Chapter-6

Weathering and Erosion

- Weathering, Erosion, Denudation
- Types of Weathering (Chemical, Physical)
- Processes of Chemical Weathering
- Effects of Chemical Weathering
- Mechanical Weathering and its Processes
- Major Actions of Mechanical Weathering
- Factors Effecting weathering
- Effects of Weathering
 Weathering:
The rocks break and undergo decay under the
influence of the atmospheric agencies like wind, sun,
frost, water and organisms and produce soil. This
phenomenon is called weathering. The weathering
includes two processes;
• Disintegration or physical breaking.
• Decomposition or chemical decay.
Chemical and Physical weathering take place side by
side. Chemical weathering weakens the rocks and
physical weathering breaks them.
Chemical and Physical Weathering
Chemical and Physical Weathering
 Erosion:
It is transportation and removal of weathering
products from the place of their formation.
Denudation:
The combined effect of weathering and erosion
is called denudation. It involves the general wearing
down of the earth’s surface.
 Types of Weathering
Two types of weathering:
(i) Chemical Weathering
(ii) Physical Weathering
• Chemical Weathering:
- In chemical weathering or rock decomposition the
rock and minerals are transformed into new forms.
- These new minerals are weathering products and
they may contain different properties than the
parent rocks.
- Water plays an important role in chemical
weathering.
 Processes of Chemical Weathering
(a) Solution(Carbonation)
Dissociation of minerals into irons. It is aided by
presence of CO2 in the soil which forms carbonic acid
(H2CO3) with percolating rain water. This acid reacts with
the rocks e.g. Limestone, Dolomite, rock salt, gypsum etc.
(b) Oxidation:
The combination of oxygen with a mineral to form
oxides and hydroxides. e.g. Rusting. Iron oxides and
hydroxides produce red and yellow colors.
(c) Reduction:
The release of oxygen from a mineral causing
precipitation.
Carbonation
Oxidation
Reduction
(d) Hydration
Absorption of water molecules into the mineral structure.
It normally results in expansion. Some clays expand as
much as 60%.
(e) Hydrolysis
Hydrogen ions in percolating water replace mineral
cations. No oxidation- reduction occurs.
(f) Leaching
The migration of ions produced by above processes. The
mobility of ions depends upon their ionic potential. Ca, Mg,
Na, K, are easily leached by moving water. Fe and Si are
more resistant and Al is almost immoveable.
(g) Cation Exchange
Absorption onto the surface of negatively charged clay of
positively charged cation in solution, especially Ca, H, K,
Mg.
Leaching
Hydration
Chemical Weathering
Effects of Chemical Weathering
• The effects of chemical weathering are mostly seen in
its solvent action(Solution or carbonation) on some
rocks mainly lime stones and those rocks containing
soluble minerals like Halite (NaCl) Anhydrite(CaSO4)
and Gypsum(CaSO42H2O).
• Limestone (CaCO3) is slowly dissolved by rain water
containing CO2 and held in solution as calcium
bicarbonate, thus
CaCO3 +H2O+CO2------- Ca(HCO3)2
• This process causes development of caves, gordges,
cavern (underground cavity ), surface cavities, vertical
joints opened(grikes), solution channels and
development of Karst(sinks and holes) topography.
Effects of Chemical Weathering
Effects of Chemical Weathering
Development of Cavity
Development of Karst by Chemical Weathering
• Mechanical Weathering
Mechanical weathering is physical weathering or
disintegration of rocks by mechanical processes such as
wind, water, temperature etc.
Processes of Mechanical Weathering:
(a) Mechanical Unloading
Expansion of fractures and cracks due to the reduction
of vertical load by erosion. This will open existing
fractures and may permit the creation of new fractures.
Mechanical Unloading
 (b) Mechanical Loading
Impact on rock and abrasion by sand and silt particles
in deserts. Impact of rainfall and rain drops on soil and
weak rocks.

(c) Thermal Loading

Expansion by freezing of water in pores and fractures
in cold regions or expansion by heating and contraction
by cooling in hot and cold regions.
Mechanical Loading
Effects of Weathering
(d) Wetting and Drying
Expansion and contraction associated with repeated
absorption and loss of water.
(e) Crystallization
Expansion of pores and fissures by crystallization of
solutions in the structures.
(f) Pneumatic Loading
The repeated action of waves of air in the wave zone of
a sea cliff.
 Major Actions of Mechanical Weathering
(a) Frost Action
In cold climates repeated freezing breaks off flakes
and angular fragments from exposed rock surfaces. It
leads to formation of screes on mountain slopes.
(b) Insolation
In hot climatic regions the expansion occurs during
day time and contraction at night. This process
weakens the rock surface. Hence flakes and slabs split
off. This process is known as Insolation.
Frost Action
 (c) Rivers
• Rivers are big source of erosion.
• It results in widening and deepening of their valleys.
The rate is enhanced during flood season.
• Rivers are the main agents of transport the material
in the suspension form and deposit this material
along their course and in the lakes.
• Ultimately most of the eroded material reaches the
sea.
• Waterfalls and gorges are formed when rivers or
streams flow on rocks of different hardness.
Erosional Feature of River
River Erosion
Water Fall
 (d) Seas
• The sea waves which break on a shore erode land
margin by the force of their impact especially in the
storms.
• These tides carry coarse sand and debris. Therefore,
beach deposits in the form of these material are
formed.
• Meanwhile some deposits at sea floor are also
formed in the form of oceanic clay or volcanic dust
etc.
Formation of Debris by Pneumatic Loading
 (e) Wind
• The much of the Earth's solar energy is gained by
the tropics and lost at poles.
• It results in creating a system of global winds which
are responsible of much erosion.
• The work of denudation by wind is seen in regions
that have a hot dry climate.
• The sand and other particles are carried by the wind.
• Consequently new topography is formed.
• These particles also act as sand paper. This action
sometimes create mushroom shaped rocks in the
desert.
Wind Erosion
Wind Action
(f) Ice and Glaciers
• Ice is formed by compaction of snow in cold regions
and at high altitudes.
• The ice when becomes thick and hard converts into
glaciers.
• Sometimes these glaciers start moving on mountain
slopes.
• As these glaciers move they carry debris and broken
rock pieces of different size.
• All the material carried by these ice and glaciers is
called glaciated material.
Erosion by a Glacier
Glaciated Material
 Factors Effecting Weathering
(a) Kind and Structure of Rocks
(i)Hard or soft (ii) Porous or non porous (iii) Soluble or
not (iv) Exposure of the rock (vi) Joint system i.e. wide
or closed spaced (vii) Stability of mineral contents.
(b) Climate
Hot, cold, wet, dry etc.
(c) Slope
Steep or gentle
Vegetation Cover
It reduces the exposure of rocks to the agents of
weathering.
 Effects of Weathering
• Effects the form and shape of topography.
• Aids erosion forces.
• Mineral contents of rocks are spread by water and
increase fertility.
• Destruction of rocks.
• Sharp cliff forming by frost action.
Sharp Cliffs by Weathering
Destruction of Rocks by Weathering
 Types of Mass Movements
(i) Creep Movements
Slowest mass movement of soil layer down slope. It is
caused by freezing, wetting, drying the land mass and
settling down slope over the years.
(ii) Flow Movements
When loose material present on slopes or weathered
rocks become saturated by heavy rains, it is lubricated
and starts flowing. This process is faster than creep.
Rock Slide
Rock Breaking
 (iii) Slide Movements
Whenever a rock or soil lie at a high angle on a steep
slope, there is possibility that a weak segment of such
material will break away in a slide called landslide or
rockslide. Landslide is faster than other movements. It
strikes with great force.
Water may or may not play role in rock sliding.
