Circular Economy and Sustainability

https://doi.org/10.1007/s43615-021-00038-9

FULL PAPER

Recycling Organic Wastes Using Black Soldier Fly

and House Fly Larvae as Broiler Feed

Daniel Dzepe 1,2 & Ornela Magatsing 1 & Hervé Mube Kuietche 3 & Félix Meutchieye 4 &
Paulin Nana 5 & Timoléon Tchuinkam 1 & Rousseau Djouaka 2

Received: 23 November 2020 / Accepted: 28 March 2021/

# The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

Abstract
Sustainable food waste management remains a major concern in urban areas. We
investigated the potentials of the black soldier fly (BSF) and house fly (HF) to recycle
fruit waste into larval biomass which can be used as a highly rich protein source in
broilers diet. Fruit waste was collected from a local market in Dschang, Cameroon, and
subjected to different treatments with the two insects at the Dschang University farm.
Treatments with HF received additional fish offal as bait. Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL)
and house fly larvae (HFL) biomasses from recycling activities were sampled and
analysed for proximate and mineral composition and then used to replace fishmeal in a
standard control broilers diet. The experiment took place at the poultry facility of the
University, and their effects in broilers were evaluated using growth and haematology
parameters. HFL achieved a bioconversion rate of 12.03% compared to 08.35% with
BSFL, and the larval meal from HFL was more concentrated in protein and lipid than that
from BSFL. However, the two products are not entirely comparable since the two insects
larvae were reared on partly different substrates. Their use in diets did not adversely affect
the growth parameters and health of broilers, and no mortality was recorded. Based on the
results, BSFLM and HFLM can be used as an alternative source of animal protein in
broilers diet.

Keywords Black soldier fly . Feed production . House fly . Waste recycling

Introduction

Food insecurity remains a major concern in low- and middle-income countries. The FAO
estimates that global food production will need to increase by 70% to be able to feed the
world’s population by 2050. To achieve this goal, most African countries rely on the
agriculture and livestock sectors, which are the main sources of food production on the

* Daniel Dzepe
danieldzepe@gmail.com

Extended author information available on the last page of the article

 Circular Economy and Sustainability

mainland. However, the development of the livestock sector is strongly influenced by the
availability of conventional feed sources, especially sources of protein such as fishmeal and
soybean meal which are the more costly ingredient in animal diet [1, 2]. The production of
these feed sources is not environmentally friendly, due to their high pressure on water
resources, arable land, and aquatic fauna. In addition, the raw materials used for production
are primarily intended for human consumption. It is therefore necessary to seek new sources of
dietary protein for the animal industry, which are ecologically sustainable, economically
viable, and not competitive with human consumption.
Insects that are commonly eaten by birds in the wild such as grasshoppers, beetles,
butterflies, larvae, and others are potentially high in protein and dietary lipids and can be used
in livestock sector. Among these insects, the larvae of flies have an interesting attention
because of their prolificacy and their natural occurrence in most countries [2–5]. Furthermore,
studies report that black soldier fly larvae (BSFL), Hermetia illucens, and house fly larvae
(HFL), Musca domestica, are rich in nutrients as compared to fishmeal and soybean meal
[6–9]. Both of these insects are completely metamorphosed Diptera that have the ability to
voraciously feed on various waste streams and convert organic compounds into larval biomass
used as animal feed [10]. This ability can be harnessed in the circular economy to recycle
organic food waste and mitigate the adverse effects caused by its release into the environment.
According to FAO [11], 30 to 40% of global food production is lost or wasted and never
used. These food losses are most often post-harvest products and occur mainly during transport
and storage, processing and distribution or sale, and at the time of consumption. Their
mismanagement can lead to multiple unsanitary conditions in urban areas and increased
production of greenhouse gases. However, sustainable organic waste management is a priority
of countries wishing to ensure the best living conditions for their citizens [12]. In most African
countries, composting is one of the advanced technologies usually used for recycling and
recovering food waste [13, 14]. This process can take several months and require the action of
a great number of microorganisms to produce compost as the only valuable product [15, 16].
In contrast, organic waste treatment using insect-based technology does not require specific
microorganisms and only takes about 2 weeks to produce an organic fertilizers which can be
used in production of crops and larval biomass which can be used as a source of proteins for
livestock [6, 17, 18]. This relatively new treatment technology is environmentally friendly and
offers a promising solution for the sustainable organic waste management.
Several studies have investigated the effects of black soldier fly larvae meal (BSFLM) and
house fly larvae meal (HFLM) as sources of protein in animal feed [2, 5, 8, 19, 20]. However,
most of these studies are carried out separately and lack practical information on their
comparative effects in poultry diet. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the comparative
effects of larvae meal from the treatment of fruit waste by black soldier fly (BSF) and house fly
(HF) in the broilers diets. Information from this study is important in selecting the right insect
species for organic waste treatment.

