64-04-04
Liquid Nitrogen Developments and
Applications in Drilling and
Completion Operations
By S. P. SHOULDICE*
U5th Annual Technical Meeting, P.&N.G. Division, C./.M., Calgary, May, 1964).
ABSTRACT
Nitrogen is not a cure-all, but the results of field and
laboratory work that have evolved during recent years
support its use as a valuable aid in drilling and com-
pletion operations. The advanced liquid nitrogen techni-
ques pioneered in the Gulf Coast of the United States in
1959 have experienced significant growth in the past
four years. Such techniques are not confined to just one
or a few applications but have become intertwined with
every aspect of well development and have made obsolete
many oilfield practices previously employed throughout
North America. Liquid nitrogen, pumped at pressures of
up to 10,000 psi, is forced through a gasifying heater and
the colourless, odourless inert gas is injected into the
well to perform a variety of valuable, safe and time-saving
functions. These techniques have been field-proven in
thousands of jobs and are supported by research results.
Industry has developed nitrogen procedures to:
(a) Provide uncontaminated drill stem test samples,
reduce misruns and set packers.
(b) Bring in wells without swabbing and its inherent
hazards - day or night.
(c) Enhance the benefits of stimulation treatments and
force spent acid and frac fluids out of the formation
quickly and more efficiently, thus reducing well bore
damage and increasing productivity.
(d) Boost hydraulic perforating stream penetration up to
300 per cent, and simplify "dry" gun perforating.
(e) Quickly drop mud weights to combat lost circulation
while drilling and cementing.
(f) Combat paraffin and corrosion and increase inhibitor
treatment effectiveness.
(g) Prevent downhole explosions when air drilling, and
reduce formation contamination by using nitrogen as
a drilling fluid.
INTRODUCTION
ODAY, thanks to the missile age, the oil industry
T is served by liquid nitrogen units that are equip·
ped with positive displacement "cryogenic" pumps. The
cryogenic (super-cold) pumps were developed to
handle fluids as cold as -350°F, which are common
in the missile industry. With the introduction of the
first liquid nitrogen unit in December, 1959, in Texas,
and the use of the cryogenic pump, the versatility
of nitrogen for oilfield uses has greatly increased.
For many years, operators in the oil industry have
known and practised the use of gas as a tool to ex-
pedite and improve stimulation treatments. In thp
early days, high-pressure gas from a nearby well was
commonly used to displace the fluid out of an offset
''/cPresident, Nowsco of Canada Ltd., Calgary, Alta.
158
Downloaded from http://onepetro.org/jcpt/article-pdf/3/04/158/2166038/petsoc-64-04-04.pdf by guest on 11 December 2023
well to "bring" it in. A nitrogen cushion was first
employed on a drillstem test in California in 1955 and
proved successful. Nitrogen was initially made avail-
able to the oil industry in California through the
use of tube trailers which carried 42,000 scf of gas
at a maximum pressure of 2,400 psi. These early tube
trailers consisted of thirty "bottles" of nitrogen gas
mounted on a trailer. Today, it is possible for the one
nitrogen unit to deliver 2,000 gals of super-cold
(-320°F) liquid nitrogen to the well site and pump
this entire volume (equal to 186,000 scf of gas) at
pressures of up to 10,000 psi.
During recent years, nitrogen has proved to be
beneficial, for a multitude of reasons, in many phases
of drilling and development work. Cushions for drill-
stem tests and the displacement of fluids from the
hole were the early applications and are still popular
, applications of nitrogen today. However, this colour-
less, odourless inert gas has also proven itself as a
useful aid in many other everyday operations at the
well site; some of these being acidizing, fracturing,
hydraulic and gun perforating, cementing, setting
packers, drilling, and corrosion and paraffin control.
Many of the benefits of nitrogen in oilfield work are
obvious and tangible; other benefits are intangible and
yet possbily most important. Thousands of success-
ful nitrogen jobs throughout Canada, the U.S.A. and
Mexico have promoted great interest in this techni-
que, and, in recent years, it has been supported by
laboratory and research data.
EQUIPMENT
Figure 1 is a schematic line diagram showing the
basic operation of a liquid nitrogen unit. The storage
for these units consists of a liquid vessel designed
similar to a thermos bottle. These 2,000-gallon vessels
have an inner shell of stainless steel and an outer
shell of conventional mild steel with the annular space
evacuated down to the low micron range and packed
with an insulating material to minimize heat trans-
fer through the vessel. The stainless steel inner shell
is necessary to withstand the very low temperature
of the liquid, as conventional steel would become too