(iv) Fall Movements
The material falling under gravitational force is called
fall movement. Sometimes vertical cliffs when
weathered strongly or masses left over during road
building in hilly areas may cause it.
Rock Slide
 Preventive Measures against Landslides
Soil erosion is one of the most common reasons of landslides, and
therefore preventing it can help you reduce the risk of landslides
by a significant extent, if not eliminating it all altogether.

1.Prevent Soil Erosion

The foremost thing to do is to divert the discharge water away
from slopes by constructing retaining walls and using sandbags.
If there is no scope for diverting , you can contain its speed by
building small dams; so as to ensure that the amount of erosion
is in check. The velocity of water determines how much soil is
eroded, and hence containing its speed is bound to be helpful. It
is important to make sure that you divert or contain the water
flow. Never redirect storm drain or street gutter down a slope,
even if it seems to be an easy way out. Instead you can use
flexible pipes and divert this water in a safe manner.
2. Plant Vegetation
Yet another simple way to prevent landslides is to plant trees
and small shrubs on the slope. As these trees and shrubs grow,
their roots hold soil together, and help in reducing erosion of
soil. In fact, there exist quite a few species of plants with shallow
roots which are specifically used to protect the top layer of the
soil in mountainous regions.
3. Retaining Walls
Retaining walls can also be of great help, but only when you
make sure that you construct them properly. If you don't
facilitate proper drainage of water, the chances are that the wall
will come down with the entire slope after some time. A
concrete retaining wall is an ideal option, a wooden retaining
wall or a crude stone retaining wall will also work fine. Similarly,
building a sea wall will be an ideal option if the landform in
question is subjected to sea waves.
4. Altering the Slope Gradient
If possible, you should opt for grading of the slope -
wherein you remove the material from upper part of
the slope and put it near the base and reduce its
gradient. It would be wise to get help from someone
who has a professional expertise in such work. At the
same time, you should avoid activities like digging and
piling garbage on unstable slopes - both of which
happen to be possible triggers of a landslide.
While these measures are helpful in reducing the
overall risk involved, it is not possible to rule out the
occurrence of these natural disasters, even after taking
all these precautionary measures.
5. Precautions:
Prior to heavy rain events:
- Clean out ditches and culverts so that storm water flow
through them freely.
- Make sure your house is not onto any fill slopes.
- If your house is near a mountain stream or at a location
where debris flow might occur then be alert during
heavy rains.
- Before building a site, you must be familiar with
landslide characteristics in the area. Best way is to
avoid landslide areas.
- During construction on steep slopes, try to maintain
water flowing into the natural pattern.
- Seat your foundations on in-place soil or bedrock.
 Classification of the Grade of Weathering
( What happens to rocks when they are weathered?)
• As a rock weathers, its porosity increases.
• It begins to hold moisture.
• Its minerals loose their luster( quality of reflecting light).
• Cracks appear between their crystals.
• It softens and can be scratched with a knife and
ultimately with a finger nail. At the end it becomes weak
enough to break in the hand.
• The weathered rocks have been classified in I to VI
grades of weathering.
• Grades I, II and III may be considered to be a rock from
an engineering point of view.
• Grade IV is transitional with a strength of weak rock but
it lacks the rock durability. Grades V and VI are soil.
 Grade-I –Fresh(F)
• In fresh rock complete sound minerals are found.
• No fine fracturing can be detected.
• Feldspars do not scratch with a knife.
• Sample can be broken with repeated blows of a
geological hammer.
• Moisture content is less than 0.3%.
• An air-dry sample has compressive strength of 125
to 260 Mpa, and this value is reduced very little by
saturation.
 Grade-II – Slightly Weathered(SW)
• Minerals are slightly decomposed in slightly
weathered rocks.
• The grains appear to be tightly bounded but fine
fracturing starts appearing at more than 1cm. apart
distance.
• Feldspars do not scratch with a knife blade.
• The moisture content is less than 0.3%.
• The rock is strong and more than one blow is required
to break a rock sample.
• Compressive strength in this grade for a granitic rock is
100 to 170 Mpa, but saturation reduces it considerably
to 55-135MPa.
Fresh Granite
Start of Weathering
Grade-III- Moderately Weathered( MW)
• In this grade crystal of minerals are moderately
decomposed and start loosing their lustre.
• Micro fractures appear at spacing of 5 to 10mm.
• Some grains boundaries are open but most appear
tight.
• The feldspars can be scratched with a knife.
• Sample can be broken with one good blow of a
geological hammer.
• The outcrop cannot be excavated with a spade.
• The moisture content is 0.45%.
• Granitic rocks have medium compressive strength of
60-120 MPa. When saturated the strength reduces to
35-65 MPa.
 Grade-IV – Highly Weathered(HW)
• All the feldspars are decomposed.
• The rock is highly fissured with spacing of 2 to 5mm.
• Grain boundaries are slightly opened cracks.
• The feldspars can be peeled with knife.
• The rock sample can be crushed with blow of a
geological hammer.
• The outcrop can be excavated with a spade.
• The rock is not disintegrated by moving water.
• Field moisture content may be as high as 3.8%.
• Compressive strength is 35 to 55 MPa for air dried
sample and only 10 to 15 MPa for saturated sample.
Moderately Weathered Granite
 Grade- V –Completely Weathered(CW)
• In completely weathered rocks all the mineral
crystals are completely decomposed.
• Most of the minerals turn into clayey form.
• Feldspars scratch easily and peel with a knife.
• Water easily disintegrate the sample.
• Crystals are densely micro fractured and all grains
are bounded by open cracks.
• The field moisture content is as high as 21%.
• The compressive strength is very low and is lost by
saturation.
 Grade –VI –Residual Soil(RS)
• In this grade all minerals are completely
decomposed except quarts.
• All minerals feel clayey.
• Crystalline texture is completely lost.
• A sample can be indented with a thumb and can be
easily excavated with hand.
• The sample is disintegrated in water.
• Moisture content may be higher than 21%.
Completely Weathered Granite
Completely Weathered Rock
 Summary
Chemical and Physical or Mechanical Weathering
These two processes interact :
Chemical Weathering typically acts on the boundary surface of
Minerals
Mechanical Weathering typically breaks down Minerals and Rocks
along lines of weakness
Chemical Weathering further acts on enhanced lines of weakness,
enabling further Mechanical Weathering
Weathering products include:
Materials of different mineral composition
- Materials of different sizes
- Layers of weathered material
- Solutes in aqueous solution
-Characteristic Landforms
Weathering and its Role in Denudation
- Weathering plays the key initial role in the
Denudation Process.
- Chemical Weathering and removal of geologic
materials in solution form is the dominant
process in many regions.
- Mass wasting, erosion, and transport typically work
on weathered rock.
- Weathering also leads to soil formation, and
therefore vital to sustaining life on this planet
 CHAPTER----7
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES
-Concept of Dip and Strike
- Folds, Anticlines, Synclines, Types of Folds
- Domes and Basins
- Recognition of Folds in the Field
- Fractures, Faults, Hanging wall and foot wall of a Fault
- Strike, Hade, Throw, Heave, Fault Slip of a Fault
- Classification of Faults
- Unconformity, Joints in Rocks
- Structures due to Denudation
- Effects of Geological Structures on Civil Engineering Projects
 Introduction
- Sedimentary rocks occupy the greater part of the
earth land surface.
- They occur as layers or strata. The single strata may
be of any thickness ranging from a few mm to several
meters.
- The surfaces which separate these strata or layers
are called bedding planes.