Materials and Methods

The study was performed at the poultry facility of the Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural
Sciences of the University of Dschang, Cameroon. The experimental protocol was designed
according to the study of Dzepe et al. [5] and the standard guidelines currently used on the
farm for broiler farming.
Circular Economy and Sustainability

Organic Waste Treatments by Insect Larvae

Fruit waste from Dschang market was collected and used in this study as organic waste
sample. It consisted of papaya, pineapple, and orange and was stored for 2 days after collection
to reduce the water content before being treated with insect larvae.
The treatment with BSFL was carried out in plastic containers (Ø 30 × 12 cm), covered
with mosquito nets. Four plastic containers filled with 1500g of fruit waste were seeded with a
batch of 1000 neonate larvae from a pre-established BSF colony for 15 days to achieve the
optimal feeding ratio of 100mg of waste/larva/day [21]. The duration of the experiment was
established according to the time required for BSFL to reach full maturity.
The experiment with HFL was performed in an open system using the same four containers
previously described. Each container was filled with 1000g of fruit waste, and 500g of fish
offal from the university canteen was scattered above to attract adult flies which came to feed
and lay their eggs. The treatment was naturally exposed to HF for 2 days to collect their eggs,
and after that, the containers were covered with a plastic mesh to raise the temperature and
promote feeding of the larvae. HFL took about 6 days to mature after hatching.
At the end of each treatment, the mature larvae were harvested and weighed per container
using an electronic weighing balance readable to 0.01g. Residual waste was also collected in
the containers and weighed using the same scale, and the recycling activities of BSFL and
HFL were evaluated using parameters such as larval waste reduction (Eq. (1)) and larval
bioconversion (Eq. (2)), which were calculated as follows:
Waste reduction ð%Þ ¼ ½1−ðWaste residue=Waste addedÞ  100 ð1Þ

Bioconversion ð%Þ ¼ ðHavested larvae=Waste addedÞ  100 ð2Þ

Insect Larvae Meals

The harvested larvae from each treatment were oven-dried for 24 h at 105°C and ground into
meals. Larval meal from each insect species was sampled and transferred to the Laboratory of
Animal Production and Nutrition and the Laboratory of Soil Sciences and Environmental
Chemistry of the University of Dschang for proximate and mineral composition analysis,
respectively. The proximate analysis focused on dry matter, crude protein, crude fat, crude
fibre, and ash and was done according to standard protocol provided by the Association of
Official Analytical Chemists International (2002), while the mineral composition (calcium
(Ca), sodium (Na), potassium (K), phosphorus (P), and magnesium (Mg)) was analysed
according to the protocol described by Pauwels et al. (1992).

Insect Larvae Meals in the Broiler Diets

The diets were formulated to meet the nutritional requirements of broilers during the starter
and grower phases. Experimental diets were prepared by replacing the total fishmeal content of
a control diet (D0) with BSFLM (D1) and HFLM (D2), respectively (Table 1). Maize, cotton
seed cake, soybean meal, premix 5%, Shell meal, bone meal, palm oil, wheat bran meal, and
fishmeal were purchased from the local market in Dschang, while BSFLM and HFLM were
obtained from the fruit waste recycling activities by insects previously described.
 Circular Economy and Sustainability

