Exergy Analysis of Energy Systems MARC A. ROSEN aivesity of Ontario Institute of Technology ‘oskawa, Ontario, Canada Se 4, Exergy 2. Exergy Analysis 4, Survey of Applications of Exergy Analysis to Energy Systems 4, Examples of Applications of Exergy Analysis to Energy Systems 5. Simple Device: Electrical Resistance Space Heater 6 Simple System: Thermal Energy Storage System 7, Complex System: Coal-Fired Electrical Generating Station 8, Macrosystem: The Aggregate Energy Systems of a Country 9. Conclusions Glossary chemical exergy The maximum work obtainable from a substance when it is brought from the environmental state to the dead state by means of processes involving interaction only with the environment. dead state The state of a system when it is in thermal, mechanical, and chemical equilibrium with a concep tual reference environment, which is characterized by a fixed pressure, temperature, and chemical potential for cach of the reference substances in their respective dead states. cavironmental state ‘The state of a system when it is in thermal and mechanical equilibrium with the reference environment—that is, at the pressure and temperature of the reference environment. i exergy (i) A general term for the maximum work potential of a system, stream of matter, or a heat interaction in relation to the reference environment as the datum state, Also known as available energy, availability, essergy, technical work capacity, usable energy, utilz~ able energy, work capability, work potential, and xergy- (i) The unqualified term exergy or exergy flow is the maximum amount of shaft work obtainable when 2 nope of Energy, Volume 2. © 2004 Eis ine. Al sig ser, steady stream of matter is brought from its initial state to the dead state by means of processes involving interactions only with the reference environment. exergy analysis An analysis technique, based on the second law of thermodynamics, in which process performance is assessed by examining exergy balances, losses, and efficiencies. exergy consumption The exergy consumed or destroyed during a process due to irreversibilites within the system boundaries. Also known as dissipation, irrever- sibility, and lost work. physical exergy The maximum amount of shaft work ‘obtainable from a substance when it is brought from its itial state to the environmental state by means of physical processes involving interaction only with the environment, Also known as thermomechanical exergy. reference environment An idealization of the natural ‘environment that is characterized by a perfect state of equilibrium—that is, the absence of any gradients or differences involving pressure, temperature, chemical potential, kinetie energy, and potential energy. The environment constitutes a natural reference medium ‘with respect to which the exergy of different systems is evaluated. reference state A state with respect to which values of ‘exergy are evaluated. Several reference states are used, including the environmental state, dead state, standard environmental state, and standard dead state. Also known as ground state. thermal exergy The exergy associated with a heat interac- tion—that is, the maximum amount of shaft work obtainable from a given heat interaction using. the ‘environment as a thermal energy reservoir. Energy analysis is based on the first law of thermo- dynamics, which embodies the principle of the conservation of energy. Exergy analysis is a thermo- dynamic analysis technique for systems and processes that is based on the second law of thermodynamics and has several advantages over energy analysis, 607 Scanned with CamScanner608 Exergy Analysis of Energy Systems a First, more meaningful efficiencies are evaluated witl exergy analysis since exergy efficiencies are always measure of the approach to the ideal. Second, © inefficiencies ina process are better pinpointed wit exergy analysis in that the types, causes, 24 locations of the losses are identified and quantified. For these reasons and others, exergy analysis has been increasingly applied during the past several decades. In this article, the role of exergy analysis in the assessment and improvement of energy systems is discussed. First, exergy and its use as a tool through exergy analysis are briefly described. Then, the range of energy systems that have in the past been assessed using exergy analysis are surveyed. Finally, several examples of applications of exergy analysis are presented, ranging from simple energy devices and systems to complex energy systems and large mactosystems. 1. EXERGY Exergy is defined as the maximum amount of work that can be produced by a stream or system as it is brought into equilibrium with a reference environ- ment, and it can be thought of as a measure of the usefulness or quality of energy. Exergy is consumed during real processes due to irreversibilities and conserved during ideal processes. Exergy quantities are evaluated with respect to a reference environment. The intensive properties of the reference environment in part determine the exergy of a stream or system. The exergy of the reference environment is zero. The reference envir- onment is in stable equilibrium, with all parts at rest relative to one another. No chemical reactions can ‘occur between the environmental components. The reference environment acts as an infinite system and is a sink and source for heat and materials. It experiences only internally reversible processes in which its intensive state remains unaltered (i.e, its temperature Ty, pressure P., and the chemical Potentials tigg for each of the i components present remain constant). Energy and exergy balances can be written for a general process or system. An energy balance for a system may be written as Energy input — energy output = energy accumulation, (1) Energy input and output refer respectively to energy entering and exiting through system boundaries. accumulation refers to buildup (6, eae negative) of the quantity within rie Poy, Clearly, energy is subject to a conservation a By combining the conservation law for eng” nonconservation law for entropy (which 8! ag entropy is created during a process due tg 9 bilities), an exergy balance can be obtained, "= Exergy inpot —eXEFY OUPUE— EXE cong, = exergy accumulation, ig consumption is proportional to entropy Equations (1) and (2) demonstrate an j difference between energy and exergy: conserved, whereas exergy a measure of 2 quality or work potential, can be consumed, ir - Q Exergy is consumed due to irreversible, p Creat impor a 2. EXERGY ANALYSIS Exergy analysis involves the application of exe, concepts, balances, and efficiencies to evaluate x improve energy and other systems. Many engney and scientists suggest that devices can be al evaluated and improved using exergy analys addition to or in place of energy analysis, analysis has been applied to a wide range ¢ processes and systems. This article focuses om applications to energy systems. 