MARXISM

Marxism is a socio-political and economic theory, ideology, and practice developed by Karl Marx and
Friedrich Engels in the 19th century. It serves as the foundation for the ideology of communism and has
had a significant impact on political thought and practice worldwide.

At its core, Marxism focuses on the struggle between different social classes, primarily the working class
(proletariat) and the owning class (bourgeoisie), within capitalist societies

It tries to understand and criticize how capitalism can be unfair, where only a small group of people own
the things that are used to make stuff, which can make the workers feel disconnected and oppressed.

 Class Struggle: Marxism emphasizes the idea that throughout history, societies have been
characterized by the struggle between different social classes. In particular, it highlights the
conflict between the ruling class, which owns and controls the means of production, and the
working class, which provides the labor for production. This struggle is seen as the driving force
behind historical development and societal change.
 Historical Materialism: According to Marxism, the material conditions and the mode of
production in a society, such as the tools and technology used for production, influence its social
and political structures. Marxists believe that changes in the mode of production lead to
changes in the organization of society, and ultimately drive historical progress. For example,
Marx identified different historical stages, including primitive communism, slavery, feudalism,
capitalism, and ultimately, communism.
 Critique of Capitalism: Marxism is critical of capitalism, viewing it as a system that inherently
leads to exploitation, inequality, and alienation. Marx argued that capitalism generates profits
for the capitalist class by paying workers less than the value they produce. This, he believed,
leads to the alienation of labor, where workers lose control over the products of their labor and
their creative potential.
 Communism as the Goal: Marx envisioned communism as the ultimate goal of human
society. In a communist society, the means of production would be collectively owned and
controlled by the people, leading to a classless and stateless society where goods and services
are distributed according to need. This would result in the elimination of social hierarchies and
the alienation experienced under capitalism.

Marxism has had a profound impact on the development of various social and political movements
around the world. It has influenced the formation of socialist and communist parties, labor unions, and
other movements advocating for workers' rights and social justice. However, in practice, the application
of Marxist ideas has varied widely, with different interpretations and implementations leading to diverse
outcomes in different historical contexts.
 Feminism
Feminism is a social and political movement that advocates for equal rights, opportunities, and
treatment of all genders. It seeks to eliminate discrimination based on gender, challenge societal norms,
and promote the empowerment of women and marginalized genders. The theory of feminism
encompasses a range of perspectives and approaches, each with its focus and objectives.

International relations meet feminism

Feminist international relations is a diverse field that combines international relations with gender,
cultural, and postcolonial studies. Feminist scholars focus on the challenges faced by women in global
politics, including their limited access to power and resources. They also examine how international
politics can discriminate against women. Despite various theoretical approaches, these scholars share a
commitment to addressing these issues of disadvantage and discrimination in international relations.

The feminist international relations agenda

Feminist international relations focuses on various issues affecting women worldwide. These include
their involvement in war, politics, economics, and health, with a particular emphasis on their limited
access to power and resources. One aspect involves examining problems that primarily affect women,
such as political underrepresentation and human trafficking. Another aspect involves understanding the
differing experiences of men and women in similar situations, like sexual harassment in the military or
disparities in post-disaster reconstruction aid. The aim is to highlight and address these gender-based
inequalities in global contexts.

Tracing feminist international relations: challenging the Masculine bias

In the early 1990s, feminists entered the field of international relations, aiming to highlight its focus on
male experiences and perspectives. They challenged the idea that discipline primarily reflects the
experiences and traits of men, particularly those associated with aggression and competition. For
instance, they questioned the portrayal of the "rational man" as the basis of international life, arguing
that it does not represent the experiences of many women or men. Feminist scholars pointed out that
concepts like states, sovereignty, anarchy, and military power tend to reflect a masculine way of
understanding, one that favors aggression and a specific type of masculinity. They emphasized the need
to uncover the experiences of those marginalized by this male-centered perspective.

Where are the women?