Broilers and Experiments

Seventy-two unsexed broiler chicks, purchased from the local market, were used in this study.
Initially, they were all fed the standard control diet D0 during the first week for their
acclimatization. After this period, they were randomly allocated into 12 groups of 06 chicks
each. The first four groups continued to receive the standard control diet D0, while the second
four groups received the experimental diet D1 in which fishmeal was totally substituted by
BSLM, and the last four groups received the experimental diet D2 in which fishmeal was
totally substituted by HFLM. The chicks were housed in cages, and during the experiment,
water and food were provided ad libitum, and the prophylaxis plan was applied properly.
Initial body weight of the broilers was recorded in groups at the start of the experiment, and
subsequently the broilers were weighed individually on a weekly basis using an electronic
weighing balance readable to 0.1g. The experiment lasted for 06 weeks, and the weekly body
weight values were used to calculate average weekly weighed gain. Feed provided to the
broilers and the unconsumed portions were weighed weekly to calculate average feed intake.
Feed conversion ratio was also calculated as weekly feed consumed divided by the body
weight gain at the end of the week.
At the end of the experiment, four broilers were randomly selected in each dietary treatment
and sacrificed by bleeding, and then 04ml of blood was collected using EDTA tubes and
transferred to the laboratory for haematological analysis. The haematological parameters
mainly concerned the white blood cell, red blood cell, platelet, and haematocrit and were
analysed using an automatic haemocytometer, Genius, model K-T 6180.

Statistical Analysis

Data were analysed statistically using IBM SPSS Statistics 22 software. One-way analysis of
variance (ANOVA) followed by the Tukey’s HSD (honestly significant difference) was
performed to determine the differences between the growth performance of broilers according
to the diets. The tests were considered significant at P < 0.05.

Table 1 Centesimal composition of experimental diets

Ingredients (%) Starter phase Grower phase

D0 D1 D2 D0 D1 D2

Maize 54 54 54 67 67 67
Cotton seed cake 5 5 5 5 5 5
Soybean meal 22 22 22 14 14 14
Premix 5% 5 5 5 5 5 5
Shell meal 1 1 1 1 1 1
Bone meal 1 1 1 1 1 1
Palm oil 3 3 3 3 3 3
Wheat bran meal 4 4 4 - - -
Fishmeal 5 - - 5 - -
BSFLM - 5 - - 5 -
HFLM - - 5 - - 5

D0 standard control diet, D1 experimental diet in which fishmeal was substituted by BSFLM, D2 experimental
diet in which fishmeal was substituted by HFLM
Circular Economy and Sustainability

Results

Recycling Parameters of Fruit Waste

Under the experimental conditions, BSFL reduced 1500g of fruit waste to 96.05% in 15 days
and generated 125.33g of useful living biomass, with an average bioconversion rate of
08.35%, while HFL reduced the same fruit waste associated with fish offal to 94.22% in 08
days and generated 180.51g of living biomass, so with an average bioconversion rate of
12.03% (Table 2). The recycling performances obtained with HFL seem better than those
obtained with BSFL, but unfortunately, these performances are not entirely comparable since
the experimental conditions were partly different.

Proximate and Mineral Composition of Insect Larvae Meals

Table 3 shows the proximate and mineral composition of BSFLM and HFLM from the
recycling of fruit waste. It can be observed that these two insect larvae meals are highly
concentrated in proteins and lipids. BSFLM was also highly concentrated in calcium
(11.80g/kg), potassium (08.92g/kg), and phosphorus (06.16g/kg). Unfortunately, these param-
eters have not been analysed in HFLM.

Growth Performance of Broilers

Insect-based diets were greatly appreciated by broilers, and no mortality was recorded during
the experimental period. Weekly body weight and body weight gain were significantly
affected according to diets during the second, third, fifth, and sixth weeks of age (P < 0.05),
and the values recorded with broilers fed the D2 diet were relatively higher (Table 4). The
weekly feed intake on the other hand was not significantly affected (P > 0.05), except during
the third week where the lowest value was recorded with the D1 diet. We achieved an overall
average feed intake of 4302.53g with broilers fed the D0 diet, 4029.86g with the D1 diet, and
4336.27g with the D2 diet. The feed conversion ratio was also not significantly affected (P >
0.05), and an overall average value of 2.38 was recorded with broilers on the D0 diet, 2.20 with
broilers on diet D1, and 2.03 with broilers on diet D2 (Table 4).

Haematological Parameters of Broilers

Table 5 presents the haematological parameters of the broilers obtained at the end of
the experiment. It can be observed that the substitution of fishmeal by BSFLM and
HFLM did not significantly affected erythrocyte, leukocyte, platelet, and haematocrit
indices (P > 0.05).

