Carr, N. (2023) - Applied Behavior Analysis in Schools - Realistic Implementation of Evidence-Based Interventions by Teachers

Series Editor
Dee Berlinghoff, PhD

Editor
R. Nicolle Carr, PhD, BCBA-D, LBA-OK

Department of Educational Psychology
The University of Oklahoma
Norman, Oklahoma
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Instructors: Applied Behavior Analysis in Schools: Realistic Implementation of Evidence-Based Interventions

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Contents
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
About the Editor ��ix
Contributing Authors ��xi
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Chapter 1 Big Picture: Behavior Analysis Is More

Than Just Classroom Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
R. Nicolle Carr, PhD, BCBA-D, LBA-OK;
Mia Dianda, MS, BCBA, LBA-OK;
and Leslie S. Williams, MEd, BCBA, LBA-OK
Chapter 2 Taking on the Elephant in the Room: Classroom Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Art Dowdy, PhD, BCBA-D; Kathryn Burke, PhD;
and Christopher Bloh, PhD, BCBA-D
Chapter 3 Culturally Responsive Collaboration:

Including Everyone at the Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Joshua M. Pulos, PhD, BCBA and Jana M. Sarno, MA, BCBA
Chapter 4 Data! You Have to Have Them, But How Do You Get Them?
Ways to Accurately Measure Behavior in an Educational Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Andrea L. Suk, PhD
Chapter 5 Assessment of Behavior: Preference, Language, Academics,

and Everything in Between . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Sarah Heiniger, MEd, EdS, NCSP, BCBA, LBA-OK;
Brittany L. Hott, PhD, BCBA-D, LBA-OK;
and Jasmine Justus, MEd, BCBA, LBA-OK
Chapter 6 Why Are They Doing That?

Using Functional Behavior Assessment to Understand Problem Behavior. . . . . . 99
B. Scott Singleton, PsyD, BCBA-D, NCSP
Chapter 7 Using Reinforcement Strategies to Promote

Positive Student Outcomes in the Classroom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Benjamin S. Riden, PhD, BCBA-D
and Kathleen M. Randolph, EdD, BCBA-D
Chapter 8 You Want Me to Do What?

Effective Strategies for Teaching New Skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Sara M. Snyder, PhD, BCBA-D
and Benjamin S. Riden, PhD, BCBA-D
vi Contents
Chapter 9 When Reinforcement “Does Not Work”:

Troubleshooting Behavior Interventions for Success. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Emily M. Kuntz, PhD, BCBA and Mary Crnobori, PhD, BCBA
Chapter 10 Methods to Decrease Behavior:

Punishment–Behavior Reduction Procedures in Schools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Lesley A. Shawler, PhD, BCBA; Manish Goyal, MA, BCBA;
and R. Nicolle Carr, PhD, BCBA-D, LBA-OK
Chapter 11 Academic Skills Are Behaviors, Too!

Using the Instructional Hierarchy to Improve Student Performance . . . . . . . . . 205
Corey Peltier, PhD; Andrew Heuer, MEd;
Fanee Webster, MEd; and Amanda M. VanDerHeyden, PhD
Chapter 12 Including the Excluded: Puberty, Development, and

Comprehensive Sexuality Education for Students With Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . 221
Tracy E. Sinclair, PhD, BCBA-D; James Sinclair, PhD;
and Joshua M. Pulos, PhD, BCBA
Chapter 13 Using Applied Behavior Analysis Methodology to

Improve Transition to Postsecondary Education and Employment. . . . . . . . . . . 237
Mindy E. Lingo, PhD, BCBA-D; Malarie E. Deardorff, PhD;
and Kendra Williams-Diehm, PhD, BCBA
Chapter 14 Acceptance and Commitment Therapy for Teachers and Students:

A Prosocial Approach to Classroom Management and
Social and Emotional Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Heather Eisel, PhD, BCBA-D, LBA; Tracy E. Sinclair, PhD, BCBA-D;
and Michael G. Gentile, PhD
Chapter 15 Application Scenarios. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Financial Disclosures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Instructors: Applied Behavior Analysis in Schools: Realistic Implementation of Evidence-Based Interventions

by Teachers includes ancillary materials specifically available for faculty use. Included are an Instructor’s
Manual with Test Bank and PowerPoint slides. Please visit www.efacultylounge.com to obtain access.
Acknowledgments
First, a Kilimanjaro-size thank you to my family. To Justin, who picks up slack without complaint
so I can travel, work, and write. You serve as both mom and dad more than I would like and for that I
am eternally grateful. Romantic pop-tarts for life! Brooks and Drake for teaching me patience I never
had before you and for helping with the cover of this book. Whitney and Jacie for letting me in your
bubbles all those years ago and letting me be a Stommy. Mom, Mike, and Peggy, you wrap us in love
on a daily basis and often have to drop everything to come to my rescue when I'm overbooked and
overtired. Papa, oh how I wish you were still here to see this. And Carl.
And in case this is my only book, thank you to those who joined in this journey either over glasses
of wine or final exams—Jowaisis, Cataldi, and Domjan, along with the OCU girls, Sewing Circle,
Boston coworkers (turned forever besties), and newfound Purcell friends.
Finally, to all the kids I have worked with who taught me a person is more than their behavior and
to all the teachers who taught me interventions that aren’t realistic aren’t interventions at all...
—R. Nicolle Carr, PhD, BCBA-D, LBA-OK
About the Editor
Dr. R. Nicolle Carr started her education at Oklahoma City University’s psychology program be-
fore heading down to Austin to attend the University of Texas’s psychology/behavior neuroscience
department. She worked in two labs concurrently—one studying the effect of conditioning on the
mating behavior of quail and another lab learning genetic sequencing, slicing brain tissue, and meta-
bolic imaging. Finally, she left with a PhD and joined the 9 to 5 rat race at a residential treatment
facility for individuals with significant behavior problems. In 2008, she became a Board Certified
Behavior Analyst and has been teaching both online and in person for more than 20 years.
Back in Oklahoma for the past 10 years, she has consulted in various school districts on functional
behavior assessment development and provided district-wide classroom management trainings. It
was during this time that she noted how many times what is learned in general applied behavior
analysis (ABA) textbooks or journal articles doesn’t always translate into classrooms. For 4 years, she
also served as the Director of the ABA program at the University of Oklahoma and helped many stu-
dents on their own certification journey. Most recently, she became the Clinical Director of an ABA
clinic in a rural area of Oklahoma.
Dr. Carr has written chapters on ethics in research methods and ethics in rural treatment in ABA.
She has served as the secretary of the ABAi’s Ethics SIG and founded the Oklahoma chapter of ABAi
(OKABA). Across the last decade, she has served on conference panels, given invited lectures, and
8-hour workshops related to using ABA in schools.
When not working, Dr. Carr enjoys pushing her physical limits. In June 2014, 2016, and 2018, she
and her husband hiked 210 miles of a pilgrimage called the Camino de Santiago across Spain. In July
2022, they summited Kilimanjaro—the most amazing and brutal hiking experience ever!
Contributing Authors
Christopher Bloh, PhD, BCBA-D Sarah Heiniger, MEd, EdS, NCSP, BCBA,
(Chapter 2) LBA-OK (Chapter 5)
Kutztown University Department of Education Psychology
Kutztown, Pennsylvania The University of Oklahoma
Norman, Oklahoma
Kathryn Burke, PhD (Chapter 2)
Temple University Andrew Heuer, MEd (Chapter 11)
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Department of Educational Psychology
Jeannine Rainbolt College of Education
Mary Crnobori, PhD, BCBA (Chapter 9) The University of Oklahoma
Metro Nashville Public Schools Norman, Oklahoma
Nashville, Tennessee
Brittany L. Hott, PhD, BCBA-D, LBA-OK
Malarie E. Deardorff, PhD (Chapter 13) (Chapter 5)
Zarrow Institute on Transition and Department of Education Psychology
Self-Determination The University of Oklahoma
The University of Oklahoma Norman, Oklahoma
Norman, Oklahoma
Jasmine Justus, MEd, BCBA, LBA-OK
Mia Dianda, MS, BCBA, LBA-OK (Chapter 5)
(Chapter 1) Department of Education Psychology
Advanced Behavioral Solutions The University of Oklahoma
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma Norman, Oklahoma
Art Dowdy, PhD, BCBA-D (Chapter 2) Emily M. Kuntz, PhD, BCBA (Chapter 9)
Temple University Department of Educational Psychology
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania The University of Oklahoma
Norman, Oklahoma
Heather Eisel, PhD, BCBA-D, LBA
(Chapter 14) Mindy E. Lingo, PhD, BCBA-D
The University of Oklahoma (Chapter 13)
Norman, Oklahoma Zarrow Institute on Transition and
Self-Determination
Michael G. Gentile, PhD (Chapter 14) The University of Oklahoma
University of Connecticut Norman, Oklahoma
Stamford, Connecticut
Corey Peltier, PhD (Chapter 11)
Manish Goyal, MA, BCBA (Chapter 10) Department of Educational Psychology
School of Psychological and Behavioral Jeannine Rainbolt College of Education
Sciences Southern Illinois University The University of Oklahoma
Carbondale, Illinois Norman, Oklahoma
xii Contributing Authors
Joshua M. Pulos, PhD, BCBA Sara M. Snyder, PhD, BCBA-D (Chapter 8)

(Chapters 3 and 12) Educational Foundations and
James Madison University Exceptionalities Department
Harrisonburg, Virginia James Madison University
Harrisonburg, Virginia
Kathleen M. Randolph, EdD, BCBA-D
(Chapter 7) Andrea L. Suk, PhD (Chapter 4)
University of Colorado Colorado Springs Department of Secondary and Physical
Colorado Springs, Colorado Education
Salisbury University
Benjamin S. Riden, PhD, BCBA-D Salisbury, Maryland
(Chapters 7 and 8)
James Madison University Amanda M. VanDerHeyden, PhD
Harrisonburg, Virginia (Chapter 11)
Department of Educational Psychology
Jana M. Sarno, MA, BCBA (Chapter 3) Jeannine Rainbolt College of Education
Hopebridge Autism Therapy Centers University of Oklahoma
Chicago, Illinois Norman, Oklahoma
Lesley A. Shawler, PhD, BCBA Fanee Webster, MEd (Chapter 11)

(Chapter 10) Department of Educational Psychology
School of Psychological and Jeannine Rainbolt College of Education
Behavioral Sciences University of Oklahoma
Southern Illinois University Norman, Oklahoma
Carbondale, Illinois
Leslie S. Williams, MEd, BCBA, LBA-OK
James Sinclair, PhD (Chapter 12) (Chapter 1)
University of Oregon Behavior Builders LLC
Eugene, Oregon Norman, Oklahoma
Tracy E. Sinclair, PhD, BCBA-D Kendra Williams-Diehm, PhD, BCBA

(Chapters 12 and 14) (Chapter 13)
University of Connecticut Zarrow Institute on Transition and
Stamford, Connecticut Self-Determination
The University of Oklahoma
B. Scott Singleton, PsyD, BCBA-D, NCSP Norman, Oklahoma
(Chapter 6)
Department of Psychology
University of Central Oklahoma
Edmond, Oklahoma
Introduction
I have wanted to write this textbook for years, ever since I started consulting for a school district
here in Oklahoma. A book that helps teachers, administrators, and paraeducators in a school district
find helpful interventions without all the lingo and jargon getting in the way. During the review pro-
cess for this book, in fact, one reviewer wrote that BCBAs would find the book too basic; not techni-
cal enough for a behavior analyst. So, hear me loud and clear—this book isn’t for BCBAs! Nope. It
is for teachers and other school-based staff who need help with a student who will not stay in their
seat during class, screams cuss words, refuses to do their spelling words in class, or elopes down the
hallways.
Teaching future special education teachers in the College of Education at The University of
Oklahoma was eye opening on what skill set our teachers have when they enter the workforce. And
unfortunately, the students coming into our schools these days often need more behavioral support
than our teachers were trained in. Due to this, I am often asked if I have any “tips and tricks” for a
student. I hate that phrase. It makes it sound like what we do is easy, quick, or—even worse—just a
single technique away from fix’n all their troubles. And that just isn’t the case. Nothing in this book is
a magic bullet or miracle cure for behavior challenges. All of this will take time and effort. But, hope-
fully, you will be able to take these concepts and the science behind them and be able to implement
them for a student in your class now and also for a student next year and every year after.
I’m no longer at the university teaching future teachers on a daily basis. Instead, I hope this book
serves as a means to teach those who missed out on classes that cover classroom management, be-
havior change, and individual behavior supports.
Finally, nearly all the contributors to this book have either been teachers in the past or have
worked in the school system. It isn’t just a bunch of BCBAs who wanted to write about applied be-
havior analysis itself. They all had a single mission when they wrote their chapters—to write about
realistic interventions and applications. Why? Because I can write the most technically sound FBA
in the world but if it has a program based on reinforcement given every 2 minutes by a teacher who
has 24 other students and no paras in the classroom…it’s probably a useless treatment plan.
Ultreia!
—R. Nicolle Carr, PhD, BCBA-D, LBA-OK
1
Big Picture
Behavior Analysis Is More Than Just
Classroom Management
R. Nicolle Carr, PhD, BCBA-D, LBA-OK; Mia Dianda, MS, BCBA, LBA-OK;
and Leslie S. WIlliams, MEd, BCBA, LBA-OK
INTRODUCTION
Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is not just a science but a discipline and a practice. Its
focus is in shaping socially significant behaviors and prioritizing meaningful outcomes.
While ABA got its start in clinics, it has most recently found itself in classrooms. There
have been many events that have added to the development and movement of the field.
It is still constantly evolving and growing as new research is taking place. In this chapter,
you will learn how environmental factors and contingencies act together to influence
behavior. It is through understanding the why behavior happens that we can formulate
the most effective interventions. This chapter focuses on (a) the foundational principles
of ABA, (b) how it got started in schools, and (c) how to get the most bang from this book.
Carr, R. N. (Ed.).
Applied Behavior Analysis in Schools: Realistic Implementation
-1- of Evidence-Based Interventions by Teachers (pp. 1-17).
© 2023 SLACK Incorporated.
2 Chapter 1
Chapter Objectives
ȘȘ Acknowledge and develop conversations about misunderstandings related to ABA.
ȘȘ Develop conversations about the hesitations teachers might have about implementing
behavior analytic and/or evidence-based interventions.
ȘȘ Describe the history of ABA in various educational settings.
KEY TERMS
• Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA): The science in which the principles of the analysis of be-
havior are applied systematically to improve socially significant behavior and experimentation
is used to identify the variable responsible for behavior change.
• Direct Instruction (DI): Evidence-based teaching method where interactions are highly struc-
tured, fast past and build on mastery through prompting, errorless correction, and explicit
instruction.
• Incidental Teaching: Teaching method where interactions are based on students interests and
motivations and teacher contrives the environment resulting in increased learning opportunities.
• Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS): An umbrella term for organizing school resources
to provide empirically supported prevention and intervention programs proportional to student
needs.
• Natural Environmental Training: Learning strategies that occur in natural settings that are
child directed and often embedded into play or other activities that increase motivation to re-
spond and generalize.
• Personalized System of Instruction (PSI): Teaching method that breaks down content into
small self-paced units based on fluency.
• Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS): Tiered system of support used by
schools that includes prevention methods from universal to targeted to individualized supports.
• Precision Teaching: Academic student progress is determined by fluency and data is used to
advance a student to new levels.
• Project Follow Through: Government-funded educational research in 1960’s evaluating effec-
tive education strategies.
• Response to Intervention (RtI): An educational model that uses specific interventions to target
known deficiencies in academic or behavioral performance based on systematic and universal
screenings.
• Teaching Machines: Educational tool that allows for individualized academic progress based
on mastery criteria.
• Token Economies: An intervention where correct behavior is marked by targets and shows
progress toward final goal where tokens can be exchanged for bigger reward.
Big Picture: Behavior Analysis Is More Than Just Classroom Management 3
The Unavoidable First Chapter

