Comparison of Different Mixes for Low Volume Road Construction

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

Road infrastructure plays a vital role in facilitating transportation and connectivity,

enabling the efficient movement of people, goods, and services. While major

highways and urban roads often receive significant attention, low volume roads are

equally important in providing access to rural areas, connecting communities, and

supporting various economic activities. These roads, although handling relatively less

traffic, serve as lifelines for agriculture, industry, and recreational purposes.

Constructing low volume roads requires careful consideration of pavement mixes that

can withstand the anticipated traffic volume, environmental conditions, and budget

constraints. The selection of the appropriate pavement mix is crucial for ensuring the

road's performance, durability, and maintenance requirements. Good road

infrastructure is vital for efficient transportation and connectivity, even on low

volume roads. The selection of the appropriate pavement mix plays a critical role in

ensuring the road's performance, durability, and maintenance requirements.

The background of the study comparing different mixes for low volume road

construction is rooted in the continuous efforts to optimize road infrastructure,

particularly for roads with lower traffic volumes. Low volume roads play a critical

role in connecting rural and less densely populated areas, providing essential

transportation access to communities and facilitating economic development.

However, the unique characteristics and challenges faced by these roads have

prompted researchers and engineers to explore specialized pavement materials and

designs that can address their specific needs.

Traditionally, low volume roads were often constructed using conventional materials

and mixes similar to those used for high volume roads. However, this approach didn't

fully consider the lower traffic loads, lighter axle loads, and limited environmental

stresses experienced by low volume roads. Consequently, road surfaces on low

volume roads often suffered from premature distresses and required more frequent

maintenance, leading to higher life-cycle costs and potential safety concerns.

Recognizing these shortcomings, transportation agencies and researchers turned their

attention to developing customized mixes and pavement designs tailored to the

requirements of low volume roads. The evolution of this study has been marked by

advancements in materials science, mix design methodologies, and innovative

technologies that enable researchers to assess the performance of various mixes under

different conditions.

Researchers have conducted laboratory tests to understand the engineering properties

of different materials and their behavior under varying traffic loads and

environmental conditions. Field trials have been conducted on selected low volume

road sections to evaluate the long-term performance of different mixes under

real-world circumstances. Moreover, the study has expanded its focus to include a

broader assessment of environmental sustainability. Researchers have sought to

understand the environmental impact of road construction and maintenance activities,

considering factors like greenhouse gas emissions, energy consumption, and the

potential for recycling or reusing materials.

The background of this study is also influenced by the growing emphasis on

cost-effectiveness and budget constraints. With limited financial resources,

transportation agencies are keen to identify mixes that offer the best value for money,

balancing performance with construction and maintenance costs. The study's

significance lies in its potential to improve road quality, safety, and longevity on low

volume roads. By identifying mixes that are specifically designed to withstand the

conditions unique to low volume roads, transportation agencies can optimize their

investment in road infrastructure, reduce maintenance expenses, and enhance road

user safety. The findings of this study can also contribute to the development of

standardized guidelines and best practices for low volume road construction, ensuring

consistent and high-quality road networks across different regions. The background of

the study comparing different mixes for low volume road construction reflects the

ongoing pursuit of enhancing road infrastructure through tailored solutions. The

evolving knowledge in materials science, advances in mix design methodologies, and

growing awareness of environmental sustainability have all contributed to the

significance and relevance of this study. By addressing the challenges specific to low

volume roads, this study seeks to lay the foundation for constructing more resilient,

cost-effective, and sustainable road networks that serve communities effectively and

promote economic growth.

1.2. STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS

The statement of the problem in the study comparing different mixes for low volume

road construction revolves around the challenges and gaps in knowledge that

researchers and engineers seek to address. It focuses on identifying the key issues

related to selecting appropriate mixes for low volume roads, considering factors like

performance variability, cost-effectiveness, environmental impact, and regional

adaptability. The problem statement also highlights the need to establish standardized

guidelines and best practices to overcome inconsistencies in road design and

construction practices. Researchers aim to tackle data limitations, short-term study

durations, and the complexities of mix design to develop comprehensive and reliable

insights that will enhance the quality, durability, and sustainability of low volume

road infrastructure. By addressing these challenges, the study endeavors to provide

valuable recommendations for constructing safer, more cost-effective, and

environmentally friendly low volume roads, benefiting communities and

transportation networks alike.

1.3. AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study is to compare and evaluate different pavement mixes for low

volume road construction. The specific objectives of the study are as follows:

To identify and describe the composition, properties, and performance characteristics

of Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA), Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA), Cold Mix Asphalt, and

Porous Asphalt.

To evaluate the advantages and limitations of each pavement mix in terms of

durability, load resistance, workability, environmental impact, and cost-effectiveness.

To assess the maintenance requirements and long-term performance of the different

mixes, considering factors such as climate, traffic volume, and environmental

conditions.

To analyze the suitability of each mix for low volume road construction, taking into

account factors such as available project budget, local regulations, and sustainability

goals.
1.4. SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

The study comparing different mixes for low volume road construction holds

significant importance in the field of transportation infrastructure development. Low

volume roads, which experience lower traffic loads compared to high volume roads,

pose unique challenges that necessitate specialized pavement materials and designs.

By conducting this study, researchers and engineers aim to address these challenges

and improve the overall quality, durability, and cost-effectiveness of low volume road

networks. One of the primary reasons why this study is significant lies in the potential

cost savings it can bring. Low volume roads often pass through rural and less densely

populated areas, where budget constraints might be more pronounced. By identifying

mixes that are not only efficient but also cost-effective, transportation agencies can

make optimal use of available resources and direct funding to other critical

infrastructure projects. Moreover, understanding the maintenance requirements of

different mixes allows for better planning and budgeting, reducing long-term

maintenance costs and disruptions to road users. Another critical aspect of the study’s

significance is road safety. Low volume roads are essential for connecting remote

areas and facilitating transportation for local communities. Ensuring the safety of road
users, including motorists, cyclists, and pedestrians, is paramount. The study

investigates the skid resistance and other safety features of various mixes to prevent

accidents and enhance overall road safety. considering the environmental impact of

road construction is becoming increasingly crucial in today’s world. The study

assesses the sustainability of different mixes, looking into factors like energy

consumption, carbon footprint, and the potential for recycling or reusing materials.

