Characteristics of Memory Systems * 1.Location * 2.Capacity * 3.Unit of Transfer * 4.Access Method * 5.Performance * 6.Physical type * 7.Physical characteristics * 8.OrganizationLocation Internal (eg. processor registers, main memory, cache) Extemal (¢.g. optical disks, magnetic disks, tapes) Capacity Number of words Number of bytes Unit of Transfer Word Block Access Method Direa Random1. Location: This shows whether the location of the memory device is external or internal to the computer. the internal memory is embedded directly on the computer motherboard, external memory is separate from the main computer unit, in the form of a storage as disks and tapes. External memory devices are controlled disk such from the 1/0 controllers, while internal memory takes the form of cache memory, registers and main memory. im a cpu Primary Memory Secondary Memory] |__|2. Capacity: Capacity is a measure of amount of data the memory device can store. For internal memory, this is measured in term: of bytes, while in external memory, it is measured in bytes or words, where a word length may be 8,16 or 32 bits. 3. Access Method: Access methods refers to the methods through which data is written to, and consequently read from a memory device. There are four access methods which are as listed below; Direct Access Method Sequential Access Method Random Access Method Associative Access Method4. Unit of Transfer: This is a measure of the transfer rate of the data in and out of memory. In internal memory, this is determined by the number of electrical lines going into and coming out of the memory with each line carrying data of word length. In external memory, this is determined by the number of bits read out or written into the memory at a time. 5. Performance: This a measure of overall efficiency of the memory system. There are three(3) parameters used to measure performance. Transfer Rate Memory Cycle Time Access Time Transfer Rate: This is the rate at which data is transmitted into and out of memory. Memory Cycle Time: The time required to access a block in memory as well as the period to the start of the second access. Access Time: The time required to carry-out read or write6. Physical Type: * Physical Type: This is the shape and form the memory takes. There are about four(4) of such forms which are as listed below: + Magnetic * Semiconductor * Optical * Magneto-optical 7. Organization: The organization of a memory system generally refers to the physical arrangement of the bits.. . . . 8. Physical Characteristics: This is the nature of the memory system. This can take the forms listed below; Volatile Non-volatile Erasable Non-erasableCache coherence * © In multi-processor systems, data can reside in multiple levels of cache, as well as in main memory. * This can cause problems if all CPUs don't see the same value for a given memory location. * Cache coherence is defined as a condition in which all the cache lines of a shared memory contain same information at any point of time * Cache coherence problem occurs when a processor modifies its cache without maintaining uniformity in all the caches. * There are two types of cache coherence approaches * 1)Software approach * 2)Hardware approach* Software solution: * *A simple software solution to the cache coherence problem is based on the compiler analyzing the source program while generating the object code . * The compiler identifies the items shared by the different processors. * It then declares (tags) the writable shared items as non cacheable. * Accordingly all processors access the main memory both for read and write operation on the shared items as altered by their cache memory tag lines. * It is an inefficient solution as the main memory traffic increases during the execution.Hardware solutions: (Cache coherence protocol): Hardware solution provide dynamic recognition at run time of potential inconsistency conditions. Hardware schemes can be divided into two categories: a)Directory protocol b)Snoopy protocols. i>Write invalidate protocol ( MESI) ii>Write update protocol a)Directory protocol The sharing status of a block of physical memory is kept in just one location, called the directory. In a directory-based protocols system, data to be shared are placed in a common directory that maintains the coherence among the caches.* Here, the directory acts as a filter where the processors ask permission to load an entry from the primary memory to its cache memory. * If an entry is changed the directory either updates it or invalidates the other caches with that entry. b)Snoopy protocols. * Snoopy protocols distribute the responsibility for maintaining cache coherence among all of the cache controllers in a multiprocessor system. . In this technique, every processor has a snoopy cache controller that constantly monitors the transactions on the bus by other processors. Thus every processor keeps track of the other processor’s memory write.Snoopy protocols are ideally suited to a bus- based multiprocessor, because the shared bus provides a simple means for broadcasting and snooping. Two basic approaches to the snoopy protocol are: a) Write invalidate protocol (MESI) b)Write- update (write-broadcast) protocol With a write-invalidate protocol, there can be multiple readers but only one write at a time. Initially, a line may be shared among several caches for reading purposes.