Layers of Sedimentary Rocks
Dip and Strike
Dip:- It is the angle of inclination of a rock bed with
the horizontal plane. The dip includes both direction
and the angle. The dip direction is measured by
Compass bearing and the angle of Dip with a
clinometers. e.g. 450 NE

Strike:- It is the direction of a line formed by the plane

of a bed with the horizontal plane. The strike is
always at right angle to the dip. The direction of
strike is determined by Compass with reference to
north and South. e.g. N300E.
Dip and Strike
Folds
The wavy undulations in the rock beds are called
“Folds”. They consist of arches (crests) and troughs in
alternate manner.
The size of folds vary greatly. Width of some folds are
measured in kilometers while those of others in
meters or centimeters.
Folds
Axial Plane
It is an imaginary plane or surface which divides the
fold into two equal halves.
Limb
Sloping side of a fold from crest to trough is called the
limb.
Anticline
It is an up fold where the limbs dip away from the axis.
Syncline
It is down fold where the limbs dip towards the axis.
Anticlines and Synclines
Folds
 Types of Folds
Depending upon shape and geometry, there are
following types of folds:
1. Symmetrical Fold
A “symmetrical” fold is one where the axial plane is
vertical and two limbs have the same amount of dip.
2. Asymmetrical Fold
An “asymmetrical” fold is one where the axial plane is
inclined and both limbs dip at different angles and
opposite direction.
Types of Folds
3. Overturned Fold
Overturned Fold is one in which the axial plane is
inclined and one limb is turned past the vertical. In this
case both the limbs dip in the same direction.
4. Recumbent Fold
In “recumbent folds” the folding is so tight and intense
that axial plane becomes almost horizontal and the
lower limb is nearly flat. In such folds the fractures may
develop across bends.
5. Isoclinals Fold
This type of fold show parallel limbs which dip at the
same angle and in the same direction.
Recumbent Fold
6. Open Folds and Closed Folds
-In "open folds” the folding is open and the
beds meet at bends at an obtuse angle.
- In "close folds” the folding is so tight that
relatively mobile beds flow towards crest.
7. Chevron Fold
The folds which are sharp and angular at
anticlinal and synclinal axes are called
“Chevron Folds”
Closed Fold
8. Monocline fold:
In some cases the horizontal strata may show
local steeping of dip. Such structure is called
monocline.
9. Drag folds:
Drag folds are defined as minor folds developed
with in body of weaker beds , which lie between
stronger beds. Drag folds are formed during
process of major folding .
10. Structural Terrace:
When the dipping strata becomes horizontal at a
particular spot and then they continue to follow
their original dip, is called a “structural Terrace”.
Drag Folds
Dome and Basin:
-When the strata is subjected to folding in two
directions at right angle, each anticline is converted
in to a “dome” and each syncline is converted in to a
“basin“.
- In “domes” the beds dip away from a central point
while in “basins” the beds dip towards a central
point.
- In domes oldest rocks are in the centre while in
basins youngest rocks are in the centre.
Domes and Basins
Dome and Basin
Field Picture of a Dome
 Recognition of folds in the field
The factors listed below help in recognizing the folds in
the field:
• The repetitions of out crops of beds suggest the
process of a fold.
• If folds are open reversal of dip direction is enough to
identify the fold.
• If axis of fold is inclined it is “ plunging fold “ plunging
folds as a rule give rise to curved out crops and are
recognized in the field.
 Fractures and Faults
- Fracture:
If a rock or substance breaks along some weaker line
or zone , it is called a fracture .

- Faults:
A fault is a fracture along which there has been
relative displacement of beds, which were once
continuous . The fracture surface is called “fault
plane” .The displacement along a fault may range
from few centimeters to many kilometers.
Fault
Faulting in a Rock
Faulting
 Faults
-Hanging wall and Foot wall:-
When the fault plane dips at any angle other then 900,
one face of the broken rock mass will lie above the
fault and the other will below it. The block of rock
which is on the upper side of the fault plane , is called
the “hanging wall” and the block which is below the
fault plane is called “foot wall”.
-Strike of a fault:-
It is direction of the line of intersection of a fault-plane
and horizontal plane.
-Hade:-
The hade of a fault is the angle of inclination of the
fault plane measured from the vertical. ( <dce ).
Hanging wall and Foot wall of a Fault
Hanging wall and foot wall of a Fault
– Throw:-
The vertical displacement (cd) of the fractured
beds is called the “Throw” of the fault. The side
on which the strata appear to have thrown down,
is called “down thrown side” and other side on
which they appears to have gone up is called the
“up thrown side”.
– Heave:-
The horizontal displacement of strata during
faulting is called “Heave”. (de).
 – Fault Slip:-
The amount of movement which results from a
faulting is described by measurements between
points which are originally in contact. The total
displacement is called the net slip. If it is along strike,
it is called “strike slip fault”. If it is along dip, it is
called “dip slip fault”. If it is oblique to both, it is
called oblique slip fault.
 Classification of faults:-
With reference to relative movement, faults are
classified as under:
(i) Normal fault:-
A normal fault is one in which the
hanging wall appears to move downward relative to
foot wall. It is also called gravity fault.
Reverse fault:-
A reverse fault is one in which hanging wall
appears to have move upward relative to foot
wall, it is also called “thrust fault”
Fault zone:-
When several parallel faults occur close to together,
the resulting zone of broken and crushed rocks is
called a “shear zone” or “fault zone”. The fault zones
vary greatly in width and they may range in hundreds
of meters.

Unconformity:-
Major breaks in sedimentation are called
“unconformity”. In other words, an unconformity is
an old erosion surface that separates younger series
of rock form the older series.
Fault Zone
Fault Zone
Road Built Over a Fault Zone
Unconformity
Field Example of Unconformity
 Joints:-
Joints are cracks or fractures present in the rocks along
which there has been no displacement. Joints occur in
all types of rocks. Joints are formed as a result of
contraction due to cooling or consolidation of rocks.
They are also formed when the rocks are subjected to
compression or tension during earth movements.
There are two types of joints.
(i) Tension joints:-
Formed by Tensional forces e.g. lava flows and
anticlines may create such types of joints.
(ii) Shear joints:-
Formed due to shearing stresses involved in folding
and faulting of rocks.
Joints in Rocks
 Effects of Geological Structures on Civil
Engineering Projects
1. Shear strength:
• Shear strength of folded and faulted rocks is reduced
and may cause stability problems in foundations and
slopes. The polished surfaces along fault planes are
of low shear strength.
• The upward curvature of bedding in many folds
causes stability problems in slopes.
• Loose materials of fault zones, particularly sheared
shales may cause caving in tunnels and foundation
failures of buildings in hill sides.
• The presence of water in sheared clays or shales may
result in rock movement and greatly worsens the
stability problem.
• Large and significant fault zones are especially
important in dam foundations because such faults
may contain compressible filling material. Such
material may cause gliding movement of blocks.
Therefore, the fault zone be mined out completely
and back filled with concrete. This treatment is called
“dental work”.
Syncline and Anticline Structures
Jointing in Rocks
2. Water in fault zones:
• Due to greater conductivity of loosened and
fractured rock in the fault zone, ground water has an
easy path to reach there. These waters may get
accumulated in this zone and may create problem
during excavation especially while tunnel making,
when it flows into it.
• Water when accumulated creates static pressure and
may cause caving.
• Sudden loss of stability in the face of a tunnel may
occur due to this static pressure and may cause a
serious accident. This can be prevented by drilling
drain holes ahead of the face of the tunnel.
Water in Fault Zones
• The faults act as conduits for flow of water. The rocks
adjacent to these faults are altered and may change
the character of the rock.
• In case of soluble rocks, faults usually localize
solution in them and caverns may develop in them.
These caverns may develop even in insoluble rocks
when water washes out gauge and crushed material
from faulted zones. This causes opening of extension
fractures and flow of solution into tunnels and
excavated spaces.