Developing environmentally friendly road construction practices can contribute to

mitigating climate change and conserving natural resources. The study’s findings will

be instrumental in establishing standardized guidelines and best practices for low

volume road construction. The lack of clear guidelines often results in inconsistencies

in road design and construction practices across different regions. With the data and

knowledge generated from this study, transportation agencies and engineers can

follow a standardized approach, leading to more uniform and high-quality road

networks.
1.5. SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS:

Scope:

The scope of the study comparing different mixes for low volume road construction

encompasses a comprehensive analysis of various pavement materials, mix designs,

and performance characteristics suitable for low traffic volume roads. Researchers

and engineers investigate the cost-effectiveness, environmental impact, regional

adaptability, and safety considerations of these mixes. The study aims to provide

valuable insights into selecting the most appropriate mix for specific low volume road

conditions, taking into account factors such as material availability, local climate, and

traffic loads. The scope also involves developing guidelines and best practices to

improve road infrastructure, enhance durability and sustainability, and optimize

maintenance efforts for low volume roads, benefiting transportation agencies and

communities alike.
Limitations:

The study comparing different mixes for low volume road construction faces several

limitations that researchers need to consider. Firstly, access to comprehensive and

reliable data on mix performance under low volume road conditions may be limited,

hampering the generalization of findings. Additionally, conducting long-term field

trials and monitoring can be resource-intensive and time-consuming, leading to

potential short-term study durations. The variability of regional conditions, including

climate, soil types, and traffic patterns, may affect mix performance, making it

challenging to establish universal conclusions. The complexity of mix design and the

need for specialized equipment could present obstacles, particularly in less developed

regions. Moreover, budget constraints might limit the scope and scale of the study,

impacting data collection and analysis. Researchers must address these limitations to

ensure the study's findings are comprehensive and reliable, leading to improved road

construction practices for low volume roads.

 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Overview of low volume road

Low volume roads are typically defined as roads that carry less than 400 vehicles per

day, and they are often located in rural areas and serve local traffic, such as farm

equipment, school buses, and residential vehicles (ASTM, 2004. The primary purpose

of low volume roads is to provide a safe and reliable transportation system for local

traffic in the rural areas. These roads serve vital role in connecting rural communities

to urban areas and providing access to essential services and social amenities, such as

schools, hospitals, and markets. In addition, low volume roads are often used to

support agricultural production by providing access to farms and ranches (FHWA,

2001). Low volume roads can be found in many countries around the world, and they
play a critical role in supporting economic development (World Bank, 2012). The

earliest low volume roads were often unpaved or had a thin layer of gravel, which was

cheap and easy to construct but had limitations in terms of durability and required

frequent maintenance (ASTN, 2004). Also environmental conditions, such as weather

and soil type, affected the performance and durability of the road and there is a need

for ongoing investment in their construction and maintenance to ensure their

continued effectiveness (ASTM, 2016). Low volume roads have a rich historical

context that dates back to the early days of road construction, according to the Federal

Highway Administration (FHWA, 2020), there are over 1.5 million miles of low

volume roads in the united states. Over time, various pavement mix designs have

been developed and tested to address the limitations of gravel and dirt roads, with the

goal of providing a more durable and cost –effective solution for low volume roads.

One of the earliest pavement designs for low volume roads was the soil-cement mix,

which was first introduced in the 1930s and is still used today (FHWA, 2020). In the

1950s, the use of asphalt mix designs became more prevalent for low volume roads

due to their durability and ease of maintenance (ASTM, 2004). In recent years, there

has been growing interest in developing sustainable pavement solutions for low
volume roads, such as the use of recycled materials and bio-based binders (FHWA,

2020).

In comparison of different mixes for low volume roads, the following factors are to

be considered;

Importance of Low Volume Roads:

Low volume roads play a crucial role in providing access to rural areas, connecting

communities, and supporting economic activities such as agriculture, industry, and

tourism. While these roads may not experience high traffic volumes compared to

highways, they still require durable and cost-effective pavement solutions to ensure

safe and efficient transportation.

ii. Challenges of Low Volume Roads:

Low volume roads often face unique challenges due to factors such as limited budgets,

varying traffic compositions, and environmental conditions. Therefore, it is necessary

to select pavement mixes that can withstand these challenges while minimizing

maintenance requirements and costs.

iii. Mix Selection Considerations:

Choosing the appropriate pavement mix for low volume roads involves considering

several factors. These include the expected traffic volume, climate and environmental

conditions (such as temperature fluctuations, rainfall, and freeze-thaw cycles),

available project budget, maintenance resources, local regulations, and sustainability

goals.

iv. Existing Mixes for Low Volume Roads:

Several pavement mixes are commonly used for low volume road construction,

including Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA), Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA), Cold Mix Asphalt,

and Porous Asphalt. Each mix has its own composition, characteristics, advantages,

and limitations, which must be evaluated in the context of the specific road project

requirements.

v. Knowledge Gap and Research Objective:

While there is existing knowledge about various pavement mixes, there may be a need

to systematically compare and evaluate these mixes specifically for low volume roads.

The objective of this study is to bridge this knowledge gap by providing a

comprehensive comparison of different mixes, their suitability for low volume road

construction, and the key factors that influence mix selection.

2.2 Common Theories and framework related to the comparison of different mixes for

low volume roads

When comparing different pavement mixes for low volume road, several theories and

frameworks can be used to guide the decision-making process, one commonly used

framework is the Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG), which is

a pavement design model developed by the American Association of State Highway

and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and the Federal Highway Administration

(FHWA). The MEPDG uses a mechanistic-empirical approach to pavement design,

incorporating factors such as traffic loading, climate, soil conditions, and materials

properties. According to the MEPDG, the properties of the pavement mix, such as

stiffness, strength, and fatigue resistance, play a crucial role in determining the

performance of the pavement over time (AASHTO, 2015). Therefore, it is important

to consider the properties of each pavement mix when comparing them for low

volume roads.
A study by Hossain et al. (2018) found that asphalt-treated mixes generally exhibit

better fatigue resistance and rutting resistance than gravel mixes, making them more

suitable for high traffic volume low volume roads. Another commonly used theory in

pavement mix comparison is the Super-pave mix design method, which was

developed by the National Asphalt Pavement Association (NAPA) and the FHWA.

