TYPES OF TOPOLOGY

• MESH

• STAR

• TREE ( Hierarchical)

• BUS ( Horizontal)

• RING

• HYBRID
Mesh Topology
• In mesh topology each device is connected to every other device on the network through a dedicated
point-to-point link.
• When we say dedicated it means that the link only carries data for the two connected devices only.
• Lets say we have n devices in the network then each device must be connected with (n-1) devices of
the network. Number of links in a mesh topology of n devices would be n(n-1)/2.
Advantages of Mesh topology
• No data traffic issues as there is a dedicated link between two devices which means the link is only
available for those two devices.
• Mesh topology is reliable and robust as failure of one link doesn’t affect other links and the
communication between other devices on the network.
• Mesh topology is secure because there is a point to point link thus unauthorized access is not
possible.
• Fault detection is easy.
• Disadvantages of Mesh topology
• Amount of wires required to connected each system is tedious and headache.
• Since each device needs to be connected with other devices, number of I/O ports
required must be huge.
• Scalability issues because a device cannot be connected with large number of
devices with a dedicated point to point link.
Mesh Topology
 Disadvantages of Mesh topology

1. Amount of wires required to connected each system is tedious and headache.

2. Since each device needs to be connected with other devices, number of I/O ports required must be huge.

3. Scalability issues because a device cannot be connected with large number of devices with a dedicated
point to point link.
 Star Topology
• A star topology is a topology for a Local Area Network (LAN) in which
all nodes are individually connected to a central connection point, like a
hub or a switch.

• A star takes more cable/wire than other, but the benefit is that if a cable
fails, only one node will be brought down.

• Every communication between hosts, takes place through only the hub.
Star topology is not expensive as to connect one more host, only one
cable is required and configuration is simple.

• The main advantages of a star network is that one malfunctioning node

does not affect the rest of the network.
 Hub

Star Topology
In star topology each device in the network is connected to a central device called hub. Unlike Mesh topology,
star topology doesn’t allow direct communication between devices, a device must have to communicate through
hub. If one device wants to send data to other device, it has to first send the data to hub and then the hub transmit
that data to the designated device.

Advantages of Star topology

1. Less expensive because each device only need one I/O port and needs to be connected with hub with one
link.
2. Easier to install
3. Fewer amounts of cables required because each device needs to be connected with the hub only.
4. Robust, if one link fails, other links will work just fine.
5. Easy fault detection because the link can be easily identified.

Disadvantages of Star topology

1. If hub goes down everything goes down, none of the devices can work without hub.
2. Hub requires more resources and regular maintenance because it is the central system of star topology.
Bus Topology
• Alternatively referred to as line topology, bus topology is a network setup
where each computer and network device is connected to a single cable
or backbone. Depending on the type of computer network card, a coaxial
cable or an RJ-45 network cable is used to connect them together.
• The following sections contain both the advantages and disadvantages of
using a bus topology with your devices.
• Advantages of bus topology
• It works well when you have a small network.
• It's the easiest network topology for connecting computers or peripherals in
a linear fashion.
• It requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of bus topology
•It can be difficult to identify the problems if the whole network goes down.
•It can be hard to troubleshoot individual device issues.
•Bus topology is not great for large networks.
•Terminators are required for both ends of the main cable.
•Additional devices slow the network down.
•If a main cable is damaged, the network fails or splits into two.
 Drop line Drop line Drop line Drop line

Cable Cable
Tap Tap Tap Tap
end end

Bus Topology
Ring Topology
• In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other
machines, creating a circular network structure.
• When one host tries to communicate or send message to a host which
is not adjacent to it, the data travels through all intermediate hosts.
• To connect one more host in the existing structure, the administrator
may need only one more extra cable.
• Most ring topologies allow packets to travel only in one direction,
called a unidirectional ring network. Others permit data to move in
either direction, called bidirectional.
• Ring topologies may be used in either LANs (local area networks)
or WANs (wide area networks).
Advantages of a ring topology
• All data flows in one direction, reducing the chance of packet collisions.
• A network server is not needed to control network connectivity between each
workstation.
• Data can transfer between workstations at high speeds.
• Additional workstations can be added without impacting performance of the
network.
Disadvantages of a ring topology
• All data being transferred over the network must pass through each workstation on
the network, which can make it slower than a star topology.
• The entire network will be impacted if one workstation shuts down.
• The hardware needed to connect each workstation to the network is more
expensive than Ethernet cards and hubs/switches.
Ring Topology
Hybrid Topology
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For
example if in an office in one department Bus topology is used and in another star topology is
used, connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (Bus topology and star
topology).
Features of Hybrid Topology
1.It is a combination of two or topologies
2.Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
1.Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.
2.Effective.
3.Scalable as size can be increased easily.
4.Flexible.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
1.Complex in design.
2.Costly.
 Star