Feminist research in international relations aims to address the male-dominated bias by including
women's experiences in the analysis. Works like Cynthia Enloe's "Bananas, Beaches and Bases" illustrate
the significant roles women play in global politics, not just as nurses or factory workers during wartime,
but also as agents in the international political economy and peacemaking efforts. Understanding the
experiences of women provides valuable insights into how international relations operate. To uncover
these stories, feminists employ new methodologies, often relying on personal interviews, diaries, and
subjective accounts. They take a bottom-up approach, focusing on individual experiences to
demonstrate how people, especially women, influence and are influenced by the actions of nation-
states.

Reconstructing international relations: examining the differences between sex

and gender
In feminist international relations, the focus is on reconstructing the field to ensure the inclusion of all
experiences without gender discrimination. While some feminists advocate for the straightforward
addition of women to positions of power, others argue that addressing the underlying patriarchal
culture is crucial. Central to feminist theories is the distinction between biological sex and socially
constructed gender. Sex refers to biological characteristics, while gender is a socially constructed
identity that defines masculine and feminine roles and expectations in society. This social expectation
often leads to scrutiny and judgment when individuals deviate from traditional gender norms, as seen in
the case of politicians like Julia Gillard. Feminist scholars emphasize the unequal relationship between
masculinity and femininity, where masculinity is valued and associated with strength and authority,
while femininity is devalued and linked with weakness and submissiveness. They highlight the gendered
nature of politics, challenging the unequal treatment and expectations imposed based on gender.

Feminist theories of international relations

Liberal feminism. Liberal feminism focuses on achieving equal rights for men and women, drawing
from the principles of liberalism that prioritize individual rights and equality before the law. This
perspective advocates for the removal of legal and societal barriers that have historically restricted
women's opportunities and rights. It views the state as a key player in enforcing women's equality,
despite acknowledging its potential for discriminatory practices. In the Western context, liberal
feminism remains influential in policy-making and lobbying efforts, emphasizing equal rights and legal
protections. It has been instrumental in various movements, such as advocating for women's suffrage
and reproductive rights, as well as promoting equal opportunities for women in the military. However,
some critics argue that liberal feminism's focus on achieving formal legal equality doesn't fully address
the underlying structures and power dynamics that contribute to gender inequality.

Critiques of liberal feminism

 Liberal feminism's universality claim neglects the experiences of non-white women and their
specific challenges.
 It overlooks the intricate intersections of oppression, such as racism, poverty, and
discrimination, which affect women's struggles.
 Its acceptance of the status quo limits its focus to changing women's roles, rather than
challenging systemic norms.
 Criticisms point to the neglect of non-Western feminist concerns and the reinforcement of
existing power structures.
 There is a need for recognition of diverse feminist goals beyond the confines of the traditional
liberal model.
Maternal and cultural feminism. Some feminists believe that women are naturally more peaceful,
while others argue that they are raised to be more peaceful. They connect women's roles as caregivers
and nurturers to the promotion of peace. This idea has influenced women's peace activism, such as the
'Save Our Sons' movement in Australia during the Vietnam War. Similarly, Cindy Sheehan's Gold Star
Families for Peace organization emphasizes the unique insights of mothers into peace. However, these
ideas have lost some of their appeal to feminist theorists over time. In Australia, the belief that peace is
a woman's concern and war is a man's is often brought up in public debates, for instance in discussions
about banning women soldiers from frontline service.

Critical and postmodern feminisms. Critical and postmodern feminists reject the idea of universal
traits for men and women, emphasizing the diversity of women's experiences. They also believe that
institutions and knowledge are gendered, favoring masculine values and undermining feminine ones.
They highlight how political structures like the state or the military perpetuate male dominance. In
politics, some women face challenges balancing traditional roles with their political careers, as seen in
instances of inadequate support for childcare. They argue that international relations are often biased
towards masculine characteristics, promoting aggression over peace and negotiation. This, they claim,
marginalizes women's experiences in times of conflict. Critical and postmodern feminists advocate for a
reconstruction of international relations to prioritize peace and cooperation, emphasizing the potential
for a more inclusive and emancipatory global politics.