The super-pave method is based on the properties of the asphalt binder and the

aggregate used in the mix, and is designed to maximize pavement performance and

durability while minimizing rutting and cracking (FHWA, 2018). In addition to these

frameworks, it is also important to consider the availability and cost of materials

when comparing pavement mixes for low volume roads. For example, a study by

Ozer et al. (2015) found that using locally available materials, such as crushed stone

and soil, can significantly reduce the cost of pavement construction and maintenance.

Overall, the comparison of different pavement mixes for low volume roads requires a

holistic approach that takes into account factors such as material properties,

performance characteristics, and cost

2.3. Key concepts and definitions in comparison of different mixes for low volume

roads.

in the comparison of different pavement mixes for low volume roads, there are several

key concepts and definitions that are important to understand. These include:

Stiffness: This is the ability of a pavement mix to resist deformation under traffic

loading. Stiffness is important factor in determining the performance of a pavement

over time (AASHTO, 2015).

Strength: This is the ability of a pavement mix to resist cracking and other types of

distress. Strength is a key factor in determining the durability of a pavement

(AASHTO, 2015)

Fatigue resistance: This is the ability of a pavement mix to resist cracking caused by

repeated loading cycles. Fatigue resistance is an important factor in determining the

performance of a pavement under heavy traffic volumes (Hossain et al, 2018).

Rutting resistance: This is the ability of a pavement mix to resist permanent

deformation caused by traffic loading. Rutting resistance is an important factor in

determining the performance of a pavement under heavy traffic volumes (Hossain et

al, 2018).

Locally available materials: This are materials that are readily available in the region

where the pavement is being constructed. Using locally available materials can help

to reduce the cost of pavement construction and maintenance (Ozer et al, 2015).

Geosynthetics: geosynthetics such as geotextiles and geogrids, are synthetic materials

that are used to reinforce the soil and improve pavement performance. They can be

used in conjunction with other pavement materials, such as gravel and asphalt, to

create a more stable and durable pavement structure (Federal Highway

Administration, 1993).

Soil stabilization: soil stabilization is a process used to improve the strength and

durability of the existing soil surface. It typically involves mixing a stabilizing agent,

such as lime or cement, with the soil to create a more stable base for the pavement.
Soil stabilization is often used for low volume roads with weak or unstable soils

(Federal Highway Administration, 1993)

2.4. Methodologies and approaches used in the comparison of different mixes for low

volume roads.

2.4.1. Field studies: Researchers often conduct field studies to evaluate the

performance of different mixes under actual traffic and environmental conditions,

these studies typically involve the construction of test sections on low volume roads,

where different mixes are placed and monitored over time. Performance indicators

such as rutting, cracking and roughness are measured and compared across the test

sections. Khan et al, 2017 conducted a study in Pakistan to compare the performance

of asphalt mixes containing reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) with conventional

asphalt mixes. Also Zhang et al. 2019 conducted a study in china to evaluate the

performance of warm mix asphalt (WMA) compared to hot mix asphalt (HMA) on

low volume roads. Field tests were conducted on test sections constructed on two low

volume roads, and the performance of the mixes was also evaluated based on rutting,

cracking, and roughness.

2.4.2. Laboratory experiments: laboratory experiments are commonly used to evaluate

the properties of different mixes, such as their strength, stiffness, and resistance to

deformation and cracking. These experiments are typically conducted using standard

test methods, such as Marshall test and the indirect tensile test. In the study of

Tarefder et al. 2018 in the USA he compared the strength and deformation properties

of asphalt mixes containing different types of additives, including crumb rubber and

warm mix additives. Laboratory experiments were conducted on the mixes to evaluate

them using standard test methods. Also a study by Lu et al. 2020 in China conducted

to evaluate the cracking resistance of asphalt mixes containing different types of

fibers, including glass fiber and polyester fiber.

Laboratory experiments were conducted using the indirect tensile test method.

2.4.3. Numerical simulations: Numerical simulations are increasingly being used to

evaluate the performance of different mixes under different loading and

environmental conditions. These simulations typically involve the use of finite

element analysis (FEA) or discrete element modeling (DEM) techniques. Example of

studies that have used numerical simulations include: Wang et al. 2018 who conducted

a study in china to evaluate the rutting resistance of asphalt mixes containing different
types of aggregates. Numerical simulations were conducted using a finite element

model, and the performance of the mixes was evaluated under different loading

conditions. And Zou et al. 2019 also conducted a study in china to evaluate the

performance of asphalt mixes containing crumb rubber under different environmental

conditions, including freeze-thaw cycles and wet-dry cycles. Numerical simulations

were conducted using a discrete element model, and the performance of the mixes

was evaluated based on the damage evolution and failure mechanisms.

2.5. Findings on the comparison of different mixes for low volume roads

Gravel roads are commonly used for low volume roads due to their low cost and ease

of construction. However, they require frequent maintenance due to erosion and

wearing out, research has shown that adding stabilizing agents such as cement or lime

can improve the performance of gravel roads (Kumar et al. 2019) according to him

further research is needed to evaluate the long term effectiveness and cost

effectiveness of different stabilizing agents. In the study of (Li et al. 2018) crushed

stone roads have better durability and load carrying capacity than gravel roads, but

they are more expensive to construct. His study shows that using recycled materials
such as recycled concrete aggregate can reduce the cost of construction while

maintaining the performance of the crushed stone roads. Asphalt roads have the

highest initial cost but requires less maintenance than gravel or crushed stone roads.

Research by (Deng et al. 2021) shows that using warm-mix asphalt instead of hot-mix

asphalt can reduce the energy consumption and greenhouse gas emission associated

with road construction.

Different mixes have varying performance under different conditions, Zang et al. 2019

found that warm mix asphalt performed better than hot mix asphalt on low volume

roads in china, while khan et al. 2017 found that asphalt mixes containing reclaimed

asphalt pavement performed similarly to conventional asphalt mixes in Pakistan.