Hub

Bus
Ring Hub

Hybrid Topology
Tree Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called
hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.
Features of Tree Topology
1.Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
2.Used in Wide Area Network.
Advantages of Tree Topology
1.Extension of bus and star topologies.
2.Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3.Easily managed and maintained.
4.Error detection is easily done.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
1.Heavily cabled.
2.Costly.
3.If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4.Central hub fails, network fails.
 Daisy chain Topology
• The Daisy chain in the computer network topology is the interconnection of
computers, peripherals or network nodes in sequence (one by one).
• If a message is intended for a computer that is in the middle line, each system
bounces them in the chain until it reaches its destination.
• The main benefit of the daisy chain system is the simplicity of connecting
computers and nodes.
• Daisy-chaining is a common method used by system administrators to add
more or new machines to the network. But it depends on what kind of network
topology we use.
• For Instance, if we are using a point-to-point network, we must add the new
device at the end of the chain (sometimes in the middle). However, in the ring
network, there is no endpoint. so, the extra node becomes part of the topology.
• A Daisy Chain can be linear or ring.
Daisy Chain Network Advantages
•No Use of extra cables
•Data transmission is relatable fast and easier
•Cheap in terms of construction
Daisy Chain Network Disadvantages
•If a number of nodes increases in the network, it can slow down the whole network.
 Network Devices: Router
• A router is a network layer hardware device that transmits data from one LAN to another working
with same as well as different protocol. So a router is typically connected to at least two LANs and
the internet service provider (ISP). It is a layer 3 device (Network layer).
• It deals with IP addresses.
• It receives its data in the form of packets, which are data frames with their destination
address added. Router also strengthens the signals before transmitting them. That is why it is also
called repeater.
Routing Table
• A router reads its routing table to decide the best available route the packet can take to reach its
destination quickly and accurately. The routing table may be of these two types −
• Static − In a static routing table the routes are fed manually. So it is suitable only for very small
networks that have maximum two to three routers.
• Dynamic − In a dynamic routing table, the router communicates with other routers through
protocols to determine which routes are free. This is suited for larger networks where manual
feeding may not be feasible due to large number of routers.
Repeater
• A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal over the
same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend the
length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same network.
• An important point to be noted about repeaters is that they do not amplify the
signal. When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and
regenerate it at the original strength. It is a 2 port device.
 Hub
• Hub is a centralized device that connects multiple devices in a single LAN network. It
is Layer 1 device
• When Hub receives the data signals from a connected device on any of its port, except
that port, it forwards those signals to all other connected devices from the remaining
ports.
• Usually, Hub has one or more uplink ports that are used to connect it with another Hub.
• There are two types of the Hub.
• Passive Hub: - It forwards data signals in the same format in which it receives them. It
does not change the data signal in any manner.
• Active Hub: - It also works same as the passive Hub works. But before forwarding the
data signals, it amplifies them. Due to this added feature, the active Hub is also known
as the repeater.
 Switch
• Switches are key building blocks for any network. They connect multiple devices, such
as computers, wireless access points, printers, and servers; on the same network within
a building or campus. A switch enables connected devices to share information and talk
to each other. It is Layer 2 device.
Unmanaged switches
• An unmanaged network switch is designed so that you can simply plug them in and they
work, no configuration required. Unmanaged switches are typically for basic
connectivity.
Managed switches
• Managed switches give you greater security and more features and flexibility because
you can configure them to custom-fit your network. With this greater control, you can
better protect your network and improve the quality of service for those who access the
network.
 Bridge
• A Bridge is a network device that connects multiple LANs (local area networks) with same
protocol, together to form a larger LAN. The process of aggregating networks is called network
bridging.
• It is basically a repeater having additional functionality of reading the MAC address.
• By joining multiple LANs, bridges help in multiplying the network capacity of a single LAN.
• A bridge connects the different components so that they appear as parts of a single network.