brittle and be subject to fatigue. The boiling point of
liquid nitrogen at atmospheric pressure is -320°F.
The rate of "boil off" or evaporation of the liquid is
a function of the amount of heat transferred to the
liquid at this temperature, thus the need for evacuated
Journal of Canadian Petroleum
and insulated tanks. Generally, the tank pressure is
maintained near atmospheric pressure by venting the
vapour space above the liquid level through a series
of low-pressure pop valves.
Cryogenic pumps developed by the missile industry
are used to pressure the liquid up to 10,000 psi. These
positive-displacement pumps are unique in that the
liquid or "cold" end of the pump is fabricated from
stainless steel (again necessary to withstand the
super-cold liquid nitrogen). These pumps have proved
to be very satisfactory under oilfield conditions and
have actually operated at pressures as high as 10,000
psi while pumping at maximum capacity. Pump rates
as high as 200,000 scf per hour are available from
some nitrogen units; however, a rate of 120,000 scf
per hour is most common. These pumps are driven by
either the truck motor or an independent diesel motor
mounted on the unit. The pressured liquid is routed
through a heat exchanger for conversion to the vapour
state. This conversion is accomplished by several
equipment arrangements, all of which are basically
similar to the residential hot water heater. The end
product of the nitrogen truck is a warm (+70° to
+250°F) high-pressure inert gas routed to the well
head by a high-pressure steel line. The nitrogen is
transported as a liquid, as large volumes can be hand-
led easier and less energy is required to increase
pressure on a liquid than on a gas.
The most prolific source of nitrogen is air, which
contains 78 per cent nitrogen. The manufacturing
process consists of compressing air and then flashing
it into a low-pressure chamber. As the air suddenly
expands, it cools to near its liquification temperature.
Vquid nitrogen from a later step in the process is
used to lower this temperature further. Because
liquid nitrogen at -320° is colder than the -312°
liquifying temperature of air, the air then liquifies.
The elements of air-nitrogen, oxygen, -argon and
some rare gases-having different vapour pressures.
are then distilled and separated from the mix as gases.
The gaseous products of the distillation can be liqui-
fied again by expansion into a low-pressure chamber
and heat exchanger to lower the temperature.
Liquid nitrogen itself is a free-flowing liquid which
is lighter than water (6.738 lbs/gal) and has a vol-
ume 1/500 that of gaseous nitrogen. When converted
to a gas, (93 scf per gallon) it is colourless and odour-
less. Being an inert gas, nitrogen is non-flammable
Tank Pressure Build-u:t Ceil
'-----ll.IIIII-------------J
Gl1ItoUS Nz To We~II:---F;;;;;;~I---.J
SO- F 0-10,000 PSI []
Figure t.-Schematic drawing showing nitrogen flow
through the unit. Liquid nitrogen is stored under at-
mospheric pressure- at a temperature of -320°F.
Technology, Winter, 1964-65, Montreal
SOLUBILITY OF NI IN CRUCE OiL AND WATER ~
2.. -r----------..:.-.....,--,;,.,,;.--.c..~-., IN
200
I
// SOLUBILITY IN 300 API
160 I CRUDE OIL
,..."", (ToIJ",
I
'20 _ 1:_IUI1MII:NTAl.
• • • • lI:llnvo.~L.AT.D
10
"li:.~;;::::;;;::::=~~SOl.~U~~!~7~:.:'N:W:An:=R==J
-!if
6000 1000 10000 12000 14000
Figure 2.-Graph indicates that nitrogen is relatively
insoluble in both crude oil and water.
Downloaded from http://onepetro.org/jcpt/article-pdf/3/04/158/2166038/petsoc-64-04-04.pdf by guest on 11 December 2023
and non-explosive and has been used successfully to
fight fires. It does not have any corrosive tendencies
nor does it aggravate or encourage hydrate or emul-
sion problems. From Figure 2 it can be seen that
nitrogen is relatively insoluble in water and oil, which
is one of its principal advantages in promoting flow-
back of injected nitrified fluids.
Although nitrogen enters the well head in a gaseous
form for all oilfield applications, it is possible to
maintain close control of the volumes pumped. A
gauge mounted on the storage tank of the liquid nitro-
gen unit provides a constant reference as to the vol-
ume of liquid pumped. Also, knowing the well-head
pressure and the r.p.m.'s of the positive displacement
liquid pump, the operator can readily control his
pumping rate.
ApPLICATIONS
Many and varied uses of nitrogen have been devel-
oped through laboratory or research investigations,
and others became obvious as the uses of nitrogen
grew. In general, the applications of nitrogen stem
from one or any combination of the following pro-
perties of nitrogen gas:
(A) Inert nitrogen is well accepted by the oil industry
because it is non-flammable, does not promote
or encourage emulsions or corrosion problems,
and can be transported in large quantities in a
liquid state and pumped at high pressures in a
gaseous state.