Additives can improve mix properties studies have investigated the use of additives to

improve the properties of asphalt mixes for low volume roads. T arefder et al. 2018

found that the addition of crumb rubber and warm mix additives improved the

strength and deformation properties of asphalt mixes in USA. Also Fiber-reinforced

mixes have better cracking resistance as several studies have investigated this, Lu et
al. 2020 found that asphalt mixes containing glass fiber had better cracking resistance

than conventional mixes in china.

2.6 Factors that affect the performance of different mixes for low volume roads

Common defects in low volume roads include cracking, rutting, potholes, and surface

erosion. The performance of different mixes for low volume roads can be affected by

a variety of factors, including material properties, environmental conditions, traffic

volume and type, and construction and maintenance practices. Material properties

play a key role in the performance of low volume road mixes, example the aggregate

gradation, angularity, and texture can affect the stability and durability of the mix,

with certain binders providing better resistance to deformation and cracking

(Bonaquist & Brown, 2008). Environmental conditions, such as temperature and

moisture, can also affect the performance of low volume road mixes, extreme

temperature fluctuations can cause thermal cracking in the mix, while high moisture

levels can lead to stripping and rutting (Kandhal et al, 2004). Additionally, exposure

to sunlight and ultraviolet radiation can cause oxidative aging of the binder, reducing

its effectiveness and leading to premature cracking (Bonaquist & Brown, 2008).
Traffic volume and type can also impact the performance of low volume road mixes.

Heavy vehicles and high traffic volumes leads to excessive loading on the mix,

leading to deformation and fatigue cracking (Kandhal et al, 2004). The presence of

vehicles with studded tires can also cause abrasion and stripping of the mix, reducing

its skid resistance and durability (Bonaquist & Brown, 2008).

Finally, construction and maintenance practices can affect the performance of low

volume road mixes.

2.7 Prevention and control of defect in low volume roads

The following are some prevention and control measures by (Bonaquist & Brown,

2008) and (Kandhal et al, 2004) that can be taken to mitigate the defects in low volume

roads.

Proper design and construction: the design and construction of low volume roads

should be based on the site-specific conditions and expected traffic volume. Proper
compaction techniques and adequate thickness of the pavement layers should be

ensured during construction to prevent early failure of the road.

Regular maintenance: Regular maintenance of low volume roads is essential to

prevent and control defects. This can include activities such as crack sealing, pothole

patching, and surface treatments. Regular maintenance helps to extend the life of the

pavement and prevent more expensive repairs in the future.

Use of appropriate materials: The use of appropriate materials for low volume roads is

critical to prevent defects. Materials should be selected based on their performance

characteristics such as strength, durability, and resistance to cracking and deformation.

Use of high- quality materials can reduce the likelihood of defects and improve the

performance of the road.

Drainage: proper drainage is essential to prevent surface erosion, rutting, and

portholes. Adequate drainage should be provided to ensure that water does not

accumulate on the roadway. This can be achieved through the use of ditches, culverts,

and proper slope design

v. Traffic management: Traffic management is very important to

prevent damage to the road surface. Overloading of vehicles and excessive speed can

cause premature failure of the pavement. Implementation of weight restrictions and

speed limits can help to mitigate such issues.

2.8 Analytical framework for determining economic design and maintenance

standards for low volume roads

According to Transportation Research Board 1976, for a given road project, the basic

problem is to predict total costs of construction, maintenance, and the road user cost
which are of the design (vertical and horizontal alignment, width, and surface type)

and maintenance standards adopted. To have a generally applicable tool requires that

the effects of variables such as terrain, climate, traffic, and drive behavior on the

different cost components be known. To select among alternative design and

maintenance strategies, the most economic requires rapid calculation of alternative

cost streams (which extend 20 years or more). Subsequently TRL (transport Research

Laboratory) redeveloped a computer model and extended this model based on its

research in kenya. The model focuses on the interrelationships among construction

cost, road maintenance cost, and vehicle operating cost. The maintenance sub-model

links construction standards and costs, road maintenance standards and costs, and

vehicle operating cost through the road deterioration relationships. Road deterioration

is a function of the original pavement design standards, material type, traffic, volume

and configuration, and climate. Road maintenance cost are derived from the

deterioration experienced and the maintenance standard adopted. Alternative

maintenance policies result in different qualities of road surface condition, measured

in terms of roughness, rut depth, cracking and patching (paved roads) and looseness

and moisture content (unpaved roads). Road surface condition and design geometrics

(vertical and horizontal alignment) are the major determinants of vehicle speeds and
operating costs and thus link user costs to design and maintenance policies. Accident

costs are not included in the analysis because these are not generally important on

rural roads except at specific points where the road may be poorly designed; case by

case analysis is required in these

Instances. Thus vehicle operation costs = design and maintenance standards and speed.

With lower geometric standards, low quality surfaces, or lower maintenance standards

(as road surface condition deteriorates), vehicles travel more slowly. Vehicle

operating cost are affected in two ways: through the direct effect of poorer alignment

or rougher surface condition, which increases operating cost (i.e., partial derivative

with fixed speed), and through the lower speed. Lower speed increase time related

component (driver wages, vehicle depreciation changes, and passenger time costs)

and, in lower speed ranges, fuel consumptions, but they decrease tire wear and, in

higher speed ranges, fuel consumption. The net effect (i.e., total derivative) of poorer

geometric and surface conditions is of course to increase vehicle operation costs but

by a smaller amount than would be the case if drivers did not adjust their speeds. The

present model developed by M.I.T and TRL is focused at the planning stages to
search alternative design and maintenance standards options, including time staging

strategies for a given project on specified alignment. Throughout the model, physical

and price units are kept separate so that the model can be applied in economies with

different prices. Shadow values may be applied, if desired, and all cost are the printed

out in both market and social cost terms. It may also be used to evaluate alternative

route alignment where comparable terrain information is available. In a network

context the model could also be used to analyze the economic choice between

different vehicle sizes and the economics of axle load regulations. However, much of

the information for such a boarder analysis does not yet exist. Not only information

on the operating costs and load factors for different size vehicle, but also more

information on the damaging effect on pavements of different axle configurations is

required. To make this analysis applicable to more than just the individual highway

segment would require that a complete inventory of design standards and current state

of the entire roadway be made.

2.8 Advantages and disadvantages of each mix type

2.8.1 Gravel mix: gravel mixes are the most commonly used mixes for low volume

roads (Ksaibati et al. 2018). Gravel inexpensive and readily available in most regions.