2.1 Exergy Analysis and Limitations on Increased Efficiency Increases in efficiency are subject to two constant, which are often poorly understood: (i) theoreti limitations, which establish the maximum effcieny theoretically attainable for a process by virtue of te laws of thermodynamics, and (ii) practical limite tions, which further limit increases in efficiency. First, consider practical limitations on effcene: In practice, when selecting energy sources and utilization processes the goal is not to acitte maximum efficiency but rather to achieve an optinal trade-off between efficiency and such factor 3 economics, sustainability, environmental impo safety, and societal and political acceptability. Tb optimum is dependent on many factors control by society; furthermore, these factors can be alt to favor increased efficiency (e.g., governments offer financial incentives that render high-ffcenY technologies economically attractive and/or prov disincentives for low-efficiency alternatives special taxes and regulations). Scanned with CamScannerrow, consider theoretical limitat es "To assess the potential for inven) ie0- Yhe theoretical limits must’ be clesky 1 god. In the past, lack of clarity on this kore aiaten led 10 confusion, in part because Gear icencies generally are not measures of how ee afirerformance of 4 PrOCES or device approaches ie Rheoretical ideal. The consequences of ‘such sion can be very significant. For example rive resources have occasionally been direcred coer increasing the energy efficiencies of devices cova reality were efficient and had little potential fam mprovement. Conversely, at other times devices Fersinot been targeted for improved efficiency, even Mioagh the difference between the actual and thowfum theoretical efficiencies, which represents the potential for improvement, has been large. “fhe difficulties inherent in energy analysis are also anributable to the fact that it considers only qu: ates of energy and ignores energy quality, which is Continually degraded during real processes. Exergy spalysis, as discussed earlier, overcomes many of the problems associated with energy analysis. 22 Applications of Exergy Analysis beyond Thermodynamics Exergy concepts can be applied beyond thermo- dynamics. One area in which applications of exergy are increasing is that of environmental impact. Many suggest that the impact of energy resource utilization on the environment and the achievement of increased resource-utlization effi- ciency should be addressed by considering exergy, among other factors. Although the exergy of an energy form or a substance is a measure of its usefulness, exergy is also a measure of its potential to cause change. The latter point suggests that exergy may be, or provide the basis for, an effective measure of the potential of a substance or energy form to impact the environment. ‘Another area in which applications of exergy are increasing is that of economics. In the analysis and design of energy systems, techniques are often used that combine scientific disciplines (especially thermo dynamics) with economics to achieve optimum designs, For energy systems, costs are conventionally based on energy. Many researchers, however, have recommended that costs are better distributed among outputs, based on exergy. Methods of performing exergy-based economic analyses have evolved and ae referred to as thermoeconomics, second law costing, and exergoeconomics. These analysis tech- Exergy Analysis of Energy Systems 609 niques recognize that exergy, more than energy, is the commodity of value in a system, and they assign costs and/or prices to exergy-related variables. These techniques usually help determine the appropriate allocation of economic resources so as to optimize the design and operation of a system and/or the economic feasibility and profitability of a system (by obtaining actual costs of products and their appro- priate prices). 2.3 Steps for Energy and Exergy Analyses |A simple procedure for performing energy and ‘exergy analyses involves the following steps: + Subdivide the process under consideration into as many sections as desired, depending on the depth of detail and understanding desired from the analysis. + Perform conventional mass and energy balances con the process, and determine all basic quantities (e.g work and heat) and properties (€.8- temperature and pressure). «+ Based on the nature of the process, the acceptable degree of analysis complexity and accuracy, and the questions for which answers are sought, select a reference environment model. « Evaluate energy and exergy values, relative to the selected reference environment model. Perform exergy balances, including the determination of exergy consumptions. Select efficiency definitions, depending on the measures of merit desired, and evaluate the efficiencies. Interpret the results, and draw appropriate conclusions and recommendations relating to such issues as design changes, retrofit plant modifications, etc. 3. SURVEY OF APPLICATIONS OF EXERGY ANALYSIS TO ENERGY SYSTEMS Many applications of exergy analysis to energy systems have been reported in the literature, parti- ularly during the past several decades. Some extensive bibliographies have been compiled, includ- ing one by Goran Wall (hetp:/lexergy.se). In addition, a journal devoted to exergy matters, Exergy: An International Journal, has been established. Scanned with CamScanner610 Exergy Analysis of Energy Systems The types of applications of exergy methods f0 energy systems that have been reported in the P are extremely varied and include the following: « Electricity generation using both conventional devices, such as fossil and nuclear power plants, and alternative devices, such as fuel cells and solar energy systems + Engines of various types {Transportation systems for land, air, and water transport . Hsing and cooling systems for building systems and industrial applications ‘+ Cogeneration systems for producing heating