1.

DDL (Data Definition Language) Commands

 ALTER <object>
 COMMENT.
 CREATE <object>
 DESCRIBE <object>
 DROP <object>
 SHOW <objects>
 USE <object>

Data Definition Language(DDL) is a subset of SQL and a part of

DBMS(Database Management System). DDL consist of Commands to
commands like CREATE, ALTER, TRUNCATE and DROP. These commands
are used to create or modify the tables in SQL.

2.Write a note on user interface

A database management system (DBMS) interface is a user interface that allows
for the ability to input queries to a database without using the query language
itself. User-friendly interfaces provided by DBMS may include the following:
Menu-Based Interfaces.

3.Define report
A database report is a formatted presentation of data from a database that
provides structured information for decision-making. Database reports are
specifically meant to convey information in a way that is easy to understand by
human beings.

4. What is mean by database engine

A database engine (or storage engine) is the underlying software component that
a database management system (DBMS) uses to create, read, update and
delete (CRUD) data from a database.Many different technologies rely on internal
"engines," which are the fundamental building blocks on which they operate.

5.what are class diagram

The class diagram shows the building blocks of any object-orientated system.
Class diagrams depict a static view of the model, or part of the model, describing
what attributes and behavior it has rather than detailing the methods for
achieving operations.

6.describe about data storage method

RDBMSes store data in the form of tables, with most commercial relational
database management systems using Structured Query Language (SQL) to
access the database. However, since SQL was invented after the initial
development of the relational model, it is not necessary for RDBMS use.
7. ER MODELS?
Entity
An Entity may be an object with a physical existence – a particular person, car,
house, or employee – or it may be an object with a conceptual existence – a
company, a job, or a university course.
Entity Set: An Entity is an object of Entity Type and a set of all entities is called an
entity set. For Example, E1 is an entity having Entity Type Student and the set of all
students is called Entity Set. In ER diagram, Entity Type is represented as:

1. Strong Entity
A Strong Entity is a type of entity that has a key Attribute. Strong Entity does not
depend on other Entity in the Schema. It has a primary key, that helps in identifying
it uniquely, and it is represented by a rectangle. These are called Strong Entity
Types.
2. Weak Entity
An Entity type has a key attribute that uniquely identifies each entity in the entity
set. But some entity type exists for which key attributes can’t be defined. These are
called Weak Entity types.
For Example, A company may store the information of dependents (Parents,
Children, Spouse) of an Employee. But the dependents don’t have existed without
the employee. So Dependent will be a Weak Entity Type and Employee will be
Identifying Entity type for Dependent, which means it is Strong Entity Type.
A weak entity type is represented by a Double Rectangle. The participation of weak
entity types is always total. The relationship between the weak entity type and its
identifying strong entity type is called identifying relationship and it is represented
by a double diamond.

Strong Entity and Weak Entity

Attributes
Attributes are the properties that define the entity type. For example, Roll_No, Name,
DOB, Age, Address, and Mobile_No are the attributes that define entity type Student.
In ER diagram, the attribute is represented by an oval.
1. Key Attribute
The attribute which uniquely identifies each entity in the entity set is called the
key attribute. For example, Roll_No will be unique for each student. In ER diagram,
the key attribute is represented by an oval with underlying lines.
2. Composite Attribute

An attribute composed of many other attributes is called a composite attribute.

For example, the Address attribute of the student Entity type consists of Street, City,
State, and Country. In ER diagram, the composite attribute is represented by an oval
comprising of ovals.

3. Multivalued Attribute
An attribute consisting of more than one value for a given entity. For example,
Phone_No (can be more than one for a given student). In ER diagram, a multivalued
attribute is represented by a double oval.

4. Derived Attribute
An attribute that can be derived from other attributes of the entity type is known as
a derived attribute. e.g.; Age (can be derived from DOB). In ER diagram, the derived
attribute is represented by a dashed oval.

8.What are the aggregate functions of SQL? Explain

In aggregation, the relation between two entities is treated as a single entity. In

aggregation, relationship with its corresponding entities is aggregated into a
higher level entity.

For example: Center entity offers the Course entity act as a single entity in the
relationship which is in a relationship with another entity visitor. In the real world,
if a visitor visits a coaching center then he will never enquiry about the Course
only or just about the Center instead he will ask the enquiry about both.
9.Types of DBMS keys?

10. Advantages of Database Management System (DBMS):

Some of them are given as follows below.