Here it is—another introduction chapter to yet another textbook on how to be a teacher. These
are often terrible, full of unremembered morsels from history, too many terms to actually memorize,
and facts too generic to be useful. So, we are trying to avoid that. Of course, we have to hit the basic
history of the field so you understand where ABA came from and get an understanding of the land-
scape of how it is currently utilized in education. But…hopefully…that is it—not overwhelming. Not
boring. Not basic. Just a good launchpad for the chapters that follow.
The evidence continues to be clear, teachers know they are supposed to use evidence-based
treatments. They are held accountable for progress, and, thus, it is vital to implement practices that
are based on good research for multiple reasons. For example, given the rising number of children
diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and other disorders and the lack of ABA-based
programs provided for them, it is of utmost importance to understand the factors hampering the
adoption and integration of such practices across the school setting. Several studies (Heward, 2003;
National Research Council, 2001; Stahmer, 2007) and federal mandates, such as Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2004) and the No Child Left Behind Act (U.S. Department of
Education, 2002), have required educators to adopt these approaches to help improve academic and/
or behavior outcomes. And yet, research continues to show a lack of evidence-based practices being
implemented in schools (Axelrod et al., 1990, and for a more recent analysis, see Fielding et al., 2013).
A study in Georgia found less than 10% of the interventions occurring in classrooms with students
diagnosed with ASD were evidence based (Hess et al., 2008). Specifically, research has shown ABA
to be of great use within schools and yet often overlooked or assumed to only be needed in special
education classrooms or with students with developmental disabilities (Fielding et al., 2013). Read
Interventions for Students With Autism in Inclusive Settings: A Best-Evidence Synthesis and Meta-
Analysis by Watkins et al. (2019) for a wonderful meta-analysis on evidence-based interventions in
inclusive settings. It is worth the dive into statistics to glean its main points! Another reason we see
the need for a foundation in ABA and evidence-based interventions for teachers is that a variety of
mental health issues are increasing across all grades and classroom types. However, as we hope you
learn from this book, the principles and science behind ABA allows it to be applied to nearly any
behavior across all settings within a school.
I (RNC) have been teaching future teachers for over a decade, both within specifically defined
ABA programs and in regular education classes. For those who are not planning on making ABA
part of their professional career, the textbook often used to teach the “ABA for teachers” course was
overwhelming, difficult to comprehend, and technical, as it should be. To be fair, those texts were
written by some of the best, have amazing depth, and serve as resources I still reference often (and
have many bookmarks in so I can quickly review). However, the faces of my future teachers who did
not want to be behavior analysts were glazing over lecture after lecture. The conceptually systematic
nature of those other texts was causing students to decide ABA really was a load of B.S. and retreated
back to interventions that were familiar, even if not evidence based. The ultimate hope is that when
this course is over, you understand the science behind the interventions, but your focus is still teach-
ing—your ultimate passion. And, when you do have to seek out and put those extra evidence-based
interventions in place, they have the best possible chance of success.
4 Chapter 1
Misconceptions
When I start a class with graduate or undergraduate students, I ask what misconceptions they
have about ABA. Or, asked another way, what have they heard about ABA, good or bad. Sometimes,
students jump right into the idea of turning humans into mechanistic robots or trying to make kids
with ASD “normal.” Since there are so many misconceptions and misunderstandings about ABA, we
wanted to take some time to address some of the more “popular” answers to why ABA should not be
used. We want you to leave this chapter clear that ABA has more research showing effectiveness than
any other treatment for ASD (Walsh, 2011).
Misconception 1: Applied Behavior Analysis Is Only for

Autism Spectrum Disorder/Applied Behavior Analysis Is Only for Kids
ABA is not for any one specific diagnosis or age or any variable for that matter. ABA is often
used for individuals with ASD for a variety of reasons to include the breadth of research showing
its effectiveness. However, in many states, only those with an ASD diagnosis are allowed to receive
insurance reimbursements for its use (i.e., not depression, conduct disorder). We will talk about
extinction later, but would you work a 40-hour week doing therapy with a client you cannot get paid
for? Unfortunately, unless you just won the lottery, the answer is no and neither do clinics or schools.
While ASD may be the diagnosis most associated with ABA, a diagnosis (or a disorder of any type)
is not required. In fact, business owners use ABA to make improvements in productivity within their
employees (Mawhinney, 1999), as do athletes to increase performance (Luiselli & Reed, 2015), drug
rehab facilities to help their patients (Silverman et al., 2011), and memory care centers to increase
medication compliance (Bakke, 1997; Bourgeois, 1990). Given that behavior is emitted in each of
these situations, ABA is working with evidence-based interventions to change socially significant
behavior. ABA can be applied in nearly all settings and to all populations. In line with this are other,
similar, misunderstandings about ABA. We have heard people say ABA is only for toddlers, is only to
decrease “bad behavior,” and only works if you have 40 hours a week to implement treatment. None
of these statements are true. It can be used with people of all ages, nearly all behaviors, and the range
of needed hours of treatment varies greatly from person to person.
Misconception 2: Applied Behavior Analysis Uses Bribes

This topic will be discussed in later chapters, but there are distinct differences between rein-
forcement and bribes. Major differences include that bribes are used in the heat of the moment to
decrease inappropriate behaviors without regard for what might happen in the future. Also, let us
not forget that bribes usually have some level of secrecy or underhandedness to them. On the other
hand, ABA requires the desired/appropriate behavior to occur before the reinforcer is provided. Not
only that, but it is based on hard work that has gone into learning the individual’s preferences and
baseline rates of behavior to determine requirements for that particular reinforcement (Akin-Little
et al., 2004; Duncan et al., 2000; Kazden, 1975). In fact, regard for future behavior rates is one of
the ultimate considerations to implement reinforcement procedures and calling it reinforcement. A
similar argument is that using reinforcement or extrinsic motivation will decrease intrinsic motiva-
tion or a person’s natural interest in something. This idea was originally based on research by Lepper
and Green (1975), but forwarded by others, such as Kohn (1993). It has also been found in multiple
subsequent studies to not be true (Cameron & Pierce, 1994, 1996).
Misconception 3: Applied Behavior Analysis

Makes Students Into Robots
Another heading for this paragraph could be ABA Tries to Make People “Normal.” Either way,
this is not the intent of ABA. And, besides, what the heck is “normal” anyway!? The goal of behavior
analysis should be to help change socially significant behaviors, as needed, to keep individuals safe
while increasing independence, academics, and/or communication on a case-by-case basis. This is
not to say that ABA has never been used for reasons outside of these parameters, but the ethical
implementation of behavior analysis does not have the intent to change someone’s personality nor to
make them appear neurotypical or “normal” by societal standards. The idea of rote social responses,
forced compliance, and scripted verbal behavior did play a role in the annals of behavior analysis, but
current (well-informed and ethically minded) practitioners in the field take pride in individualized
treatment for individuals who need or want help with various skills.
Hesitations
While throwing out the misconceptions often heard about ABA, we might as well address some
of the hesitations I often hear from teachers. If you believe any of the following or have thought these
phrases to yourself, you are not alone. However, we do hope that when you finish this class, you do
have a slightly different viewpoint.
• Teacher: “I’m not rewarding a student for what they should be doing anyway.” And, I would love
to say that you should not have to give extra rewards to a student for sitting down, not fighting,
or turning in work they are capable of doing, but, sometimes, the basic reinforcement many of
us gain from a job well done, seeing our friends at school, or avoiding the principal’s office is not
enough to motivate contextually appropriate behavior from all students. When that is not the
case for a particular individual, extra supports may be needed.
• Teacher: “They know what is expected. They do it on purpose.” Perhaps. Perhaps not. To assume
what a student knows can lead to issues down the road since we cannot measure or observe their
thoughts. It also makes it easy for us to put the blame on the student and not put any of the onus
on ourselves when we decide they are having a flurry of maladaptive/inappropriate behaviors
“on purpose.” This blame game then makes it much more difficult to look at our behavior and
see if changes are needed there as well.
• Teacher: “ABA is for ‘those’ students.” As noted, behavioral principles can be used by weightlifting
coaches to perfect a squat, an English teacher to increase proficiency of reading comprehension,
or a principal for teacher attendance at faculty meetings. It is not for “those” students; it is for
all students. And all CEOs. All parents. Basically, all people who behave. So, anyone not dead.
Applied Behavior Analysis in Education

ABA is not just a field but a science and a practice. It is an evidence-based, scientific approach
that applies principles of learning theory in a systematic way to create meaningful behavior change
(Baer et al., 1968). To show how it has been used in the educational space for the last century, we have
put together a few of the more major events and people in the field. Please note, this is not an exhaus-
tive list (this is not a history class after all), but we do want to show that this “new” programming is
not actually new at all. And, most of these will be hit in greater depth in at least one future chapter.
Project Follow Through was the largest government-funded research project related to edu-
cation to date (Vargas, 2013; Watkins, 1997). President Lyndon B. Johnson was initially interested
in how public schools could follow through on the positive results seen in Head Start programs.
6 Chapter 1
Coming to fruition in the late 1960s, this project spanned 20 years across more than 100 communi-
ties, evaluating nine different educational models. The results emphasized frequent teacher–student
interactions, parent education, behavior analysis, and, specifically, direct instruction (DI) as viable
solutions for sustainable progress (Watkins, 1997).
Token economies have a long history of changing behaviors dating as far back as the 1800s.
They have been one of the most beneficial and effective behaviorally based treatments (Hackenberg,
2009), possibly due to the universal application across behavior and age. They have been implement-
ed successfully for increasing social skills and time in seat to decreasing disruptive behaviors and
academic noncompliance (Matson & Boisjoli, 2009). Ayllon and Azrin (1968) formally discussed
using the token economy system in the late 1960s among developmentally delayed as well as typically
developing children.
Teaching machines were first discussed by B. F. Skinner as early as 1954 in his theory of pro-
grammed learning (Skinner, 1960). Since the rate of learning varies for each individual, reinforce-
ment is dependent upon completion of the next step. In this model, the instructor carefully arranges
steps toward a mastery criterion. Questions are presented in a fill-in-the-blank format on either a
workbook or computer. If the student wrote an incorrect answer, they would review material to in-
crease their chances to receive reinforcement during additional repetitions of the skill. This is a great
concept since it takes into account the rate of learning and fluency of each individual student. Several
studies showed promising demonstrations and how it can be utilized across primary, secondary, and
university courses (Benjamin, 1988). Root and Rehfeldt (2020) showed mastery and generalization
of the material using varying levels of prompting and feedback through this type of instruction.
Incidental teaching is a type of teaching method that occurs in a natural environment and
takes into account a student’s individual preferences. Initially developed by Hart and Risley in the
late 1960s (Hart & Risley, 1975; Risley, 1968), its unique feature is that all interactions are initiated
by the child. The teacher sets up the environment for the student, utilizing deprivation to increase
motivation of a certain item/activity, waits for them to make a request, and builds skills from there.
For example, the teacher may give a coloring sheet but not the crayons so the student would need
to ask for them. Since everything occurs in the natural environment, concepts taught will be easily
generalized to other settings. This approach involves several components, such as active social in-
struction, guidance procedure (wait-ask-say-show-do), redirection, and speech shaping (McGee et
al., 1999). McGee et al. (1999) and Dawson and Osterling (1997) pointed out that the effectiveness of
a program is not measured by the hours per week received by the child but through increased learn-
ing opportunities throughout the day. An important aspect for schools is that this procedure does
not require a lot of time and money.
Direct instruction (DI) originated from the work of Engelmann and colleagues in 1960
(Gersten, 1986). It is an evidence-based teaching intervention that focuses on the interaction be-
tween the learner and the teacher. It is fast paced and involves shaping specific skills into mastery.
Reinforcement and corrective feedback procedures are utilized to help students learn skills faster
and correct errors early in the process. Because targets are clearly identified, students stay engaged
and progress quickly. Instruction is done in a sequence and is carefully designed to get the student’s
attention with new knowledge and review mastered material (Gleason & Hall, 1991). This meth-
odology involves active student participation, immediate feedback, positive reinforcement, guided
practice, brisk pacing, errorless learning, and explicit instruction (Gleason & Hall, 1991; Nakano &
Kageyama, 1992; Stein et al., 1998).
Personalized System of Instruction (PSI) is credited to Fred S. Keller (and is thus also called
the Keller Plan) in the 1960s and includes breaking down large chunks of content into small teach-
able (but self-paced!) units and strict progress monitoring. Repetition and fluency are key to the
student advancing through the material. Failing to meet a prescribed level of fluency results in re-ex-
posure of the content through a variety of means before being represented with the assessment. Not
only were students making greater academic progress using PSI but also were rating the experience
as better than with regular instruction (Kulik et al., 1979). With the advent of online instruction over
the last few decades, PSI has seen a bit of a resurgence in research (Grant & Spencer, 2003).
Precision teaching was developed by Og Lindsley, a student of B. F. Skinner, and focuses on

fluency as measured by counts per minute and charted on a standardized chart. The founding rule
is that the student knows best and watching the data from their behavior (academic performance)
should guide decisions on how, when, and where to implement assistance (West et al., 1990; White,
1986). Students often actively chart their own rates to see progress. A common method of training to
fluency among college students is the use of SAFMEDS (Say All Fast, A Minute Every Day, Shuffled),
which is based on Lindsley’s work (Quigley et al., 2018).
Application of Behavior Analysis in Education

Dr. Kent Johnson founded Morningside Academy of Seattle in 1980. Morningside has two pro-
grams, Morningside Academy, a nonprofit school for typical and near-typical children and youth,
and Morningside Teachers’ Academy, for disseminating the Morningside Model of Generative
Instruction (MMGI), a system incorporating many of the technologies described in this section of
the chapter.
Morningside Academy’s school helps both elementary and middle school students who have not
previously reached their potential to catch up and get ahead. Many have learning disabilities, such as
dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. All have average to well
above average intelligence.
The foundation’s academic program focuses upon the three main foundation skills: reading,
writing, and mathematics, including their language, facts, skills, comprehension concepts, princi-
ples, and problem-solving components. Literature, social studies, and science are the grist for teach-
ing these foundations.
In the middle school program, students learn advanced foundation skills in reading, writing,
and math. They also learn how to study and perform successfully in content classes. Subjects in-
clude literature, world history, civics, general science, and American history. The program explicitly
teaches everything from textbook reading and studying, to lecture note taking and studying to par-
ticipation in class discussions, test taking, and essay and report writing.
All of Morningside’s curricula and teaching methods are either research or evidence based.
DI and cognitive strategy instruction (CSI) are the primary methods for initial teaching. Precision
teaching and standard celeration charting (SCC) are implemented so students can practice what they
have learned until they reach fluency aims.
Morningside implements a Response to Intervention (RtI) model to ensure mastery of all in-
structional objectives. Each student participates in extensive entry assessments of academic, learn-
ing, and performance skills to find out what they can do well, not so well, or not at all. We “fill all their
gaps.” Students with similar needs and goals are homogeneously grouped together for instruction.
Groupings change repeatedly throughout the day as students move from reading to writing to math-
ematics. Groupings also change continuously throughout the school year as students make more or
less progress than students in their current group.
Learning success provides a context for teachers to give lots of positive reinforcement, and they
do. Students get praised hundreds of times a day. In fact, in a variation of the token economy, stu-
dents carry a daily support card with them throughout the day. Points are earned and recorded for
meeting specific academic skills, learning skills, organizational skills, and citizenship aims that the
teacher specifies before each class period. Students share their support cards with their families each
day, which gives them more reinforcement at home. Many students earn home-based rewards, such
as extra television and computer or phone time, for meeting their aims. In addition, classroom wall
charts display the points that each student earns.
8 Chapter 1
In each area of study, teachers first focus on teaching component skills and concepts and then
bring them together in a real-world context. This sequence contrasts with the preponderance of ho-
listic educational approaches in schools today that focus on complex real-world learning as a context
to “teach” component skills. Many of today’s school activities are made up of challenging real-world
simulations or problems to stimulate creative application and problem solving. Project-based learn-
ing is currently in vogue from late elementary school through college. It assumes that students can
already perform all the component skills that the larger complex activity requires. Some educators
think that projects are inherently interesting and stimulating and believe these anticipated motiva-
tional features outweigh component skill weaknesses. The assumption is that, if the task is sufficiently
interesting, learners will employ a battery of skills to “figure it out.” Current holistic practices are
upside down. We take a right-side-up, first-things-first approach, focusing upon components, then
composites.
Every July, Morningside hosts the Morningside Summer Institute, a 2- to 3-week exploration
of MMGI curriculum and the strategies for teaching and practicing them. Curriculum and practice
materials to implement MMGI are available for purchase through Morningside Press. Go to www.
morningsideacademy.org to find out more about MMGI methods, curriculum, and workshops.
Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS) has been adopted by many school sys-
tems across the United States. PBIS includes a tiered system of supports that focus on universal
prevention, targeted prevention, and individualized prevention. PBIS serves as the foundation for
successful implementation of a full continuum of academic, social, and behavior supports occur-
ring school and classroom wide. For example, individual behavior supports (e.g., function-based
supports, wrap around), academic programming, data-based decision making and evaluation, disci-
pline, family and community participation, and early intervention all play a role in the multi-tiered
system (Sugai & Horner, 2009a).
Response to Intervention (RtI) Model is a model that uses specific interventions to target
known deficiencies in academic or behavioral performance. RtI aids in educational problem-solv-
ing through systematic and universal screening, responding with high-quality and evidence-based
instruction/interventions, and continuous assessment of progress within a formative evaluation
model. The provision of instructional and behavior interventions is not limited to those who have a
disability. The existence of disability is removed from the equation, and all students are served on the
basis of their needs, without regard to causality (Germann, 2010).
Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) shares many aspects of RtI, using progress moni-
toring and increasing levels of support and intervention focusing on individuals to whole groups
(Blackburn & Witzel, 2018; Sugai & Horner, 2009b). MTSS is often an umbrella term for organizing
school resources to provide empirically supported prevention and intervention programs propor-
tional to student needs (Kampwirth & Powers, 2016). While RtI is often focused on academics for a
student, MTSS looks more holistically at a student’s needs.
Natural environment training emphasizes child-directed interactions, techniques that increase
motivation to respond, and generalization of skills (Fisher et al., 2011). Natural environment train-
ing, also referred to as a natural language approach (LeBlanc et al., 2006), is typically conducted in
natural settings (e.g., home) with an emphasis on training caregivers to promote learning opportuni-
ties during playtime. Naturalistic teaching approaches tend to value a developmentally normalized
approach to instruction such that teaching activities can be readily employed in homes, day cares,
and integrated educational environments rather than in separate teaching environments. Thus, many
naturalistic teaching strategies are employed in the context of play or naturally occurring events
(e.g., snack time) rather than a readily identifiable “work” or academic context (Charlop-Christy et
al., 1999).
Naturalistic Teaching Strategies

