STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF EYES

To

Sir Fakhar Razzaq

By

(Group #05)

Aliza Naz(78)

Bisma Saleem(79)

Aimen Shahzad (80)

Alishba Javaid (81)

Arooba Ather (84)

BS(Mathematics)
4th Semester (Evening)

Subject
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

Department Of Mathematics
Govt Graduate College Toba Tek Singh
 STRUCTURE OF THE EYE
Introduction:
Eye is Specialized sense organ, capable of receiving visual image, which are then
carried to brain.

Diagram:

Shape:
Almost spherical.

Diameter:
2.5 cm (25mm).

Eyeball is made up of two Parts;

→Anterior

→posterior

Anterior:
Small, 1/6 part of eyeball.

Posterior:
Large, 5/6 part of eyeball.

Wall of Eyeball:
Human eye consist of three concentric Layers, each with its own Characteristics,
structure and primary factions.
The outer most Layer;
It is fibrous tunic which protects the eyeball.

Middle Layer;
It is vascular tunic which nourishes the eyeball.

Retina;
It detects light and initiate neural message. bound for the brain.

Outermost Layer (Sclera):

The White portion of the eye is part of the outermost fibrous coat. Since this white
part is made of tough, dense material, it is called the Sclera. Usually sclera is 1mm thick.
Sclera has to pressure be tough because inside the eyeball is double that of the atmosphere.
Except the cornea, the eye is covered by strange protective tissue called Sclera.

Cornea:
At the very front of the eye, this outer coat becomes transparent and appears a Small
bulge. This bulge is called cornea. It is tough, found, Virtually transparent outer shell of the
eye.

The Middle Layer (Choroids):

Most of the middle layer consists of a dark heavily pigmented, spongy Structure
called the choroids. The choroids averages about 0.2mm in thickness and Contains in
thickness and network of a blood vessels, including Capillaries. Blood from these Capillaries
nourishes many cells in the retina. Without this nourishment, those Vital cells would die.

Aqueous Humor:
The Spongy network of tissues manufactures aqueous humor; i.e the watery fluid that
fills the Smaller anterior chamber of the eye, Located behind the cornea and in front of the
lens.

Iris:
Pigmented muscle-control movement of pupil it is a circular patch of tissue that gives
the eye characteristic color ; brown, blue, green or grey. Actually the iris consist of two
layers, on outer layer containing pigment/color and an inner layer containing blood vessels.

The pupil:
At the center of iris, is a round the black region called the pupil. The pupil is actually
opening, or gap Within two sets of muscles. The inner set runs rircularly around the pupil.
When the circular band of muscle contracts; The pupil gets Smaller change in the pupil Size,
control the amount of light reaching in the back of the eye.
Lens:
The very important optical element of the eye is the crystalline lens that lies right
behind iris. The ciliary body and Suspencry ligaments control the movement of lens it is
transparent in color.

The Vitreous chamber:

This larger chamber is bounded by lens the in front, and the retina on the sides and in
the rear. It is filled with transparent fluid called Vitreous. It major function is to keep eye ball
rounded.

Retina:
Retina is the light sensitive layer of the tissues at the back of eyeball. Images that
come through the lens focused on the retina. Retina converts these images to electric signals
and send them to brain. It is located near the optic nerve.

Neural retina refers to layers of neural cells, which are interconnected by synapse
Photoreceptor cells, bipolar cells, gang lion cells and pigmented epithelial cells.

Photoreceptor cells:

This layer of cells converts light into electric Signal that are sent to brain. There are
two types of photoreceptor cells.

Rods:
Provides monocharomatic vision. In these cells a chemical called rhodopsin is
present. It provides night vision.

Cones:
These cells process color and make up most of your visual Cones contains three different
chemicals called to iodopsins provide the basis of color vision. When light fills to the retina
these calls absorbs light and the chemical present in these cells break down. Due to this
nerve impulse is triggered.
Bipolar cells:
These nerve cells combines the impulses from many photoreceptor cells the result
and Send them to ganglion cells.