Fault Zone
3. Movement along faults:
• The presence of faults and fault zones are essentially explored in
the area before the start of any engineering project. If any fault lies
near or in close vicinity of the engineering project then there is risk
that existing fault may be the locus of future slip.
• Fault displacement remains always a threat due to natural or
induced stresses which cause fault movement. If critical stress state
is produced naturally by tectonic forces associated with crustal
deformation then fault is said to be “Active”. Even an inactive fault
can be stimulated to move by artificial causes. Artificial triggers of
faults slip include.
- Impoundment of surface water reservoir.
-Storage of fluids in mined spaces.
-Blasting.
-Surface excavation.
-Ground water pumped into or out of aquifers
-Excavation of petroleum or natural gas.
Effects of Movement Along Faults
 Chapter-8
Plate Tectonics and Earthquake
-Theory of Plate Tectonics
- Plate Movements
-Earthquake and its Causes
- Terminology of Earthquake
- Classification of Earthquakes
- Waves produced by Earthquake
- Instrumentation
- Intensity and Magnitude of Earthquake
- Effects of Earthquakes
- Earthquake Engineering
- Tsunami, its Causes, Speed and Magnitude
- Emergency Preparedness Plans
 PLATE TECTIONICS
• The entire earth surface is composed of several rigid but
relatively thin plates. These plates are 100-150 km. thick.
They carry both continental and oceanic crust. They are
continuously in motion with respect to each other. These
plates can be thought like cracked shell on a boiled egg.
• The plates vary in size. There are about 20 crustal plates
on the earth’s surface. Seven are very large. . The large
plates are:
(i) The North American Plate (ii) The South American Plate
(iii) The Eurasian Plate (iv) The African Plate
(v) The indo-Australian Plate (vi) The Pacific Plate
(vii) The Antarctic Plate
• These plates slide over a partially molten plastic layer
beneath the earth surface called the “Asthenosphere”.
Original Position of Continents
The Breakup of Pangaea
Tectonic Plates
Major Plates
 Plate Boundaries and Plate Movement
Almost all seismicity, volcanicity and tectonic activity is localized
around plate margins. Depending upon relative motions of
adjacent plates, Plate boundaries are classified into three groups
with reference to their movement:
• Divergent.
Plates move apart which result in creation of new ocean floor
with submarine volcanoes, mid-oceanic ridge (under water
mountain system) and small to moderate earthquakes.
• Convergent:
Plate move towards each other resulting destruction of ocean
floor, creation and growth of mountain range with volcanoes,
subduction zones. Earth’s greatest earthquake and tsunamis.
• Transform:
Plates move sideways past each other. It causes no creation or
destruction of crust and results small to large earthquake.
Worldwide Locations of Earthquakes
Plate Movement
 Earth Quake:
Shaking of the earth’s surface caused by sudden release
of energy stored in the rocks beneath earth’s surface is
called an earthquake.
Causes of Earth Quake:
• Tectonic forces acting deep in the earth may put a
stress in the rocks .It bends and change the shape of
rocks. When these rocks break, waves of energy are
released and sent out through the earth. These seismic
waves cause to shake the ground during earthquake.
• Volcanic activity can also cause earthquake. When
magma is erupted out with great force it shakes the
rocks and causes local earthquakes.
• Movement of plates (plate tectonics) may also cause
earth quake.
(i) Focus:
The point within the earth where seismic
waves first originate is called “Focus”. This is
centre of earthquake.
(ii) Epicenter
The point on the earth surface directly above
the focus is called epicenter.
Focus and Epicenter of Earthquake
 Classification of Earthquakes
(a) Shallow focus Earth quake
Focus ranges between 0-70 km. These earthquakes are
large and more dangerous as they are closer to the
surface of earth. They are more common and occur
near plate boundaries. They account for 85% of total
energy.
(b) Intermediate Focus Earthquake
Depth 70-350 km and account 12% .Causes less damage
as compared to shallow focus earthquakes.
(c) Deep Focus Earthquake
Focus range between 350-670 km. These occur in
subduction zones. Cause less damage and are 3% of
the total because most deep rocks flow and deformed
when stressed.
 Seismic Waves
Two types of seismic waves are generated during earthquakes:
• Body waves
• Surface Waves
• Body waves:-These are seismic waves that travel through the earth’s
interior, spreading outward from the focus in all directions in circular
form. These are of two types:-
(i) P- Waves (Primary waves)
It is compressional or longitudinal wave in which rock vibrates back and
forth parallel to the direction of wave propagation. These are very fast
(4 to 7km/sec) and first to arrive at a recording station after
earthquake occurrence. P-waves are high frequency but low amplitude
waves.
(ii) S-Waves(Secondary waves)
It is shear wave and the rock vibrates perpendicular to the direction of
wave propagation .These are slower than P-waves (2 to 5 km/sec) in
near surface rocks. Both P-waves and S-waves pass easily through solid
rocks. P-wave can pass through a liquid, but an S-wave cannot pass
through liquid. S-waves are low frequency but high amplitude waves.
P-Waves and S- Waves
• Surface waves:
Surface waves are the slowest waves generated by the earth quake. These
waves travel along the surface of the earth. These are high amplitude
waves and in general cause most property damage because they move
slowly and take more time to pass.
There are two types of surface waves:
(i) Love waves
Love waves are like S-waves. The ground moves side to side i.e.
perpendicular to the direction the wave is travelling or propagating. Like S-
Waves Love waves cannot pass through liquid and cannot be felt upon a
water body. These waves knock the building off their foundations and may
destroy highway bridge support.

(ii) Rayleigh waves

These behave like rolling ocean waves and cause the ground to move in an
elliptical direction of wave passage. Rayleigh waves are the most
destructive to buildings because they produce more ground movement
and take much time to pass through. These are received latest at
recording stations.
Types of Seismic Waves
Body and Surface Waves
 Instruments used for Measuring Earthquake
• Seismometer:
The instrument used to measure seismic
waves is called a seismometer.
• Seismograph:
It is a recording device that produce a
permanent record of earth motion detected
by seismometer.
• Seismogram:
The paper record of the earth vibrations is
called seismogram.
An Old Version of Seismograph
Instruments for Measuring Earthquake
Seismic Waves Record
 Measurement of the size of an earth quake
The size of an earth quake is measured in two ways:
(i) One method is to find how much and what kind of
damage the earth quake has caused. This determines the
intensity, which is actually the measure of an earthquakes
effect on people and buildings. Intensities are expressed in
Roman numerals ranging from I to XII, on the Modified
Mercalli Scale. Higher numbers indicate great damage.
(ii) The second method of measuring a size of an earth quake
is to measure and calculate amount of energy released by
the earth quake. This is done by measuring the height
(Amplitude) of waves on a seismogram. After measuring a
specific wave and correcting for the type of seismograph
and for the distance from Quake, scientists can assign a
number called magnitude. It is measure of the energy
released during the earth quake. The magnitude is reported
on the Richter Scale.
 Comparison of earth quake Magnitude , Description , Intensity and
expected annual world occurrence
Richter Descri- Max expected Mercalli intensity at Epicenter Annual
Magnitude ption Expected
Number
2.0 Very I; Usually detected by instrument only 600,000
minor
2.0 – 2.9 Very I – II; Felt by some indoors , especially on upper floors 300,000
minor
3.0 – 3.9 Minor III; Felt indoors, standing motor cars may rock slightly, not felt by many 49,000
peoples
4.0 – 4.9 Light IV – V; Felt by most, slight damage. At night some awakened. Windows, 6,200
dishes shaken, plaster some time cracked.
5.0 – 5.9 Moderate VI – VII; Felt by all, damage minor to moderate, heavy furniture’s 800
moved, felt by driving persons, loss is minor in well-designed but large in
poor designed buildings.