and electrical needs simultaneously + Petrochemical processing and synthetic fuels production * Chemical processes, such as sulfuric acid production, distillation, and water desalination + Metallurgical processes, such as lead smelting + Combustion technologies and systems + Energy storage systems, such as batteries, pumped storages, and thermal energy storages 4. EXAMPLES OF APPLICATIONS OF EXERGY ANALYSIS TO ENERGY SYSTEMS Examples of applications of exergy analysis are Presented in the following four sections. Because the range of energy systems to which exergy has been applied is great, the four examples described here were sclected to cover the breadth of complexity. Consequently, we start with a simple device (an electrical resistance space heater) and then consider a simple system (a thermal energy storage system), where simple is taken here to imply that the system has a very limited number of components. Next, we examine a more complex system (a coal-fired clectrical generating station). Finally, we investigate the application of exergy analysis to a “macrosys- tem”—that is, a large conglomerate of energy systems that cover a region such as.a city, province, or country. 5. SIMPLE DEVICE: ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE SPACE HEATER An lectrical resistance space heater converts electricity to heat at a temperature suitable for keeping a room at a comfortable temperature. It is illustrated in Fig. 1. Electric resistance | <—— /,,‘letiey heater (i (n= 99%) 8 tk) Space heat at 20°C (100 ks) N\ [eee Elscticy eat pump mata) (CoP =7) 1. Comparison of the quantity of elect pe a fred emount of space hese (1004) a diferent heating devices: an electric resistance hea electic heat pump. ny energy efficiencys COP, cote performance. ei % ‘The energy efficiency of electric resistance heating is often said to exceed 99%. The implicating is that the maximum possible energy efficiency electric resistance heating is 100%, corresponding the most efficient device possible. This understanding is erroneous, however, be. cause energy analysis ignores the fact that in thy process high-quality energy (electricity) is used to produce a relatively low-quality product (warm air, Exergy analysis recognizes this difference in e qualities and indicates that the exergy of the heat delivered to the room is approximately 5% of te exergy entering the heater. Thus, based on exergy, the efficiency of electric resistance space heating is approximately 5%. ‘We therefore obtain useful information from the exergy results. Since thermodynamically ideal spat heating has an exergy efficiency of 100%, the same space heating can theoretically be achieved using a5 little as 5% of the electricity used in conventional electric resistance space heating, In practical terms, one can achieve space heating with a greatly reduced electricity input using a high-efficiency electric beat pump (Fig. 1), using 15% of the electricity that electric resistance heating would require for a bet Pump with a coefficient of performance of 7. 6. SIMPLE SYSTEM: THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM A thermal energy storage (TES) system 1 thermal energy and holds the energy ust! & Fequired. TESs can store energy at temper! i E above or below the environment remperatut there are man 'y types of systems (e.g., tanks, 44 ponds, and caverns), ies it is Scanned with CamScannerThe evaluation of a TES system requires a measure of performance that is rational, meaningful, and practical, The conventional energy storage efficiency is an inadequate measure. A more percep- tive basis for comparison is needed if the true tsefulness of thermal storages is to be assessed and thus permit maximization of their economic benefit. Efficiencies based on ratios of exergy provide rational measures of performance since they can measure the approach of the performance of a system to the ideal. ‘That the energy efficiency is an inappropriate measure of thermal storage performance can best be appreciated by a simple example. Consider a perfectly insulated thermal storage containing 1000kg of water, initially at 40°C. The ambient temperature is 20°C, and the specific heat of water is taken to be constant at 4.2kJ/kgK. A quantity of 4200 kJ of heat is transferred to the storage through a heat exchanger from an external body of 100kg of water cooling from 100 to 90°C. This heat addition raises the storage temperature 1.0°C to 41°C. After a period of storage, 4200 kJ of heat is recovered from the storage through a heat exchanger that delivers it to an external body of 100kg of water, raising the temperature of that water from 20 to 30°C. The storage is returned to its initial state at 40°C. For this storage cycle the energy efficiency, which is the ratio of the heat recovered from the storage to the heat injected, is 4200/4200kJ=1, or 100%. However, the recovered heat is at only 30°C and of litle use, having been degraded even though the storage energy efficiency was 100%. The exergy recovered in this example is evaluated as 70kJ and the exergy supplied as 856KJ. Thus, the exergy cffciency, which is the ratio of the thermal exergy recovered from storage to that injected, is 70/ 856=0.082, or 8,2%—a much more meaningful expression of the achieved performance of the TES. ‘Consequently, a device that appears to be ideal on an energy basis is correctly shown to be far from ideal on an exergy basis, clearly demonstrating the benefits of using exergy analysis for evaluating TESs. 7. COMPLEX SYSTEM: COAL-FIRED ELECTRICAL GENERATING STATION Energy and exergy analyses are applied to a coal- electrical generating station. The coal-fired Nanticoke Generating Station is selected as the Fepresentative station for the analysis. The station Exergy Analysis of Energy Systems = 611. has a net unit electrical output of approximately 500 MWe and is operated by the provincial electrical utility, Ontario Power Generation (formerly Ontario Hydro), in Ontario, Canada. This example clearly illustrates how exergy analysis allows process in- efficiencies to be better determined than does an energy analysis and efficiencies to be more rationally evaluated. Consequently, the example identifies areas in which the potential for performance improvement is high and trends that may aid in the design of future stations. 