Gravel mixes are usually composed of crushed stone, gravel, and sand. The

proportions of these materials depend on the specific requirements for the project.

Gravel mixes have several advantages. They are relatively cheap, easy to construct,

and require minimal maintenance (Hul et al. 2019). Additionally, they provide good

drainage, which is essential in areas with heavy rainfall (NCHRP, 2012). However,

gravel mixes also have its disadvantages. They can become rutted and dusty,

especially in dry weather conditions. Furthermore, they require regular grading and

re-gravelling to maintain their surface quality.

2.8.2 Soil cement mix: soil cement mixes are a type pf stabilizing mix that is used for

low volume roads (NCHRP, 2012). Soil cement mixes are composed of water, soil,

and cement. The soil is usually Portland cement. The soil and cement are mixed in
place and water is added to achieve the desired consistency. These soil cement mixes

have several advantages. They are relatively cheap, easy to construct, and require

minimal maintenance (Ksaibati et al. 2018). Additionally, they provide good stability,

which is essential in areas with poor soil conditions (NCHRP, 2012). Soil cement

mixes disadvantages include, they can be susceptible to frost heave, and their surface

can become rough and uneven over time (Hui et al. 2019) and they require a curing

period before they can be opened to traffic.

2.8.3 Cement treated mixes: Cement treated mixes are similar to soil-cement mixes,

but they use a higher cement content (Ksaibati et al. 2018). Cement- related mixes are

composed of aggregate, cement and water. The aggregate is usually a locally

available material, and the cement is usually Portland cement. The aggregate and

cement are mixed in place, and water is added to achieve the desired consistency. The

advantages of cement treated mixes include; they are durable and resistant to rutting

and cracking (NCHRP, 2012). Additionally, they provide good stability, which is

essential in areas with poor soil condition (Hui et al. 2019). Their disadvantages

include; they can be susceptible to shrinkage and cracking, especially in areas with
high temperatures. Furthermore. They require a curing period before they can be

opened to traffic.

2.8.4 Asphalt- treated mix: Asphalt- treated mixes are type of stabilizing mixes that is

used for low volume roads (NCHRP, 2012). Asphalt-treated mixes are composed of

aggregate, asphalt emulsion, and water. The aggregate is usually a locally available

material, and the asphalt emulsion is usually a slow-setting type. The aggregate and

asphalt emulsion are mixed in place, and water is added to achieve the desired

consistency. Their advantages are, they are durable and resistant to rutting and

cracking (Ksaibati et al. 2018) and they provide good stability, which is essential in

areas with poor soil conditions (Hui et al. 2019) and their disadvantages are they can

be susceptible to stripping and raveling, especially in areas with heavy rainfall. Lastly

they require a curing period before they can be opened to traffic.

2.8.5 Cold-mix asphalt: cold mix asphalt is a type of asphalt mix that is produced at

ambient temperatures (NCHRP, 2012). Cold-mix asphalt is composed of aggregate,

asphalt emulsion, and water. The aggregate, asphalt emulsion, and water. The

aggregate is usually a locally available material, and the asphalt emulsion is usually a
slow-setting type. The aggregate and asphalt emulsion are mixed in place, and water

is added to achieve the desired consistency. The advantages of cold-mix asphalt are

they are easy to construct, require minimal equipment, and can be used in areas with

limited access to mix asphalt plants (Hui et al. 2019). Additionally, they provide good

durability and resistance to cracking (Ksaibati et al. 2018). However, cold-mix asphalt

have some disadvantages. They can be susceptible to rutting and deformation,

especially in areas with heavy traffic (NCHR), 2012) and they also require a long

period of curing before they can be opened to traffic.

CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.0 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter we will discuss the method, materials, test and test equipments we

shall require to achieve the specific objectives of this study, which is to evaluate and

identify the composition, properties, and performance of different mixes based on

durability, safety, cost-effectiveness and identify the most appropriate mix by

analyzing the suitability of each mix, taking into consideration available budget, local

regulations and sustainability.The mix design is based on the desired performance of

the asphalt pavement, traffic volume, climate, and other factors.

3.1 MATERIALS FOR RESEARCH

3.1.1 Materials required for the research on cold asphalt mix

Aggregate: Aggregates used in cold asphalt mix are typically the same as those used

in hot mix and warm mix. However, the aggregate may need to be pre-coated with a
bituminous emulsion or another type of binder to improve adhesion to the asphalt

binder and ensure good workability.

Asphalt emulsion: Asphalt emulsion is a water-based binder that is used in cold

asphalt mix. The emulsion is typically a cationic or anionic type and can be modified

with polymers or other additives to improve adhesion, workability, and durability.

The emulsion should be compatible with the aggregate and provide good cohesion

and adhesion to ensure the strength and durability of the mix.

Mineral fillers: Mineral fillers such as hydrated lime, Portland cement, or fly ash will

be added to cold asphalt mix to improve the workability, durability, and resistance to

cracking of the mix.

Additives: Additives such as fibers, polymers, or other materials can be added to cold

asphalt mix to improve the properties of the mix. These additives will improve the

adhesion of the asphalt emulsion to the aggregate, reduce the mixing and curing time,

and improve the resistance to deformation and cracking.

Water: Water is used as a mixing aid and to control the viscosity of the asphalt

emulsion during production. The amount of water added should be carefully

controlled to ensure proper compaction and to prevent the mix from becoming too

wet.

In addition this are the equipments that are typically used for the research on cold

asphalt mix:

Mixer: A mixer is used to blend the aggregate, asphalt emulsion, mineral fillers, and

additives together to produce the cold asphalt mix. The mixer can be a laboratory

mixer or a plant mixer, depending on the scale of the research.

Oven: An oven is used to dry the aggregate before mixing. The drying process

removes moisture from the materials and ensures that they are clean and free of dust

and other contaminants.

Compaction equipment: Compaction equipment such as a roller or a vibratory plate is

used to compact the cold asphalt mix to achieve the desired density and stability. The

compaction process should be carefully controlled to ensure that the mix is properly

densified and that the aggregate particles are coated with the asphalt emulsion.
Penetrometer: A penetrometer is used to measure the consistency of the cold asphalt

mix. The penetrometer measures the penetration resistance of the mix and can be used

to determine the consistency and workability of the mix.