6.0 – 6.9 Strong VII- VIII; Everyone runs out, moderate to major damage. Minor in 266
designed and great in poorly designed buildings. Heavy furniture
overturned. Drivers disturbed.
7.0 – 7.9 Major IX – X; Major damage, partial collapse of buildings. Ground cracks, 18
underground pipes broken, landslides, rails bent, buildings shifted off
foundations.
8.0 or Higher Great X – XII; Major and total Damage, bridges destroyed, Broad cracks in 1 or 2
ground, Rails bent completely, waves seen on ground surface, objects
thrown upward in the air.
 Advantages of measuring Magnitude Over Intensity
• Seismograph is usually required to measure magnitude
of the earth quake.
• This measure has many advantages over intensity
because magnitude is an indicative of earth quake
strength while intensity is just an assessment of loss
depending upon survey of effected area.
• A worldwide network of standard seismograph
stations (seismic observatories) has been established
and the media report magnitude of all the earth
quakes happening in the world.
• A single number can be assigned to a single earth
quake (Magnitude), whereas intensity varies for a
single earth quake, depending on the amount and kind
of local damage.
 Earth Quake Classification
(i) Inter- plate Earthquakes
These earthquakes occur along plate boundaries.
(ii) Intra-plate Earthquakes
They occur where the crust is fracturing within the plates.
(iii) Tectonic Earthquakes
These are caused by sudden release of energy stored
within the rock along a fault. The released energy is
produced by the strain on the rock due to movement
within the earth called tectonic deformation.
(iv) Volcanic Earthquakes
These are caused by upward movement of magma under
the volcano which strain the rock locally and leads to an
earth Quake. This E.Q occurs in areas that are associated
with volcanic eruption.
 Effects of Earth Quake
• Destroy man-made structures.
• Roads are subsided.
• Fire after an earth quake due to broken gas pipe
lines.
• Shortage of drinking water due to broken pipe
lines.
• Landslides occur and block path of streams, roads
and produce artificial lakes.
• Tsunami affects coastal areas.
• Earthquakes can damage Dams, Bridges, Railway
lines, Roads and dismantle irrigation system.
Effects of Earthquakes
Bridge and Road Damage
Railway bent after E.Q. Fire after E.Q.
Tsunami Wave(Japan) Land Slides Muzafarabad E.Q.
 Earth Quake Engineering
Damage and loss caused by earth quakes can be
reduced if civil structures are built considering effects
of earth quakes:
• Siting of structures on solid bed rocks or dense soils.
• Following strict seismic building codes may reduce
the risk of loss caused by earth quakes.
• Regional tectonic history studies and engineering
design following this history in an area may reduce
losses.
• Before designing a civil engineering structures proper
geological studies may reduce the seismic risk.
• Building height and mass be designed keeping in
view the tectonic forces and subsurface strata of the
area.
• Design of buildings and civil structures be made by
professional engineers.
• Maintain the quality of cement, rod, sand and crush.
• Provide necessary rods in the joints of foundations
and grade beams.
 Tsunami
- Tsunami is a Japanese word which means great sea wave.
- Tsunami is also called seismic sea wave.
- The sudden movement of the sea floor during an earth
quake in the sea or ocean can generate very large sea
waves.
- When a large section of sea floor suddenly rises and falls
during a quake, all water over the moving area is lifted and
dropped and causes Tsunamis.

Causes of Tsunamis:
• They usually are caused by earth quakes under ocean floors
of magnitude greater than 6.5. These earth quakes disturb
the sea floor and produce large sea waves.
• They can also result from sub marine landslides and
volcanic eruptions.
Creation of Tsunami Wave(Japan) Tsunami Wave (South China Sea)
 Speed and Magnitude of Tsunami Wave
• A tsunami wave can gain a speed of 1000 km/h and a
height of 50m – 80m.
• Generally height is in the range of 5 to 15m but it can
raise high in larger Tsunamis.
• The speed of an ordinary wave slows as it moves
through shallow water. But a tsunami can hit the
shores as a very large fast wave.
• Due to long wave length of tsunami the water does
not withdraw quickly.
• The long duration and great height of a tsunami can
cause widespread destruction to the entire shore zone.
Effects of a Tsunami in Japan
 Emergency Preparedness Plans for earthquakes and
Tsunamis:
• Communication strategies are adopted( Tsunami
Warning).
• Proper structural designs are observed.
• Education and awareness.
• Supports for shelves to avoid falling objects.
• Earthquakes survival kit.
• Shelter under a heavy table.
• Stay outside after earthquake and wait aftershocks.
• Evacuate coastal areas to reduce Tsunami damage.
 Chapter-9 Ground Water
Ground Water
The Rainfall that soaks into the ground and moves
downwards into spaces and cracks in the rocks below the
ground surface becomes “groundwater”. Study of
groundwater is called geohydrology or “hydrogeology”.
Porosity:
The percentage of rock or sediment that consists of voids
or spaces or openings is a measurement of a rocks ability
to hold water.
It is called porosity.
Loose sand may have porosity of 30% to 50% but may
reduce to 10% to 20% when compacted.
A sand stone in which pores are filled with cement and
fine grained material may have a porosity of 5% or less.
 Permeability:
• Ability or capacity of a rock or soil to transmit or pass a
fluid (water or petroleum) through pores or fractures is
called Permeability.
• Although most rocks hold some water but they vary a great
deal in their ability to allow water to pass through them.
• Most sandstones and conglomerates are both porous and
permeable.
• An impermeable rock is one that does not allow water to
flow through it easily.
• Un-jointed igneous and metamorphic rocks are
impermeable.
• Shale can have great porosity but it has low permeability
because its pores are too small to permit easy passage of
water.
Porous and Non-Porous Rocks
Unsaturated zone:
It is above the water table where all the rocks
openings are not filled with water.
Saturated Zone
The subsurface zone in which all rocks opening are
filled with water is called saturated zone.
Capillary Fringe:
Within the unsaturated zone at its base, surface
tension causes water to be held above water table.
The capillary fringe is a transition zone with higher
moisture content at the base of unsaturated zone
and at the top of water table.
Water Table
Due to pull of gravity water passes down into the
ground through the soil and through cracks and pores
in the rocks. The rate of ground water flow tends to
decrease with increasing depth because sediments are
closer due to weight of overlying rocks. A stage is
reached when water cannot travel down and starts
accumulating at a level under the ground. The upper
level of this accumulated water is called water table.
Or
Water level inside the well if built in saturated zone is
called Water Table.
Ground Water
 Aquifers and Aquicludes
-Rocks and soil that transmit water with ease through
their pores and fractures are called Aquifers.
-The rocks which transmit water with difficulty are
called Aquicludes.
-Typical aquifers are gravel, sand, sandstone,
weathered limestones, and fractured igneous and
metamorphic rocks.
-Typical aquicludes are clay, mudstone, shale,
evaporates, un-fractured igneous and metamorphic
rocks.
Samples of Aquifer and Aquiclude Rocks
 Confined and unconfined Aquifers
(i) Un-Confined Aquifer
It is an aquifer which has water table and is not completely
filled with water. It is partly filled with water.
(ii) Confined Aquifer
Confined aquifer is one which is completely filled with water
under pressure and is separated from the surface by an
impermeable confining bed such as shale.
- An unconfined aquifer is recharged by rain and has rising and
falling water table during wet and dry seasons and has
relatively faster movement of groundwater.
- A confined aquifer is recharged slowly through confining shale
beds. Groundwater flows slowly in confined aquifer and wet
and dry seasons do not affect the confined aquifer.