7.1 Process Description ‘A detailed flow diagram for a single unit of the station is shown in Fig. 2. The symbols identifying the streams are described in Table I, in which data are provided for the streams. The diagram in Fig. 2 is divided into four main sectior © Steam generation: Heat is produced and used to generate and reheat steam. In the station, eight pulverized coal-fired natural circulation steam gen- erators each produce 453.6 kg/s steam at 16.89 MPa and 538°C and 411.3kg/s of rcheat steam at 4.00 MPa and 538°C. Air is supplied to the furnace by two 1080-KW, 600-rpm motor-driven forced-draft fans. Regenerative air preheaters are used. The flue gas passes through an electrostatic precipitator rated at 99.5% collection efficiency and exits the plant through two multiflued, 198-m-high chimneys. '* Power production: The steam produced in the steam generation section is passed through a series of turbine generators that are attached to a transformer. Extraction steam from several points on the turbines preheats feedwater in several low- and high-pressure heat exchangers and one spray-type open deaerating heat exchanger. The low-pressure turbines exhaust to the condenser at 5 kPa. Each station unit has a 3600- rpm, tandem-compound, impulse-reaction turbine generator containing one single-flow high-pressure cylinder, one double-flow intermediate-pressure cy- linder, and two double-flow low-pressure cylinders. Steam exhausted from the high-pressure cylinder is reheated in the combustor. ‘© Condensation: Cooling water from Lake Erie condenses the steam exhausted from the turbines. The flow rate of cooling water is adjusted so that a specified temperature increase in the cooling water is achieved across the condenser. ‘# Prebeating: The temperature and pressure of the feedwater are increased in a series of pumps and feedwater-heater heat exchangers. Scanned with CamScannerG12 Exergy Analysis of Energy Systems FIGURE 2 _& unit ofthe coal-fired electrical generating station. Lines exiting the turbines represent exteaction steam. The sation has four main sections Steam pnerstion (A), poner prodaction (BE, condeston (Py and preheating (OTe external inputs for device A are coal and air, and the output is stack gas and solid waste. The external outputs for device E are electricity and waste heat. Electricity is input to devices G and J, and cooling water enters and exits device FA, steam enerator and reheater; B, high-pressure turbine; C, intermediate-pressure turbine; D, low-pressure turbines; E, generator and transformer; F, condenser; G, hot well pump; H, low-pressure heat exchangers, open deacrating heat exchanger J, boiler feed ump; K, high-pressure heat exchangers. 7.2. Analysis Assumptions and Simplifications The reference environment model used here has a temperature of 15°C (the approximate mean tem- perature of the lake cooling water), a pressure of 1 atm, a chemical composition consisting of air saturated with water vapor, and the following condensed phases at 15°C and latm: water (H,0), gypsum (CaSO,+2H30), and limestone (CaCO), For simplicity, heat losses from external surfaces are assumed to occur at the reference environment temperature of 15°C. 7.3 Results and Discussion Energy and exergy values for the streams identified in Fig. 2 are summarized in Table I. Exergy consump- tion values for the devices are listed, according to process diagram sections, in Table II. Figures 3 and 4 illustrate the net energy and exergy flows and exergy consumptions for the four main process diagram sections described in the legend to Fig, 2. Overall energy and exergy efficiencies are evalu: ated as Energy efficiency = (net energy output with electricity) 4 (energy input) @) and Exergy efficiency = (net exergy output with electricity) "(exergy input) J Coal is the only input source of energy or exergy fo the station, and the energy and exergy efficiencesar 37-and 36%, respectively. The small difference inthe efficiencies is due to the fact that the specific chemi exergy of coal is slightly greater than its ener. Although the energy and exergy efficiencies fr the station are similar, these efficiencies differ marked for many station sections. In the steam generation section, exergy consum- tions are substantial, accounting for 659 MW (72%), of the 916 MW total exergy losses for the station. Of the 659MW of exergy consumed in this setioo, 444 MW is due to combustion and 215 MW to bet transfer. The energy and exergy efficiencies for ‘steam generation section, considering the increas® i energy or exergy of the water as the product 3 and 49%, respectively. The steam generation 6 thus appears significantly more efficient on ane™ basis than on an exergy basis. Physics discrepancy implies that although 95% of th i! energy is transferred to the preheated Watet energy is degraded as it is transferred analysis highlights this degradation. Scanned with CamScannerTABLET flow Data for @ Unt ofthe Coal-Fired Electrical Generating Station Mase flow rate Temperature Pressure jow rate. Exergy flow rate seam_ te £ (Nims) Yaportacioat "May IM a 4174 15.00 1.01 x10 Solid 1367.58 1426.73 st 668.41 15.00 1.01108 10 0.00 0.00 2. nos 167359 ton eao! 7 saa omas “ Tos 119.44 1.01 «108 10 7439 27 5A 453.59 538.00 1.62107 10 1585.28 718.74 8 42.84 323.36 3.65 x 10% 1.0 135.44 51.81 10 367-85 35.63 4.50%10° 00 3652 120 sit 367.85 3573 1.00 x 108 00 37.09 170 si 58.82 188.33 Lai xi0° 00 028 mat 3B 18,636.00 1500 1.01 «10° 09 0.00 0.00 si 18,636.00 23.30 41.01 «10° 00 74595 10.54 315 410.75 32336 3.65 x 108 10 1298.59 496.81 20 oe 360.50 1.03 x 10° 1.0 1211.05 411.16 a 410.75 538.00 4.00 x 10° 10 1494.16 61642 oy 15.98 423.23 17x10 10 S44 2002 95 26.92 360.50 1.03 106 10 88.64 30.09 3 309.62 35.63 450% 10 093 77470 5407 oe 1047 253.22 379% 105 10 3231 924 35 23.88 209.93 241 «10° 10 773 1882 36 wn 108.32 6.8910" 10 3877 742 37 11.16 6047 345x104 10 3040 5.03 $38 58.23, 55.56 1.33% 108 00 1137 073 39 367.85, 124.86 1.00% 108 00 19594 3041 40 453.59 165.86 1.00% 108 00 334.86 66.52 st 453.59 169.28 162% 107 00 34705, 7787 sa 453.59 22824 162x107 00 486.75 13193 we 534 0.00 a6 529 0.00 " 057 0s7 "8 523.68 523.68 mS 1219 119 "The composition of all streams is 100% HzO, except Nz and 21% O,, and that of both $3 and Sis 79% Na, 6% Oa» That on a volume basis the composition of SI is 100% carbon, that of S2is 79% and 15% CO, "Vapor fraction is listed as 0.0 for liquids and 1.0 for supecheated vapors, «Scream $3 (not shown in Fig. 2) represents t A large quantity of energy (75 MW for each unit) enters the condensers, of which nearly 100% is rejected, and a small