(B) Being a gas, it overcomes the problems of exces-
sive hydrostatic pressures that are inherent with
liquids.
(C) Being relatively insoluble in fluids, it provides
maximum gasifying or lightening effects to a
liquid when co-mingled with it.
(D) Being compressible, it can provide a supple-
mentary source of energy when injected into the
well under pressure.
(E) Laboratory and field studies have revealed that
certain benefits are derived from the use of
gaseous materials as well stimulation aids.
Keeping the foregoing points in mind, each of them
will be cited in the detailed discussion that follows,
concerning the individual applications of nitrogen in
various drilling and completion operations.
159
I.-Drill Stem Testing
(A) Cushions for Pipe Protection from Collapse
When well depth and mud density are such that
protection from collapse is required over the bottom
portion of the drill string, a nitrogen blanket may be
run by using a nitrogen control valve. This is a
special tool which permits pressuring any desired
length of the bottom portion of the drill string to any
pressure necessary for protection from collapse or
formation control. The valve is installed in a special
shear-pin sub and can be run at any depth in the
string. Operation of the valve is similar to that of a
gas-charged gas lift valve. For example, if the equiv-
alent of 2,000 feet of water is required to protect the
drill pipe from collapse, the valve is pre-set at the
surface with nitrogen to a pressure equivalent to
2,000 feet of water (approximately 460 psi). The
valve is installed in the test tool and 2,000 feet of
drill pipe run in the hole. The sub has a side port
valve, below the control valve, through which gaseous
nitrogen is then delivered from the truck to the drill
pipe until a pressure of 460 psi is built up in the
2,000 feet of drill pipe below the control valve. The
balance of the drill pipe is run in the hole, the pack-
ers set and the tool opened. If the flowing formation
pressure is 10- to 20-psi greater than the nitrogen
back pressure (in this case 460 psi), the nitrogen
control valve will open automatically, permitting flow
through the valve to the surface and giving a surface
indication that fluid is entering the drill string from
below the packer. Should the formation be tight and
low in permeability, it may not give up enough forma-
tion fluids to increase the pressure in the nitrogen
chamber sufficiently to open the control valve. In
such cases, the nitrogen could be compressed enough,
however, to permit recovery of enough uncontamin-
ated formation fluid to analyse. This, along with the
pressure recorder readings, should leave no doubt as
to the nature of the formation fluid. If a water cush-
ion were used, it is unlikely that any formation fluids
would have been recovered.
The nitrogen cushion is of particular value if the
fluid recovered in such instances is water. When a
water cushion is used, it is often impossible to detect
a small recovery of formation water. When nitrogen
is used, there is no question as to whether water ob-
tained on the test came from the formation or not,
and no question as to the quantity of water produced.
Also, there is no dilution of produced water by cush-
ion water. Oil is recovered in one body rather than
being scattered through a long column of cushion
water.
Of significant benefit is the fact that throughout
the entire test this control valve automatically retains
this pre-set back pressure on that portion of drill
pipe it is required to protect from collapse. When a
water cushion is used on a high-pressure gas test, the
water cushion is often flowed to the surface, leaving
the pipe empty and subject to collapse when the test-
ing tool is closed and the pressure is bled off at the
surface. Such is not the case when a nitrogen con-
trol valve is run - the pipe is protected going in
the hole, during the test and coming out of the hole.
Nitrogen also is more versatile than water. Any
portion of the drill string may be protected with any
pressure desired. For example, assume that 1,000 feet
of drill collars are used on the bottom, and that 1,000
feet of drill pipe above the collars required protec-
tion. A minimum of 2,000 feet of water cushion would
160
be required, which would exert a pressure of 860 psi
on the formation when the tool is opened. With nitro-
gen, only 430 psi would be required to protect the
drill pipe. Furthermore, this procedure gives the full
1,000 feet of drill pipe the benefit of 430-psi protec-
tion. The protection given by water varies from 430
psi at the bottom of the drill pipe to zero psi at the
top of the 1,000 feet protected, and gives the greatest
protection, from 430 to 860 psi, in the drill collars,
where it is not required. The versatility of nitrogen
would be of particular value should a low-pressure
zone be tested with very strong pipe, such as drill
collars, on the bottom, and with a weaker section of