Discussion

The treatment of organic waste with insect larvae is a promising technology to reduce and
recycle food waste responsible for unsanitary conditions encountered in urban areas into useful
products. Several studies present BSFL and HFL as an alternative protein source for animal
feed [19, 22, 23]. These two insect species are very voracious and have a great ability to
 Circular Economy and Sustainability

Table 2 Fruit waste recycling parameters by BSFL and HFL

Parameters BSFL HFL

Waste stream Fruit waste Fruit waste + Fish offal

Waste added (g) 1500 1500
Initial larval population (n) 1000 Unknown
Larval biomass (g) 125.33 ± 41.10 180.51 ± 36.68
Waste residue (g) 59.14 ± 6.40 86.58 ± 10.87
Waste reduction (%) 96.05 ± 0.42 94.22 ± 0.72
Bioconversion (%) 08.35 ± 2.74 12.03 ± 2.44

recycle different types of organic substrates [24–26]. In the present study, we achieved the
average waste reduction rates of 96.05% and 94.22%, respectively, with BSFL and HFL.
These values were higher compared to those obtained by several authors with other substrates
[21, 25, 26] and could be due to the high water concentration of fruit waste which favours their
reduction. The same observations were made by Nguyen et al. [27], who reported that the
reduction rates of fruits and vegetables by BSFL are higher compared to the standard chicken
feed and chicken manure. The bioconversions rates recorded in this study with BSFL and HFL
on the other hand were close to those obtained by Nana et al. [26] with kitchen manure
(08.20%) and Lalander et al. [28] in poultry manure (07.10%). Other studies reveal high
bioconversions rates with BSFL. For example, Nyakeri et al. [29] reported a bioconversion
rate of 22.30% with human manure, while Joly [30] reported 20.73% with kitchen waste.
Values vary depending on the type of waste stream treated and their water content. The values
obtained in this study were calculated on fresh weight basis, and the difference between the dry
matter content of the original waste added and the residual waste obtained at the end of the
treatment was not taken into account.
BSFLM and HFLM are presented as a promising feed source for the animal industry due to
their high concentration of dietary protein and lipid as compared to fishmeal and soybean meal
commonly used in animal feed. The proximate composition analysis of BSFL and HFL from
fruit waste in this study shows that BSFL contains 39.50% crude protein and 19.84% crude fat,
while HFL contains 42.36% crude protein and 25.06% crude fat. These values are comparable
to those reported by several authors in the literature [22, 23]. However, it should be noted that
the chemical composition of fly larvae varies depending on the type of organic waste stream
used as the substrate. For example, St-Hilaire et al. [31] reported 43.6% crude protein with
BSFL from pig manure, while Mutafela [32] reported 39.80% crude protein and 30.10% crude

Table 3 Proximate and mineral composition of BSFLM and HFLM

Parameters BSFLM HFLM

Dry matter (%) 91.00 ± 0.00 90.82 ± 0.02

Crude protein (%) 39.50 ± 0.08 42.36 ± 0.26
Crude fat (%) 19.84 ± 0.00 25.06 ± 0.00
Crude fibre (%) 09.46 ± 0.00 08.66 ± 0.00
Ash (%) 10.37 ± 0.18 09.51 ± 0.10
Calcium (g/kg) 11.80 ± 0.50 -
Sodium (g/kg) 00.02 ± 0.00 -
Potassium (g/kg) 08.92 ± 0.23 -
Phosphorus (g/kg) 06.16 ± 0.00 -
Magnesium (g/kg) 02.70 ± 0.18 -
 Circular Economy and Sustainability
Table 4 Average weekly body weight, body weight gain, feed intake, and feed conversion ratio of broilers fed insect-based diets and a control diet

Diets 1 2 3 4 5 6

Weekly body weight (g)