Naturalistic teaching strategies are instructional strategies that utilize the typical activities and
routines of a student’s day to teach skills in context rather than in a highly structured, artificial
environment. Using naturalistic teaching strategies, teachers purposefully design opportunities for
learning to be incorporated into the natural environment to promote greater generalization and
maintenance of skills.
Example 1: Sofia is a student in Ms. Joyce’s prekindergarten class. One of Sofia’s annual goals is
receptive color identification. During centers time, Ms. Joyce joins Sofia in the blocks area to make a
tower with colorful blocks. Ms. Joyce sets the blocks closest to Sofia, and when she needs a block, she
asks Sofia to give her a block of a specific color.
Example 2: Luke is a high school student in Mr. Daveed’s life skills class. He is working on fol-
lowing directions using positional words. While setting up for a class party, Mr. Daveed directs Luke
to set the table by putting a plate in front of each chair, a napkin next to each plate, a fork on top of
each napkin, and a cup above each plate.
Example 3: Kristan is a middle school student who has a goal of requesting items that are missing
when completing a task. Her teacher, Ms. Cole, has enlisted a peer partner to help Kristan practice
this skill. During break time, the two students play a board game together, and when it is Kristan’s
turn, the peer holds onto the dice Kristan needs to take her turn until she requests them. If Kristan
does not make a request, the peer gives her a reminder to ask for the dice so Kristan can take her
turn.
—Written by Mary Barczak, PhD, BCBA, and former teacher
Foundation of the Science

Since its inception, ABA has focused on analyzing data and developing treatment interventions
to address a variety of behaviors across different populations and settings. The field focuses on shap-
ing behaviors that are socially significant, such as academic, social, communication, and daily living
skills. Essentially, any skill that will enhance the independence and/or quality of life for the individ-
ual. While ABA is based on scientific principles, it is founded on seven core dimensions, which were
first outlined by Baer, Wolf, and Risley in 1968 in the first edition of the Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis. These core dimensions of the field include (a) Generality, (b) Effective, (c) Technological,
(d) Applied, (e) Conceptually Systematic, (f) Analytic, and (g) Behavioral.
The seven dimensions ensure that interventions are data driven and supported by research. The
result is that goals are socially significant, interventions are evidence based, and progress is con-
stantly monitored. These dimensions have been used for decades to successfully implement positive
behavior change that can be observed across settings and people, long after treatment ends.
Here, we apply the seven dimensions of ABA to writing a goal for a child in your classroom. See
the various columns in Table 1-1 to see how the definition and application of the dimension relates
directly to working with a student in your course.
Behavior analysis does not have all of the answers, and it is only one piece of the multi-piece
puzzle to help a student be successful. But, having a better understanding of what it is provides more
options to consider when you feel you are running out of ideas. There is a chance it will be hard to
ask for help, that you are admitting defeat by doing so, but the longer you fail to ask for help only
results in a delay in potential progress for your student. See the following two situations from both
the perspective of a teacher and a behavior analytic consultant. The behavior analyst cannot do their
job well without you as you are the best source of information for the consultant and best source of
consistency for your student. Yes, you! You are the most important person in this equation, so let’s
get you prepared over the course of this semester for what is to come. Welcome to the world of ABA.
10 Chapter 1
Table 1-1. Seven Dimensions of

Applied Behavior Analysis Applied to School Goals
Seven Definition Application in a School
Dimensions Setting
of ABA
Generality Skills learned should be Example: This specific
demonstrated across various communication skill learned at
settings, people, and/or behaviors. recess time is expected to be
The plan is not considered effective generalized across settings, such
until generalization is achieved. as lunch period, walking down the
hallway, and academics.
Nonexample: The skill is taught at

recess and only occurs at recess.
Once it is displayed at the target
rate, the interventions are removed.
Effective The procedures in the plan show Example: The graphed data shows
that they are effectively working, conclusively the intervention is
and this change is evident to the working, but the teacher can also
naked eye. No statistical analysis is see the student sitting with peers at
needed to “see” that it is working. lunch and playing games with peers
at recess.
Nonexample: The data show an

increase in social interactions
when prompted by the teacher at
recess, but there are no changes to
interactions with peers outside of
contrived settings when the teacher
is nearby.
Technological Procedures and strategies should Example: The teacher or aide
be well-written, easy to understand, will coach another peer to
and clearly explained. A question approach the student and make
to ask yourself is “Can I replicate a request. Each time the student
this procedure based on how it is responds appropriately (positive
written?” verbalizations), the teacher or aide
will transfer a paper clip from their
left pocket to their right pocket
(example of taking data in a natural
environment).
Nonexample: The teacher or aide

will take data on the student’s
interactions with peers at recess.
(continued)
Table 1-1 (continued). Seven Dimensions of

Dimensions Setting
of ABA
Conceptually The procedures are research- Example: Procedures used include
Systematic based and are consistent with the reinforcement, modeling, and
principles of ABA. If you have trouble prompting.
finding the interventions in behavior
analytic journals, this is a time
Nonexample: Procedures used
to consider if you are proposing
include hugs when the teacher
evidence-based interventions.
thinks the student is sad, talking
Another way to think about it is if
with the child in the hallway after a
you can provide citations for the
raging event, and meditation when
methods proposed.
they are really stressed out.
Applied Goals chosen should be significant Example: This goal is significant
and important to the client. This because it will build the student’s
is one of the biggest differences relationship with their peers.
between experimental analysis of
behavior and ABA, the difference
Nonexample: If the target behavior
of research for research sake
was something their mom or their
(experimental analysis of behavior)
teacher wanted because it would
and research for socially significant
make their life easier. (Student
reasons (ABA).
will decrease using slang in text
messages to their mom).
Nonexample: If the behavior was

something a researcher wanted to
test “just because.” (Student will run
faster when given a Snickers bar
instead of M&Ms in gym class).
Analytic Data is collected throughout Example: The teacher or aide utilizes
treatment to make informed a specific data collection procedure
decisions. It should demonstrate a to count successful occurrences of
functional relationship between the the behavior. At the end of each
target behavior and the intervention day, the teacher or aide graph and
to be considered successful. analyze results. Data show when
intervention package is in place,
social interactions increase, and
when it is removed, they fall back
near baseline level.
(continued)
12 Chapter 1
Table 1-1 (continued). Seven Dimensions of

Dimensions Setting
of ABA
Nonexample: The teacher or aide
utilizes a specific data collection
procedure to count successful
occurrences of the behavior.
They graph the data during their
bimonthly meetings and hand it to
their lead Board Certified Behavior
Analyst (BCBA) for feedback during
their next monthly meeting.
Behavioral ABA focuses on what the child Example: Target behavior—The
needs to DO. The plan should focus student will respond to at least three
on teaching/increasing a skill and/or requests from a peer during recess
reducing challenging behaviors. period.
Nonexample: Target behavior—The

student will decrease depression
and stop being so angry.
Teacher’s Perspective
What Can Lead to a Negative Outcome
As a classroom teacher, sometimes it can be hard to admit when we need help. And even after we
recognize that we need help, it can be even harder to ask for it. Lesson planning, material prepping,
and classroom management are just a few of the many aspects of our job, and it can be overwhelming
when our classroom does not look and function like a pin from a Pinterest board. Often, the hardest
of those responsibilities is classroom management, especially when there is “that one kid” that makes
it feel impossible. Sometimes, when not addressed appropriately, it can turn into a situation like the
following:
Johnny has been having a tough time in class for the last few weeks, and his teacher just does not
know what to do. Every day she goes home drained from his behavior in class, using inappropriate
language, throwing things, refusing to do work, calling other students names, and the list could go
on. Your aide, while also exhausted from this in the classroom, goes to the principal, on a particularly
hard day, and lays it all out on the table. Concerned about what is going on, the principal immedi-
ately gets outside help, and a few days later, there is someone in your classroom to observe all the
horrible things (or at least that is what it now feels like) going on. They keep coming back, each time
with more things for you to do and use in your classroom, just a reminder of how horrible things are
going. As all of these “resources” have just been thrown on you, you find it hard to use them and are
even a little bit hesitant, questioning who this person is coming into your classroom, demanding all
these things, and thinking they can run your classroom better than you can. Now, you feel even more
frustrated than before they came, and not to mention, like a complete failure, because you cannot
“handle” your classroom. And it feels like the school does not even trust you to work with your own
students. Ugh. Not a fun situation. No one is happy or working together well, and the student is not
making any more progress than they were before.
What Can Lead to a Positive Outcome

Things can, however, be done differently! Everyone can be happy, work together, and see signifi-
cant changes in classroom management and student behavior. The first thing to do is identify that
there is a behavioral issue in your classroom that needs to be addressed. Maybe do some research
on your own about how to address such behaviors or use strategies that you remember learning in
school or from professional development. Even though you are working so hard, there is still no
change in behavior, so you decide to go to your principal for help. You work with your principal to
come up with more strategies and ideas to use in your classroom. You tell them what is going on in
your room, what you have done, and ask them for any suggestions they may have. The two of you
are coming up with some great ideas, but as you try each one, they still do not seem to create any
changes in the classroom. After some time of working like this, you realize that more help is needed.
You decide the next step is to go to the district BCBA or outside service provider for help in this situ-
ation. It is such a relief that you have help and other professionals who care about you and want to
help you with what is going on in your classroom. Upon meeting with them, you share what has been
going on in your room, the behavior you have been seeing, the data you have taken, interventions
that have been implemented, and the results and progress (or lack thereof) of what you have done so
far. Now that everyone has this information and understands what is going on, you are able to work
together as a team to help the student in need. The service provider acknowledges and respects what
you have tried up to this point, expresses that they are here to help you and your students, and your
principal is happy they were able to facilitate this partnership to support their teachers and students.
You have the service provider observe a few periods of your class, and then work alongside them as
they suggest different interventions you may want to try to decrease problem behavior and increase
socially appropriate ones. You are a team. After a little while working together and implementing
their suggested interventions, you are seeing positive changes in your classroom!
Remember, asking for help is okay! It is actually more than okay, it is a good thing! It shows that
you are invested in learning and growing as a teacher, bettering your practices, and improving the
classroom environment. It also shows that you care about your students as you are taking additional
steps to ensure they are successful in your class. Without being open and honest, reaching out for
help, and working together, these positive changes could have been much more difficult to get to. At
the end of the day, everything we do as teachers is for our students. From the moment they walk into
our classrooms to the moment they leave, we are here for them. Creating a team of professionals that
respects each other and works well together is in the best interest of the student, and even helps you,
as the teacher, feel an increased sense of confidence and pride in your classroom.
—Contribution from Courtney L. Gregori, Teacher
Behavior Analyst Perspective

What Can Lead to a Negative Outcome
Janet Newman is a BCBA who is in private practice and spends part of her time consulting in
schools. She was contacted by Mary Bell, the principal of Rover Elementary School, to provide an
evaluation and behavior plan for a first-grade student with ASD named Tim. The principal shares
that the student is “aggressive, throws tantrums multiple times a day, and won’t do anything he is
14 Chapter 1
asked to do.” The teacher is a second-year teacher and “doesn’t know how to handle the student.”
Mrs. Bell asks Ms. Newman if she can come out as soon as possible because they had to shorten
the student’s school day, and the parents would like the student back in school all day. Ms. Newman
schedules to go observe the following week.
When Ms. Newman arrived to observe, she went directly to the classroom. She observed the
class and Tim’s behavior for several hours. Mrs. Hall, the classroom teacher, was teaching a small
group when it was time for Ms. Newman to leave and had yet to make time to talk with her one-on-
one. Ms. Newman walked over to the table and told Mrs. Hall she had to leave. She briefly summa-
rized her thoughts about the observation telling Mrs. Hall:
It seems there isn’t enough structure and consistency in the classroom, and that is a lot of
why Tim has so much problem behavior. You have other students who are also causing
problems in addition to Tim, and the supports that Tim needs to be successful aren’t in
place. I noticed that you don’t have any visual supports and that Tim doesn’t have a token
economy. I’m not sure how much experience you have with students with ASD, so I’m
happy to help you. I will come up with a plan for Tim that you can implement in your class
and that should really help fix the problems. I’ll send the plan to you next week.
What Can Lead to a Positive Outcome

Ms. Newman is a BCBA who is in private practice and spends part of her time consulting in the
schools. She was contacted by Mary Bell, the principal of Rover Elementary School, to provide an
evaluation and behavior plan for a first grade student with ASD named Tim. The principal shares that
the student is “aggressive, throws tantrums multiple times a day, and won’t do anything he is asked to
do.” The teacher is a second-year teacher and “doesn’t know how to handle the student.” Ms. Newman
listened and then asked how to contact the teacher so she could schedule the observation at the best
time of day for the teacher. Ms. Newman emailed the teacher and scheduled a time when the teacher,
Mrs. Hall, could talk with her briefly before she started the observation of Tim in the classroom. She
also asked for contact information for Tim’s parents.
Ms. Newman arrived at the agreed-upon time. She and Mrs. Hall talked while the students were
out of the class at music class. Ms. Newman used a functional behavior assessment interview to gath-
er information about the problem behavior and the biggest concerns in the classroom. Ms. Newman
also asked Mrs. Hall questions about what strategies she has used to support Tim, what has worked,
and what has not worked. She also asked Mrs. Hall where she felt she needed the most support in
helping Tim.
The students returned to the class, and Ms. Newman observed Tim and the classroom for several
hours, using the information gathered during her conversation with Mrs. Hall to guide the obser-
vation. Before leaving, Ms. Newman briefly thanked Mrs. Hall and commented on several positive
things she observed. She told Mrs. Hall she would be contacting Tim’s parents to get their input. Ms.
Newman would then draft a plan that could be reviewed by Mrs. Hall and Tim’s parents before final-
izing and implementing it in the classroom.
How would you feel differently after this interaction?
—Contribution from René Daman, BCBA
Chapter Review
1. List two to three concepts that are often misunderstood about ABA and what the correct in-
formation is.
2. Why do you think ABA has had a bad reputation in the past?
3. Describe Project Follow Through. Why do you think its findings are not integrated more into
everyday academic environments?
4. Many assume the token economy is a new technology in schools. Do additional research to see
how long these have been used in academic settings.
5. Describe the difference between bribes and reinforcers.
6. Why are naturalistic teaching strategies important for students?
7. Consider a goal you have recently written for a child in your class (or one you would like to
write for someone you know). Write it in a way that adheres to all seven dimensions of behavior.
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2
Taking on the
Elephant in the Room
Classroom Management
Art Dowdy, PhD, BCBA-D; Kathryn Burke, PhD;
and Christopher Bloh, PhD, BCBA-D
INTRODUCTION
Classroom management is often reported as the most challenging aspect for teachers;
however, with the right set of tools and an understanding for when to use them, teachers
can focus less on classroom management and more on student outcomes. This chapter
will describe evidence-based classroom management strategies, tips, and interventions
that teachers can begin using right away. These interventions will be presented in an easy-
to-understand format drawing on examples that teachers often face in the classroom. All
interventions will be presented using a decision-making tree that will be designed for
teachers to support their intervention selection based upon specific situations that they
may face. Strategies described in this chapter will primarily fall within the Tier 2 School-
Wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (SWPBIS) framework.
Carr, R. N. (Ed.).
- 19 - of Evidence-Based Interventions by Teachers (pp. 19-35).
20 Chapter 2
Chapter Objectives
ȘȘ Define evidence-based classroom management.
ȘȘ Describe examples of evidence-based classroom management practices.
ȘȘ Describe why buy-in from stakeholders is important for teacher success.
KEY TERMS
• Data-Based Decision Making: Choosing instructional and behavioral strategies and supports
based on data related to a student’s progress.
• Evidence-Based Classroom Management: Use of classroom practices to support student be-
havior shown to be effective through high-quality research.
• Family–School Partnership: The student’s core family members and school leaders and teach-
ers work together to support the needs of the child.
• Progress Monitoring: Systematic collection of data on students’ academic performance or
classroom behavior to drive decision making.
• School-Wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (SWPBIS): Intervention
framework that focuses on the whole school across various tiers or levels of need.
• Student Buy-In: Allowing student’s input into their academic or behavioral programming and
thus increasing their investment into the plan.
Case Study
At a large suburban school district with a diverse ethnic and racial student population nearby
a major U.S. city, Ms. Davis is 2 weeks into her second year of teaching fifth grade and feeling a bit
overwhelmed. During Ms. Davis’s first year, a few students displayed challenging behavior, and the
strategies and tips that Ms. Davis could remember from her undergraduate teacher training were suf-
ficient. During the summer months, Ms. Davis met up with several fourth-grade teachers, and when she
mentioned the names of incoming students assigned to her class the next year, one teacher mentioned
she had many of those students in her class, and it was very challenging to manage their behavior, which
seemed to then impact their academic performance. Oh no!
Two weeks into her second year teaching fifth grade, Ms. Davis has quickly realized that she could
certainly use additional support with managing her classroom and student behavior. Specifically, she is
nervous about both managing students’ behavior and how the challenging behavior already occurring
could affect students’ academic performance. Ms. Davis’s elementary school strives to promote full inclu-
sion, meaning students with Individualized Education Programs most often receive instruction in the
general education setting. In Ms. Davis’s classroom, she has 26 students, three students are considered
to be English-language learners, three students have been diagnosed with speech and language disorders
(SLDs), one student has a diagnosis with autism spectrum disorder, one student has been identified
with emotional and behavioral disorders, and two students have been classified as gifted. Early into
the academic year, it is clear this year’s fifth-grade class has increased rates of out-of-seat behavior, dif-
ficulty paying attention when Ms. Davis is speaking, and frequently has conversations among each other
compared to last year.
Additionally, Ms. Davis has noticed during her first 2 weeks of teaching that one of her students
has frequent and extended occurrences of shutting down. This student often puts their head down on
the desk and is unresponsive to any and all instructions that Ms. Davis provides them. When Ms. Davis
has tried strategies that have been previously effective with other students, it only seems to make things
Taking on the Elephant in the Room: Classroom Management 21
worse, and she finds herself spending more time with this student when she feels she should be delivering
whole group instruction. Given these challenges and coupled with the heterogeneity of student needs
in Ms. Davis’s diverse classroom, she has self-identified that additional guidance is necessary. Even so,
she often finds herself reluctant to seek this support due to possibly showing signs of incompetence to
her principal and colleagues. Thus, this classroom management dilemma that Ms. Davis is facing her
first 2 weeks into her second school year is the elephant in the room! Upon reflection, Ms. Davis realizes
that for her and her new students to have a successful school year and for her to meet the behavioral
and academic needs of all students, she needs to expand her knowledge on evidence-based classroom
management.
Why Does Classroom Management Matter?