Un-Confined and confined Aquifers
 Chapter-10 Engineering Applications
• Importance of geology for civil Engineering
Projects
• Important building stones and other construction
materials
• Role of geology in selection of sites for dams,
reservoirs and pertinent geological investigations
 1.Why Geological Studies for Mega Civil Structures?
• Geology studies play an important role for
construction of big civil structures.
• By these studies hidden flaws in the ground
are investigated and considered for site
selection and design of these structures.
• If these flaws are not considered and cared
properly, they may cause very expensive
troubles and increase the cost of construction
enormously.
Building in Hilly Area
(i). Dams and Reservoirs:
The geological and geophysical investigations of a
dam and reservoirs are under taken to answer the
following questions of civil engineers:
• Whether the foundation and abutment rocks are
sound and stable to the expected static and dynamic
pressure?
• Whether the rocks are resistant to solution erosion
and other damaging effects of water?
• Whether the geological structures such as bedding,
faults, joints, foliation etc. are favorable for locating
the dam?
• Whether the rocks existing in the foundation and
reservoir walls are water tight?
• Whether the drainage area of the river is expected to
produce much silt?
• Whether the topographical condition is favorable for
the location of spillways and diversion tunnels?
• Whether the construction material is available within
an economic distance?
Copper Lake Dam Site, USA
Drilling on Dam Site
(ii) Bridges:
The bridges are constructed on the rivers, crossings
etc. for highways and railways. The stability of
bridges is affected by the following factors;
• Lateral Force:
The pressure of wind and running water.
• Earthquake force:
The chances of damage due to earthquake are
higher in those bridges which are situated near
active fault or founded on loose earth materials.
• Scouring Action of Rivers:
It is erosional feature of the water due to its speed,
material carried and direction of water flow.
• Nature of Foundation Rocks:
The weight of the bridge, the load of traffic,
pressure of wind and flowing water is ultimately
transmitted to the foundation of the piers and
abutment. Therefore, the stability of a bridge depend
upon nature, strength and structure of the rocks
which exist in the river bed.
Aerial View of Boston Bridge Construction Project
2. Building Stones
• Stone is a natural material used for construction.
• Since ancient times it has been used for
constructing different components of buildings
like foundations, walls, floors, roofs, etc.
• It has also been used for constructing bridges
tunnels, dam’s etc.
• Stones that are used for constructing of building
or structures are known as building stones.
 Uses of Stones
Stones are extensively used for the following:-
• As broken stone for railway track, for road construction, for
preparing cement concrete required for foundations,
flooring, hollow and solid blocks, concrete etc.
• As crushed stone (stone dust) is used as substitute of sand.
• As blocks in construction of buildings, arches, walls,
columns, abutments and piers of bridges etc.
• As blocks and slabs for face work.
• As thin slabs for roofing, building flooring and pavement.
• As lime stone, it is used in manufacture of lime, cement and
various other chemical processes.
• Thin slabs of impervious stones are used for laying damp-
proof courses in buildings
 Classification of building stones
The building stones are classified in following
different ways:
• Geological (Depending upon
how rock was originally formed?)
• Physical (Depending upon
what its structure is?)
• Chemical (Depending upon
its chemical composition).
(i) Geological Classification
Geologists classify rocks into three main
categories:
(a) Igneous, Primary, unstratified or Eruptive
If magma solidifies at the surface of the
earth it makes glassy or fine grained rocks like
basalts. If magma solidifies before reaching
the surface of the earth it forms crystalline
rocks known as granites.
(b) Sedimentary or Stratified Rocks
Due to weathering, erosion and river action the
sedimentary rocks are deposited. The deposit in layers
continues for millions of years and the deposited layers
are subjected to great pressure of overlying layers.
Hence the deposited rocks get consolidated.
Sedimentary rocks are often well stratified and show
well defined bedding planes. The rocks can be split
easily along bedding planes giving building blocks of
regular shape. Properties of sedimentary rocks vary
considerably depending upon the nature of binding
material. They may be soft and hard.
Shale, sandstones and lime stones are the main
sedimentary rocks.
 (c)Metamorphic rocks
Due to high temp and pressure in the interior of
the earth the rocks are metamorphosed.
Consequently their texture, mineral composition or
both are changed. Following are some of changes:
• Granite (ign.) changes to gneiss.
• Sandstone (sed.) changes to quartzite.
• Limestone (sed.) changes to marble.
• Shale (sed.) change to slate.
 (ii) Physical Classification
Physically rocks are classified as:-
(a) Stratified Rocks
• These rocks show distinct layers along which they can
be easily split into thin slabs e.g. Slate, sandstone and
limestone
(b) Unstratified Rocks
• These rocks show no sign of stratification and cannot
be split into the layers e.g. granite, basalt etc.
• All sedimentary rocks are essentially stratified whereas
all igneous rocks are unstratified.
• Metamorphic rocks may be either stratified or
unstratified depending upon the rock that has
undergone transformation.
 (iii) Chemical classification
Chemically rocks are classified on the basis of
‘’Chief Constituent Mineral’’ as:
• Argillaceous if principle constituent is clay
alumina, Al2O3( shales and laterite)
• Siliceous, if chief constituent is sand
(silica,SiO2) as in quartzite, granite and
sandstone.
• Calcareous, if the chief constituent is lime(
CaCO3) as in limestone and marble.
Characteristics of good building stones
The good building stone should have the following
qualities:
(i) Appearance
• For the face work of buildings this property is of
extreme importance.
• Color of the stone should go well with the
surroundings.
• Lighter shades are better than the darker because
darker are less durable.
• Red and brown shades of sedimentary rocks are due to
presence of oxides of iron which disfigure the stones
due to stains and disintegration.
(ii) General structure
• Stone when broken should not give dull appearance.
It should show uniformity in texture.
• It must be crystalline and closed grained.
• It should be free from cavities, cracks, and other
loose material.
 (iii) Heaviness
• Heavier varieties of stones are more compact, less porous
and have greater specific gravities.
• For construction in water, like, barrages, dams, docks,
harbors and for retaining walls the heavier varieties of
stones are preferred.
(iv) Strength
• In usual constructions the stones used should be able to
bear the specified load.
• Stones of igneous class are generally stronger than that of
the sedimentary class.
(v) Hardness
• It is the resistance of stone to abrasive forces caused by
wear and friction as in floors, pavements, etc.
• Stones used should be hard.
 (vi) Toughness
• It is a measure of the impact that a stone can with
stand.
• Stones which are used at places of vibrations of
machinery and moving loads should be strong.
• Stones used in roads be hard and tough.
(vii) Ease of working
• The ease with which the stone can be worked upon
i.e. cut dressed curved moulded etc. is an important
consideration from economy point of view.
• But this property opposes strength durability and
hardness.
 (viii) Porosity and Absorption
• More porous building stones are unsuitable for use
in construction especially for exposed surfaces.
• Rain water is absorbed in porous rocks. Acids react
with the constituents of stones and disintegrate
them.
• In cold regions water freezes in the pores of stones
and disintegrate them due to increase in volume.
• Stones should be tested for porosity.
(ix) Seasoning
• All freshly quarried stones have some
moisture known as quarry sap.
• It makes the stones soft and easy to work
upon.
• The stones after working like cutting, carving
are left for 6-12 months under sheds for
seasoning.
• In this way a crystalline film is developed in
cut faces due to quarry sap.
 (x) Weathering
• Stones resistant to weathering effect should be used
in the construction of important building and
construction projects.
• The best way of knowing the weathering properties
of a particular stone is to inspect ancient buildings
made with the same quality of stones.
(xi) Resistance to fire
• To be fire resistant stones should be free from
calcium carbonate and oxide of iron.
• It should not be composed of mineral with different
co-efficient of thermal expansion.