D0 141.75 ± 13.72a 322.16 ± 40.36b 606.83 ± 44.62b 901.16 ± 48.58a 1339.10 ± 73.53b 1842.70 ± 83.34b
D1 141.44 ± 8.00a 344.77 ± 7.84ab 591.83 ± 28.38b 851.22 ± 34.18a 1328.08 ± 18.51b 1867.67 ± 27.60b
D2 152.89 ± 11.27a 404.89 ± 30.33a 705.27 ± 28.56a 982.44 ± 80.90a 1528.83 ± 187.80a 2180.40 ± 309.29a
Weekly body weight gain (g)
D0 99.84 ± 13.72a 180.41 ± 44.12a 284.66 ± 23.75ab 294.33 ± 19.19a 437.93 ± 25.15b 503.60 ± 10.81b
D1 99.53 ± 08.00a 203.33 ± 10.68a 247.05 ± 22.40b 259.38 ± 06.96a 476.86 ± 28.92b 539.59 ± 09.54b
D2 110.98 ± 11.27a 252.00 ± 33.48a 300.38 ± 06.57a 277.16 ± 54.30a 546.39 ± 198.66a 651.57 ± 130.80a
Weekly feed intake (g)
D0 321.62 ± 3.18a 389.00 ± 69.83a 549.33 ± 24.10a 719.50 ± 43.31a 999.95 ± 58.35a 1323.13 ± 39.97a
D1 332.61 ± 41.99a 370.89 ± 63.02a 454.05 ± 41.42b 708.44 ± 36.68a 918.33 ± 38.83a 1245.54 ± 42.16a
D2 351.16 ± 33.66a 435.33 ± 29.03a 616.05 ± 29.79a 789.06 ± 43.19a 912.66 ± 45.15a 1232.01 ± 31.84a
Feed conversion ratio
D0 3.26 ± 0.44a 2.27 ± 0.74a 1.94 ± 0.23a 2.44 ± 0.06a 2.28 ± 0.11a 2.62 ± 0.03a
D1 3.34 ± 0.45a 1.82 ± 0.32a 1.85 ± 0.29a 2.73 ± 0.14a 1.93 ± 0.16a 2.30 ± 0.11a
D2 3.18 ± 0.39a 1.73 ± 0.11a 2.05 ± 0.14a 2.90 ± 0.47a 1.87 ± 0.84b 1.89 ± 0.08a

Means (± SE) are based on four repeated measurements and values followed by different lowercase letter are significantly different among diets (P < 0.05). D0 standard control diet, D1
experimental diet in which fishmeal was substituted by BSFLM, D2 experimental diet in which fishmeal was substituted by HFLM
 Circular Economy and Sustainability

fat for BSFL from municipal organic waste and 37.80% crude protein and 41.70% crude fat
with BSFL from fresh fruit waste. Ogunji et al. [33] also reported 37.50% crude protein and
19.80% crude fat for HFL from poultry manure, while Aniebo et al. [34] reported 47.1% crude
protein and 25.3% crude fat for HFL in cattle blood and bran. The proximate analysis also
revealed an ash content of 10.37% for BSFL and 09.51% for HFL. This parameter is the main
indicator of the mineral concentration of a compound. Unfortunately, only the mineral
composition of BSFL was investigated in this study, and the results mainly report 11.80g/kg
of calcium, 08.92g/kg of potassium, and 06.16g/kg of phosphorus. These results agree with
Spranghers et al. [35] who claim that calcium is the main inorganic compound of BSFL.
Several authors also reported high calcium concentration in BSFL reared on chicken manure
[7, 36].
The weekly body weight and body weight gain in broilers fed the HFLM-based diet were
relatively improved compared to broilers fed the BSFL-based diet and standard control diet.
Although the two insects were reared on partly different substrates, this result can be explained
by the fact that the nutrient intake from an insect-based diet varies according to the insect
species. Based on this result and the proximate composition analysis shown in Table 3, HFLM
appears to be more nutritious than BSFLM. However, the growth parameters recorded with the
latter were similar to those obtained with the standard control diet. These results agree with
several authors who report that insect larvae are sustainable sources of protein for animal feed
[5, 19, 37]. The weekly feed intake and feed conversion ratio of broilers were not adversely
affected by the experimental diets. Picard et al. [38] report that a high energy concentrates diet
lowers the feed conversion ratio of chicken. However, the values recorded in this study were
very close to those from the standard control diet. This study shows that BSFLM and HFLM
can successfully replace fishmeal as a sustainable protein ingredient in broilers diet as reflected
in the growth performance and feed conversion ratio.
The substitution of fishmeal by BSFLM and HFLM in the experimental diets did not affect
the haematological indices of broilers. Values remained within the normal physiological range
for good bird health [39, 40]. This result attests to the potential of insect-based diets as
sustainable animal feed. The same result was reported by Chia et al. [37] in pigs fed a
BSFLM-based diet. However, Marono et al. [41] and Loponte et al. [42] report that
BSFLM-based diet has a positive effect on the blood profile of laying hens and Barbary
partridges, in terms of higher globulin levels. Bouafou et al. [23] also report that HFLM can be
incorporated at 10% in animal diets without adverse effects on their haematological parame-
ters. It should be noted that the haematological parameters are very important for the
management of animal health. They allow the early diagnosis of nutritional or metabolic
disorders before the onset of serious symptoms.