pipe higher up in the string.
(B) Reduce Misruns due to Packer Seat Failures or
Plugged Tools
When well depths and mud weights are such that
the drill stem near the bottom of the hole is not in
Downloaded from http://onepetro.org/jcpt/article-pdf/3/04/158/2166038/petsoc-64-04-04.pdf by guest on 11 December 2023
danger of collapse, it is often practical to pressure
the entire drill string (from surface) with nitrogen
(to approximately one-half the hydrostatic mud
weight) before the packer is set or the bottom hole
testing valve is opened. When the packer is set and
the tool is opened, the nitrogen pressure in the drill
string prevents a sudden release of pressure at the
face of the formation. This tends to reduce sloughing
of the formation and aids in maintaining a packer
seat by avoiding a sudden differential, equivalent to
the hydrostatic mud pressure, across the packer. The
surface valve is not opened until several minutes
after the bottom hole testing valve is opened. This
permits the operator to determine if the formation
pressure is greater than the nitrogen pressure, and
to observe the length of time required to obtain
maximum pressure. Then the nitrogen may be slowly
bled off as desired. This gradually increases the dif-
ferential pressure across the packer rather than sub-
jecting it to a sudden shock, thus avoiding possible
packer failure. This same procedure has been ef-
fective in minimizing the difficulty caused by the
plugging action of lost circulation material when
large amounts of this matter are present in the drill-
ing fluid. The use of a nitrogen blanket has, in ef-
fect, changed the "flow bean" of the test from the
bottom of the hole to the surface, where it can be
controlled positively and at the discretion of the
operator. Experience has indicated that this procedure
has reduced plugged drill stem test tools, packer seat
failures and misruns by as much as 80 per cent in
some formations.
(C) Acidizing through a DST Tool
Recently, a modification of the above procedure
proved successful in providing a quick yet positive
evaluation of carbonate formations. Generally speak-
ing, such formations do not reflect their true poten-
tial until acidized. In the past, it was often necessary
to set casing before such formations could be evalu-
ated conclusively by acidizing. Today, it is possible
to forego this expensive casing job by acidizing down
the drill pipe and through the DST tool. Drill stem
test tools have been developed to accommodate stimu-
lation treatments and, by nitrifying the acid and/or
displacing the acid into the formation with nitrogen,
it is possible to evaluate a carbonate formation quick-
ly and more conclusively. Nitrogen promotes flowback
of the spent acid and eliminates the need for a liquid
displacing fluid. If water is used for acid displace-
ment it might have to be swabbed back, which is not
Journal of Canadian Petroleum
only time-consuming and expensive but would be
possible only if flush-joint drill pipe is used. Such
jobs have saved the expense of a casing job on dry
holes and have prompted the setting of casing on
questionable wells.
(D) Setting of Inflatable Packers
Where packer seats are a problem, the inflatable
packer has proved valuable for DST's. Such packers
require pressure for inflating, and nitrogen is be-
coming popular for this purpose. After running the
inflatable packer in the hole, nitrogen is pumped into
the drill pipe to the predetermined pressure level re-
quired to inflate and set the packers. Fluids such as
water or mud were used to inflate these packers
previously. Nitrogen was a natural for this applica-
tion, as it eliminates any need to swab the inflating
fluid out of the hole, which is often necessary to per-
mit flow from the zone being tested. Such a test can
be conducted quickly and has been run successfully
in conjunction with an acid job as described in the
previous paragraph. In this case, the acid is generally
spotted in the drill pipe on the trip in hole with the
DST tools. Nitrogen serves a dual purpose on these
jobs - to inflate the packers as well as displace the
acid into the formation.
2.-Completions and Displacements
(A) Setting Hydraulic Packers
Nitrogen enhances the use of hydraulic-set pack-
ers for completion, as the well is ready to be placed
Qn production after setting the packer with nitrogen.
If fluid is used to set the packer, it would often be
necessary to swab this fluid out of the hole to bring
the well in.
(B) Displacements
One of the most popular uses of nitrogen is to un-
load fluids out of the hole quickly and safely. Gener-
ally, such nitrogen displacements in Canada are ac-
complished by pumping nitrogen down the tubing and
up the casing, as less nitrogen is required than if
pumping took place down the casing and up the tub-
ing. Wells are brought in by this procedure quickly
(generally less than an hour) and are under control