Marshall hammer: A Marshall hammer is sometimes used to measure the density and

stability of the cold asphalt mix. This test involves dropping a weighted hammer onto

a cylindrical sample of the mix to measure its resistance to deformation and cracking.

Core drilling equipment: Core drilling equipment is used to extract cylindrical core

samples from the cold asphalt pavement. These samples are then tested in the

laboratory to measure the properties of the mix and to assess its performance in the

field.

Viscosity measurement equipment: Viscosity measurement equipment, such as a

Brookfield viscometer or a rotary viscometer, is used to measure the viscosity of the

asphalt emulsion used in the cold asphalt mix. This measurement is important for

ensuring that the emulsion has the proper consistency and will coat the aggregate

particles effectively.
3.1.2 Materials required for research on warm asphalt mix

Aggregate: The aggregates used in warm asphalt mix are typically the same as those

to be used in hot mix. However, because warm mix is produced at lower temperatures

than hot mix, some types of aggregate may not be suitable for use in warm mix. The

aggregate should be clean, dry, and free of dust and other contaminants.

Asphalt binder: The asphalt binder used in warm asphalt mix will be the same as that

used in hot mix. However, warm mix technology typically requires the use of

additives to lower the viscosity of the binder and reduce the mixing and compaction

temperatures. These additives may include organic or chemical additives, water, or a

combination of both.

Warm mix asphalt additives: Warm mix asphalt additives will be used to reduce the

viscosity of the asphalt binder and lower the mixing and compaction temperatures.

Common warm mix asphalt additives include foaming agents, waxes, and organic

additives. These additives will improve the workability of the mix, reduce energy

consumption and emissions, and improve the compaction of the mix.

Water: Water will be used as a warm mix asphalt additive to achieve foaming of the

asphalt binder. This allows the mix to be produced at lower temperatures and with

less energy consumption. The amount of water added should be carefully controlled

to ensure proper compaction and to prevent the mix from becoming too wet.

In addition this are the equipments that are typically used in the research on warm mix

asphalt:

Testing equipment: A range of testing equipment will be required to evaluate the

performance of warm asphalt mix, including equipment for measuring the

compactability, workability, stiffness, and fatigue resistance of the asphalt mix.

Environmental chamber: An environmental chamber will be required to simulate the

temperature and humidity conditions under which the WMA will be produced and

tested.

Mixer (e.g. laboratory mixer or plant mixer).

Oven for drying aggregates and asphalt binder.

Sample containers (e.g. buckets or bags).

Thermometers for measuring temperature during mixing and compaction.

3.1.3 Materials required for research on hot asphalt mix

Aggregate: The aggregates used in hot asphalt mix will be typically natural or

manufactured, and consist of coarse and fine particles. The quality and gradation of

the aggregate is important for achieving a desirable mix design, as well as for

ensuring good bonding between the asphalt binder and the aggregates. The aggregates

should be clean, dry, and free of dust and other contaminants.

Asphalt binder: The asphalt binder will serve as the glue that holds the aggregate

particles together. The binder is typically a petroleum-based product that is heated

and mixed with the aggregate at the asphalt plant. The properties of the binder (e.g.

stiffness, viscosity, and chemical composition) play a critical role in determining the

performance of the asphalt mix. The binder must be selected based on the climate,

traffic volume, and other factors.

Rejuvenators: Rejuvenators are used in hot asphalt mix when reclaimed asphalt

pavement (RAP) is used as an aggregate substitute. RAP is recycled asphalt pavement

that has been removed from old pavement and crushed into aggregate. Rejuvenators

are to be added to the mix to restore the aged binder in the RAP and improve the

performance of the mix.

Antistrip agents: Antistrip agents will be used in hot asphalt mix to prevent the

stripping of the asphalt binder from the aggregates. This occurs when moisture enters

the mix and weakens the bond between the asphalt binder and the aggregates.

Antistrip agents improve the adhesion between the asphalt binder and the aggregates,

and help to ensure proper compaction and durability of the mix.

Mineral fillers: Mineral fillers will be used in hot asphalt mix to improve the

performance of the mix. Fillers such as hydrated lime, fly ash, or Portland cement can

improve the workability, durability, and resistance to cracking of the mix.

Fibers: Fibers are sometimes added to hot asphalt mix to enhance its performance.

Fibers such as cellulose, polyester, or aramid can improve the tensile strength,

toughness, and fatigue resistance of the mix.

Warm-up fuel: If a portable asphalt plant is used in the research, warm-up fuel may be

required to heat the plant and the asphalt binder to the required temperature.
Water: Water will be used in hot asphalt mix to facilitate compaction and to cool

down the asphalt mix. However, the amount of water added should be carefully

controlled to prevent the mix from becoming too wet and to ensure proper

compaction.

In addition to the materials, the following equipment is typically used for research on

hot asphalt mix:

Asphalt plant (portable or stationary) for mixing the materials.

Mixing equipment (e.g. pugmill or drum mixer)

Testing equipment for measuring properties such as gradation, density, stiffness, and

fatigue resistance.

Roller equipment for compacting the asphalt mixture.

Asphalt core drill for extracting asphalt core samples from the pavement.

Oven for drying aggregates and asphalt binder.

Thermometers for measuring temperature during mixing and compaction.

3.2 PROPERTIES OF THE DIFFERENT MIXES

3.2.1 Properties of cold mix asphalt

1. Temperature Insensitivity: CMA is produced and applied at ambient or lower

temperatures, generally ranging from 10 to 25 degrees Celsius (50 to 77 degrees

Fahrenheit). This temperature insensitivity allows for the use of CMA in cold weather

or remote locations where heating equipment is not available.

2. Ease of Application: CMA is typically available as a pre-mixed product that can be

readily applied on-site. It does not require the use of specialized heating equipment or

extensive mixing. This ease of application makes CMA suitable for small-scale

repairs, emergency patching, and temporary road surfaces.

3. Extended Workability: CMA has an extended workability time compared to HMA.

The lower temperatures slow down the curing and setting process, providing a longer

window for compaction and shaping. This can be advantageous when working on

projects that require a more flexible construction schedule.