Table 5 Haematological parameters of broilers fed insect-based diets and a control diet

Diets White blood cell Red blood cell Platelet Haematocrit

D0 105.50 ± 08.69 2.73 ± 0.26 270.00 ± 18.34 34.77 ± 3.47

D1 104.52 ± 10.73 2.65 ± 0.27 282.75 ± 21.36 33.55 ± 2.35
D2 103.05 ± 12.18 2.72 ± 0.30 267.00 ± 13.08 34.12 ± 2.90

Means (± SE) are based on four repeated measurements and are not significantly different (P < 0.05). D0 standard
control diet, D1 experimental diet in which fishmeal was substituted by BSFLM, D2 experimental diet in which
fishmeal was substituted by HFLM
Circular Economy and Sustainability

With the industrial revolution, the world operates according to a linear economic
model, which can be summarized as take the resources you need, make the goods for sale
and profit, and dispose of what you do not need [43]. This extractive industrial model has
benefited humanity for decades in material wealth creation. However, it creates a situation
that will no longer sustainably support future generations [44]. According to the Global
Footprint Network [45], the world’s population would need 1.7 earths to support its
demands on renewable natural resources. These findings have led to a realization that
the linear economic model will not be tenable in the face of an increasing global
population and our associated consumption needs [46]. The present study attempts to link
the concept of circular bioeconomy to the recovery of fruit waste and generate valuable
products for broilers feed. This new concept aims to promote the maximum use of
resources and reduce waste by closing economic and ecological loops of resource flows
[47]. As you can see, flies larvae can be used to recycle biowaste and produce insect-based
protein as an alternative to using animal- or plant-based protein sources such as small
pelagic fish and soybean, respectively. This concept can help reduce the pressure on
aquatic fauna and the need for large areas of land to produce the required amounts of
soybean or other crops for incorporation into animal feed.

Conclusion

This study demonstrates the potentials of insect larvae to recycle fruit waste into useful
products and to mitigate their adverse effects on the environment. HFLM from the biocon-
version of fruit waste supplemented with fish offal was more concentrated in crude protein and
crude lipid than BSFLM from fruit waste. The dietary replacement of fishmeal with these
insect meals in the broilers diets did not adversely affect growth parameters and blood
characteristics. These insect meals may be incorporated at 5% in broiler diets as a source of
protein for sustainable production. However, further studies are required to investigate the
effect of this new protein source on the sensory attributes of broiler meat.

Author Contribution DD, TT, and RD conceived and designed the study. OM performed the experiments. DD
and HMK analysed and interpreted the data. DD did the original draft preparation. FM and PN reviewed and
edited the paper. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Funding This study was funded by the AgroEcoHealth Platform of IITA, under the insects for food and feed
project, jointly coordinated by the University of Liverpool UK and IITA-CC6025/Rousseau Djouaka, IITA-
Benin, West Africa.

Data Availability All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.

Code Availability Not applicable.

Declarations

Ethics Approval Not applicable.

Consent to Participate Not applicable.

 Circular Economy and Sustainability

Consent for Publication Not applicable.

Competing Interests The authors declare no competing interests.

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Affiliations

Daniel Dzepe 1,2 & Ornela Magatsing 1 & Hervé Mube Kuietche 3 & Félix Meutchieye 4 &
Paulin Nana 5 & Timoléon Tchuinkam 1 & Rousseau Djouaka 2
1
Vector Borne Diseases Laboratory of the Applied Biology and Ecology Research Unit, Faculty of Sciences,
University of Dschang, P.O. Box 067, Dschang, Cameroon
2
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, P.O. Box 0932, Cotonou, Benin
3
Research Unit in Animal Nutrition and Production, Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural Sciences,
University of Dschang, P.O. Box 222, Dschang, Cameroon
4
Biotechnology and Bio-Informatics Research Unit, Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural Sciences,
University of Dschang, P. O. Box 188, Dschang, Cameroon
5
School of Wood, Water and Natural Resources, Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural Sciences, University
of Dschang, Ebolowa Campus, P.O. Box 786, Ebolowa, Cameroon