1. Better Data Transferring: Database management creates a place where

users have an advantage of more and better-managed data. Thus making
it possible for end-users to have a quick look and to respond fast to any
changes made in their environment.

2. Better Data Security: The more accessible and usable the database, the
more it is prone to security issues. As the number of users increases, the
data transferring or data sharing rate also increases thus increasing the
risk of data security. It is widely used in the corporate world where
companies invest money, time, and effort in large amounts to ensure data
is secure and is used properly. A Database Management System (DBMS)
provides a better platform for data privacy and security policies thus,
helping companies to improve Data Security.

3. Better data integration: Due to the Database Management System we

have an access to well managed and synchronized form of data thus it
makes data handling very easy and gives an integrated view of how a
particular organization is working and also helps to keep a track of how
one segment of the company affects another segment

11.explain aggregate function SQL example?

Aggregate functions in SQL
In database management an aggregate function is a function where the values of
multiple rows are grouped together as input on certain criteria to form a single
value of more significant meaning.
various Aggregate Functions
1) Count()
2) Sum()
3) Avg()
4) Min()
5) Max()
12.Draw the ER MODEL diagram?
Reduction of ER diagram to Table
The database can be represented using the notations, and these notations can be
reduced to a collection of tables.
In the database, every entity set or relationship set can be represented in tabular form.

Entity relationship diagram is the graphical representation of entities

and relationships among those entities in the database.

13.Different types of database keys?

Primary Key
There can be more than one candidate key in relation out of which one can be
chosen as the primary key. For Example, STUD_NO, as well as STUD_PHONE,
are candidate keys for relation STUDENT but STUD_NO can be chosen as
the primary key (only one out of many candidate keys).

 It is a unique key.

 It can identify only one tuple (a record) at a time.

 It has no duplicate values, it has unique values.

 It cannot be NULL.

Super Key
The set of attributes that can uniquely identify a tuple is known as Super Key.
For Example, STUD_NO, (STUD_NO, STUD_NAME), etc. A super key is a
group of single or multiple keys that identifies rows in a table. It supports NULL
values. (1)Adding zero or more attributes to the candidate key generates the
super key.(2)A candidate key is a super key but vice versa is not true.(3)Super
Key values may also be NULL.
Foreign Key:
If an attribute can only take the values which are present as values of some
other attribute, it will be a foreign key to the attribute to which it refers. The
relation which is being referenced is called referenced relation and the
corresponding attribute is called referenced attribute the relation which refers to
the referenced relation is called referencing relation and the corresponding
attribute is called referencing attribute.

 It is a key it acts as a primary key in one table and it acts as

secondary key in another table.

 It combines two or more relations (tables) at a time.

14.rules of CODD in RDBMS?

Codd presents his 13 rules for a database to test the concept of DBMS against his
relational model, and if a database follows the rule, it is called a true relational
database (RDBMS). These 13 rules are popular in RDBMS, known as Codd's 12
rules.

15.Data manipulation?
Data manipulation is the process of organizing or arranging data in order to
make it easier to interpret. Data manipulation typically requires the use of a type
of database language called data manipulation language (DML).Meanwhile, the
three different types include manual, semi automated and fully automated.

15.Discuss the advantages of DBMS

The advantages of a DBMS (Database Management System) are numerous and
impactful. It centralizes data storage, enhances data security and privacy,
enforces data integrity, ensures efficient data access and retrieval, supports
concurrent user access, and offers scalability and flexibility for evolving business
needs.It ensures data integrity, security, and consistency, reduces data
redundancy, and improves data access, sharing, and integration

16.discuss about object oriented database

*Put simply, object-oriented databases (OODB) are databases that represent
data in the form of objects and classes.
*In object-oriented terminology, an object is a real-world entity, and a class is a
collection of objects.
*Object-oriented databases follow the fundamental principles of object-oriented
programming (OOP)
*the 4 main objects of a database are tables, queries, forms, and reports are
database objects.

17.discuss about the first second and third normal form with example
A relation is in 1NF if it contains an atomic value. A relation will be in 2NF if it is
in 1NF and all non-key attributes are fully functional dependent on the primary
key. A relation will be in 3NF if it is in 2NF and no transition dependency exists. A
stronger definition of 3NF is known as Boyce Codd's normal form.

18.What is normalization in Rdbms with example?

Normalization is the process to eliminate data redundancy and enhance data
integrity in the table. Normalization also helps to organize the data in the
database. It is a multi-step process that sets the data into tabular form and
removes the duplicated data from the relational tables.