quantity of exergy (S4MW for each unit) enters, of which approxi- ately 25% is rejected and 75% is internally consumed. Thus, energy analysis results lead to the erroneous conclusion that almost all losses_in clectricity-generation potential for the station are associated with the heat rejected by the condensers, Whereas exergy analysis demonstrates quantita- the hot product gases for adiabatic combustion. tively and directly that the condensers are respon- sible for little of these losses (Fig. 4). This discre- pancy arises because heat is rejected by the condensers at a temperature very near that of the environment. In the power production and preheating sections, energy losses were found to be very small (<10 MW total), and exergy losses were moderately small (118MW jin the power production section and 23MW in the preheating section). The exergy losses Scanned with CamScanner614 Exergy Analysis of Energy Systems TABLE I Breakdown by Section and Device of Exergy Consumption Rates for a Unit of the Coal-Fired Electrical Generating Station Exergy consumption Seetion/device rate (MW) Section/device 0 Steam generation section Steam generator including 639.0 combustor) Power production setion High-pressure euchine 264 Invermediatepresuce turbine 223 Low-pressure turbines 59.2 Generator 53 Transformer 53 “oral 1185 ‘Condensation section Condenser 434 Preheat section Low-pressure heat exchangers 10.7 Deserating heat exchanger sa High-pressure heat exchangers 64 Hot well pumps 01 Boiler feed pumps 1 Total 234 “otal consumption rate 440 ——— are almost completely associated with internal consumptions. In assessing the thermodynamic characteristics of a coal-fired electrical generating station, several insights into the performance of such stations have been obtained. First, although energy and exergy efficiencies are similar for the station, energy analyses do not systematically identify the loca- tion and cause of process inefficiencies, whereas exergy analyses do. Specifically, energy losses are associated with emissions (mainly heat re- jected by condensers) and exergy losses primarily with consumptions (mainly in the combustors). Second, since devices with the largest thermo- dynamic losses have the largest. margins for efficiency improvement, efforts to increase the efficiencies of coal-fired electrical generating sta- tions should focus on the combustors. For instance, technologies capable of producing electricity without combustion (e.g., fuel cells) or utilizing heat at high temperatures could increase effi- ciencies significantly. This suggestion, of course, is overly simplistic because such decisions require consideration of other technical and economic factors in addition to thermodynamic efficiency. FIGURE 3. Simplified energy diagram for 2 unit of fired electrical generating station, indicating net energy fy (MI) for streams. Stream widths are proportional to ere rates, Station sections shown are steam generation (5G) production (RR), condensation (C.), and preheating (2 Se Shown are electrical power (P), heat input (Q), and hen wet (Qa. 6) 5 =550| a ir 132 ° P. v4er 3 oi at 13. Wt IW Pl ¥0r (MIW). Stream widths are proportional to exergy fow shaded regions are proportional to exergy consume Other details are as in the legend to Fig. 3. - 6 Third, the use of heat rejected by comm only increases the exergy efficiencies by * percent. Scanned with CamScannerAGGREGATE ENERGY SYSTEM: OFA COUNTRY . 4, MACROSYSTEM: THE ‘The energy-utlization efficiency of a macrosystem, och asa region OF country, can be areced beneficially using exergy analysis, This section ilustrates how the efficiency of energy utilization a particular macrosystem, Canada, can be examined using both energy and exergy analyses. This example jc based on a 1992 publication by the author titled “Evaluation of Energy Utilization Efficiency in Canada Using Energy and Exergy Analyses,” which sed Canadian energy data for 1986, ‘The relation between energy resources and sectors of a macrosystem can be modeled as in Fig. 5. The energy resources considered here are coal, petroleum, natural gas, nuclear energy, and hydraulic energy. Renewable energy resources (e.g., wind, solar, wave, and tidal) are neglected since the quantity used in Canada is minor relative to other resources. Four sectors are considered. The residential-commercial sector, which is driven mainly by fossil fuels and clectricity, includes residential, public administra- tion, commercial, and other institutional buildings and involves as principal devices space heaters, water heaters, cooking appliances, and clothes dryers. The transportation sector is primarily driven by fossil fuels and includes rail, marine, ait, road and urban transport, pipelines, and retail pump sales. The industrial sector has as its main tasks work produc- tion and heating and includes mines, steam genera- tion, pulp and paper mills, cement, iron and steel nills, petroleum refining, smelting and refining, other manufacturing, agriculture, chemicals, and non- energy uses. The utility sector includes processes for electricity generation from coal, petroleum, natural gas, and muclear and hydraulic energy sources. The same reference environment model as used in the Waste et Roateniat |i Product Resources || Ie| industrial [waste > = Product, |__| sfrransporaton FIGURE 5 illustration of the energy flows in a macrosystem. Exergy Analysis of Energy Systems 615 previous section is used here but with a reference environment temperature of 25°C (except where noted). 8.1 Principal Types of Processes and Their Efficiencies -s are based on the Energy and exergy efficienci following general definition: (energy in products) (oral energyinput) Energy efficiency = and (exergy in products) ¢, Exergy efficiency = (oral exergy input)” © The main types of processes encountered, for which energy and exergy efficiencies are evaluated, are as follows: # Heating: Electric and fossil fuel heating pro- cesses are taken to generate product heat at a constant temperature. # Work production: Electric and fossil fuel work production processes produce shaft work. ‘© Electricity generation: Electricity is generated from fossil fuel, nuclear, and hydraulic sources. The hydraulic source is taken to be the change in kinetic and potential energy of flowing water (even though coal equivalents are often used to represent hydraulic energy inputs). The nuclear source is taken to be nuclear-derived heat at a temperature so high that the energy and exergy of the nuclear-derived heat are equivalent. The efficiency definitions for nuclear plants used here follow nuclear industry conventions (although these efficiency definitions are inadequate because they are based on the heat released from the nuclear fuel rather than its energy or exergy content). ‘ Kinetic energy production: Fossil fuel-driven kinetic energy production processes occur in some transportation-sector devices (e.g., turbojet engines) and increase the kinetic energy of matter. 