• Bridges operate at the data link layer of the OSI model and hence also referred as Layer 2
switches.
• Bridges also connect virtual LANs (VLANs) to make a larger VLAN.
• A wireless bridge is used to connect wireless networks or networks having a wireless segment.
• In a computer network, a bridge separates a LAN into different segments like segment1 &
segment2, etc and the MAC address of all the PCs can be stored into the table. For instance,
PC1 transmits the data to PC8, where the data will transmit to the bridge first. So the bridge
reads the MAC address & decides whether to transmit the data to segment1 or segment2.
Brouter
• A brouter is a device that functions as both a bridge and a router. It can
forward data between networks (serving as a bridge), but can also route data
to individual systems within a network (serving as a router).
• The main purpose of a bridge is to connect two separate networks. It simply
forwards the incoming packets from one network to the next.
• A router, on the other hand, is more advanced since it can route packets to
specific systems connected to the router.
• A brouter combines these two functions by routing some incoming data to
the correct systems, while forwarding other data to another network.
• In other words, a brouter functions as a filter that lets some data into the
local network, while redirecting unrecognized data to another network.
 Network Cables
• To connect two or more computers or networking devices in a network, network cables
are used. There are three types of network cables; coaxial, twisted-pair, and fiber-optic.
Coaxial cable
• This cable contains a conductor, insulator, braiding, and sheath. The sheath covers the
braiding, braiding covers the insulation, and the insulation covers the conductor.
• The following image shows these components.
Twisted-pair cables
• The twisted-pair cable was primarily developed for computer networks. This cable is
also known as Ethernet cable. Almost all modern LAN computer networks use this
cable.
• This cable consists of color-coded pairs of insulated copper wires. Every two wires
are twisted around each other to form pair. Usually, there are four pairs. Each pair
has one solid color and one stripped color wire. Solid colors are blue, brown, green
and orange. In stripped color, the solid color is mixed with the white color.
• Based on how pairs are stripped in the plastic sheath, there are two types of twisted-
pair cable; UTP and STP.
• In the UTP (Unshielded twisted-pair) cable, all pairs are wrapped in a single plastic
sheath.
• In the STP (Shielded twisted-pair) cable, each pair is wrapped with an additional
metal shield, then all pairs are wrapped in a single outer plastic sheath.
Fiber optic cable
• This cable consists of core, cladding, buffer, and jacket. The core is made from the
thin strands of glass or plastic that can carry data over the long distance. The core is
wrapped in the cladding; the cladding is wrapped in the buffer, and the buffer is
wrapped in the jacket.
• Core carries the data signals in the form of the light.
• Cladding reflects light back to the core.
• Buffer protects the light from leaking.
• The jacket protects the cable from physical damage.
• Fiber optic cable is completely immune to EMI and RFI. This cable can transmit data
over a long distance at the highest speed. It can transmit data up to 40 kilometers at
the speed of 100Gbps.
• Fiber optic uses light to send data. It reflects light from one endpoint to another.
Based on how many beams of light are transmitted at a given time, there are two
types of fiber optical cable; SMF and MMF.
 Gateway
• A gateway is a network node connecting two networks, that use different
protocols.
• A node on a network that serves as an entrance to another network.
• Gateway are also known as Protocol Converters and can operate any
network level. The activates of gateway are more complex than routers or
switch as it works on different protocols.
• Router is also gateway, Since it interprets data from one network protocols
to another, but gateway is combination of networking hardware and
software that connects two similar kinds of networks.
• Popular type of gateways includes: 1) E-Mail Gateway 2) IBM Host
Gateway 3) Internet Gateway 4) LAN Gateway 5) Payment gateway.
• A Gateway can connect the telephone network to the Internet.
• A Gateway is always associated with Routers, as it directs the packets to its
destination. On other hand, you can use it as Proxy Server and Firewall.
• Gateway belongs to transport layer and application layer of OSI Model.
• Gateways are the simple junctions between two network architectures. They
repackage and convert data going from one environment to another so that one
environment can understand the other environments data
• Transport Gateway: Transport gateways connect two computers that use different
connection oriented transport protocol. It can copy the packets to one connection
to other, reformatting them as need be.
• Application Gateway: Application gateways understand the format and contents of
the data and translate messages from one form to another e.g. an e-mail gateway
could translate internet messages to an SMS messages on mobile phone.