Ganglion cells:
Outer layer of retina contains nerve cell called ganglion which bear the sole of
propagoding visual stimuli to the brain. Their axon, Which make up the optic nerve project
the electric signal to the brain.

Fovea:
In very centre of retina there is a small region called fovea which contains densly
packed cones. It is rod free. It area of QUY sharpest vision.

Blind Spot:
This receptor cells region contains no at all. therefore it is insensitive. to light Al is
the point where optic newe leaves the eye. of the use dehems of ng al cells.these make

Optic nerve:
- It is also called the Second Cranieal nerve (CN II).It is responsible for transmitting
electric impulse from eye to brain.

Optic Chiasma :- (Pathway to brain)

Optic chiasma is the place in the brain where some of the optic nerve fibers coming
from one eye cross optic nerve fiber from the other eye. It is located at the base of brain, Just
anterior and superior to the location of pituitary gland. It contributer in conveying visual
information from eye to certex.
What is adaptation ?:
An organism Can Change to adjust to its immediate habitat.

Function of eye adaption:

in ocular physiology, adaptation the ability of the "eye" to adjust to various level of
darkness and Light. The human eye Can function from very dark to very bright Levels of any
given moment of time the a eye can only Contrast ratio roughly one the total of millionth of
range.

Dark adaptation:
Dash adaptation or the ability of the eye to become more visually Sensitive after
remaining in a darkness for period of time, is delayed in older persons, One reason for this
Visual Change is the smaller, miotic Pupil, which Limits the amount of Light reaching the
periphery of the retina.

Example:
when we move from a bright, Sunny area outside to a relatively dark room inside, It is
difficult to see at first. But gradually our eyes recover ane become more sensitive to the dim
light indoors. Dark adaption refers to the process whereby the retina adapts to decreasing
levels of illumination.

hight adaptation Meaning of Light adaptation:

Light adaptation refers to an and an Levels adjustm to higher levels and dark
adaptation to adjustment to lower level or to darkness. Light adaptation is the process of
adjusting to bright light after exposure to dim Light. This process after takes a minute or two
to be completed dark adaptation, on the other hand, refers to the Process of adjusting to dim
light after exposure to bright light.

Example of light adaption:

When you leave a dark room for the bright light of a sunny day there are spots, and
color distortion that eventually fade away?

This is light adaptation. The other end of the Spectrum is dark adaptation which is the
adjustment from an illuminated area to darkness.

Sensory adaptation:
Sensory the adaptation refers to Senses adjust way to different stimuli Various Senses
- Including hearing, touch smell, proprioception. and Sight can adapt in response to changes
in the environment. Adaptations can allow these senses to continue to function in adverse or
over stimulating Conditions.

Examples:
1. Sound adaptation
 2. Touch adaptation

3. Temperature adaptation.

Color vision:
Like beauty, color is in the eye of the beholder. Many animals see only shades of gray
even when they look at rainbow; but for humans, color is a highly silent features of vision
Sunlight is a mixture of all wavelengths of light. When sunlight passes through a droplet of
water ,the different wavelengths of light are Bent to different degrees, separating into a
colorful rainbow. Each wave length of light is sensed as a certain color.

There are three ascepts of Color sensation:

1: Hue :

Hue is the essential color determined by the dominant wavelength in the mixture of
the light.

2: Saturation:
Saturation is related to the purity of a color.

3: Brightness refers to the overall intensity of all of the wavelengths making up light.

Color blindness:
Color blindness is a genetic disorder it's very rare and runs in family.

Forms of Color blindness

Partial color blindness

Complete color blindness

Partial color blindness :

Partial Color blindness is the inability to distinguish two or more shades in the color
spectrum.

Complete color blindness:

in which the world look like a Black and white movie.