at all times of the day or night - a contrast to
swabbing. There are indications from field results
that such a displacement is more efficient and bene-
ficial to the formation than swabbing. This is pos-
sibly due to a greater differential pressure being im-
posed on the formation with a nitrogen displace-
ment. During swabbing operations, the fluid level is
slowly reduced in the tubing until the hydrostatic
pressure of the fluid remaining in the tubing is
slightly less than the formation pressure - then the
well starts to flow. The well may continue to flow
or may load up again necessitating the resumption
of swabbing. During a nitrogen displacement, the
fluid is completely displaced out of the tubing and up
into the annulus, and nitrogen continues its push
down the tubing and around into the annulus. Maxi-
mum nitrogen pressure is reached just at that point
where the tubing is completely displaced, and once
the nitrogen turns the corner at the bottom of the
tubing the nitrogen pressure starts decreasing and con-
tinues to decrease. This decrease in pressure pro-
motes an expansion of the nitrogen flowing up into
the annulus, which provides energy and a force
assisting in the movement of the remaining fluid out
Technology, Winter, 1964-65, Montreal
of the casing. The nitrogen-fluid interface finally
reaches a level in the annulus at which the hydrostatic
pressure of the fluid remaining in the annulus is less
than the formation pressure, at which time the well
starts to flow naturally. However, the expanding ac-
tion of the nitrogen, due to the reduced pressure,
continues to aid in unloading the hole even after
pumping of the nitrogen has stopped. Such expansion
undoubtedly promotes and encourages continued flow
and reduces back pressure on the formation. This
should result in more efficient unloading of the well
and purging of the area immediate to the well bore.
In the case of a well where a packer is being set,
the tubing fluids are displaced with nitrogen, the
packer is then set and the well head checked for leaks.
The nitrogen pressure is then bled off to the at-
mosphere and the well brought in at a controlled rate
without swabbing. There is no danger of lost swabs
or blowouts, no scarring of plastic-coated tubing, and
the saving in rig time is significant.
Nitrogen is a time saver on dual or multiple com-
Downloaded from http://onepetro.org/jcpt/article-pdf/3/04/158/2166038/petsoc-64-04-04.pdf by guest on 11 December 2023
pletions when each string of tubing can be unloaded
safely with a minimum of nitrogen, using the nitro-
gen gas pressure from the deepest string to unload
the next deepest string, and so on. Case histories re-
veal that nitrogen has been used to force well fluids
back into the formation, with additional nitrogen
overflushed into the formation to gasify this fluid.
After a shut-in period of some four to eight hours,
the nitrogen pressure was bled off to the atmosphere,
which created a substantial pressure differential
across the formation face. The nitrogen bubbles in
the formation expanded, much like a bottle of. agitated
soda pop, pushing the fluids in the well bore to the
surface and quickly unloading the well. This nitrogen
displacement eliminated a potentially hazardous and
expensive swabbing job. The technique also has been
followed to successfully unload a sanded-off string
of tubing in a dual well. In addition to unloading the
sand, the nitrogen overflush helped clean up the well
bore and improve the well potential.
The cost of a nitrogen displacement, as for any
nitrogen job, is a function of the amount of nitrogen
used. This amount varies with the well depth, cas-
ing and tubing size, and the density of the fluid in
the hole. In many cases, the use of nitrogen is com-
petitive in cost with normal swabbing. However, other
benefits of a nitrogen displacement, such as time,
efficiency and safety, may be significant, adding
intangible savings that favour its use.
3.-Perforating
(A) Hydraulic Perforating
Laboratory tests indicate that penetration increas-
es of up to 300 per cent (see Figure 3) are realized
by simply co-mingling nitrogen with sand and water
for jetting operations (1). By co-mingling the gaseous
nitrogen with the sand-water stream at the surface,
at a minimum ratio of 200 scf per barrel, three re-
sulting benefits provide the effects for deeper pene-
tration.
1. Nitrogen expands the jet stream to cut bigger
holes through the casing and cement.
2. Nitrogen increases the differential pressure at the
cutting interface by lowering the hydrostatic weight
in the annulus.
3. Nitrogen increases the fluid velocity at the jet
nozzle by gas expansion, thereby increasing pene-
tration instead of belling the hole.
161
 GOR(SCF!BBl.) TEMPERATURE ("F)
With Nitrogen
Penetration - inches
30 I
:N80""O'
I I
20
15
10
I \
I.. • 30 I.
20 ""11. ",. r• ..•
!'... .. j/ I '~ .. ~""
0",.
'11...
I
' .. ...
...
.::::1
0.75 in. cement Formation rock