• So it identifies the actual meaning of data.
Benefits of Gateway
• Used to expand the network.
• Gateway is a server so it provides some security.
• We can connect two different types of networks.
• Protocol conversion is done.
• Effectively handles the traffic problems.
• And also establishes connections between internal network and external network.
Drawbacks of Gateway
• Not an intelligent device. So noise prevention is not done.
• Never filter out the data.
• Some what costly.
• Protocol conversion is done so transmission rate is slower.
• Some what hard to handle.
 Wired LANs
• Local Area Network (LAN) is a data communication network connecting various terminals
or computers within a building or limited geographical area.
• Although a LAN can be used as an isolated network to connect computers in an organization
for the sole purpose of sharing resources, most LANs today are also linked to a wide area
network (WAN) or the Internet.
• Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI (Fibre Distributed Data Interface), ATM (Asynchronous
Transfer Mode) LAN and Wireless LAN using IEEE 802.11 are examples of standard LAN
technologies.
• Some of these technologies survived for a while, but Ethernet is by far the dominant
technology.
• Ethernet is popular because it strikes a good balance between speed, cost and ease of
installation.
• The Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers developed an Ethernet standard known
as IEEE Standard 802.3.
• This standard defines rules for configuring an Ethernet network and also
specifies how the elements in an Ethernet network interact with one another.
• By following to the IEEE standards, network equipment and network protocols
can communicate efficiently.
• Ethernet is a set of technologies and protocols that are used primarily in LANs.
However, Ethernet can also be used in MANs and even WANs.
• It was first standardized in the 1980s as IEEE 802.3 standard. Since then, it has
gone through four generations, as shown in the chart.
• Standard Ethernet is also referred to as Basic Ethernet. It uses 10Base5 coaxial
cables for communications. Ethernet provides service up to the data link layer.
• At the data link layer, Ethernet divides the data stream received from the upper
layers and encapsulates it into frames, before passing them on to the physical
layer.
The main parts of an Ethernet frame are
• Preamble − It is the starting field that provides alert and timing pulse
for transmission.
• SFD − Start Frame Delimiter
• Destination Address − It is a 6-byte field containing the physical
address of destination stations.
• Source Address − It is a 6-byte field containing the physical address
of the sending station.
• Length − It stores the number of bytes in the data field.
• Data and Padding − This carries the data from the upper layers.
• CRC − It contains error detection information.
 100 MBPS ethernet/Fast Ethernet
• Fast Ethernet was able to deliver data at a rate of 100 Mbps which was a
significant improvement over the original 10 Mbps Ethernet systems.
• It was released under IEEE 802.3u in 1995.
• Although technology has moved on significantly to standards like 1000Mbps
or 1 Gb Ethernet and even 10 Gb Ethernet.
• But still the old Fast 100 Mbps Ethernet its seen, especially 100BASE-T which
was for Ethernet over copper and used with Cat5 cables.
• 100 Mbps Ethernet / Fast Ethernet can still be seen on legacy equipment like
old computers, Ethernet switches and Ethernet routers, printers etc.
• As 100 Mbps Ethernet was backwards compatible with 10 Mbps ports,
computers, printers, Ethernet routers and Ethernet switches, etc. were marked
with 10/100 Mbps to indicate that both standards could be used.
Fast Ethernet (802.3u) Data Frame Format
 Fast Ethernet (802.3u) Data Frame Format
• PRE This is seven bytes long and it consists of a series of alternating ones and zeros. This
warns the receivers that a data frame is coming and it allows them to synchronize to it.
• SOF This is the Start of Frame delimiter. This is only one byte long and indicates that the
next bit in the frame will be the destination address.
• DA This is the Destination Address and it is six bytes in length. This identifies the receiver
that should receive the data. The left-most bit in the left-most byte of the destination address
immediately follows the SOF.
• SA This is the Source Address and again it is six bytes in length. As the name implies it
identifies the source address.
• Length / Type This two byte field indicates the payload data length. It may also provide the
frame ID if the frame is assembled using an alternative format.
• Data This section has a variable length according to the amount of data in the payload. It
may be anywhere between 46 and 1500 bytes.
• FCS This is the Frame Check Sequence which is four bytes long. This contains a 32 bit
cyclic redundancy check (CRC) that is used for error checking.
 Gigabit Ethernet
• Gigabit Ethernet, 1GE, is the next development of the Ethernet standard
beyond the popular 100 Mbps Ethernet that was often used in the form of
100BASE-T version.
• As the name suggests, Gigabit Ethernet, 1GE, allows the transfer of data at
speeds of 1000 Mbps or 1Gbps.
• It is particularly easy to install because the 1000BASE-T variant is designed to