8.2 Sector Analyses 8.2.1 Transportation Sector In the first four columns of Table III, a breakdown is presented by mode of transport of sector energy use, whereas the last two columns show corresponding energy efficiencies. Since vehicles generally are not operated at full load, a distinction is made between Scanned with CamScanner616 Exergy Analysis of Energy Systems TABLE It ‘Transportation Sector Data Energy used in the sector, by mode of transport Enerayefciene lena Mode of transport ‘Main fuel types yy % Rated load erang Rail Diesel 78.39 46 35 5 ic neha 131.2 81 35 ¥ Marine Diesel, gasoline 4a 46 = as Road and urban transit Gasoline, diesel, propane, 164.3 ‘suit oe 2 electricity Retail pump sales Gasoline, diesel, propane 1093 672 as % Pipelines Naaral io 86.21 53 = 9 TABLE IV TABLE V Electricity-Generation Data for the Utility and Industrial Sectors SS ae ee eee eens Energy Mode of Electrical energy Energy input ficiency sencration generated (PJ)" ep 9) Hydraulic? 1000 1176 8s Nuclear 230. 767.0 30 Fossil 293.0 9156 32 “Hydraulic and nuclear generation i entirely within the wily sector, whereas 262.3P] of fosil generation is within the utility sector and the remainder is within the industrial sector. The contribution by diferent fossil fuels is 91.2% coal, 6.7% petroleum, and 2.1% natural gas. ‘The hydraulic source is taken to be the change in kinetic and potential energy of lowing water and nota fossil fucl equivalent. rated load (full load) and operating (part load) efficiencies. The energy efficiencies in Table III are equal to the corresponding exergy efficiencies. Weighted means are obtained for the transporta- tion-mode energy efficiencies in Table III, where the weighting factor is the fraction of the total sector energy input that supplies each transportation mode (fourth column in Table Il). Thus, the weighted mean overall efficiency for the transportation sector based on energy, which is equal to that based on exergy, is 18%. 8.2.2 Utility Sector For the different types of electricity generation, Table IV lists energy efficiencies and the quantities of electricity generated and energy inputs. The energy efficiencies in Table IV are equal to the correspon exergy efficiencies. Using data from this Energy Consumption Data for the Residential-Commercial Sector a EER Energy used in the sector, by type (%) ee eee br et Devices Electrical Fuel Teal Space heaters 15.0 795 60 Water heaters 140 15.0 100 Cooking appliances 50 4s 7 Clothes deyers 50 10 13 Others* 610 00 210 eee “This category includes fans, pumps aie condones, ee exators, freezers, washers, lights, etc. mean overall energy and exergy efficiencies forth utility sector are found to be equal at 53%. 8.2.3 Residential-Commercial Sector Energy end-use quantities for this sector are list Table V. Operating data for the principal deviees ® the sector are listed in Table VI and are used © determine the device exergy efficiencies. re a mean energy and exergy efficiencies are calsvatt for the overall residential-commercial secto" a three-step process. First, weighted means eee cry efficient for the devices in Table Vi, where she Welt) oth cases is the ratio of the elect) ut to the device to the total ee P ‘of the devices (as sive ni and exergy aa Se fe Scanned with CamScannerTABLE VE pasce Data for the Residential-Commercal Sector Exergy Analysis of Energy Systems 617 Heating efficiency (%) Product roduchet temperature (K) aa : ci ud Devices Electrical Seeererre erect ud i sey Ea Ene a sce heaters 328 ow al = a = a 1000 WA 0 m4 anlage = 93.0 254 20 140 Clothes dryers: 350, 50 oe aa _ a en 30 09 96 500 103 sponding ference environment temperate a peratrcs are 72K or space heating and 283K for ll other devise ces forthe fst fueldrven devies in Table VI are TABLE VI Sia detrnined a 64 and 12%, respectively. - Process Heating Te ved, overall weighted means are obtained for the fences sofas pons energy and exergy eflcencies for the electrical and ee ie fs fuel processes together, where the weighting Heating oety feetoris the ratio of the toral energy (either fossil fuel Frodets bene rodets best flcency (6) Ge electrical) input to the residential-commercial eat ‘ange CO —_-Eeeieal sector to the toral energy input to the sector. Since re 54%. of the 2129PJ input to the residential Le am 100) i We ea seaor Wi oiecieal atinge ao the | 11-399 ae High 2399 mn 50 jergy, the weighted mean remaining 66% is fuel en ficiencies for the sector overall energy and exergy el are 73 and 14%, respectively. These means. are representative of the sector since the devices in Table Vi account for more than half of the total sector energy consumption. 8.2.4 Industrial Sector The industrial sector is composed of many industries, cach of which encompasses a wide variety of complex plants. The five most significant industries vere identified, and a single representative comer Cal process for each was examined. The identified industries with the selected commercial processes are 48 follows: «Pulp and paper (integrated paper ill * Ion and steel (blast furnace and see * Cement (hydraulic cement factory) * Petroleum (petroleum refining plant) * Chemical [NEC (salt) chemical preparation These five industries are taken ro be representa of the sector since they account for approximately half Of the sector energy Use- Only heating and me Considered since these proc ofthe industril-sector enerBY heating and 15% for mechani plant) | mill plant) plant] processes are count for 81% ion (66% for consumpti ‘eal drives). Following chanical esses ack TTemperaeue ranges were determined subjectively after examining many commercial processes. re categories in Table VIL, process heat ve selected commercial processes are fied in Table VIIL, with the percentages of the heat in each range supplied by fossil fuels and rrtrciy, Canadian energy consumption in the foam of electricity and fossil fuels for each of the five main industries is