4. Versatility: CMA can be used for various applications, including pothole repairs,

utility cuts, and surface treatments. It can be applied to different pavement surfaces,

such as asphalt, concrete, or gravel, making it a versatile solution for addressing

localized pavement damage.

5. Rapid Traffic Opening: CMA allows for rapid reopening of roads to traffic after

application. Unlike HMA, which requires cooling and curing time, CMA hardens and

becomes trafficable relatively quickly. This minimizes traffic disruptions and

improves the efficiency of road maintenance activities.

6. Lower Energy Consumption: CMA production requires significantly less energy

compared to HMA. The absence of heating equipment and reduced energy

consumption contribute to lower greenhouse gas emissions and environmental impact.

7. Storage Stability: CMA can be stored for an extended period without significant

degradation. The lower temperatures at which CMA is produced and used help

prevent premature aging and hardening of the asphalt binder. This storage stability

allows for stockpiling and on-demand use of CMA, reducing waste and material loss.
8. Limited Rutting Resistance: CMA generally exhibits lower rutting resistance

compared to HMA. The lower temperatures and reduced compaction levels of CMA

can result in a less dense mixture, making it more susceptible to deformation under

heavy traffic loads. However, advancements in CMA technology have led to the

development of modified and polymer-enhanced mixtures with improved rutting

resistance.

9. Longevity: While CMA may not offer the same long-term durability as HMA, it

can provide temporary or short-term solutions for pavement repairs. CMA can help

maintain the functionality and serviceability of roads until more extensive

rehabilitation can be performed.

3.2.1 Properties of warm mix asphalt

1. Temperature Reduction: The primary characteristic of warm mix asphalt is the

reduced temperature required during production and compaction. Warm mix asphalt

is typically produced and placed at temperatures ranging from 30 to 60 degrees

Celsius (86 to 140 degrees Fahrenheit) lower than HMA. The specific temperature

reduction depends on the warm mix ashpalt technology used.

2. Workability: Warm mix asphalt exhibits improved workability compared to hot

mix ashpalt. The lower temperatures of warm mix asphalt allow for better coating and

mixing of aggregates, resulting in a more homogeneous mixture. This enhanced

workability can facilitate easier placement and compaction of the asphalt mixture.

3. Energy Savings: The production of warm mix asphalt will requires less energy

compared to hot mix ashpalt. The reduced temperatures decrease fuel consumption

and greenhouse gas emissions associated with the heating of raw materials. This

energy-saving characteristic is one of the primary environmental benefits of warm

mix ashpalt.

4. Emissions Reduction: Warm mix asphalt technologies can contribute to reduced

emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and other air pollutants. The lower

temperatures in WMA production reduce the release of harmful fumes and odors,

creating a safer and more pleasant working environment for construction personnel.
5. Binder Aging: Warm mix asphalt has the potential to reduce the aging of asphalt

binders during production and construction. The lower temperatures minimize the

oxidative aging process, which can result in improved long-term durability of the

pavement.

6. Compaction Time: Warm mix asphalt generally has an extended compaction time

compared to HMA. The reduced cooling rate of the mixture allows for a longer

window of time to achieve proper compaction. This can be beneficial for large

construction projects where longer haul and placement times are involved.

7. Rutting Resistance: Warm mix asphalt has shown good resistance to rutting, which

is the permanent deformation or indentation of the asphalt pavement under traffic.

The improved workability and binder properties of WMA contribute to its ability to

resist rutting.

3.2.2 Properties of hot mix asphalt

1. Temperature Sensitivity: HMA is produced and placed at high temperatures,

typically between 150 to 180 degrees Celsius (300 to 350 degrees Fahrenheit). This
high temperature is necessary to achieve proper mixing and compaction of the asphalt

binder and aggregates.

2. Workability: HMA exhibits good workability when it is hot. The high temperatures

make the asphalt binder sufficiently fluid for proper coating and mixing with the

aggregates. This allows for effective compaction and ensures a dense and durable

pavement.

3. Strength and Load-Bearing Capacity: HMA has excellent strength and load-bearing

capacity. When properly designed and compacted, it can withstand heavy traffic loads

and resist deformation under repeated wheel loads. The strength of HMA is

influenced by factors such as aggregate gradation, binder type, and mixture design.

4. Durability: HMA is known for its durability. It can withstand the effects of traffic,

weathering, and aging. The combination of high-quality aggregates and a

well-balanced asphalt binder ensures that HMA pavements remain structurally sound

and functional for an extended period.

5. Quick Setting and Traffic Open Time: HMA cools and hardens rapidly after

placement, allowing for quick setting and traffic open times. Once the mixture is
compacted and cooled, it can bear traffic loads without significant deformation. This

property is advantageous in terms of minimizing construction time and facilitating

traffic flow.

6. Skid Resistance: HMA provides good skid resistance, which is crucial for ensuring

vehicle traction and safety. The rough texture of the aggregate particles in the

pavement surface helps to maintain friction between tires and the road, particularly in

wet conditions.

7. Rutting Resistance: HMA has good resistance to rutting, which is the permanent

deformation or indentation of the asphalt pavement under traffic. Properly designed

and compacted HMA mixtures exhibit sufficient stiffness and resistance to plastic

deformation, minimizing rutting.

8. Surface Smoothness: HMA pavements generally offer a smooth riding surface,

contributing to driver comfort and vehicle fuel efficiency. The combination of proper

compaction techniques and a well-graded aggregate structure helps to achieve a

uniform and smooth pavement surface.

9. Repairability: HMA pavements are relatively easy to repair. When localized

damage or distress occurs, such as potholes or cracks, HMA can be patched or

overlaid to restore pavement integrity.