Although Ms. Davis’s vignette is fictitious, her classroom scenario, along with the challenges
she experienced related to classroom management, is one that teachers can quite often relate to.
Perhaps you personally have completed an observation of a classroom in any grade level, and even
from a brief observation, it is apparent that classrooms are filled with complex and diverse events
that dynamically occur throughout each day. When students’ challenging behaviors are layered on
top of this already dynamic setting, it often poses substantial challenges for teachers when they are
unequipped with positive behavior classroom management strategies. Based upon research by Alter
and colleagues (2013), teachers consistently report that student disruptions, noncompliance, and
disengagement are among the most consistently difficult and frustrating behaviors they face on a
daily basis. Furthermore, as a classroom teacher, the severity of challenging behaviors collectively
displayed by students often varies from year to year. Similar to Ms. Davis’s experiences, little chal-
lenging behavior may occur one year, and more challenging behavior displayed by students may oc-
cur the next. For this reason, it is crucial that teachers are competent and fluent in how to implement
evidence-based classroom management.
Classroom management has a direct and meaningful impact on student success, irrespective of
grade levels and the location of the school. The previous claim can be made based upon outcomes of
aggregated high-quality research, referred to as a meta-analysis, that investigated the importance of
classroom management on student achievement. In fact, in the meta-analysis that investigated the
importance of classroom management conducted by Korpershoek and colleagues (2016), they found
that when evidence-based classroom management interventions are implemented, problem behav-
ior displayed by students decreased and academic achievement increased to statistically significant
levels. This suggests, first, that evidence-based classroom management works favorably for teachers
and students, and that it is well worth the efforts of teachers to gain the skills to implement effective
evidence-based classroom management interventions that could likely result in both decreased chal-
lenging behavior and increased student achievement.
As previously described, Ms. Davis teaches in a suburban-based school district that has a di-
verse student population; however, teachers who teach in rural or urban schools also find themselves
grappling with how to best implement classroom management strategies. Notably, contextual factors,
which are factors found in a specific environment, may be more or less relevant when consider-
ing and implementing classroom management strategies based upon the location of the school. For
example, one contextual factor to consider in an urban setting includes staffing higher proportions
of beginning teachers (Jacob, 2007). In turn, this could impact teachers’ opportunities to share ef-
fective and evidence-based classroom management strategies with one another due to overall less
classroom experience, thus, increasing the need for high-quality training and access to resources
on evidence-based classroom management. Due to the dynamic nature of the classroom setting,
particularly in urban settings, to date research has shown that it is critical for teachers to have a
22 Chapter 2
collection of evidence-based classroom management strategies and be able to recognize when either
refinements to already implemented strategies are necessary or changes to classroom management
approaches altogether are needed (Kwok, 2018).
Teachers in rural settings also require a collection of evidence-based classroom management
practices to favorably impact students’ behavioral and academic outcomes. In an analysis of rural
special educators’ stressors, Garwood and colleagues (2017) found that special education teachers
working in rural settings often found themselves struggling with classroom management, which
ultimately resulted in added stress and burnout. Moreover, research has shown that the geographic
isolation of rural schools may often result in less access to resources, such as professional develop-
ment, due to proximity or financial reasons that are related to classroom management (Berry et al.,
2011). Therefore, it is crucial for teachers who find themselves in rural settings, similar to urban and
suburban teachers, to be able to identify classroom management strategies that are evidence based to
ensure they have a collection of strategies they can use and refine when necessary. In sum, regardless
of the geographic location, student population, or other possible contextual factors, it is critical that
teachers gain knowledge about effective and evidence-based classroom management strategies to
ensure student success.
Classroom Management Using

Positive Behavior Supports
From conversations between Ms. Davis and another teacher in her school building, she learns that
classroom management interventions from a positive behavior support framework have much evidence
showing their effectiveness. Ms. Davis quickly realizes that learning more about the approach seems to
be an excellent first step to support her students both behaviorally and academically.
Positive behavior support, also referred to as a School-Wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and
Supports or SWPBIS (Horner & Sugai, 2015), is a framework that can be applied to entire schools.
Estimates suggest that more than 20,000 schools in the United States have implemented a SWPBIS
to support both classroom and behavior management in their schools, respectively. Furthermore, the
SWPBIS framework has continued to develop, evolve, and optimize resulting in more than 25 years
of research on this evidence-based approach. Two general themes can be found when implementing
a SWPBIS framework: (a) the framework focuses on the whole school as the unit of intervention to
include classrooms and students within the classroom, and (b) simultaneously implemented inter-
ventions are tied to generally three tiers of intervention support. The three-tiered model consists
of Tier 1, Tier 2, and Tier 3. Tier 1 is considered to be the primary intervention, which all students
experience across grade levels within the school. Tier 2 is the secondary level of prevention and fo-
cuses on students who have moderate behavioral needs. Tier 3 is the tertiary level of prevention and
focuses on students who have the most significant behavioral needs. Notably, if a student receives a
more intensive level of positive behavior support (e.g., Tier 2, Tier 3), then they also receive support
from the less intensive tiers. For example, if a student receives Tier 3 level of support, they also would
receive support from Tiers 2 and 1.
Tier 1 level of support is designed for and applied to all students in the school. Different from
Tiers 2 and 3, Tier 1 support is not based upon formal behavioral assessment or considered to be a
response to specific needs. Given that all students in the school receive this level of support, it is cru-
cial that everyone is trained at the start of the school year on Tier 1 to ensure that everyone, including
teachers, principals, counselors, aides, lunchroom staff, and all other school personnel, understands
behavioral expectations and interventions to use with all students. The aim of primary prevention is
to arrange the school environment where initial challenging behaviors are prevented prior to them
occurring. Most often, but not exclusively, interventions are researched and developed with specific
tiers in mind. Thus, Tier 1 interventions are generally used only at the primary prevention level.
Tier 2 practices are designed for students who require support beyond the primary level of pre-
vention. Tier 2 support is generally used to support between 10% to 15% of students in the school;
however, this may fluctuate depending upon student needs. Considered to be a greater intensity of
behavioral support compared to Tier 1, this level of support is delivered in a group-based format for
students who show similar behavioral needs. Different from Tier 1, Tier 2 interventions often be-
gin with a needs assessment that might identify specific behavior skills required to increase student
achievement. Another defining factor of Tier 2 consists of ongoing progress monitoring, which is a
form of data collection, to provide teachers with insight about the effectiveness of the Tier 2 interven-
tions that are implemented. In this chapter, many of the interventions that we describe later on fall
into the Tier 2 level, for students who require more intensive intervention beyond Tier 1.
Tier 3 level intervention is designed for students who require ongoing and individualized sup-
port. Quite often, though not exclusively, students who receive Tier 3 level intervention also have an
IEP that includes indication of behavioral interventions to support them with their behavioral needs.
Given the magnitude of behavioral support, designing and implementing Tier 3 intervention often
includes collective decision making made by team members (e.g., Board Certified Behavior Analyst
[BCBA], general education teacher, special education teacher, school psychologist, family, guidance
counselor) who have extensive experience with behavior support and a firm understanding of the
student’s behavioral needs. Similar to other tiers, interventions at the Tier 3 level are most often des-
ignated solely for this level, but components of Tier 3 intervention can be found within less intensive
tiers (e.g., reinforcement-based strategies). Noteworthy, the goal is to provide the least intensive and
most effective behavioral support that results in both behavioral and academic progress; therefore,
if a student has demonstrated gains as shown by progress-monitoring data, the student very likely
could move from a Tier 3 level of intervention to a Tier 2 level of intervention or from a Tier 2
level of intervention to solely a Tier 1 level of intervention. It is crucial that school-based personnel,
including the general and special education teachers, work as a team to continuously evaluate the
effectiveness of the tiered level of intervention, particularly at Tier 3 given that it is the most intense
level of intervention.
Now equipped with a better understanding of the SWPBIS framework, Ms. Davis is beginning to
think about what students in her classroom would optimally benefit per intervention tier. She believes
that all of the students in her class would likely benefit from a Tier 1 level of intervention to prevent
challenging behavior from occurring beforehand, but she also feels that several students in her classroom
would benefit from Tier 2 interventions. Last, Ms. Davis believes that her student who frequently shuts
down might benefit from Tier 3 intervention. She recognizes that this decision should ultimately be
made by collaborating with other experienced team members and coming to a collective decision about
whether Tier 3 is most appropriate and what specific Tier 3 interventions should be implemented.
Applied Behavior Analysis

SWPBIS has evolved from the scientific discipline of applied behavior analysis (ABA). ABA is
a scientific discipline similar to biology, physics, or chemistry that uses a natural science approach
to discovering environmental variables that reliably impact socially significant behavior and in re-
turn aim to develop behavioral technology to take practical advantage of those discoveries to help
others (Cooper et al., 2020). Benefits of ABA have been well-documented in school-based settings
for teachers to support students’ behavioral and academic progress but are not limited to just an
educational setting. The spectrum of ABA research and clinical practice has been used to optimize
business productivity, address sleep disorders, reduce substance use, support breast cancer detection,
and increase highway safety, to name just a few.
24 Chapter 2
Many of the interventions and approaches unpacked later in this chapter primarily evolved from
applied behavior analytic concepts and principles. Earlier in this chapter, it was mentioned that a
team approach is often useful to increase the odds that behavior intervention at any tier is effec-
tive. One team member who could very likely participate in this collective decision making is a
BCBA (see https://www.bacb.com/). This is a professional with advanced training, along with either
a master’s degree or a doctoral degree in ABA, who has successfully completed requirements to be-
come certified. Although indicated by the spectrum of applied behavior analytic application noted
previously, behavior analysts commonly work in school or home settings to support the behavioral
needs of children and adults, though this is not exclusive. Quite often teachers will find themselves
collaborating with BCBAs among other professionals to optimally support the behavioral needs of
their students.
Unpacking Tier 2 Interventions

How did we get here? Like Ms. Davis’s dilemma, many teachers have success with familiar meth-
ods but encounter problems when serving students with more diverse and challenging behaviors.
While Tier 1 efforts are directed toward all students across settings, Tier 2/secondary prevention
focuses on a specialized group of students (approximately 15% of population) with at-risk behavior
(Sugai & Horner, 2006). Tier 2 supports exist in a continuum of interventions that extend from
preventing the development of problem behaviors in Tier 1 to targeting problem behaviors with
function-based intervention plans in Tier 3/tertiary (Office of Special Education Programs Center
on Positive Behavioral Support, 2004; Saffran & Oswald, 2003). Since Ms. Davis’s Tier 1 efforts were
not effective, it is necessary to increase the intensity of supports in Tier 2 and utilize more individual-
ized tools from the teacher toolbox.
It can certainly be frustrating for teachers when students do not behave as they are expected, but
Ms. Davis should not lose hope, and neither should you! You do not have to create classroom sup-
ports from scratch. It is likely that most problem behaviors you encounter have been researched. So,
don’t work hard—work smart. Remember, you do not have to reinvent the wheel…it has been rolling
for a long time. Let’s stand on the shoulders of giants and look to the research.
The following interventions are offered to assist teachers with behavior management. However,
please accept that no single intervention is a panacea for all classroom scenarios. Interventions often
need to be individualized based on settings, preferences, history, etc. Be wary of anyone who offers
all-encompassing simple “answers” to complex problems. Behaviors frequently have many variables
affecting it with multiple functions. As teachers trying to make a difference, let’s be humble, embrace
the science, and give it a shot.
Student Buy-In
Ms. Davis has 26 students, not just the students out of their seats or having side conversations.
While all 26 are receiving her instruction and support in Tier 1, some students may need more. Tier 2
supports often include increased instruction with social skills, more opportunities for reinforcement
(Sugai & Horner, 2002), and are typically already available where school personnel can use them with
small groups of students (McIntosh et al., 2009). When considering any of the following interven-
tions, efficacy can increase with student involvement/buy-in during the development process. So,
Ms. Davis should involve students in her “governance” of the class and include them, as much as pos-
sible, with the day-to-day planning of activities. Increasing student involvement not only makes buy-
in more likely but may also promote the development of self-advocacy skills (Mallory et al., 2021).
In other words, the more say students have, the more vested they are. Recruit their involvement and
allow them a say in their immediate world. Control can be very reinforcing.
If end-of-chapter textbook questions are similar in complexity, Ms. Davis can ask the students
to “pick <this number> of questions.” Would it make that much of a difference academically if Ms.
Davis allowed her students to pick the date (within a reasonable number of class days) when a par-
ticular assignment is due? If her class covers multiple subjects, could the students pick the order of
subjects covered? Ms. Davis has practical options in which to encourage student buy-in through
instructional choices.
Behavior-Specific Praise
We all have likely received a “Good job, way to go” or “You’re awesome!” at one time in school.
Indeed, there are many websites that offer synonyms to saying “Good job” (Calm, 2021; ESLBuzz,
2018; Reward Charts 4 Kids, 2015). General praise, such as good job, can be effective but limited at
increasing/maintaining appropriate behaviors. Do not just give your students praise for appropriate
behavior, give them specific praise for appropriate behavior. Make praise instructional, and tell them
exactly what you liked.
Specific praise has been related to increases in task engagement and on-task behavior (Fullerton
et al., 2009). Instead of “Good job” if a student raises their hand, say “I like the way you raised your
hand.” Musti-Rao and Haydon (2011) suggest targeting students who may receive more attention for
negative behavior, selecting target behaviors and areas of the classroom, and using a cueing device
(vibrating at specified intervals) to prompt the delivery of behavior-specific praise. Ms. Davis can
use behavior-specific praise and catch students being good, recognizing that some bars are higher/
lower for individual students. While she may catch one student being good by saying, “I like the way
you are sitting in your seat” (lower bar), she may catch another with “Good job finishing your work
quietly” (higher bar).
How can we encourage student buy-in for using behavior-specific praise? Well, how do you
prefer your work to be praised? Your response would probably depend on several factors—where am
I being recognized, by whom, who is within hearing distance of my praise, etc. We can promote stu-
dent buy-in by respecting these factors as well. Be selective of the mode when presenting behavior-
specific praise. Ms. Davis has 26 students so it is in her and their best interest to know how they each
like their praise served. She can publicly praise a behavior in front of the room for one student or
approach another discreetly and praise privately.
A critical component is to vocalize the behavior that you are praising and present that praise
as soon as possible to when the behavior occurs. Waiting is not good, as delay could inadvertently
strengthen intervening behaviors and not sufficiently reinforce the intended behavior (Kodak et al.,
2015). Some research has suggested that delaying reinforcement has slowed or halted skill acquisi-
tion (Graff & Karsten, 2012). Tell them how they are being good when they are doing it.
White Paper Comments

I (RNC) was once a professor in a psychology department. I had a student in my Intro to
Psychology class who had already told me he was there to get whatever grade he needed to
stay on the soccer team. No more. No less. When it was time to pick a topic for his final paper,
he selected Alfred Adler. On submission day, he came in late without his paper and mumbled
something about submitting it in a few days. When he did finally turn it in, it was on 11x14 legal
size paper, held together with a black binder clip with a picture of Adler glued to the cover page.
Not exactly APA format. The paper was the wrong size. It was missing a staple. It was late. But, I
found the one thing that he got right and praised him for it, the paper he used was white. On
the next submission, there was white 8.5x11 size paper held together with a staple. It was still
late, and it was still poorly organized, but he was moving in the right direction. Sometimes you
have to dig down deep and find your own “white paper comments” for your students. There will
always be something right, you just may have to dig to find it.
26 Chapter 2
Table 2-1. Considerations to Implementing

Daily Behavior Report Cards
1. Which behavior(s)? How do we define them?
2. Hypothesize why the behavior occurs/what is the function?
3. How many points can behaviors earn? Are we using points or symbols?
4. In what setting or classes will DRBCs happen?
5. What is the student working for? What do they like or want?
6. What behaviors can I teach to replace the inappropriate ones? Do they serve the same
function?
7. Are they able to get the reinforcers too easily or is it too hard? Is reinforcement criterion too
high or too low?
8. How will we give the student feedback? Do we write it, graph it, or both?
Adapted from Riden, B. S., Taylor, J. C., Ruiz, S., Lee, D. L., & Scheeler, M. C. (2020). Using a daily report card to reduce
off-task behaviors for a student with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Behavioral Education, 30, 397-416. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s10864-020-09382-6
Daily Behavior Report Card