.. ... ..........
8
6
I _~ 1 T
"'ioC., 30 min. _~
VI"'-
'-
'-
1 W1Tlt ±
- - -
NITROGEN-

-
I

4 !
,
"''''0
i
¥g l17/n.
"'!n. ~
"-0
- -
- - --- .... '-l
1'-;;;;
~
WITHOUT

OJ
r-;;;: NITROGEN -

1C------L
-----l-----,.L:)
Auslln
l=i=-tl Indiana
Berea Cement ----1 --I _Ca-rthage
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Figure' 4.-Formation volume factor for nitrogen in
Figure 3.-Special Production Report - Penetration oil, showing the increase in bulk volume.

Downloaded from http://onepetro.org/jcpt/article-pdf/3/04/158/2166038/petsoc-64-04-04.pdf by guest on 11 December 2023

increases by co-mingling nitrogen with water and sand
for hydraulic perforation.
(rock compressive strength -
There have been cases where this improved pene-
tration was successful in completing wells that were
Bon-productive following other perforating attempts.
In other cases, acidizing has been eliminated before
fracturing or fracturing has been eliminated com-
pletely.
(B) Gun Perforating
Fluid-sensitive formations are often damaged ini-
tially when casing is perforated due to a pressure
overbalance of the fluid in the hole against the
formation. For this reason, it is often desirable to
lower the fluid level prior to the perforating or to
displace all fluid from the hole before perforating.
Nitrogen can quickly accomplish either of these pro-
tective measures. Sufficient nitrogen pressure can be
maintained on the formation to prevent the gun from
being kicked back up the hole after "dry" shooting.
Swabbing is eliminated and no harmful fluid is lost
to the formation.
4.-Acidizing and Fracturing
The co-mingling of nitrogen with acid and fractur-
ing fluids has proved to be one of the most signifi-
cant, beneficial and widely accepted uses of nitrogen.
Actual field results have been encouraging and labo-
ratory investigations have revealed that several im-
portant benefits are derived from the use of gaseous
materials as well as stimulation aids. The basic ad-
vantages and benefits of a nitrified stimulation are:
(A). By co-mingling gaseous nitrogen with the injec-
tion fluid, the following benefits result:
1. Fluid viscosity is reduced, permitting a higher
injection velocity and deeper fluid penetration
in the formation.
2. Definite fluid-loss-control characteristics result,
without the use of conventional solid fluid-loss
additives, which promote the attainment of maxi-
mum fracturing area and acid penetration (2).
3. The bulk volume of injected fluid is increased,
further promoting maximum penetration of the
fluid.
4. A property of this multi-phase system is that of
equalizing permeability so that the desired in-
jectivity can be attained over the entire exposed
formation face (2).
1000 psi.)
(B). By calculation, sufficient quantities of nitrogen
are added to the injected fluid to reduce the hydro-
static head of a column of this fluid standing in the
hole to a level of at least 400-500 psi less than the
formation pressure. This should promote natural
flowback of the load fluid quickly and efficiently, thus
eliminating swabbing and reducing emulsion tenden-
cies and load-fluid recovery time.
(C). During the flowback of the gas-saturated load
fluid, the bubbles of entrained nitrogen gas expand
as the pressure decreases. This provides a purging
action to force the fluid out of the formation and
provide better "clean-up" of the formation.
Most liquid nitrogen service companies now have
reference data readily available from which to cal-
culate the proper nitrogen concentration (scf per
bbl) required to promote natural flow back of an
injected fluid. These concentrations generally vary
from 100 to 600 scf per bbl, and are a function of
bottom-hole temperature and pressure, well depth,
tubing size, and the density of the fluid to be flowed
back. Nitrogen, being relatively insoluble in fluids
(Figure 2), saturates the fluid and entrains thous-
ands of bubbles of excess free gas within it. This
excess gas increases the bulk volume of the fluid at
reservoir conditions, as shown in Figure 4, and prom-
otes larger area penetration of the fluid. This in-
creased bulk volume, under normal field conditions,
ranges from 5 to 100 per cent. These same bubbles of
excess nitrogen gas lighten the fluid and provide a
purging action as they expand with reduced pres-
sure, and serve to promote formation clean-up. A
. spearhead of nitrogen gas (ranging from 2,000 to
100,000 scf) is often injected ahead of many acid and
frac jobs to serve as a supplementary source of en-
ergy. This spearhead aids in the flowback of any dead
fluid already trapped near the well bore, as well as
the stimulation fluid itself, and has proved very ef-
fective.
Field experience has shown that flowback rates of
the nitrified load-fluid are critical in the efficiency
of the flowback. If the rate of flowback is too high
or too low, gas slippage takes place in the tubing and
the nitrogen by-passes the fluid flow. Rates of 10 to
30 bbls per hour have proved most satisfactory for

162 Journal of Canadian Petroleum

flowback. This slippage problem appears to be re-
duced when a surfactant is mixed with the stimula-
tion fluid.
Initially, there was concern that the sand-carrying
qualities of a fluid would be severely reduced when
nitrified. Studies have shown that a gas-liquid ratio
of 1:4 at surface conditions should not be exceeded
for extended time intervals (3). A premature "screen-
out" or "sand-off" could occur if the gas-liquid ratio
exceeds 1 :4. Generally speaking, this potential prob-
lem is of little concern as most nitrogen requirements
result in a gas-liquid ratio of less than 1 :4. Figure 5
provides a quick reference concerning the critical
concentrations of nitrogen for a fracturing treatment.
In some treatments, this gas-liquid ratio has been
purposely increased beyond the critical range for short
periods of time (a few minutes) and has successfully
caused localized "screen-outs" deep in the fracture,
thus promoting a multiple fracture system.
Many of Canada's oil and gas wells are producing
from carbonate formations, and thus there are manv
formation characteristics. Well productivities have
been improved ten-fold (from 35 to 400 BOPD) on
some wells. The continued and increased use of nitro-
gen possibly is the best evidence available to support
its use. Oil wells in the Swan Hills, Kaybob, Leduc,
Snipe Lake and Sturgeon Lake oilfields (to name a
few) have shown encouraging results from nitrified
acid jobs in most cases. Gas wells in the Devonian,
Mississippian and shallower formations have also
shown favourable response, with evidence, in some
cases, of mud or emulsion damage being removed.
Nitrogen has been well accepted as a valuable aid in
cleaning up water injection wells. The flowback bene-
fits and the purging action of nitrified acid jobs in
the Pembina, Gilby and Willisden Green fields have
resulted in sustained marked improvements (up to
300 per cent) in injectivity, as opposed to previous
stimulation treatments on these water injection wells
where flowback of the spent acid was not possible.
Recent frac jobs in the Viking Gas Sand of central
Alberta, using water, sand and nitrogen, have yielded