Summary
Commercial Granite
Slate Slabs Slate used as building material
Natural Stone Used as Kitchen Slabs
Grey Granite Slabs Sandstone as Building Stone
Hand Carving of Stones
Natural Stone Used in Building
 Chapter-11 Tunneling
Tunnel:
-Tunnel may be defined as the underground routes
or passages through the ground without disturbing
the overlying soil or rock cover.
- Tunneling has been practiced on a large scale
during last two centuries. It has been used for
better and faster communication of roads and
railways.
- At places in high mountains, tunneling becomes
necessary for connecting two different places.
-Metros and underground railways are common in
advance countries.
- Tunneling is one of the most challenging jobs for
civil engineers.
 Types of Tunnels:
Tunnels are driven for various purposes and are
classified as:
1. Traffic Tunnels
2. Hydropower tunnels
3. Public Utility Tunnels
Geological studies help in selecting the location
and lay out of the tunnel and give useful
suggestion for design and construction
methods.
 Geological Considerations in Tunneling
If the tunnels are driven in rocks then following geological factors affect
the tunneling process:
Rocks may be broadly divided into two categories in relation to
tunneling.
1. Consolidated Rocks 2. Unconsolidated rocks
Tunnel design, method of its excavation and stability are greatly
influenced by following geological conditions:
(a)Lithology (b)Geological Structures(c)Groundwater conditions.
(a) Lithology:
The informations regarding composition, textures and structures of
the rocks through which the proposed tunnel is to pass is of great
importance in deciding:
(i) Method of Tunneling
(ii) Strength and extent of Lining
(iii) Cost of the Project
 Broadly speaking, lithology may be of two types:
Hard and Crystalline(Consolidated) Rocks:
- These are excavated by using conventional rock blasting
and also by tunneling boring method.
- In blasting method, full face or part of face is selected
for blasting upto a preselected depth.
- These parts are loaded with explosives of known
strength.
- The rocks are broken and loosened as a result of the
blast.
- The blasted and broken material is taken out of tunnel.
- The excavation in hard and crystalline rocks are very
often self supporting. These could be left unlined and
next round of blasting is undertaken.
Self supporting tunnel with no lining
- Rocks falling in Hard and Crystalline group include
granites, syenites, gabbros, basalts and other igneous
rocks. Hard sandstones, limestones and dolomite
from sedimentary group. Quartzite, gneisses,
marbles, phyllites and slates from the metamorphic
group.
Problems in Hard Rocks:
- When any one of these rocks is stressed, such as
during folding or fractured as during faulting,
tunneling in these rocks is greatly hazardous.
- Falling of big rock blocks from roof or sides occurs
due to release of stresses. Falling of rock blocks along
fractures already existing in these rocks often cause
many accidents.
 Unconsolidated or Soft Rocks:
- This group includes shales, friable and poorly
compacted sandstones, chalk, porous varieties of
limestone and dolomites, decomposed metamorphic
and igneous rocks.
- Their excavation cost may be lower than those in
hard rocks.
- Temporary and permanent lining becomes
necessary. It involves extra cost and additional time.
- Rocks like clays, shales, loose sandstones have to be
viewed with great caution during tunneling.
Tunnel lining with stones
Fissured or Cracked Rocks:
Fissured or cracked rocks may include any type of hard or soft
rocks. These rocks are deformed extensively by fracturing due to
folding and faulting. Tunneling in such type of rock may cause
many problems.
Geological Structures:
Geological structures play major role in design of the tunnels:
(i) Dip and strike:
These two properties of rocks influence design of tunnel and its
excavation to a great extent.
(ii) Horizontal strata:
For small size tunnels horizontally layered rocks are considered
quite favourable. In massive rocks, when individual layers are
very thick, and tunnel diameter not very large, the tunnel
making is favourable.
Tunneling with Boring Pipe
 In this situation the layers act as natural beams. But
when the layers are thin or fractured, they cannot be
depended upon as beams. In such cases, either the
roof has to be modified to an arch type or has to be
protected by giving a lining or a support.
(iii) Moderately Inclined Strata:
The layers that are dipping at angles up to 45 degrees
may be said as moderately inclined. The tunnel may
be running:
- Parallel to the dip direction
- At right angle to the dip i.e. along the strike direction
- Inclined to both dip or strike directions
Tunnel having sides and roof support
• In first case i.e. when tunnel direction is parallel
to dip direction, the layers offer a uniformly
distributed load on the excavation. Load is
transferred on the sides of the tunnel. It is
favourable condition.
• In second case i.e. when tunnel is driven to
parallel to strike which means at right angle to
dip, the pressure distributed is unsymmetrical.
Such situation requires assessment of forces and
it is must to observe remedial measures.
• In third case, when tunnel axis is inclined to both
dip and strike direction, weak points of both the
above situations would be considered.
Tunnels in Moderately Inclined Strata
Tunnel Boring Machine
Tunnel Boring Machine in Operation
(iv) Steeply Inclined Strata:
• In rock formations dipping at angles above 45°, quite
complicated situations would arise when the tunnel axis
is parallel to dip or parallel to strike or inclined to both
dip and strike directions.
• In almost vertical rocks for example, when the tunnel
axis is parallel to dip direction, the formations stand
along the sides and on the roof of the tunnel as massive
girders. It is a favourable condition, if all the formations
are sound and strong.
• Conversely, in tunnels running parallel to strike of vertical
beds, a number of bedding planes (which are planes of
weakness) are intersected at the roof and along the arch
so that natural beam action or arch action gets
considerably weakened.
Tunnels in in Steeply Dipping Strata
(v) Folding:
• Folds signify bends and curvatures and a lot of strain
energy stored in the rocks.
• Their influence on design and construction of
tunnels is important from at least three angles:
(a) Firstly, folding of rocks introduces considerable
variation and uncertainty of rocks so that entirely
unexpected rocks might be encountered along any
given direction. This situation becomes especially
serious when folding is not recognized properly in
preliminary or detailed surveys due either to its
being localized or to misinterpretation.
(b) Secondly, folding of rocks introduces rock
pressures. In anticlinal fold, loads of rocks at the
crest are transferred by arch action on to the limbs
which may be highly strained. These conditions are
reversed when the folds are of synclinal types. In
such cases, rocks of core regions are greatly strained.
The axial regions of folds, anticlinal or synclinal,
having suffering the maximum bending are more
often heavily fractured.
The tunnel passing through a folded region has to
take these aspects in full consideration.
(c) Thirdly, folded and fractured rocks are often best
storehouses for water and also ideal as aquifers.
When these zones are crossed during tunneling
these could create uncontrollable situations. The
crushed and broken regions being full of secondary
joint systems are highly permeable. Very effective
drainage measures are often required to be in
readiness when excavations are to pass through
folded zones.
(vi) Faulting:
• Faults, are surfaces along which rock movement has
occurred in the past; these are also potential surfaces for
future movements of the rocks. In faulted regions fault
planes, fault zones and shear zones with the tunnel axis are
crossed.
• Fault zones and shear zones are highly permeable zones,
likely to form easy passage for ground water. Inclined fault
planes and shear zones over the roof and along the sides of
tunnel introduce additional complications in computation of
rock pressure on the one hand and of rock strengths on the
other.
• This discussion leads to a general conclusion – wherever
tunnel is intersected by fault planes or shear zones, it is to be
considered as passing through most unsafe situations and
hence designed accordingly by providing maximum support
and drainage facilities.
(vii) Joint Systems:
• Joints are cracks or fractures developed in rocks due to a
variety of causes. Although all types of joints tend to close
with depth (due to load of overburden), their presence and
orientation has to be investigated. Joints are planes of
weakness and must always be suspected when the rocks
are folded and faulted. Even originally closed joints may
become reactive and open up in the immediate vicinity of
tunnel excavation. Jointed rocks cannot be considered as
self-supporting although these might belong to massive
category.