Let’s consider some more behavior management options that are available to Ms. Davis. Daily
Behavior Report Cards (DBRCs) can target specific, nondangerous classroom behaviors by rat-
ing them and sharing that information with the student and stakeholders (Chafouleas et al., 2002).
DBRCs have been used for students with specific learning disabilities, attention-deficit/hyperactivity
disorder, and other high incidence disabilities (Riden et al., 2020). We give students grades and feed-
back for reading, writing, and arithmetic, why not behavior? Although DBRCs can be used across
tiers, they are time consuming and likely should be considered more for Tier 2 and 3 supports (LaBel
et al., 2013). So, DBRCs can be used for a select number of students in Ms. Davis’s class. Giving 26
would be likely too much. Please see Table 2-1 for considerations prior to implementation and Table
2-2 for a sample DBRC that could be used by Ms. Davis.
Why should students want to participate in DBRCs? Teachers should request student participa-
tion in creating this Tier 2 intervention. By soliciting their input on target behaviors, why they engage
in them, and what they will work toward can increase their buy-in and enhance the efficacy of this
method. “Share” the power of being in charge and allow them control and a say.
Check-In/Check-Out
Another Tier 2 tool that is available to Ms. Davis is check-in/check-out (CICO). Similar to a
DBRC, CICO functions as a daily report card for behavior (Swoszowsi et al., 2012), which has been
shown to decrease problem behaviors (McIntosh et al., 2009) and increase academic engagement
(Hawken & Horner, 2003). These are exact concerns listed by Ms. Davis! CICO may vary across the
number of steps for implementation but typically contain check-ins, frequent review, and check-
outs (Wolfe et al., 2015). While checking in with the CICO coordinator (Ms. Davis or other school
personnel), the student reviews goals and expectations. The student then receives frequent feedback
(at the conclusion of every class) throughout the day. Feedback can be verbal and/or written ratings
of behavior. Lastly, during check-out, the student’s progress is quantitatively evaluated (numerically
rated), and rewards are available if predetermined criteria (agreed on by Ms. Davis and the student)
Table 2-2. Daily Behavior Report Card Example

Target Behavior Class Goal Score
Math Reading Art

I ask permission to leave my seat.
I pay attention when the teacher is
talking.
I only have conversations during free
time.
Teacher Signature/Comments
Student Signature/Comments
Parent Signature/Comments
are met. Additionally, Ms. Davis should share the CICO results with home to promote generalization.
Please see Table 2-3 for an example CICO daily report for Ms. Davis and note that these behaviors
must be operationally defined so that all stakeholders (faculty, staff, student, parents, etc.) understand
what the behavior looks like.
How can Ms. Davis encourage student buy-in for CICO? When creating this intervention,
school personnel should solicit student input on what goals they would like to work on. If tan-
gible incentives are to be used as motivation, student input is essential to identify motivating prizes.
Additionally, permitting students to rate their own behaviors allows them a sense of control, which
could increase CICO’s efficacy. Discussing their self-ratings and comparing them to Ms. Davis’s rat-
ings could provide additional instruction in behavioral expectations.
Good Behavior Game

What if Ms. Davis wanted to include the whole class in a behavioral intervention? The Good
Behavior Game (Barrish et al., 1969) is a group contingency intervention that has been documented
to reduce classroom disruptions, off-task behaviors, and other inappropriate behaviors (Bowman-
Perrot et al., 2016). While it was created for use in the general education classroom, beneficial results
have been documented with students with learning disabilities and suggested to be even more sig-
nificant for students at risk for emotional or behavioral disorders. Ms. Davis could play the Good
Behavior Game with the whole class in Tier 1, a smaller/targeted population in Tier 2, or a very
select/few students in Tier 3. Please see Table 2-4 for steps for implementation and Figure 2-1 for a
flowchart example.
The first step in implementation is establishing rules or behavioral expectations. This is an ex-
cellent opportunity for Ms. Davis to encourage student involvement to promote buy-in. Have them
identify the rules. She knows how she wants them to behave. Get them to say it. By them stating
the rules, it is their rules that they break, not hers. They appear to be the ones who are driving the
situation.
28 Chapter 2
Table 2-3. Check-In/Check-Out Example Form

How did I do today: When I have something to say, I While the teacher is talking, I will
will raise my hand. actively listen by looking at the
4 = super good
teacher or taking notes.
3 = good
2 = OK
1 = needs to be better Teacher Score Student Score Teacher Score Student Score
1st Period
2nd Period
Date:
Did we agree?
A common classroom rule is, “When I speak, you listen. When you speak, we listen.” Ms. Davis
could ask her students how they feel when someone interrupts them or will not let them talk. They
would likely voice some frustration regarding this. That is when she could prompt them to come up
with a version of the “When I speak…” rule. She could say, “I don’t like when that happens, either.
Do you think we should have a rule so that everyone can talk?” Present the behavioral expectations
to them so it benefits them and is in their best interest. If they say them (the rules), they own them.
Furthermore, Ms. Davis should allow students to identify the consequences for which they work.
Make sure that the prizes are varied and motivating for all students. In other words, make sure there
is a lot of variety.
Just Scratching the Surface

Ms. Davis has plenty of options. There are plenty of Tier 2 interventions available, and these
recommendations are certainly not claiming to be exhaustive. As with any intervention, implement
procedures with fidelity to prescribed methods. Maybe they are not working because you are not
doing them as they should be done. If these suggestions are not to your liking, consider others.
Additional intervention that can be used in Tier 2 include student self-monitoring (Bruhn et al.,
2020), ClassDojo (https://www.classdojo.com; Robacker et al., 2016), individual visual schedules,
social stories (Gray, 1994, 2000), comic strips, peer-pairing (Mervis, 1988), behavior management
charts (Tillory et al., 2010), and the list goes on and on. There are plenty of flavors of ice cream—you
do not have to settle for vanilla, chocolate, or strawberry.
Teachers’ Role
Teachers serve as “boots on the ground” for academic instruction and behavior supports. With
the exception of family (and that is not always the case), you see the student more than any other
person during the school year. You provide supports and serve as a witness to whether those supports
are working. Your input will likely be solicited for every support that can be named during school
hours. Additionally, you may be the one to initiate the aforementioned Tier 2 interventions (or many,
many, many others) based on identified needs.
Table 2-4. Procedures for the Implementation of

the Good Behavior Game
Prior to the onset of the Good Behavior Game
1. Establish three to five rules and define them in plain terms.
2. Determine the point thresholds.
3. Determine easy-to-implement rewards.
Immediately before implementing the Good Behavior Game
4. Review the target behaviors (defined in the context of the classroom activity).
5. Review the rule violation process.
6. Review point threshold.
7. Refer to teams (if changed).
8. Indicate the start of the game (usually with an auditory stimulus).
During the Good Behavior Game
9. Respond to rule violations in regular instructional tone by assigning points to the team with
rule violations.
10. Praise the positive opposite behaviors (if applicable).
11. Assign points to the team who violates the rules.
End of the Good Behavior Game
12. Signal the end of the game (auditory stimulus).
13. Review point violations (in general terms, not identifying specific students or teams).
14. Deliver reinforcement.
Adapted from Coleman, S.L., Snyder, K., Skinner, L., & Griffin, J. (2020). Teacher supports to facilitate the Good Behavior
Game. Intervention in School and Clinic, 55(4), 245-252.
Is It Working or Not?
You have done so much work in picking and implementing an intervention, so let the data tell
you if it is working. If it is working, congratulations! Please remember that during progress monitor-
ing (reviewing of data), goals may be revised, reinforcement criteria may be increased or lowered, etc.
A successful intervention does not mean that target behaviors are independent and no teacher effort
is needed. They are likely works in progress.
If it is not working, why? Are the behaviors objectively defined? Do we have consistency across
school personnel in collecting data? Are we implementing a function-based intervention? Have the
consequences for which the student is working gotten dull? Has the student not been involved, and is
rejecting efforts to “control” them? All of these considerations can be addressed to make an interven-
tion more likely to work but should have been done prior to implementation. The more interventions
are begun and abandoned, the more future interventions are compromised.
Another explanation is that you should have chosen a different intervention. You looked into
your teacher toolbox and chose a hammer but needed a screwdriver. However, you still have another
decision to make—do you need a flat head screwdriver or Phillips screwdriver? When you decide,
make sure you use that screwdriver as it is supposed to be used for the tasks for which it was designed
before you reach for another tool.
30 Chapter 2
Figure 2-1. Components of Good

Behavior Game.
Putting It All Together

Let’s circle back to the elephant in the room: Ms. Davis, a fifth-grade teacher, has been strug-
gling with classroom management. By now you have learned about different types of evidence-based
classroom management she may implement, such as promoting student buy-in, using behavior-
specific praise, and DBRCs. As a refresher, evidence-based classroom management is the use of prac-
tices to support student behavior shown to be effective through high-quality research. The five main
features of evidence-based classroom management identified by Simonsen et al. (2008) in a review
of the literature include (a) maximize structure and predictability; (b) post, teach, review, monitor,
and reinforce expectations; (c) actively engage students in observable ways; (d) use a continuum of
strategies to acknowledge appropriate behavior; and (e) use a continuum of strategies to respond
to inappropriate behavior. Figure 2-2 outlines how many of the strategies described in this chapter
align with the five main features of evidence-based classroom management. Specific strategies and
materials have been shown to be effective within the literature for each of these classroom manage-
ment features. Of course, some students may continue to experience behavioral challenges even with
the implementation of evidence-based classroom management. Teachers evaluate students’ progress
at a given tier through systematic data collection, often referred to as progress monitoring. Progress
monitoring is a term often referred to in relation to students with IEPs and the annual goals within
those IEPs; however, progress monitoring is not just for use with students with disabilities. Effective
teachers use progress monitoring to drive instruction, support, and, you guessed it, classroom man-
agement (National Center on Intensive Intervention, n.d.).
Progress monitoring involves the systematic collection of data on students’ academic perfor-
mance or classroom behavior. As part of the implementation of a Multi-Tiered System of Supports,
educators will make a progress-monitoring plan, collect and graph progress-monitoring data, and
evaluate the student’s progress (National Center on Intensive Intervention, n.d.). The results of this
Figure 2-2. Features of evidence-based classroom management. (Adapted from Simonsen, B., Fairbanks, S., Briesch, A.,
Myers, D., & Sugai, G. [2008]. Evidence-based practices in classroom management: Considerations for research to prac-
tice. Education and Treatment of Children, 31[3], 351-380.)
process guide engagement in data-based decision making. In short, data-based decision making
means choosing instructional and behavioral strategies and supports based on carefully documented
information about a student’s progress (van Geel et al., 2016). The progress-monitoring tools an
educator uses to document student progress matter and should be selected based on the target be-
havior, the grade level of the student, and evidence for the reliability and validity of the measure. The
National Center on Intensive Intervention provides a helpful resource for exploring and compar-
ing behavior progress-monitoring tools on their website (https://charts.intensiveintervention.org/
bprogressmonitoring).
Here, it is important to pause and note that progress-monitoring tools can be embedded fairly
seamlessly into teachers’ activities. In fact, the behavioral intervention can often include a progress-
monitoring component. One such example of an evidence-based practice is a DBRC introduced
previously (Vannest et al., 2010). A DBRC is a summative rating of a target behavior or group of be-
haviors with an associated system of monitoring and involving communication between the school
and a student’s home. As students grow in age, maturity, and responsibility, they can even learn to
self-evaluate their behavior and complete the DBRC, which the teacher then reviews before the stu-
dent takes it home to their family. It should be noted that DBRCs can support family–school collabo-
ration as well, a topic addressed in the next section.
What’s Next?
While Ms. Davis may select certain strategies, such as DBRCs, to employ in her classroom based
on her students’ needs, every setting is unique, and there are additional pathways to supporting stu-
dents struggling behaviorally. One such pathway is the family–school partnership. In a family–school
partnership, the student’s core family members and school leaders and teachers work together to
support the needs of the child. As the saying goes, a parent is a child’s first teacher. What fam-
ily–school partnership strategies are most effective for promoting positive student outcomes? In a
meta-analysis of studies on family–school partnerships, Smith et al. (2020) found that home-based
involvement (academic subject practices, tutoring, and enrichment activities at home), school-to-
home communication, bi-directional communication (meaning two-way communication between
the school and the family, and collaboration (such as through conferences) all impacted student
outcomes in at least one area. In short, such research tells us teachers should prioritize these broad
categories to build strong family–school partnerships.
32 Chapter 2
Strong family–school engagement has been shown to predict positive end-of-year behavior out-
comes for students, and yet family–school engagement tends to trail off as students exit elementary
school and move to middle school (Smith et al., 2019). With this knowledge in mind, teachers should
feel confident knowing that even their efforts outside of the classroom with families (for instance,
calling families to share positive updates during their prep period or spending a few extra minutes
at dismissal to speak with a family member about the noticeable growth in a student’s confidence)
can contribute to their classroom management and more positive student behavior. Teachers of older
students also must remember that engaging families can be more challenging as they move through
their education, and thus targeted efforts to promote this partnership are a must. Teachers can sup-
port students’ leadership and self-advocacy by including them fully in the partnership, with opportu-
nities to plan and discuss their goals for the semester, the school year, and beyond!
One of Ms. Davis’s first steps was connecting with her fellow teachers on how to make changes to
her teaching practices so that she could ultimately spend more time on instruction and support and less
time on behavior challenges. While her school was implementing Positive Behavioral Interventions and
Supports, she recognized that she needed more intensive supports for her classroom management. In
fact, researchers have documented evidence for a Multi-Tiered System of Supports to support teachers
with their classroom management (Simonsen et al., 2013). Ideally, oversight of training, screening, sup-
port, and progress monitoring of teachers’ classroom management is coordinated by school leaders, but
given the many responsibilities juggled by administrators, that may not be the case for every teacher.
As a new teacher, and even a veteran teacher continually striving to improve, regularly reflect on your
own practices and student data, and communicate with your administrators about the professional de-
velopment from which you would benefit. You may choose to advocate for support from a school-based
behavior coach or an external expert, using the data you have collected to make the case that some
students are struggling, and you would like to enhance your practices to support them.
Lastly, it is important to consider that Tier 2 and even Tier 3 may not always work, which should
be documented and monitored carefully. Once a student reaches Tier 2 and Tier 3 for behavioral
supports, the educational team has been engaged in screening students for risk factors for emo-
tional or behavioral issues on both a large scale (think school wide) and a more targeted scale (think
classroom based or even selective/individual screening; Pierce et al., 2016). At this point, the educa-
tional team is at a decision point. If the student has not already been evaluated for special education
services, the team, described earlier, would discuss evaluation, outlined under the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act of 2004, as part of engagement in the prereferral process. If the student is
currently receiving special education services, the team will use the data to modify the intervention
and supports at Tier 3 based on the student’s needs.
Finding Your Tools

Now that you understand why it is critical to implement classroom management practices with
an established evidence base, your question may be: But how do I know if a strategy or practice is
evidence-based? What Works Clearinghouse within the Institute of Education Sciences (n.d.) is a
team of content experts, reviewers, methodologists, and educational leaders who translate scien-
tific evidence into readily available and clear information for the education community about what
works. What Works Clearinghouse is funded by the U.S. Department of Education and dissemi-
nates its work via a website (https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/FWW) with results of high-quality research
grouped by topic. These topics include literacy, mathematics, and behavior, among many others. To
extend your learning, you may also wish to explore resources available through the IRIS Center
(https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/), which offers free online materials focused on evidence-based
instructional and behavioral strategies for educators to employ. The IRIS Center is also funded by
the U.S. Department of Education (the Office of Special Education Programs) and is located at
Vanderbilt University’s Peabody College. The most important message is that just like your students,
you do your homework! Before implementing a practice with students, look it up to identify whether
research backs its effectiveness, which can be achieved by searching academic journals for peer-
reviewed educational research.
Summary
So, how did the school year wrap up for Ms. Davis? With support from her school administrator,
she participated in an intensive 2-day workshop on evidence-based practices in classroom manage-
ment. After implementing more intensive supports and collecting data on the student who was shut-
ting down, Ms. Davis arranged a time to meet with the family, the school psychologist, a special edu-
cation teacher, and the principal to discuss how the student was doing. After careful consideration,
the school and family agreed that a special education evaluation was needed, and they completed the
necessary documentation to begin the process. On a larger scale, Ms. Davis did see big changes in
the behavior of the class once she began more thoughtfully implementing evidence-based practices.
Students now use a peer model for the CICO strategy, where they check-in with a classmate about
behavior at the start and finish of a class period. Even after absorbing the information on evidence-
based classroom management from this chapter, remember that research and practice will continue
to evolve. Remain open-minded about allowing your practices to evolve in keeping with advances
in the field, but do so with a hard eye toward the evidence base for what works. Say goodbye to that
elephant in the room.
Resources to Learn More About