run over Cat 5 UTP (unshielded twisted pair) that is widely and cheaply
available.
• Copper wire version of 1Gb Ethernet is the most commonly known, fiber
versions are also available and widely used.
• Gigabit Ethernet is now the main standard for new equipment like computers
as well as small business and home Internet routers and Ethernet switches
offering speed improvements over previous versions.
The Gigabit Ethernet standard had three different types as the need for it increased:
• IEEE 802.3z: This was the initial standard for Gigabit Ethernet and it was released
by the IEEE in June 1998. It is often called 1000BASE-X - the -X stands for a
number of versions including: CX, -SX, -LX, or even -ZX, this last one being non-
standard.
• IEEE 802.3ab: This next gigabit standard was released in 1999 and defined Gigabit
Ethernet transmission over unshielded twisted pair (UTP) category 5, 5e or 6
cabling. It became known as 1000BASE-T.
• It opened up the use of 1Gb Ethernet for common usage with desktop computers,
printers, routers and Ethernet switches. It lead to 1Gb Ethernet becoming the
standard for copper based Ethernet connectivity.
• IEEE 802.3ah: This later standard was released in 2004 and it added two more fibre
based versions of Gigabit Ethernet: 1000BASE-BX10, and also 1000BASE-LX10
which was already widely implemented as vendor specific extension.
The specification for Gigabit Ethernet can be summarized as the points below:
• Provide half and full duplex operation at speeds of 1000 Mbps: Traditionally Ethernet has
had the capability to run both full and half duplex operation..
• Uses the 802.3 Ethernet frame formats: The standard frame formats for Ethernet are well
established and provide a straightforward yet effective way of formatting the data to be sent.
• Keeping the same Ethernet frame format, makes backwards compatibility much easier as
well as many integrations with other systems that are based on Standard Ethernet frame
structure.
• Uses the CSMA/CD access method, The CSMA/CD anti-collision scheme was well
established and has worked well.
• Provide backward compatibility with 10BASE-T and 100BASE-T technologies: The 10 and
100 Mbps Ethernet systems were in widespread use when 1 Gb Ethernet was introduced.
Maintaining backwards compatibility was key to the adoption of 1GE.
10 Gigabit Ethernet, 10GE IEEE 802.3ae
• 10 Gigabit Ethernet is an Ethernet standard that can carry data at a rate of
10 gigabits per second.
• 10 Gigabit Ethernet can be a little long to write and so it is often
shortened to 10GbE, 10GE or 10G Ethernet - any of these abbreviations
refers to the same standard.
• With more services like cloud services being used and computers are
using more data intensive applications, 10 GE may be a necessity now.
• 10 gigabit Ethernet only supports full duplex mode. The CSMA/CD anti-
collision technique used to gain access to the physical medium.
• The main specification for 10 gigabit Ethernet is IEEE 802.11ae which
applies to a variety of different fiber types, different descriptors being
used according to the fiber type, mode, etc.
• When 10 gigabit Ethernet was first launched, it was only available as a fiber based
standard. Although a another version of 10GE is available for twin-axial cables, fiber
is still the main focus.
• The basic concept for an optical fiber is that laser generated light is passed along the
fiber and detected at the remote end. As the light beam is modulated, this modulation
is used to carry the data.
• When using fiber, there are two forms of cable that are used:
• Multimode fiber, MMF: Multimode fiber cable typically has a diameter of 50 or
62.5µm. The multiple paths give rise to differential mode delay and as a result the
distances that can be covered are often limited to a maximum of around 300m.
• Single mode fiber, SMF: To achieve the single path, this form of optical fiber is much
narrower, typically 8.3µm and this requires more precise components like laser,
detectors, terminations and connections. SMF is more costly, but achieve longer
distances. SMF is used for 10 gigabit Ethernet links of distances sometimes up to 40
km.
 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model
• The OSI model is a conceptual model created by the International
Organization for Standardization which enables diverse communication
systems to communicate using standard protocols.
• OSI provides a standard for different computer systems to be able to
communicate with each other.
• The OSI model can be seen as a universal language for computer
networking. It’s based on the concept of splitting up a communication
system into seven abstract layers, each one stacked upon the last.
• Each layer of the OSI model handles a specific job and communicates with
the layers above and below itself.
• Although the modern Internet doesn’t strictly follow the OSI model, the
OSI model is still very useful for troubleshooting network problems.
 Application Layer
• The Application layer provides network services directly to the user's
application such as a web browser, email software and Windows
Explorer. This layer is said to be "closest to the user".
• Protocols that operate on this layer include: TELNET, HTTP, FTP,
TFTP, SMTP, NTP, SNMP, EDI.