listed in Table IX, with a Prestdown of the total energy demand. The values area ined by averaging the percentage of electrical are incl energy demands for cach of the industries shown. ‘Subsequently, steam (from utilities) is treated spon industrial-sector product and thus passes heough the sector unchanged, and electricity ger eration in the industrial sector is included in the utility sector. Three steps are used in evaluating industry efficiencies, First, energy and exergy efficiencies are obtained for process heating for each of the temperature range categories in Table VIII using data from Tables ‘Vil and VIII. Second, mean heating dar poand exergy efciencies for each of the fe ener te (ace the fifth and sixth columns of Tabic TX) are evaluated using @ two-step procedure: (i) the temperata data for the fi Scanned with CamScanner618 Exergy Analysis of Enecpy Systems TABLE VII Industrial Sector rat Temperature for the Indust Process Heating Data fr All Categories of Product Heat TemPert Energy used in each product hea f BY Sype |) Mean product heat = Product heat temperature Mean ee CC) Electricity Pa Industry category a 100.0 09 Low Pulp and paper ae 160 00 0 ae 72 00 17 45 42 09 Low Iron and see es 00 a Medium ee ab 983 ; 1000 an 31 a7 08 Cement Low Medium 163 ed 20 ay 1482 83 oa Petroleum Low 87 104 1s Medium 27 94 ne High 494 80.4 66 Chemical Low . a se a, Medium 141 375 1000 High o 00 oo TABLE IX Process Data for the Industrial Sector Energy and exergy efficiencies) Energy used in sector, by ype Heating Toul Industry Electrical (Pf) Fuel (PJ) Total (%) Energy Exergy Energy Eo pulp and payee 114 169.6 168 80.0 204 #20 ao Icon and steel” 1558.7 284.5 172 58.0 434 64.0 wD Cement 5.38 $2.29 14 56.0 as a3 ” Petroleum 1645 87.81 29 65.0 29.4 700 wo Chemical 63.00 140.8 74 no 185 745 » “This category includes smelting and refining industrial operations, Weighted mean efficiencies for electrical heating and mechanical drive energy efficiencies of 90% 21 for fuel heating are evaluated for each industry in ‘Table VIII using as weighting factors the values listed in the last two columns of Table VIII, and (ii) weighted mean efficiencies for all heating processes in each industry are evaluated with these values using as weighting factors the ratio of the industry energy consumption (electrical or fuel) to the total con- sumption of both electrical and fuel energy (Table IX). Third, weighted mean overall (i.e., heating and mechanical drive) efficiencies for each industry are evaluated using the values in Table TX, assuming using as weighting factors the fractions of al sector energy input for both heating and mecha drives (as noted earlier). Weighted means for the weight energy and exergy efficiencies (listed in the Bt columns of Table IX) for the five principal indi, in the industrial sector are obtained, wo weighting factors the fraction of the toral inc energy demand supplied to each industry (8 "at the fourth column of Table IX), as 73 #4 respectively. il ced mean ove he las Scanned with CamScannerEtictency (4) aE «=: 5 2 a #62 6U©@ehlCUEOR | é hel FIGURE 6 Energy and exergy efficiencies for the four main sectors of the Canadian economy and forthe overall economy, 8.2.5 Sector Comparison ‘The efficiencies for the four sectors and for the overall Canadian economy are compared in Fig, 6. The energy efficiencies range from 18 to 73% and the exergy efficiencies from 14 to 53%. The most efficient sectors on energy and exergy bases are different. The residential-commercial sector exhibits the greatest differences for energy and exergy evaluations. The most significant differences between energy and exergy efficiencies are attributable to heating pro- cesses. For example, the overall exergy efficiency of the residential-commercial sector (149%) is much lower than the overall energy efficiency (73%) because Hydro power Nuclear Power N.gas NGL's and LPG's end uses 8.72 04 Petroleum, Exergy Analysis of Energy Systems 619 high-quality energy (ie., high exergy) sources are used for low-quality energy (ie., low exergy) demands. The higher exergy efficiency of the industrial sector is ‘mainly attributable to the high temperatures required for most industrial heating (= 400°C) compared to residential-commercial heating (225°C). The indus- ‘rial sector thus utilizes relatively more of the quality ot work potential of fuels. 8.3 Analyses for the Overall Macrosystem Figures 7 and 8 illustrate, respectively, the flows of energy and exergy in Canada for the year considered. The left sides of the figures consist of the total energy or exergy inputs to all sectors by fuel type. These quantities are then branched according to sector demand. Fuels such as coal, gas, and petroleum are routed to “fuel for electricity” and include fuels used to produce electricity by utilities as well as by industry. Similarly, “fuel for end uses” represents the net fuel requirement for all sectors and is routed together with electricity and steam flows to the sectors. The final branching into useful and waste energy is achieved by multiplying the energy for end use (fuel, steam, and electricity) in each sector by the corresponding efficiency (see the values summarized in Fig. 6). The energy flow diagram indicates that nearly 50% of the total energy consumed in Canada is, Wasted energy Usetul energy FIGURE 7 Flows of energy (EJ) in Canada. Widehs of lines are proportional to the magnitude of the quantity represented. Hydraulic energy is reported in kinetic ene: vay equivalent. The portion of coal, petroleum, and natural gas used for indusrial- ‘ecto electric gone ation are routed tothe utity sector and then back ro the industrial sector in the form of electricity. The ‘©w associated with the symbol 1/represents steam produced in the utility sector for the end-use sectors, Scanned with CamScanner620 _Exergy Analysis of Energy Systems Petroleum FIGURE 8 Flows of exergy (E) converted to useful energy for end uses, and that the transportation and utility sectors produce the most waste, The exergy flow diagram differs markedly from the energy diagram in that only 24% of Canadian exergy consumption is converted to useful exergy for end uses, with the residential-commercial and industrial sectors producing the greatest waste. Thus, energy analysis indicates a more limited margin for efficiency improvement than exergy analysis. However, only exergy analysis indicates the margin for improvement that actually exists. Therefore, by using exergy rather than energy analysis, energy utilization efficiency in the macro- system is more clearly illuminated, and more rational assessments are obtained for allocations of energy- related research and development (R&D). 