• https://www.abainternational.org/welcome.aspx
• Becoming a BCBA: https://www.bacb.com/
• Read about behavior analysis: https://www.routledge.com/How-to-Think-Like-a-Behavior-
Analyst-Understanding-the-Science-That-Can/Bailey-Burch/p/book/9780367750848
• Read about positive behavior support: https://www.routledge.com/Preventing-Challenging-
Behavior-in-Your-Classroom-Classroom-Management/Tincani/p/book/9781646322053
• Read about functional behavior assessment: https://www.proedinc.com/Products/14711/func-
tional-behavioral-assessment.aspx
Chapter Review
1. How can progress monitoring be used with classroom management?
2. Why is it important to review the evidence for a practice before implementing it to enhance
classroom management?
3. How can a teacher build the family–school partnership?
34 Chapter 2
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pirical support for check-in/check-out. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 18(2), 74-88. https://doi.
org/10.1177/1098300715595957
3
Culturally Responsive
Collaboration
Including Everyone at the Table
Joshua M. Pulos, PhD, BCBA

and Jana M. Sarno, MA, BCBA
INTRODUCTION
An abundance of literature exists on the collaborative practices special education
teachers can use when working with individuals from differing backgrounds. However,
those same teachers must first become aware of their own implicit biases and how to
leverage culturally responsive and sustaining practices, which may lead to effective
school collaboration with all relevant parties, including students with disabilities and their
families from culturally, ethically, and linguistically diverse (CELD) backgrounds. Special
education teachers “must be aware of their own cultural values, the way they have been
socialized professionally, and the cultural values of their collaborative partners” (Bryant
et al., 2020, p. 81). Once this transpires, effective school collaboration can proceed, which
combines the strengths of multiple professionals in order to maximize student progress
and educational outcomes (Brodhead, 2015; Kelly & Tincani, 2013).
Carr, R. N. (Ed.).
38 Chapter 3
Chapter Objectives
ȘȘ Reveal strategies to assist special education teachers to recognize and address their
implicit biases, including how to self-monitor and self-evaluate those strategies.
ȘȘ Offer a culturally responsive behavioral framework to promote collaborative support
and service delivery.
ȘȘ Provide pre- and post-collaborative steps to cultivate a successful data-based collabo-
ration process.
KEY TERMS
• Bias: A liking or prejudice for or against someone or something (Harry et al., 1999).
• Collaboration: The “voluntary, interpersonal interactions comprising of two or more profes-
sionals engaging in communication modalities for the purposes of shared decision making and
problem solving toward a common goal” (Kelly & Tincani, 2013, p. 129).
• Conjoint Behavioral Consultation: “A dynamic framework for educational efforts which en-
dorses collegial, interdependent, and coequal styles of interaction between at least two partners
working jointly together to achieve common goals in a decision-making process that is influ-
enced by cultural and systemic factors” (Welch & Sheridan, 1995, p. 11).
• Culture: “A way of perceiving the world and of interacting within it...cultural norms influence
our thinking, language, and behavior. Culture is shared; it includes the customs and values that
bind us together. These customs developed over centuries in response to environmental con-
ditions. And yet culture is not static; rather, it is dynamic, complex, and ever-changing...cul-
tural identities evolve...in response to political, economic, educational, and social experiences”
(Bryant et al., 2020, p. 105).
• Explicit Bias: The mental processes involving both awareness and volition (Elek & Miller, 2021).
• Hard Skills: A linear progression of behavioral consultation phases to be used in collaborative
interactions: (a) problem identification, (b) problem analysis, (c) plan implementation, and (d)
plan evaluation (Kratochwill & Bergan, 1990).
• Implicit Bias: The mental processes that lack either full awareness or full volition (Elek & Miller,
2021).
• Microculture: Within any culture, a number of microcultures arise which share common char-
acteristics of the larger culture (Hallahan et al., 2019). “Cultural identity is learned as part of our
ethnic group, but it is also developed as part of our religion, socioeconomic status, geograph-
ic region, place of residence (urban or rural), and gender, to name just a few microcultures”
(Bryant et al., 2020, p. 105).
• Soft Skills: The behavioral artistry work of collaboration can be conceptualized as the essential
soft skills called upon during collaborative interactions, which includes active listening, ques-
tioning, negotiation, leadership, and navigating change (Callahan et al., 2019; Sarno et al., 2018).
Culturally Responsive Collaboration: Including Everyone at the Table 39
Case Study
Miss Rose, a White middle-class woman, is a first-year teacher in an urban, inner city high school
in the southwest part of the United States. Highly qualified to instruct students with high incidence
disabilities in English Language Arts, Miss Rose co-teaches 10th-grade English with Mrs. Garcia, a
Hispanic-American veteran teacher. Their classroom includes a heterogeneous group of students with
and without disabilities, many of them from CELD populations. Having taken one class on diversi-
ty, equity, and inclusion from her university, Miss Rose feels equipped to educate students from these
backgrounds and to collaborate with the various relevant parties supporting her students’ educational
programming.
Laying the Foundation

A substantial body of research suggests the American public education system is becoming
more diverse, with the racial and ethnicity gap widening between teachers (i.e., White) and their
student (e.g., Black, Native American, Latino) populations (Dingus, 2008; Philip, 2011; Shim, 2018).
McFarland et al. (2019) found in Fall 2017 approximately 3.8 million elementary, middle, and sec-
ondary teachers across the country were White (80.1%). The lack of diversity among the teacher
workforce stands in stark contrast to the extensive diversity of the students they serve. This includes
students served under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2004).
The Office of Special Education Programs of the U.S. Department of Education reported 52.1%
of children and students, ages 3 through 21, served under IDEA during the 2018 school year were
from CELD populations (U.S. Department of Education, 2021). Figure 3-1 reports the disaggregated
data among group populations of students with disabilities. With a minority majority, this differ-
ence illuminates the cultural disconnect between special education teachers and the population of
students with disabilities they serve from CELD backgrounds. This divide can negatively impact the
promotion of in-school and post-school success of students with disabilities from CELD popula-
tions, where special education teachers’ instructional practices can perpetuate stereotypical racial
ideologies in their teaching (Galman et al., 2010; Picower, 2009).
A logical claim can be made that this divide also takes place between special education teach-
ers and other relevant parties they collaborate with. All people belong to a culture that is discernible
by its customs, beliefs, dress, foods, and traditions (Bryant et al., 2020). In addition, microcultures
arise that share common characteristics of the larger culture (Hallahan et al., 2019). These can be
distinguished by racial backgrounds, religious affiliations, or specific ethnicities. Through an inter-
disciplinary team approach, special education teachers will ultimately work with a team of diverse
professionals to plan and implement Individualized Education Programs (IEPs). Teams may consist
of administrators, Board Certified Behavior Analysts (BCBAs), counselors, family members, general
education teachers, occupational therapists, physical therapists, school psychologists, social workers,
and speech-language pathologists (Bryant et al., 2020). Although this list is not exhaustive, it illus-
trates the vast cultural make-up found around the table when supporting students with disabilities
and their educational programming.
An abundance of literature exists on the collaborative practices special education teachers can
use when working with individuals from differing backgrounds. However, those same teachers must
first become aware of their own implicit biases and how to leverage culturally responsive and sustain-
ing practices, which may lead to effective school collaboration with all relevant parties, including stu-
dents with disabilities and their families from CELD backgrounds. Special education teachers “must
40 Chapter 3
Figure 3-1. Students with disabilities population group data from the 2018 school year. (Data source: U.S. Department
of Education, 2021.)
be aware of their own cultural values, the way they have been socialized professionally, and the cul-
tural values of their collaborative partners” (Bryant et al., 2020, p. 81). Once this transpires, effective
school collaboration can proceed, which combines the strengths of multiple professionals in order
to maximize student progress and educational outcomes (Brodhead, 2015; Kelly & Tincani, 2013).
After the first month of instruction, Miss Rose observes her and Mrs. Garcia’s students as they make
academic and functional gains. As a first-year teacher, Miss Rose could not be happier with her col-
laboration and first-year teaching experience. However, as the school year progresses, Miss Rose begins
detecting subtle differences in the interactions she has with her students, her students’ families, and the
other relevant parties supporting her students, specifically those from CELD populations. She has yet to
achieve the same level of rapport and working relationship that Mrs. Garcia has obtained. This worries
Miss Rose. In the upcoming month, she has her first IEP meeting with one of her students, Frankie, as
his teacher of record. This IEP meeting will include those individuals Miss Rose has yet to form a part-
nership with.
Frankie, a quiet 15-year-old boy, is new to Miss Rose’s and Mrs. Garcia’s classroom. Frankie is
eligible for special education services under the determination of specific learning disability. Reading is
terribly hard for young Frankie. His reading fluency is significantly below grade level and reading com-
prehension is even more impacted. Beyond the concerns with reading, Frankie has been withdrawn, his
homework is frequently missing, and his test scores recently have started to fall. Eager to help Frankie,
Miss Rose scheduled an IEP meeting. The notification of the meeting was sent to Frankie’s mother. The
meeting will be held on Tuesday at 1:00 p.m. and is scheduled for 30 minutes. Miss Rose already has
a couple of interventions she learned about during her university program in mind for Frankie. She
printed them off and will be ready to present them to Frankie’s mother during the meeting. Miss Rose
thinks 30 minutes will be enough time to review the information and get Frankie back on track to meet
his fall IEP goals.
At the end of the school day, Miss Rose quickly dropped the notification letter with Frankie and
asked for it to be shared with his mother. Frankie looked perplexed and quickly nodded with a “Yes.” A
couple of days later, Mrs. Garcia saw the notification letter for Frankie’s meeting on Miss Rose’s desk.
Let’s check in on the conversation between Miss Rose and Mrs. Garcia:
Mrs. Garcia: “Lilly, do you have a minute?”
Miss Rose: “Of course, Maria, what’s on your mind?”
Mrs. Garcia: “I saw that you sent the invitation to Frankie’s mother for the IEP meeting.”
Miss Rose: “Oh, yes, I had to get that out quickly. I was worried he was going to fall further behind.
Do you want to see the interventions I pulled together to talk about during the meeting?”
Mrs. Garcia: “Actually, there is probably something more we should discuss. I like that you care so
much for Frankie’s education; however, the invitation was sent in English. Frankie’s mother’s primary
language is Spanish. Also, Frankie lives in a multigenerational home. While his mother is his legal
guardian, Frankie’s Abuela (Grandma) and Tía (Aunt) regularly attend his IEP meetings. In the invita-
tion, you could include ‘Frankie’s family’ to be inclusive.”
Miss Rose: “Oh, I am sorry. I just couldn’t find the Spanish IEP Notification Forms. I was in such a
hurry. I didn’t know about his family…”
Mrs. Garcia: “I know we have the faculty meeting shortly, but let’s continue this conversation
tomorrow.”
Miss Rose: “Of course.”
Collaboration
Over the years and across disciplines, several definitions of collaboration have been offered.
These various definitions highlight different aspects of collaboration, one’s orientation toward effec-
tive collaboration, and advancements in the science and practice of collaboration. For the purposes
of this chapter, collaboration is defined as the “voluntary, interpersonal interactions comprising two
or more professionals engaging in communication modalities for the purpose of shared decision
making and problem solving towards a common goal” (Kelly & Tincani, 2013, p. 129). Participants
in a collaborative relationship typically include the general and special education teacher, parents/
guardians, other helping professionals, school personnel (e.g., BCBA, school psychologist, speech-
language pathologist), and potentially the student.
While differences in definitions of collaboration exist, there are many commonalities: (a) each
education professional is a coequal, (b) each education professional is an active and committed
member in the interaction, (c) the focus is placed on problem-solving toward a mutual goal, and
(d) accomplishment of mutual goals take place with shared resources and accountability. Within
the American public education system, student outcomes are at the forefront of collaboration.
Specifically, the collaborative interaction should result in the bolstering of student outcomes that
would not have been achieved in isolation (e.g., consistent attendance, higher academic and func-
tional achievement, homework completion, reductions in office referrals for behavior concerns).
Figure 3-2 depicts the collaborative interaction between multiple individuals (and the unique knowl-
edge each of them bring) when supporting and strengthening a student’s ability.
In addition, the benefit of collaboration extends beyond the student to other relevant parties and
systems, including the family, teacher, and school. Teacher outcomes (e.g., higher ratings of teachers
by parents, improved teacher morale, knowledge gain) and family outcomes have been identified in
published studies (e.g., increased confidence in supporting their child, knowledge gain on how the
school works, positive views of teachers; Epstein, 2010; Friend & Cook, 2010; Kelly & Tincani, 2013;
LaFrance et al., 2019).
Collaborative Training
A number of studies have sought to understand the state of pre-service training on collaboration
(Allday et al., 2013; Damore & Murray, 2009; Kelly & Tincani, 2013). Allday et al. (2013) reviewed
pre-service coursework for a total of 109 elementary teacher education preparation programs. The
purpose of the study was to determine the number of course hours devoted to instruction and man-
agement of students with disabilities, inclusion, and collaboration. Specific to collaboration, syllabi
42 Chapter 3
Figure 3-2. Collaborative

interaction.
needed to mention collaboration between general and special education teachers in the title or de-
scription. Allday et al. (2013) found 0.19 credit hours devoted to collaboration. This made up less
than 0.03% of education coursework, with 93% of universities not offering any courses specific to
collaboration. It is evident from Allday et al. (2013), along with other published studies (e.g., Damore
& Murray, 2009), that ample opportunities exist to formally teach collaboration in pre-service teach-
er education programs.
Turning to another discipline, applied behavior analysis, Kelly and Tincani (2013) surveyed 302
behavioral professionals working in schools to better understand training in collaboration, the use
of collaboration in their work, and attitudes on the importance of collaboration. Survey respondents
reported little to no formal training in collaboration. Specifically, 67% of respondents had taken zero
courses with the word “collaboration” in the title or description. For post-service training, similar
results were obtained where 45% of respondents indicated not attending any workshops or training
events on collaboration. Turning to practice, 62% of respondents indicated they collaborated on a
daily basis. Finally, respondents strongly agreed collaboration was a component of ethical practice,
yields skill building and professional development across professionals, and results in outcomes that
could not be achieved in isolation.
Although collaboration is vital for professional practice, multiple studies and author groups
across disciplines have pointed out that training rarely occurs in pre-service programs. In recent
years, calls to fill the gap between training and practice have been made (Brodhead, 2015; LaFrance
et al., 2019). While encouraging, much more is required to meet the needs that exist for an ever-
evolving and widening American public education system (IDEA, 2004).
The Art and Science of Effective School Collaboration

Knowing the definition of collaboration is only a starting point. Moving into practice, effective
school collaboration rests on the intertwined relationship of behavioral artistry and robust science.
The science of collaboration (i.e., the hard skills to effectively carry out the collaborative process)
involves the prescribed, theoretically driven phases of the collaboration process. Each phase of col-
laboration has a distinct set of questions to be asked, tasks to be completed, methods to accomplish
those tasks, and desired outcomes. This chapter adopts the original behavioral consultation model of
Kratochwill and Bergan (1990). This model emphasizes a four-part approach including (a) problem
identification (i.e., what is the problem?), (b) problem analysis (i.e., why is the problem occurring?),
(c) plan implementation (i.e., what are we going to do to resolve the current problem situation?), and
(d) plan evaluation (i.e., is the plan [intervention] working or does it need to be changed?).
Figure 3-3. Soft skills associated

with effective collaboration.
The behavioral artistry work of collaboration can be conceptualized as the essential soft skills
called upon during collaborative interactions, which includes active listening, assertiveness, giving
and receiving feedback, negotiation, leadership, and navigating change (Callahan et al., 2019; Sarno
et al., 2018). These skills are used across the phases of collaboration as described above. To highlight
one soft skill, active listening can be defined as the demonstration of a collection of verbal behavior
(e.g., asking open- and closed-ended questions, paraphrasing, reflections) and nonverbal behavior
(e.g., eye contact, body position, nodding of the head) exhibited by the listener that signals to the
speaker that their message is likely to be received (Sarno et al., 2018). Figure 3-3 provides an overview
of the soft skills necessary for collaboration.
The Task of Collaboration