Presentation Layer
• This layer 'represents' the data in a particular format to the Application
layer. It defines encryption, compression, conversion and other coding
functions.
• Specifications defined at this layer include: GIF, TIFF, JPEG, MPEG,
MIME, and ASCII.
• TELNET : stands for “Teletype network“provided access to a command-line interface on a remote host

• HTTP : Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an application layer protocol for distributed, collaborative, hypermedia
information systems.

• FTP : File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used for the transfer of computer files between a
client and server on a computer network.

• TFTP : Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) is a protocol layered on the User Datagram transport Protocol (UDP)
used over the Internet Protocol (IPv4 or IPv6).

• SMTP : Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. SMTP is a set of communication guidelines that allow software to transmit an
electronic mail over the internet.

• NTP : Network Time Protocol (NTP) is a networking protocol for clock synchronization between computer systems
over packet-switched, variable-latency data networks.

• SMFP : Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is an Internet Standard protocol for collecting and organizing
information about managed devices on IP networks and for modifying that information to change device behavior.

• EDI : Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) is the electronic interchange of business information using a standardized
format; a process which allows one company to send information to another company electronically rather than with
paper.
 Session Layer
• The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.
• This layer requests for a logical connection to be established on an end-
user’s request.
• Any necessary log-on or password validation is also handled by this
layer.
• Session layer is also responsible for terminating the connection.
• This layer provides services like dialogue discipline which can be full
duplex or half duplex.
• Session layer can also provide check-pointing mechanism such that if a
failure of some sort occurs between checkpoints, all data can be
retransmitted from the last checkpoint.
Transport Layer
• Purpose of this layer is to provide a reliable mechanism for the
exchange of data between two processes in different computers.
• Ensures that the data units are delivered error free.
• Ensures that data units are delivered in sequence.
• Ensures that there is no loss or duplication of data units.
• Provides connectionless or connection oriented service.
• Provides for the connection management.
• Multiplex multiple connection over a single channel.
 Network Layer
• Implements routing of frames (packets) through the network.

• Defines the most optimum path the packet should take from the source to the
destination

• Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint can be identified.

• Handles congestion in the network.

• Facilitates interconnection between heterogeneous networks (Internetworking).

• The network layer also defines how to fragment a packet into smaller packets to
accommodate different media.
 Data Link Layer
• Data link layer attempts to provide reliable communication over the
physical layer interface.
• Breaks the outgoing data into frames and reassemble the received frames.
• Create and detect frame boundaries.
• Handle errors by implementing an acknowledgement and retransmission
scheme.
• Implement flow control.
• Supports points-to-point as well as broadcast communication.
• Supports simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex communication.
Physical Layer
• Provides physical interface for transmission of information.

• Defines rules by which bits are passed from one system to another on
a physical communication medium.

• Covers all - mechanical, electrical, functional and procedural - aspects

for physical communication like voltage levels, timing of voltage
changes, physical data rates, maximum transmission distances,
physical connectors, and other similar attributes are defined by
physical layer specifications.
What is a Protocol?
• Allows entities (i.e. application programs) from different systems to
communicate
• Shared conventions for communicating information are called
protocols
• Includes syntax, semantics, and timing
• Breaks complex tasks into subtasks
• Each module handles specific subset of tasks
• Communication occurs
• between different modules on the same system
• between similar modules on different systems
 TCP/IP Model
• The OSI Model we just looked at is
just a reference/logical model.
• It was designed to describe the
functions of the communication
system by dividing the communication
procedure into smaller and simpler
components.
• It was designed and developed by
Department of Defense (DoD) in
1960s and is based on standard
protocols.
• It stands for Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol.
The TCP/IP model is a concise
version of the OSI model.
Application Layer
• Logic needed to support various applications
• Each type of application (file transfer, remote access) requires
different software on this layer

Transport Layer
• Concerned with reliable transfer of information between applications
• Independent of the nature of the application
• Includes aspects like flow control and error checking
 Internet Layer
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are
responsible for logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main protocols residing at
this layer are :

1. IP – stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the source host to
the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2 versions:
IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most of the websites are using currently. But IPv6 is growing
as the number of IPv4 addresses are limited in number when compared to the number of users.

2. ICMP – stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP datagrams and
is responsible for providing hosts with information about network problems.

3. ARP – stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address of a host
from a known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP and
Inverse ARP.
Network Access Layer
• This layer corresponds to the combination of Data Link Layer and
Physical Layer of the OSI model. It looks out for hardware addressing
and the protocols present in this layer allows for the physical
transmission of data.

• Concerned with exchange of data between computer and network

• Includes addressing, routing, prioritizing, etc.

• Different networks require different software at this layer

THANK YOU