• In many cases problems created by jointing in such rocks
can be rectified by grouting. In other acute cases, lining of
the tunnel in the fractured zones might have to be applied.
(viii) Ground Water Conditions:
Determination of groundwater conditions in the region of tunnel
project is not to be underestimated at any cost. In fact
groundwater level and tunnel axis is a major factor governing
computations of overhead loads on tunnels and also in the
choice of method of tunneling.
Groundwater conditions effect the tunnel rocks in two ways:
• Firstly, through its chemical action, it erodes and corrodes
(dissolves) the susceptible constituents from among the rocks
and thereby alters their original properties constantly with the
passage of time. It might have already done much of this type of
job when the tunnel is excavated through such water-rich rocks.
• Secondly, it effects the rock strength parameters by its static and
dynamic water pressures. A sudden release of pressure in the
direction of excavation could create worst disaster for the
tunneling process.
• There are three general possibilities of relationship
between tunnel axis and groundwater level:
(a) The tunnel axis may be passing entirely through
impervious formations in which there is no possibility of
water seepage or leakage or movement. It is an ideal
condition for tunneling of course, but is very rare in nature.
Good lengths in short tunnels or small length of long
tunnels might show such a relationship.
(b) The tunnel axis might be located mostly above the water
table, intercepting the aquifer only in some sections. This is
one of the most common situations and would involve
provision for special drainage facilities to be located in
water-bearing zones of the section. The head of the water
in the zone of interception should be considered and
lining process for stopping leakage or inrush of water must
be provided.
(c) The tunnel axis might be located below the water table.
- Such a situation should be avoided as far as possible. In
some specific cases, however, this might be the only
possibility, such as in soft ground tunneling, under water
tunneling e.g. below rivers and lakes or in the karst regions.
- Wherever tunnels enter the saturated zones, effective
drainage systems and also support systems have to be
planned much in advance and executed with great
precision and perfection. Water is likely to enter the
excavation with a force proportional to full hydrostatic head
of the water body. Waterproof lining is to be provided for
the full length.
- It may, therefore, be summed up that hydrogeological
investigations have to be made with the fullest concern and
cautioned all along the proposed tunnel alignment.
 Geological studies for Tunnel Construction
• Detailed geological studies for rock types,
lithology, rock units, rock strength, mechanical
properties of rocks in the tunnel route(axis).
• Study of geological structures like, dip, strike,
fold, fault, joints, fractures in the area of
tunnel route.
• Study of surface water seepages.
• Study of groundwater conditions.
• Drilling and geophysical investigations in the
area of tunneling project.
Geological Studies on Tunnel Site
Geological Studies in the Tunnel
Twin Tunnels Site, USA
Tunnel Construction
 12-GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS
INTRODUCTION

-In order to perform the design work properly, the civil engineer
must have a good understanding of the problems encountered in
making subsurface explorations and of the various tools available to
make subsurface explorations.
- Specialists in soil and rock engineering and geology are required for
planning, conducting, and supervising the programs of subsurface
explorations.
The types of subsurface information required for design include the
following:
1. Areal extent, depth, and thickness of each identifiable soil stratum,
within specified depth, dependent on the size and nature of the
structure, together with a description of the soil including its degree of
density and stiffness.
2. Depth to top of rock and the character of the rock, including such items
as lithology; areal extent, depth, and thickness of each stratum; strike, dip,
and spacing of joints and bedding planes; presence of fault and shear
zones and state of weathering or decomposition.
3. Location of groundwater and the presence and magnitude of artesian
pressures.
4. Engineering properties of the soil or rock in-situ such as permeability,
compressibility, and shear strength.
 The procedures for obtaining subsurface information may be divided into the two
broad categories:
• Indirect Methods(Aerial photography and topographic map interpretation,
and the use of existing geological reports, maps, and soil surveys.)
• Direct Methods
- Geologic field reconnaissance including road cuts, railway tracks, etc.
- Soundings and probings.
- Borings, test pits, trenches, shafts, and edits from which representative
disturbed and/or undisturbed samples of the in situ materials may be
obtained.
- Simple field tests, such as the Standard Penetration Test (SPT) and the static
cone penetration test.
- Field tests such as the shear dilatometer and pressure- meter tests, seepage
and water pressure tests, and pile load tests, wherein the engineering
properties of the in situ materials are measured directly.
 Purpose of Explorations and Phased Execution
• The basic purpose of an exploration program is to
provide the engineer with knowledge of the subsurface-
conditions at the site of an engineering project.
• Normally, the explorations provide information required
for the safe and economical design of a project and
inform the construction engineer about the materials
and conditions he will encounter in the field.
• Some times, the explorations may be used to obtain
information for the analysis of the failure of an
engineering structure.
 Explorations are normally completed in a phased sequence as
follows:
1. Reconnaissance investigations
2. Explorations for preliminary design
3. Explorations for detailed design
4. Explorations during construction
Each phase of explorations together with the engineering done in
that phase discloses problems that require further investigation in
the next phase. Not all phases are required on all projects; the
fourth phase generally is not necessary. The number, type, location,
size, and depth of the explorations are dependent upon the nature
and size of the project and on the degree of complexity and critical
nature of the subsurface conditions.
 Reconnaissance Stage Explorations:
- Purpose of the reconnaissance survey and exploration
phase is to provide information for the preparation of a
rough estimate of the cost of site development.
- Depending on the nature and amount of information
obtained through this phase, these explorations may
consist of a few small diameter borings or test pits. The
explorations may be located to develop geologic profiles
at the locations of major structures.
- Previous studies and reports are considered in this
phase.
 EXPLORATIONS FOR PRELIMINARY DESIGN
The primary objectives of these explorations are:
- To obtain sufficient subsurface data for making of a sound
estimate of its cost.
- To prepare preliminary designs based on these explorations and
produce suitable, economic and technical feasibility reports and
project planning reports.
- The depth, thickness, and areal extent of all major soil and rock
strata that will be affected by the construction must be
established in reasonable detail.
- For projects where earth and rock construction materials are
required, sources of these materials should be investigated to
establish the quantity and quality of the materials available.
- Disturbed and undisturbed samples of the
foundation and other materials must be obtained for
laboratory testing to provide a basic knowledge of
the engineering properties of the various materials.
- Additional explorations can then be added so that
the designer can be provided with adequate
information for a rational design. If detailed geologic
maps are not available from the reconnaissance stage,
field mapping is done to prepare such maps. Geologic
sections are prepared also.
EXPLORATIONS FOR DETAILED DESIGN
- The objective of this phase of explorations is to fill in any gaps in the
previous program and to make such additional explorations as are
necessary so that subsurface conditions at each structure are well
defined.
- When the subsurface information from the two phases is combined,
the resulting information must be adequate for preparation of bidding
plans and specifications for construction.
- In this phase the precise location of each structure is set and
additional borings are made so that an adequate number of borings
are located at each structure. From the previous program certain
problems may have been disclosed and for these more elaborate
exploration methods or field tests or larger-diameter samples may be
required.
 Use of Geophysical Methods
- Two geophysical methods, seismic and electrical resistivity, have
proven useful as rapid means of obtaining subsurface information.
- These are economical supplements to borings in exploratory
programs for civil engineering purposes.
- These methods indicate subsurface conditions like depth of
groundwater, lithological units, and their geometry. All
geophysical informations should be spot checked by borings
and/or other direct methods of exploration.
Other geophysical methods used for subsurface studies include
GPR(Ground Penetrating Radar), ESP(Electromagnetic Subsurface
Profiling), SIR(Subsurface Interface Radar) and EM-VLF(
Electromagnetic – Very Low Frequency)