Cause of Color blindness:

Color blindness is due to defect in photoreceptors cones. Normal trichromatic colour
vision is based on the three different kinds of cone cells in the retina each sensitivity to only
one of three primary color red green blue each type of cone cells has specific light
absorbing proteins called opsins.
Mutations in opsins genes cause three types of Color blindness:
A dichromate can persive two primary color but is unable to persive the one whose
opsins are missing due to mutation. Protanopia is red color blindness Deuteranopia is green
blindness while Tritanopia is blue blindness and Monochromat can perceive one color.

Color blindness test:

What are cataracts?

A cataract is a cloudy area in the lens of your eye (the clear part of the eye that helps
to focus light). Cataracts are very common as you get older. In fact, more than half of all
Americans age 80 or older either have cataracts or have had surgery to get rid of cataracts.

At first, you may not notice that you have a cataract. But over time, cataracts can
make your vision blurry, hazy, or less colorful. You may have trouble reading or doing other
everyday activities.Over time, cataracts can lead to vision loss. The good news is that surgery
can get rid of cataracts. Cataract surgery is safe and corrects vision problems caused by
cataracts.
How can I prevent cataracts?

You can take steps to protect your eyes from cataracts:

• Protect your eyes from the sun. Wear sunglasses and a hat with a brim to block the
sun.
• Protect your eyes from injury. While doing activities like using power tools or
playing certain sports, wear protective eyewear to protect your eyes from getting accidentally
injured.

Am I at risk for cataracts?

Your risk for cataracts goes up as you get older. You're also at higher risk if you:
• Have certain health problems, like diabetes
• Smoke
• Drink too much alcohol
• Have a family history of cataracts
• Have had an eye injury, eye surgery, or radiation treatment on your upper body.

What Is Strabismus?
Strabismus is when eyes don't line up or when one or both eyes wander. The eyes may
turn:
1. inward (called esotropia or "cross- eyed")
2. outward (exotropia)
3. up (hypertropia)
4. down (hypotropia)

When eyes don't line up together, the straight or straighter eye becomes dominant.
The vision strength (acuity) of this eye stays normal because the eye and its connection to the
brain are working as they should. The misaligned or weaker eye, though, doesn't focus as it
should and its connection to the brain doesn't form correctly.

How is strabismus treated?

There is a variety of treatment options for strabismus. Your eye provider will discuss
which options are best for your specific situation. Treatment options include:
Eyeglasses or contact lenses: If you have uncorrected refractive errors, corrective
lenses may help your eyes remain straight, as they'll need less effort to focus.
• Prism lenses: Special lenses that can bend light entering your eye to relieve double
vision.
What Causes Strabismus?
Kids can be born with strabismus or develop it in childhood. Often, it's caused by a
problem with the muscles that move the eyes, and can run in families.
Most kids with strabismus are diagnosed when they're between 1 and 4 years old.
Rarely, a child might develop strabismus after age 6. If this happens, it's important for the
child to see a doctor right away to rule out other conditions.

What's the treatment for glaucoma?

Doctors use different types of treatment for glaucoma, including medicines (usually
eye drops), laser treatment, and surgery.

If you have glaucoma, it's important to start treatment right away. Treatment won't
undo any damage to your vision, but it can stop it from getting worse.

Medicines. Prescription eye drops are the most common treatment. They lower the
pressure in your eye and prevent damage to your optic nerve.

What are the symptoms of strabismus?

Symptoms of strabismus include.

1. Double vision.
2. Closing or covering one eye when looking at something nearby.
3. Tilting or turning your head.
4. Headaches.
5. Difficulty reading.
6. Eye strain.
7. Closing one eye when looking at objects that are far away or when you're in bright
light.

What causes glaucoma?

Scientists aren't sure what causes the most common types of glaucoma, but many
people with glaucoma have high eye pressure - and treatments that lower eye pressure help to
slow the disease.
 REFERENCE
SOURCES:
1. https://youtu.be/lFZZuyqab6M
2. https://youtu.be/69Mts99Dk58
3. https://youtu.be/AAcw3BzPFu8
4. https://youtu.be/KsTap289KlE
5. Punjab text book biology part 2.
6. www.retinahealthinstitute.com
7. www.healthline.com