Downloaded from http://onepetro.org/jcpt/article-pdf/3/04/158/2166038/petsoc-64-04-04.pdf by guest on 11 December 2023

acid treatments conducted. Nitrogen is becoming mor~
popular for many of these acid jobs, which have in-
volved from a few hundred gallons to as much as
35,000 gallons of acid. In general, the field results
have shown that nitrogen has eliminated or substan-
tially reduced swabbing, thus reducing the "clean-up"
time. Productivity improvements have been very en-
couraging in most cases, although results on other
jobs have been questionable due, in many cases, to
productivity improvements higher than experienced
from previous treatments. A side benefit of nitrogen
in the frac fluid is its ability to unload the hole in
the event of a "sand-off," permitting immediate re-
sumption of the frac at lower sand concentrations.
5.-Drilling with Nitrogen
During air drilling operations, downhole explosions
are a constant hazard. Drilling air co-mingled with
30 per cent inert nitrogen is explosive-proof and has

r- ~
eliminated the explosion hazard or the need to con-
SAFE RANGE - - l E- DANGER vert to a mud system near the pay section. There
900 have been other cases where the use of nitrogen alone

!)f~~;~V
as a drilling fluid is the most practical and economical
method of conducting drilling operations over a short
interval. In the Viking sand of southwest Saskatche-
-i 800 wan, the nitrogen drillout has proved to be a practical
co go y 0 00 and economical means of overcoming formation dam-
o.~~~
CO
... ..:?I age caused by a mud system; 10 to 20 feet of Vik-
~ 700
J
I /
0
1/ 00 - - ing sand can be drilled out with nitrogen in a matter
u...
u
en
z
I 600 idV / ~
§IIi!
v
;:,
~00
I
- V 1/
0
of minutes. The nitrogen drillout has improved well
productivities by 50 to 200 per cent as compared to
offset wells drilled with mud.

~I/'I I V I ~' /
lJJ
C)
o 6.-Lost Circulation Control While Drilling and
VI~
500
0:
.... t4 II i- Cementing
Z ~[JIJI
~ J
V 1I ~
V I
During drilling operations, when lost circulation is
encountered, nitrogen can quickly combat such a prob-
u... 400
o ~IJ 1/ J / V I 0~
~ lem. By injecting nitrogen gas in the standpipe, its
z
o V.rj/ll
J I 1I / / ~ bubbles have immediately reduced mud weights by as
much as 4 pounds per gallon in one complete circula-
....« 300
'fIJ1/ / V ~ I S\
tion. Where mud weight is critical, nitrogen has
~'l.VII// ,/" ooo}~""

111'/// /..
0: quickly reduced the weight within certain prescribed
....
Z __ ~~~/I~ ~ ~ limits. Prior to cementing operations, and in anti-
lJJ 200 cipation of a lost circulation condition, nitrified mud
U
o
u
Z "/,,,.
~~~~ ~~
I
~~~~~
S\
displaced ahead of the cement has assured proper
cement fill-up over lost circulation zones where hy-
100 drostatic weight is critical.
io""~"" ~~~I-~
r"~ .... 1o-' 7.-Corrosion Control and Inhibitor Treatments
oo 0.2 0.6 10 1.4 1.8 Nitrogen, being inert, has been used to preserve
COMPRESSED GAS VOLUME (CU,FT,) and protect various pieces of equipment from cor-
rosion. In one of Alberta's many sour gas fields, nitro-
Figure 5.-Critical Concentration of Nitrogen for a gen is used to displace the sour gas out of the tubing
Fracturing Treatment. and back into the formation prior to running wire-
line tools in the hole. It was calculated that such a
(When designing a nitrified fracturing treatment, the displacement would protect wireline tools suspended
gas-liquid ratio should be maintained below 1:4 or a
"sand-off" could occur). in the tubing for up to 200 days under static condi-