3.3 METHODS FOR RESEARCH

3.3.1 Methods to test performance of Hot, warm and cold asphalt mix

we will need to evaluate the performance characteristics, durability, workability, load

resistance environmental impact and cost-effectiveness of cold,warm, and hot mix

ashpalt. Here are some methods that can be used to evaluate the performance of the

ashpalt mix in these areas

1.Durability: One common method to test the durability of asphalt mixes is the use of

the Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS) test. The ITS test measures the tensile strength of a

cylindrical asphalt specimen by applying a compressive force along its diameter. The

test is performed on specimens that have been aged in a laboratory environment to

simulate the aging that occurs in the field. The ITS test is typically used to evaluate

the long-term durability of asphalt mixes. Another common method to test the
durability of asphalt mixes is the Dynamic Modulus test. The Dynamic Modulus test

measures the stiffness of the asphalt mix under repeated loading at different

temperatures and frequencies. The test is used to evaluate the resistance of asphalt

mixes to traffic loading and environmental factors such as temperature and

moisture.The Wheel Tracking Test is another method used to evaluate the durability

of asphalt mixes. The test measures the resistance of an asphalt mix to deformation

under traffic loading. The test is typically performed on cylindrical specimens that

have been compacted and aged in a laboratory environment.

2.Workability: The most common method to test the workability of HMA is the

Marshall Compaction test. The Marshall Compaction test measures the resistance of

an asphalt mix to deformation under a standard load and compaction energy. The test

is performed on cylindrical specimens that have been compacted at a specified

temperature and binder content. The results of the test provide an indication of the

workability of the HMA mix.For WMA, the most common method to test workability

is the Hamburg Wheel Tracking Test. The Hamburg Wheel Tracking Test measures

the resistance of an asphalt mix to deformation under traffic loading at a specified

temperature. The test is performed on cylindrical specimens that have been

compacted and aged in a laboratory environment. The results of the test provide an

indication of the workability of the WMA mix. For CMA, the workability is typically

evaluated using the hand compaction method, where a sample of the mix is

compacted by hand and evaluated for its ability to be compacted uniformly. Another

method used to evaluate the workability of CMA is the Cantabro Loss test, which

measures the loss of material from a CMA specimen during a specified number of

cycles of abrasion.

3.load resistance: The results of the Indirect tensile test provide an indication of the

load resistance of the asphalt mix. Another commonly used method to test the load

resistance of asphalt mixes is the Dynamic Modulus test. The Dynamic Modulus test

measures the stiffness of the asphalt mix under repeated loading at different

temperatures and frequencies. The test is used to evaluate the resistance of asphalt

mixes to traffic loading and environmental factors such as temperature and moisture.

The Wheel Tracking Test is another method used to evaluate the load resistance of

asphalt mixes. The test measures the resistance of an asphalt mix to deformation

under traffic loading. The test is typically performed on cylindrical specimens that
have been compacted and aged in a laboratory environment. The results of the test

provide an indication of the load resistance of the asphalt mix.

4.environmental impact: Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a commonly used method

to evaluate the environmental impact of asphalt mixes. LCA is a comprehensive

approach that considers the environmental impact of the entire life cycle of the mix,

from raw material extraction and processing to end-of-life disposal. LCA takes into

account several environmental impact categories, including global warming potential,

acidification potential, eutrophication potential, and photochemical ozone creation

potential. Another method used to evaluate the environmental impact of asphalt mixes

is the Carbon Footprint Analysis. The Carbon Footprint Analysis measures the total

amount of greenhouse gas emissions, primarily carbon dioxide (CO2), associated with

the production and use of the asphalt mix. The analysis takes into account the

emissions associated with the raw materials used in the mix, the energy consumed

during production, transportation, and placement, and the emissions associated with

the end-of-life disposal of the mix. The Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) is

another method used to evaluate the environmental impact of asphalt mixes. EPD is a
standardized report that provides transparent and comparable information on the

environmental impact of a product or service. The report takes into account several

environmental impact categories, including greenhouse gas emissions, resource

depletion, and ecosystem impact.

5. Cost effectiveness: Evaluating the cost-effectiveness of different asphalt mixtures,

involves considering various factors, including initial construction costs, life cycle

costs, performance, and environmental impacts. Life Cycle Cost Analysis evaluates

the total costs associated with an asphalt pavement over its entire life cycle, including

construction, maintenance, rehabilitation, and disposal. It takes into account factors

such as material costs, construction costs, maintenance costs, expected service life,

and future rehabilitation needs. By comparing the life cycle costs of different asphalt

mixtures, Life cycle cost analysis helps determine the most cost-effective option. Also,

Benefit-Cost Analysis compares the benefits and costs of different asphalt mixtures to

assess their cost-effectiveness. Benefits can include factors such as improved

performance, increased durability, reduced maintenance, and user satisfaction. Costs

encompass both initial construction costs and future maintenance and rehabilitation
expenses. Benefit cost analysis quantifies these benefits and costs, in monetary terms,

to determine the net value and cost-effectiveness of each asphalt mixture.

3.3.4 Method of identifying appropriate mix based on local regulations :

1. Consult the local agency responsible for pavement design and construction. They

will have regulations and guidelines that specify the required mix design and

performance criteria for different types of projects.

2. Review the local specifications and standards for asphalt mixtures. Many regions

have standard specifications for asphalt mixtures that are based on local climate,

traffic conditions, and other factors. These specifications may include requirements

for aggregate gradation, asphalt binder type and content, and performance tests.

3. Consult with experienced pavement engineers and contractors. Experienced

professionals who are familiar with local conditions and regulations can provide

valuable insights on the best mix design and construction practices for a given project.
3.3.5. Methods to assess the maintenance requirements and long-term performance of

the different mixes

Assessing the maintenance requirements and long-term performance of hot mix

asphalt (HMA), warm mix asphalt (WMA), and cold mix asphalt (CMA) is crucial for

determining the overall cost-effectiveness and sustainability of the asphalt pavement.

There are several methods to assess the maintenance requirements and long-term

performance of asphalt mixes.One commonly used method to assess the maintenance

requirements and long-term performance of asphalt mixes is the Pavement Condition

Index (PCI). PCI is a standardized method for assessing the overall condition of

pavements based on visual inspection. The evaluation is typically conducted by

trained pavement inspectors who assess several distress types, including cracking,

rutting, and surface defects, and assign a numerical score to the pavement's condition.

The PCI score provides an indication of the pavement's maintenance needs and

long-term performance. Another method used to assess the maintenance requirements

and long-term performance of asphalt mixes is the Falling Weight Deflectometer

(FWD) test. The FWD test measures the deflection of a pavement surface under a

dynamic load and is used to evaluate the structural capacity of the pavement. The test
provides information on the pavement's strength, stiffness, and structural integrity,

which are critical factors in determining the pavement's long-term performance and

maintenance needs.