9, CONCLUSIONS Exergy analyses of energy systems provide useful information that can have direct implications on designs, improvements, and application decisions. Furthermore, exergy analyses, more than energy analyses, provide insights into better directions for R&D. Here, “better” is loosely taken to mean “more promising for significant efficiency gains.” There are two main reasons for this statement: « Exergy losses represent true losses of the potential that exists to generate the desired product from the given driving input. This is not true in general for energy losses. Thus, if the objective is to Canada, Details are as given in the legend to Fig. 7. increase efficiency while accounting for enery degradation, focusing on exergy losses peri R&D to focus on reducing losses that will affer the objective. «Exergy efficiencies always provide a measure of how closely the operation of a system approaches te ideal, or theoretical upper limit. This is not generally true for energy efficiencies. By focusing R&D o those plant sections or processes with the lowest exergy efficiencies, effort is directed to those ares that inherently have the largest margins for effcieny improvement. By focusing on energy efficiencies, a the other hand, one can inadvertently expend R&D effort on areas for which little margins for improve ment, even theoretically, exist. Exergy analysis results typically suggest impo ment efforts should concentrate more on inten! rather than external exergy losses, based on them dynamic considerations, with a higher priosity the processes having larger exergy losses. Note tit this statement does not indicate that effor shoul not be devoted to processes having low exergy los because simple and cost-effective ways to incttat efficiency by reducing small exergy losses sh certainly be considered when identified. u In general, application and R&D decisions sel not be based exclusively on the results of enersy exergy analyses, even though these results pro useful information to assist in such decision ™ oe Other factors must also be considered suf economics, environmental impact, safety, 2nd 5% and political implications. Scanned with CamScannerSEE ALSO THE FOLLOWING ARTICLES Conservation of Energy, Overview + nomics * Exergy * Exergy Analysis of Waste Emissions * Exergy: Reference States and. Bala Conditions + Thermodynamic Sciences, History of « ‘Thermodynamics, Laws of ore Further Reading Brodyanski, V. M. Sorin, M. V., and Le Goff, P. (1994), “The ficiency of Industrial Processes: Exergy Analysis and Opti zation.” Elsevier, London. Cee Dincer I, and Rosen, M. A. (2002). Energy and exergy analyses of See eS ee Systems and Applications,” pp. 411-510. Wiley, London, Koras, T. J. (1995). “The Exergy Method of Thermal Plant “Analysis” Reprint. Krieger, Malabar, FL. ‘Moran, M. J. (1989). “Availability Analysis: A Guide to Efcent Energy Use.” Rev. ed. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York. M, J and Sciubba, E, (1994). Exergy analysis: Pin- ciples and” practice. J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power 116, 285-290, Moran, M, J. and Shapiro, H.N. (2000). “Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics.” 4th ed. Wiley, New York. Rosen, M. A, (1992). Evaluation of energy utilization efficiency ia ‘Canada using energy and exergy analyses. Energy Int. J. 175 339-350, Rosen, M. A. (1999). Second law analysis: Approaches and implications. In. J. Energy Res. 23, 415-429. Rosen, M. A. (2001). Energy- and exergy-based comparison of ‘conbfired and nuclear steam power plants. Exergy Int. J. 1, 180-192. Rosen, M. A. and Dincer, I. (1997), Sectoral energy and exersy ‘modeling of Turkey. ASME J. Energy Resources Technol. 119, 200-204. Rosen, M. A and Horazak, D. A. (1995). Energy and excrey ‘analyses of PFBC power plants. In “Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustion” (M. Alvarez Cuenca and E. J. Anthony, Eds.) PP. 419-48, Chapman & Hall, London. Seargut, J, Mortis, D. R., and Steward, FR. (1988). “Exergy, “Analysis of Thermal, Chemical and Metallurgical Processes.” Hemisphere, New York. ‘Yantovski, E- L. (1994). “Energy and Exergy Currents: An Introduction to Exergonomies.” Nova Science, New York. Scanned with CamScannerEDITORIAL BOARD Editor-in-Chief CUTLER J. CLEVELAND Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts United States Associate Editors ROBERT U. AYRES efor te Nanagenert of Enron ee oie Puan, and Chalmers Inst ROBERT COSTANZA verity of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont, United States José GOLDEMBERG University of Sio Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil MARIJA D. ILIC Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States EBERHARD JOCHEM Swiss Federal institute of Technology. Zurich, Switzerland, and Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research, Karlsruhe, Germany ROBERT K. KAUFMANN Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States AMORY B. LOVINS Rocky Mowntain Institute, Snowmass, Colorado, United States MOHAN MUNASINGHE Munasinghe Institute for Development, Colombo, Sri Lanka R. K. PACHAURI ‘The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), New Delhi, India PER F. PETERSON University of California, Berkeley, California, United States LEE SCHIPPER World Resources Insitute, Washington, D.C., United States CLAUDIA SHEINBAUM PARDO Ita denen, iver Naina atmo de Misc Coyoacan, México - iss MARGARET SLADE University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom VACLAV SMIL University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada ERNST WORRELL : US. Department of Energy, Law Beka Cannel Enea, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory mental Resources, INSEAD, situte of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden Scanned with CamScannerd a. aS ries ; Cnergy - Editor-in-Chief CUTLER J. CLEVELAND Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States Ec-Ge VOLUME 2 ” a ELSEVIER ‘ACADEMIC PRESS ‘Amsterdam Boston Heidelberg London New York Quord. Pacis San Diego San Francisco Singapore Sydney Tokyo Scanned with CamScanner| This book is printed on acid-free paper (© 2004, Elevir Inc, All rights reserved. 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