Technology, Winter, 1964-65, Montreal 163

tions. Previously, wireline tools were frequently lost
in the hole due to exposure of the wireline to the
sour formation gas. The tubing could be displaced to
inhibited diesel fuel to protect the wireline tools, but
the expense and time involved in following this proce-
dure has proved the nitrogen displacement to be most
favourable. Also, the nitrogen displacement in no way
disrupts the subsequent operation of the well.
Corrosion inhibitor squeezes are proving to be the
most effective method of combating corrosion, and
nitrogen has further enhanced these treatments.
Previously, the inhibitor slug was displaced to bot-
tom with diesel or condensate, which often had to be
swabbed out of the hole. With nitrogen as the dis-
placing fluid there is no swabbing required to re-
sume production. By nitrifying the inhibitor slug
quite highly, or by the use of a chemical injector
pump to jet the liquid inhibitor into the nitrogen
stream at the surface, it is possible to obtain maxi-
mum penetration of the inhibitor back into the forma-
tion. Overflushing with nitrogen also is being em-
ployed to further penetrate the formation with in-
hibitor. Such treatments have been performed in
numerous gas wells in one of Canada's most sour
gas fields, and results are very satisfactory.
8.-Paraffin Control
Paraffin accumulation in wells may result from any
one of a variety of causes. The most prevalent of
these is the transfer of heat from the flowing stream
through fluids in the annulus to the cooler surround-
ing formations in the upper portion of the hole. This
causes a drop in the temperature of the flowing fluids.
When the temperature of the flowing well fluid drops
below the temperature of crystallization of the paraf-
fin contained in that fluid, solid paraffin is deposited
on the walls of the production string and surface
equipment.
The deposition of paraffin can be eliminated com-
pletely, or at least greatly reduced, by the very simple
application of known thermodynamic facts. It is a
fact that a liquid conducts heat better than gas. The
total amount of heat transferred between the high-
temperature flowing well stream and the low-tempera-
ture upper formation, such as water-bearing sand, is
directly proportional to the lead transfer coefficient
of the fluid in the annulus. As the heat transfer from
the flowing stream to the formation increases, the
temperature drop of the flowing stream increases.
In order to minimize this temperature drop, it is
necessary to have the annular space between the
production string and the shallow water formations
filled with a fluid which has a very low heat transfer
coefficient. Recent investigations have indicated that,
for this insulating property, nitrogen is far superior
to oil- or water-base fluids. For example, at 200°F the
heat transfer coefficient for water is 280 times greater
than that for nitrogen, and the coefficient for oil is
37 times greater than that for nitrogen.
In areas where paraffin deposition is a problem,
the placing of nitrogen gas in the annulus across the
trou ble interval has completely eliminated or great-
ly reduced the deposition. Case histories on record
in the Gulf Coast indicate that paraffin deposition
has been eliminated in wells that previously required
164
wireline dewaxing every four days. In one case, the
flowing wellhead temperature of a 9,000-foot oil well
was increased from 72°F to 105°F by placing a nitro-
gen blanket in the top of the annulus. With a paraffin
crystallization temperature in this well of 95°F, it is
understandable that the paraffin problem was elim-
inated not only in the tubing but in the flowline as
well.
9.-Miscellaneous Nitrogen Applications
(A) Fire Fighting
On more than one occasion, nitrogen gas has been
employed to quickly extinguish bush and gas fires.
The inert gas forms a blanket to starve the fire of an
oxygen supply.
(B) Injectivity Tests
In an attempt to obtain an estimate of gas injec-
tion volumes and pressures preparatory to commenc-
Downloaded from http://onepetro.org/jcpt/article-pdf/3/04/158/2166038/petsoc-64-04-04.pdf by guest on 11 December 2023
ing a gas injection scheme, nitrogen has been in-
jected for a short pilot test. From these short tests,
data can be compiled to more accurately determine
compressor and distribution line requirements.
(C) Pressure Testing and Purging
Nitrogen, being completely safe to handle, has
proved to be a good medium to be used for pressure
testing and purging vessels, pipelines and associated
equipment. This is of particular advantage to opera-
tors of gas plants and refineries.
ECONOMICS
The economics of a nitrogen job vary from applica-
tion to application and from area to area. In Canada
to date, an average of all types of jobs has required
approximately 75,000 scf of nitrogen, which would
cost approximately $950 plus a mileage charge from
various base centres.
SUMMARY
It is not a cure-all, but nitrogen has established
itself as a definite aid to the oil industry. The uses
of nitrogen are often dictated by economics, but in
many other cases its application has become accepted
as the quickest and most efficient procedure to fol-
low. There are still other cases where the use of nitro-
gen is a "must" to accomplish a given job. Experience
to date, based primarily on field results, indicates
that nitrogen does have a definite application in the
drilling and completion of oil and gas wells. The
versatility of this product indicates that further
studies and evaluations could uncover added uses
and benefits.
REFERENCES
(1) Thompson, Gene D., "Effects of Formation Compres-
sive Strength on Perforator Performance," Spring
Meeting, 1962. A.P.I., Houston, Texas.
(2) Foshee, W. C., and Hurst, R. E., "Improvement of
Well Stimulation Fluids by the Inclusion of a Gaseous
Phase," S.P.E. of A.I.M.E., March 1, 1964, Fort
Worth, Texas.
(3) Hurst, R. E., and Henry, K. B., "Nitrogen - A New
Tool for Well Stimulation," Oilweek, (Sept. 10,
1962), 41.
Journal of Canadian Petroleum