With this approach to collaboration, all participants are actively engaged in all steps of the pro-
cess. This approach lies in the commitment to consistent and powerful communication; shared deci-
sion making; and mutual respect, empowerment, and engagement. A guiding principle of this col-
laborative approach is the belief that “all children can learn” (Canter et al., 1994, p. 2). Collaboration
is a vehicle that can drive that message forward and help produce tangible and achievable outcomes
for the students special education teachers serve. Allen and Graden (2002) summarized this with
precision, “The primary implication of this assumption for a problem-solving approach is that it
becomes the task of problem solving and the responsibility of the problem solvers to discover the right
conditions (e.g., instructional strategies, supports) that will enable all children to learn” (p. 567). All
children can learn, from all backgrounds, with and without disabilities.
We return to Mrs. Garcia and Miss Rose to hear their conversation. Mrs. Garcia is encouraging
Miss Rose to follow the steps in the collaborative problem-solving process to foster effective home–school
collaboration. Miss Rose is eager and desperately wants to move to action to help support Frankie.
Mrs. Garcia: “Frankie’s IEP is tomorrow. Let’s talk more about this meeting.”
Miss Rose: “That sounds good. I took an informative university course on Advances in Emotional
Behavior in Youth in Schools. Do you want to walk through the interventions I have in mind? Where
do you want to begin?”
Mrs. Garcia: “In the spirit of true home–school collaboration, we should seek input from Frankie’s
family. That should happen even as we identify the concerns. While we know our observations at school,
it would be important to seek Frankie’s and his family’s input.”
Miss Rose: “That makes sense. I think I was trying to rush the process and jump directly to solving
the problem.”
44 Chapter 3
Mrs. Garcia: “Yes, seeking input from Frankie and his family is important. If we don’t seek input at
the beginning and throughout the problem-solving process, we risk isolating Frankie and his family from
the educational process. We are all collaborative partners, with unique information, working to help best
support Frankie toward his educational goals. You are just a couple steps ahead in the problem-solving
process. Before we identify interventions, we need to identify the concerns and reasons why they are
occurring.”
Miss Rose: “You are right, I see that now. Isolating Frankie and his family is the last thing I want to
do. I have an idea on how I can use some open- and close-ended questions to seek input.”
Mrs. Garcia: “My recommendation is to practice some of those questions tonight before we meet
tomorrow. And, remember, it’s not only what you say, but how you say it and what your body language
communicates. We want our body language, our vocal language, and our actions to signal collaboration.”
Recognizing and Addressing Implicit Bias

to Promote Successful Collaboration
The mission of the U.S. Department of Education (n.d.) is to “promote student achievement
and preparation for global competitiveness by fostering educational excellence and ensuring equal
access” (para. 1). Regardless of students’ disability, ethnicity, gender, or race, all students should be
provided opportunities and equipped with the necessary skills to navigate the 21st century (Gullo et
al., 2019). Through meaningful collaboration, this can happen. However, these good intentions can
be derailed by the implicit biases relevant parties bring to the collaborative process when developing
IEPs of their students with disabilities from CELD backgrounds. Biased perceptions can inadver-
tently impact the decisions made during the collaboration process, which goes against the explicit
commitment to educational equity set forth by the U.S. Department of Education. To mitigate those
perceptions, this section defines implicit bias and provides research-informed practices to recognize
and address one’s implicit bias to promote the successful collaboration of relevant parties, including
families and their children with disabilities from CELD backgrounds. Ultimately, this can help en-
hance student outcomes in two domains: in-school and post-secondary.
Bias: Explicit Versus Implicit

The term bias is defined as the liking or prejudice for or against someone or something (Harry et
al., 1999). The term bias is multifaceted and can be unpacked further into two additional terms: (a)
explicit bias and (b) implicit bias (Elek & Miller, 2021). Explicit bias is defined as the mental processes
involving both awareness and volition; whereas, implicit bias is defined as the mental processes that
lack either full awareness or full volition. Simply put, with explicit bias, an individual is clear about
their feelings and attitudes; therefore, related behaviors are conducted with intent (National Center
for Cultural Competence, n.d.). However, implicit bias operates outside of an individual’s awareness.
Implicit bias can be in direct conflict to a person’s explicitly stated attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and
values, which can negatively impact the collaboration process. Although implicit bias may operate
outside a person’s awareness and control, it still impacts and influences the behaviors of that person
(Spencer et al., 2016).
Implicit bias has been studied extensively across multiple systems, including criminal justice,
education, health, housing, and neighborhoods (Staats et al., 2017), which centers the conversation
on how this type of bias ultimately influences the everyday behavior of individuals (Elek & Miller,
2021). Implicit bias has three common origins, including (a) ingroup favoritism, where individuals
favor the familiar; (b) social learning, where individuals are taught but also catch biases from others;
and (c) cultural knowledge, where the beliefs of individuals are shaped by their environment. Implicit
bias (e.g., automatic associations toward people differing from oneself and/or because of their mem-
bership in certain groups) is shaped without any mental exertion and can sometimes be incorrect or
even harmful in impact. The following excerpt describes the issue concisely:
Though our shorthand schemas of people may be helpful in some situations, they also can
lead to discriminatory behaviors if we are not careful. Give the critical importance of exer-
cising fairness and equality . . . [all relevant parties] should be particularly concerned about
identifying such possibilities. Do we, for instance, associate aggressiveness with Black [chil-
dren with disabilities], such that we see them as more likely to have started the fight than
have responded in self-defense? (Kang, 2009, p. 2)
Implicit bias situates itself nicely under Skinner’s (1974) radical behaviorism as a private event
(i.e., taking place inside the skin; Skinner, 1953). Radical behaviorism is outside the scope of this
chapter; however, to fully understand behavior in all its complexity, private events should be ana-
lyzed “with the same conceptual and experimental tools used to analyze publicly observable behav-
ior” (Cooper et al., 2020, p. 13). Therefore, an individual’s implicit bias can be analyzed by the impact
it makes on the environment.
Research demonstrates that implicit bias is woven into the very decisions individuals make day-
to-day, including (a) healthcare treatment (FitzGerald & Hurst, 2017), (b) hiring practices (Bendick
& Nunes, 2012), (c) practices in the courtroom (Dalton & Villagran, 2018), and (d) policing (Spencer
et al., 2016). Recently, researchers have documented the pervasiveness of implicit bias in education
and the impact it has on in-school student learning and achievement (e.g., Chin et al., 2020; Gregory
et al., 2010; Peterson et al., 2016), post-secondary education attainment (Gershenson et al., 2015),
and other life outcomes (Lacoe & Steinberg, 2019). When implicit bias is not addressed, it impacts
the trust built and the working relationships among relevant parties from differing cultural groups,
work productivity, and creativity and innovation when developing the educational programming of
students with disabilities from CELD backgrounds (Dalton & Villagran, 2018).
During the conversation about Frankie’s upcoming IEP, Miss Rose provided discourse on her per-
ceived relationship with her and Mrs. Garcia’s students, families, and the other relevant parties support-
ing their students. She disclosed her thoughts, feelings, and observations about the last few months of
school, where she recognized a disconnect to the very individuals she should be connecting with. This
disconnect was impacting her rapport, instruction, and overall collaboration effectiveness. Although she
felt much more prepared after the last few conversations with Mrs. Garcia, Miss Rose was worried this
disconnect would ultimately seep its way into Frankie’s IEP development with his family and hinder its
overall effectiveness in supporting Frankie. Mrs. Garcia recognized that Miss Rose was a skilled content
teacher; however, her ability to work with individuals from different cultures was not evident in the
interactions Mrs. Garcia observed on a weekly basis.
At first, Miss Rose was taken aback by Mrs. Garcia’s observation of the current situation. She
thought, “How can this be? My university’s program fully prepared me to work with all individuals.
Surely, this is not right.” However, after self-reflection, Miss Rose realized she may not be as prepared
as she thought. She was unsure how to navigate this situation. She leaned on Mrs. Garcia for guidance.
46 Chapter 3
Mitigating Implicit Bias Through

Proactive, Research-Informed Practices
Acknowledging that implicit bias yields inequitable educational outcomes is a critical first step
in overcoming those biases to ensure they do not negatively impact the collaboration process (Staats,
2016). Implicit bias researchers have identified practices in which to counter implicit bias. Through
repetition and time, preexisting implicit biases can be reprogrammed in favor of more equitable solu-
tions as research suggests implicit biases are malleable and may be changed (Staats et al., 2016). The
following section highlights a number of proactive practices to help recognize and address implicit bias.
Awareness
Individuals can begin addressing their implicit biases by taking the Implicit Association Test
(IAT), which can help them become aware of unconscious associations they may hold (Staats, 2016).
Extensive research (i.e., on validity and reliability) supports the use of IAT as a measure of bridging
awareness of one’s implicit bias on important social issues, including age, gender, race, and sexual
orientation. With the help of IAT, an individual can become aware of their own implicit biases which
is an important first step in correcting its influence on the collaborative process. A free IAT can be
taken through Project Implicit (https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/index.jsp).
Intergroup Contact
Once implicit biases have been identified, intergroup contact can take place to address and
change those biases. A highly researched practice to mitigate prejudice amongst groups of people
(Elek & Miller, 2021), intergroup contact relies on the meaningful engagement of individuals whose
identities are different. For optimal effects, four conditions should be put into place: (a) groups are
working toward a common goal, (b) the groups have equal status within the intergroup contact en-
vironment, (c) the environment affords individuals to get to know each other on an individual basis,
and (d) the intergroup contact receives support (e.g., administrative, authority figures, institutional).
With intergroup contact, a person’s knowledge of the outgroup (i.e., a group differing from them) is
increased, anxiety levels decrease when individuals interact with members from the outgroup, and
empathy increases for members of the outgroup.
Prejudice Habit-Breaking Intervention

Devine et al. (2012) developed a “multi-faceted prejudice habit-breaking intervention to produce
long-term reductions in implicit race bias” (p. 1267). To break the implicit bias cycle and motivate
individuals to eliminate them, individuals must first become aware of their biases, which is detailed
in the previously mentioned practice using IAT. Second, individuals should be concerned with how
their implicit biases can impact their interaction between people from differing cultures. Developed
from the extant literature-base, the intervention includes five strategies: (a) stereotype replacement:
recognizing stereotypic responses within oneself and society, labeling them, and replacing them with
nonstereotypic responses; (b) counter-stereotypic imaging: imagining examples of outgroup mem-
bers who counter popularly held stereotypes; (c) individuating: viewing others according to their
personal, rather than their stereotypic, characteristics; (d) perspective taking: adopting the perspec-
tive in the first person of a member of a stigmatized group; and (e) contact: increasing exposure to
out-group members. This intervention can reduce implicit race bias and increase an individual’s
concern and personal awareness of implicit bias, leading to a more seamless collaboration process.
Self-Monitoring and Self-Evaluation

Critical to this work is the ongoing monitoring and evaluation of practices to help mitigate
implicit biases once they have been implemented. Self-monitoring, a self-management strategy, “is
a procedure whereby a person systematically observes their behavior and records the occurrence or
Figure 3-4. Call-out for self-management.
nonoccurrence of a target behavior” (Cooper et al., 2020, p. 692). The target behavior, in this case,
are any implicit biases manifesting themselves in an observable and measurable way (e.g., discrimi-
nation, lower expectations, racism). Figure 3-4 provides a call out for self-management, which is an
umbrella term encompassing self-monitoring and self-evaluation.
To successfully self-monitor, goals must first be put into place to ensure individuals know what
they are working toward. As individuals self-monitor occurrences and nonoccurrences of their im-
plicit bias behavior, they can self-evaluate (i.e., self-assess) their behaviors associated with implicit
biases by comparing those behaviors to a predetermined criterion. Individuals are most effective in
this endeavor when they self-graph their data to observe any shifts in their implicit bias behaviors
(increases vs. decreases).
Mrs. Garcia acknowledged that everyone has biases, and it was not necessarily a bad thing; how-
ever, an evaluation of those biases was needed to move forward to effectively collaborate. Furthermore,
once implicit biases are brought to the surface through awareness building, it was important for Miss
Rose to address those biases by actively engaging in research-informed practices to assist in mitigating
those biases. Mrs. Garcia provided Miss Rose with a number of practices she could implement, where she
would ultimately self-monitor and self-evaluate her success by decreasing her implicit bias behaviors.
With the help from Mrs. Garcia, Miss Rose knew she was on the right track to successfully address-
ing her implicit biases. This work would lead her to effectively collaborate with a multitude of individu-
als, including Frankie’s upcoming IEP meeting with his family.
Culturally Responsive Framework for Collaboration

To date, a unified, culturally responsive framework for effective school collaboration does not ex-
ist. In the absence of an established framework, this chapter turns its attention to a blend of evidence-
based approaches. The approach is two pronged: (a) a strengths-based consultation model known as
Conjoint Behavioral Consultation (Welch & Sheridan, 1995) that serves as a delivery mechanism for
collaboration and (b) strategies that can be nested in the model of Conjoint Behavioral Consultation
to bring into focus culturally responsive attitudes, relationships, and actions (Esler et al., 2002).
Conjoint Behavioral Consultation is “a dynamic framework for educational efforts which en-
dorses collegial, interdependent, and coequal styles of interaction between at least two partners
working jointly together to achieve common goals in a decision-making process that is influenced by
cultural and systemic factors’’ (Welch & Sheridan, 1995, p. 11). The Conjoint Behavioral Consultation
approach was born out of Kratochwill and Bergan’s (1990) original behavioral consultation mod-
el described earlier in this chapter. Much like original behavioral consultation model, Conjoint
Behavioral Consultation has four distinct phases and products: (a) problem identification (e.g.,
Conjoint Problem Identification Interview is conducted to identify concerns, contextual factors, and
barriers); (b) problem analysis (e.g., Conjoint Problem Analysis Interview is conducted to evaluate
current behavior, situations, and design the intervention); (c) Conjoint Treatment Implementation
in which the intervention is implemented and data are collected; and (d) treatment evaluation (i.e.,
48 Chapter 3
Figure 3-5. Call-out for data.
Figure 3-6. Shared responsibility and deci-

sion making across relevant parties in Welch
and Sheridan’s (1995) Conjoint Behavioral
Consultation model. (Adapted from Welch,
M., & Sheridan S. M. [1995]. Educational part-
nerships: Serving students at risk. Wadsworth
Publishing Company.)
Conjoint Treatment Evaluation Interview is conducted to evaluate the effectiveness, maintenance,

and generalization of behavior change). Figure 3-5 provides a call out for data. Data are important to
collect to determine treatment effects and efficacy of the intervention implemented.
Furthermore, Conjoint Behavioral Consultation “is characterized by a collaborative, partner-
ship-centered approach wherein the unique information, values, and goals of families and educa-
tors are recognized and promoted as strengths within a culturally responsive context” (Clarke et
al., 2017, p. 320). Figure 3-6 provides a conceptualization of Welch and Sheridan’s (1995) Conjoint
Behavioral Consultation model across relevant parties from differing backgrounds. Finally, the
Conjoint Behavioral Consultation model emphasizes the significance of the goals, procedures, and
treatment effects, which is called social validity (Wolf, 1978).
A robust body of research exists showing the effectiveness of Conjoint Behavioral Consultation
to facilitate strong and productive family–school collaboration. Highlights of this research to the
purposes of this chapter include Conjoint Behavioral Consultation in rural school settings (Sheridan
et al., 2019), urban schools (Ohmstede & Yetter, 2015), across diverse racial/ethnic backgrounds
(Clarke et al., 2017), grades (e.g., preschool, elementary, and high school; Clarke et al., 2014), and
referral concerns (e.g., academic, behavioral, or both; Collier-Meek & Sanetti, 2014).
Attitudes, Relationships, and Actions

Esler et al. (2002) provided guidance on best practices to help facilitate effective family–school
collaboration to drive student learning and schooling experiences. They advocated that three com-
ponents were required for effective family–school partnerships: (a) attitudes, (b) relationships, and
Figure 3-7. Three interconnected

components for effective family–
school partnerships.
(c) actions. The model is best visually represented as a triangle; to be able to stand and function, each
element leans and draws support from the other (e.g., actions are attitudes and relationships brought
to life). Figure 3-7 demonstrates the interconnectedness of this model.
Attitudes are values and perceptions held about family–school relationships (e.g., a welcoming
inclusive school climate, empowerment, equal partners, respect for other cultures). At the heart of the
argument, Esler et al. (2002) proposed “parents are not empowered as partners when educators hold
attitudes that suggest parents are not competent to support their children’s learning and/or prevent
or address learning problems” (p. 399). Attitudes that present barriers to effective collaboration can
include implicit bias, a belief that parents are not experts on their own children, and a limited under-
standing of the responsibility to forge a relationship with all families, not only those families that are
easily accessible, similar to them, and/or currently involved in collaborative dialogue. As provided
earlier in this chapter, awareness can help bridge the paramount practice of self-reflection to address
the aforementioned barriers to effective collaboration, which require the following questions to be
considered:
1. How do I describe my belief system related to the role of caregivers and educators in the
American public education system?
2. Do I believe in shared responsibility between the home and school environments?
3. How do I empower all caregivers and their children with disabilities, especially those that are
from CELD backgrounds?
The second element in this model is relationships. Relationships are defined as high-quality fam-
ily–educator interactions. Recommendations for special education teachers here include (a) taking
a family-centered approach with the values of positivity, sensitivity, and friendliness; (b) building
authentic and trusting relationships; (c) respecting cultural diversity; and (d) fostering a welcoming
school climate by creating an open door approach with formal and informal opportunities for par-
ents to interact with the school community. The final element in this model is actions, and they are
defined as inclusive, solutions-oriented strategies for building shared responsibility and optimistic
partnerships. Esler et al. (2002) recommended “given the historical and cultural roles of families and
teachers in schools, it has been recommended that schools must take the responsibility for reducing
barriers to family involvement and be the first to reach out to parents in innovative, nontraditional
ways” (p. 391).
50 Chapter 3
Putting It All Together:

The Culturally Responsive Framework in Practice
So far, this chapter has elucidated the importance of collaboration through a culturally respon-
sive framework when special education teachers are working with a myriad of relevant parties, in-
cluding families and their children with disabilities, from CELD backgrounds. However paramount
this work is, special education teachers should first examine their own implicit biases by imple-
menting the aforementioned research-informed practices. The close examination of those implicit
biases can help special education teachers recognize how their automatic associations of individuals
differing from themselves impact the collaboration process, and ultimately the outcomes of their
students with disabilities. Once ample work has taken place, culturally responsive collaboration can
commence. The following section illustrates the culturally responsive framework in action.
The following day, the IEP team gathered. The team included Mrs. Garcia, Miss Rose, Frankie, Mrs.
Soto-Rodriguez (Mom), Mrs. Rodriguez (Abuela/Grandma), Tía Lupe (Aunt Lupe), and other relevant
parties. After introductions and pleasantries, the collaboration began:
Miss Rose (turning to Frankie’s family seated next to her): “Frankie is a very bright young man. It
is a pleasure to have him in our classroom. How do you think he is doing this year?”
Mrs. Soto-Rodriguez (Mom): “We are very proud of Frankie. He is very intelligent. Yes?”
Tía Lupe (nods and smiles toward the team)
Miss Rose (smiling and nodding along)
Miss Rose: “Frankie, how do you think this year has started?”
Frankie: “Good, I guess.”
Miss Rose: “Can I ask why you said ‘I guess’?”
Frankie: “I mean, it’s been a hard year.”
Mrs. Rodriguez (Briefly sighs and pats her grandson’s leg): “Si, si {yes, yes}.”
Miss Rose (turning toward Frankie): “Frankie, would it be okay if I share my observations with
your family?”
Frankie: “Yes, Miss Rose.”
Miss Rose: “Recently, Frankie seems withdrawn and sad when at school. It started during our
October English Language Arts section. We care about Frankie and want the very best for him, just
like your Mom, Abuela, and Tía. Frankie, do you want to share more? Family, have you noticed any
changes?”
Frankie: “Madre, you know I miss Abuelo. We have been preparing for Día de los Muertos each
evening—the flowers, candles, and food. This is the first year he is gone. It’s hard for me to concentrate
on school work. Reading comprehension is hard and requires my focus. I wish I could concentrate. I’m
just sad.”
Miss Rose: “Frankie, I am so sorry to hear this…”
The IEP meeting continued to unfold over the next half hour, alternating between listening and
exchanging ideas, reflecting, and problem solving. Over that time, the beginnings of the family–school
partnership emerged, rooted in culturally responsive practice. By the end of the meeting, Frankie had a
referral to the school social worker to help process his feelings related to the loss of his Abuelo. The team
tentatively set a follow-up meeting for 2 weeks from then to review progress. Finally, the interventions
that Miss Rose identified before the meeting were tucked away and not used.
Like the premeeting before meeting with the IEP team, Mrs. Garcia and Miss Rose found time to
check in:
Mrs. Garcia: “You did a nice job with Frankie’s meeting.”
Miss Rose: “Thank you. It was important for me to set aside my thoughts and really listen to
Frankie and his family. I feel embarrassed to think that I had things figured out. Can you imagine how
detrimental it would have been if I just started to focus on my interventions? I also left the meeting and
that evening read more about Día de los Muertos. I never knew…”
Again, Mrs. Garcia emphasized the importance of recognizing and addressing one’s implicit biases
head on. She acknowledged this as an important skill to have for culturally responsive collaboration to
be effective. Miss Rose realized this was not a “one-and-done” but an iterative process of constant reflec-
tion. Miss Rose was confident that the processes she worked through with Mrs. Garcia had laid a strong
foundation for her. Moving forward, she would implement these strategies to ensure she was including
everyone at the table.
Summary
This chapter presented current practice in implementing culturally responsive collaboration to
include all relevant parties at the table, including families and their children with disabilities from
CELD populations. Specifically, this chapter (a) revealed strategies to assist special education teachers
to recognize and address their hidden biases, including how to self-monitor and self-evaluate those
strategies; (b) offered a culturally responsive behavioral framework to promote collaborative support
and service delivery; and (c) provided pre- and post-collaborative steps to cultivate a successful da-
ta-based collaboration process. To overcome barriers to culturally responsive collaboration, special
education teachers should develop a systematic approach to collaboration, which has been outlined
throughout this chapter. Commitment to this work is hard; however, with integrity, this work can
transform the lives of the students that special education teachers serve. As you read the subsequent
chapters in this book, be mindful of how you can incorporate the tenets of the framework for cultur-
ally responsive collaboration introduced in this chapter as the foundation to all subsequent work.
Without taking into account the vast make-up of the relevant parties around the table, including
families and their children with disabilities from CELD populations, the interventions implemented
will collapse like a house of cards. However, when intentional culturally responsive collaboration
takes place, positive in-school and post-school success can happen for the students served.
Chapter Review
1. Why is it important to understand culture and microcultures as it relates to the current student
demographics of the American public education system?
2. Define bias, explicit bias, and implicit bias and provide an example of each.
3. Implicit bias has three common origins. What are they?
4. Name and explain two research-informed practices to help mitigate implicit bias.
5. Why is self-monitoring and self-evaluation critical to addressing the implementation of prac-
tices to help mitigate implicit biases once they have been started?
6. Define collaboration. What are four important features of an effective home–school partnership?
7. In discussing the phases of collaboration, what do you think the most important phase (prob-
lem identification, analysis, treatment implementation, and evaluation) is and why?
8. From research, training on collaboration is lacking in higher-education training programs.
Why do you think this is the case?
9. From your perspective, do you agree that soft skills are important for effective home–school
collaboration? Why or why not?
10. How do you plan to use the information gained in this chapter in your own professional
practice?
52 Chapter 3
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4
Data! You Have to Have Them,
But How Do You Get Them?
Ways to Accurately Measure Behavior
in an Educational Setting
Andrea L. Suk, PhD
INTRODUCTION
To accurately describe behaviors within the school setting, educators must be able
to accurately track and report how often a student’s behavior occurs. Measuring the
prevalence and reoccurrence of behavior will support educators to analyze the severity
of the behavior, patterns associated with the behavior, and, once intervention strategies
are implemented, if behavior change ensues. Additionally, to create a useful and legally
compliant functional behavior assessment (FBA) and behavior intervention or support
plan, data collection is not only critical but also mandatory.
Carr, R. N. (Ed.).
56 Chapter 4
Chapter Objectives
ȘȘ Explain the various direct observation recording methods, including permanent prod-
uct recording, event recording, duration recording, latency recording, and interval
recording, including whole interval, partial interval, and momentary time sampling.
ȘȘ Identify what direct observation recording method should be implemented for various
scenarios.
ȘȘ Demonstrate recording strategies and best practices for recording behavior.
KEY TERMS
• Duration Recording: Direct observation data collection method by identifying the amount of
time the behavior lasts from start to finish.
• Event Recording (also known as Frequency Recording): Direct observation data collection
method by identifying the number of times a behavior occurred by counting the occurrences.
• Interval Recording: Direct observation data collection method by estimating the amount of
intervals the behavior occurred vs. did not occur, often shown as a percentage.
• Latency Recording: Direct observation data collection method by identifying the amount of
time from a prompt to when the behavior either starts or stops.
• Momentary Time Sampling: Direct observation data collection method by conducting obser-
vation only at prescribed moments in time.
• Partial Interval Recording: Direct observation data collection method by identifying how
many intervals the behavior occurred at any point during an observational period of time.
Partial interval recording will overestimate how often a behavior occurs.
• Permanent Product Recording: Direct observation data collection method by reviewing an
artifact the student created to document a behavior.
• Whole Interval Recording: Direct observation data collection method by identifying how
many full intervals the behavior occurred during an observational period of time. Whole inter-
val recording will underestimate how often a behavior occurs.
Case Study
Mrs. Tazo started her school year as any prepared high school science teacher would. She prepped
her classroom with posters, materials, and resources. She organized the lab tables to ensure easy sightlines
to the board and to allow her easy access to any student. She brainstormed rules for the class but would
have discussions to ensure student feedback was accounted for. She reviewed students’ Individualized
Education Programs and Behavior Intervention Plans and carefully considered students’ needs and
preferences when making a draft seating chart. The first week of school was a flurry of activities, meet-
ings, and lessons. While she knew she was still in the “honeymoon” phase of the semester, she had a great
feeling about her students because they seemed engaged, respectful, and interested in her subject area.
During the second week of school, Bella started to display some concerning behaviors. She would
shout out curse words, refuse to follow directions, and use her phone for texting in class. At first, Mrs.
Tazo tried her normal classroom strategies. She would walk around the class often and stand closely
to Bella. She would quietly address Bella about her classroom expectations, and how she was being
inappropriate. She would give Bella choices on which items to complete first on-task, and she would
Data! You Have to Have Them, But How Do You Get Them? 57
even ignore the bad behavior of Bella while praising other students for their good behavior. Yet, none
of these strategies seemed to affect Bella’s behavior. In a moment of pure frustration with Bella, Mrs.
Tazo sent Bella to the Dean’s office after Bella shouted curse words during class time and disrespectfully
proclaimed how stupid science was.
Ms. Ownes, Bella’s Dean, immediately suspended Bella for 1 day due to her behavior and alerted
Mrs. Tazo of the assigned consequence. Mrs. Tazo was relieved and hoped Bella’s suspension would
stop these behaviors. Upon returning to class, Mrs. Tazo realized how wrong she was. Bella’s behaviors
continued immediately upon her return. Not sure what to do, Mrs. Tazo reached out to Ms. Ownes to
discuss Bella’s behavior. Ms. Ownes explained to Mrs. Tazo that she would need to collect direct obser-
vation data on Bella’s behaviors over the next few days so they could fully discuss and problem solve
together. Mrs. Tazo had to quickly research what to do next.
Before Mrs. Tazo can start any data collection on Bella’s behaviors, she first must clearly pinpoint
the behaviors of concern. As stated previously, Bella shouts curse words, refuses to follow directions,
and uses her phone in class. While we can agree that each of these behaviors are concerning, fully
defining the behaviors will ensure accurate data collection. As defined by Cooper et al. (2007), when
identifying a target behavior, the definition should be objective (only actions that can be observed),
clear (no ambiguity in behavior definition), and complete with boundaries (with inclusion and ex-
clusion examples). The operational definition of the target behaviors will guide observers on not only
what types of data collection methods could or should be used but also ensure that data collected is
on a specified target behavior (Martella et al., 2011). Table 4-1 outlines how to write a well-defined
behavior.
Mrs. Tazo reflects on each of Bella’s concerning behaviors and establishes the following definitions
of the target behaviors.
1. In a classroom setting, Bella vocalizes curse words at a volume above classroom communication
level (yelling, screaming) so that all students and the teacher hear the curse words. Curse words
include all words banned in the school’s student handbook. Curse words do not include words that
sound like curse words, made-up curse words, or substitutions for curse words.
2. After being given a prompt to complete an independent learning activity, Bella vocally states, “No,
I am not doing this,” will lean back in her chair, move work items away from her, and ignore at-
tempts from teachers and other students to reengage her in the activity.
3. While the “no phones” sign is posted in the classroom and during instruction periods, Bella ac-
cesses her phone and types on the keyboard to send text messages or post on social media sites.
Now that Mrs. Tazo has clearly defined each behavior, she must consider the various ways to collect
data on each behavior by directly observing Bella. Before moving on, however, consider what is wrong
with selecting the target behaviors of “aggression,” “cussing,” or “rude comments” and leaving those terms
as the operational definition.
Direct Observation Data Collection Methods

There are a plethora of direct observation recording methods that can be used within the class-
room setting, including permanent product recording, event or frequency recording, duration re-
cording, latency recording, and interval recording. Which recording method is chosen depends on
a few factors, including the type of behavior being recorded, the resources available to you, and the
amount of time you have available. Once you have learned about each recording method, review
Figure 4-1 for a flow chart of questions you can use for future reference. Before depicting each type of
direct recording method, it is important to detail why it is necessary to use direct recording methods.
58 Chapter 4
Table 4-1. Steps to Writing Well-Defined Behavior

Component of Nonexamples Comprehensive
Well-Defined Examples
Behavior
Objective definition When upset, the student angrily yells is Student uses
a nonexample because an observer is not words, utterances,
able to determine if the student is feeling the or vocalizations
emotions of being upset and angry during above a classroom
an observation. We want to remove any communication volume
subjective terms from our examples and have level.
the observation focus on just the behavior.
Since a student may yell in anger, frustration,
or happiness, attempting to subjectively
determine which type of yelling is occurring is
not constructive.
Clear definition Students raises their voice to express Student uses
themself is a nonexample because of the words, utterances,
vagueness related to “raising their voice.” If or vocalizations
students are whispering in a group, a student above a classroom
may raise their voice to get the teacher’s communication volume
attention without yelling. level, considered to
be yelling, screaming,
hollering, or screeching.
Definition with The student yells in school is a nonexample Student uses
boundaries because there are appropriate times at school words, utterances,
where yelling occurs and should not occur. or vocalizations
above a classroom
communication level
(considered to be yelling,
screaming, hollering, or
screeching) in situations
where peers are testing,
listening to teacher
directions/lectures,
participating in group
work, or attending to
independent activities.
This does not include
activities like lunch,
physical education,
passing periods, or
classroom game
situations where the
classroom volume level is
increased by all students.
Figure 4-1. Flowchart depicting questioning for determining best direct observation recording
method.
First, a direct recording method requires you to observe the student’s behavior in their typical
settings. The goal of the direct observation is to provide an account of when, where, and how often
the behavior is occurring with specificity (Sulzer-Azaroof & Mayer, 1991). Indicating a behavior
happens “a lot” or “all the time” does not provide clarity of how many times a behavior actually oc-
curs. While it may seem trivial, using direct observation data will provide meaningful information to
discuss with the student’s team of teachers, administrators, and parents. Furthermore, direct observa-
tion data is required when a student’s education team is conducting an FBA (Chapter 6).
Questions teams can reflect on with direct observation data include:
• Does the behavior correlate with a specific day?
• Does the behavior correlate with a specific time of the day?
• Does the behavior occur more in one or some classes compared to others?
• Do we recognize any patterns related to the behavior?
• How does this behavior compare to other students’ in the same activity?
These questions guide the team to explore factors that may be contributing to the behav-
ior, including weekend activities, medication schedules, and specific teaching styles of teachers.
Furthermore, with direct observation data, the team can evaluate if this student’s behavior is sig-
nificantly different than other students or if there is an unrealized bias against the student. Finally,
and most importantly, when we record behaviors through direct observation methods, we are able
to determine the prevalence of the behavior before we implement any interventions or changes.
Determining the prevalence through direct observations of the behavior prior to interventions is
critical because we can then analyze if our interventions are effective or not (Alberto et al., 2013). The
process of collecting direct observation data before and during interventions ensures the educational
60 Chapter 4
team is making decisions and plans based on evidence. Before moving on, contemplate why compar-
ing occurrences of behavior between the student of concern and other students in the classroom is
critical to equality and equity.
Permanent Product Recording

Permanent product recording is often the easiest type of recording a classroom teacher can do.
Simply put, permanent product recording involves reviewing an artifact the student created (Alberto
et al., 2013; Cooper et al., 2007). Teachers do this all the time when grading students’ work. By
demonstrating knowledge through completion of a test (a behavior), teachers can review students’
answers and identify the number of correct and incorrect responses through a permanent product.
In this example, the permanent product is the test and the student’s answers on the test.
It is important to note that almost anything can be a permanent product. If the student’s be-
havior creates something that does not vanish automatically or disappear without someone else’s
actions, we consider this a permanent product (Cooper et al., 2007). Students writing their responses
on the whiteboard can be considered a permanent product. Now, does this mean that a teacher will
never be able to erase the whiteboard? No. It means that evidence related to the student’s behavior
(writing on the whiteboard) will not immediately disappear. This evidence can be viewed by others
and even saved, unaltered, for a period of time. When the evidence is no longer needed, the perma-
nent product can be destroyed or, in this case, the whiteboard can be erased.
Using permanent product recording can be extremely useful for serious destructive behaviors
including writing on tables, tearing up artwork from walls, and throwing chairs. In each occurrence,
a teacher or administrator can record the data by counting how many tables were written on, how
many pieces of artwork were torn, and how many chairs are laying on the floor. Many of these things
can be returned to their original condition (ink erased from desks, chairs turned right-side-up) with
effort after recording the data. Others, like torn artwork, may need more attention to return to close
to original form or be thrown away. For permanent product recording, it is important that before re-
turning items to their original condition, you have recorded all the information you needed from the
event including how many items were altered, how they were altered, when the items were altered,
and who altered the items.
In some circumstances, you may prefer to take a picture of a situation where the student created
permanent products. In this case, you create a longer-lasting permanent product (the photo). It is
important to first check with your district and administrators’ policy on photographing these types
of student artifacts. A photograph can be used to quickly return the environment to a previous state
while also saving the information for review at a later time. However, what device is used to take
and store the information is important to consider with respect to student rights to privacy. Taking a
picture on a personal phone is often automatically stored on a personal cloud. This could have large,
unintended, consequences. Therefore, it is extremely important to discuss the policies with your
district prior to taking any photos of the classroom, tagging personal information to the photo, and
saving the photo to personal sites (Fedders, 2018; Smale et al., 2021).
Finally, more and more districts are considering the use of video cameras in classrooms (Amos
et al., 2015; Fedders, 2018). The recording of students with video and audio does create a permanent
product for events that would typically not create a permanent product recording. For example, a
student cursing does not provide an artifact and, therefore, is not normally considered a permanent
product. However, with video cameras being placed in classrooms by administrators, the recording
of a student cursing can be considered a permanent product because one can review the exact event.
Similar to the caution described above with photography, it is important to not record students with-
out parent and district approval. What device is used, how the recording is stored, who the informa-
tion is being shared with, and how the information will be used will need to be addressed prior to
any recording being made. Without explicit direction and approval from all involved parties, it is not
endorsable or recommended to record a student’s behavior via video or audio recording.
After much consideration, Mrs. Tazo decided permanent product recording would not be appropri-
ate for most of Bella’s behaviors. Cursing and refusing to follow directions are not behaviors that provide
a long-lasting product and, therefore, cannot be recognized in this type of data collection. Mrs. Tazo
thought texting in class would provide a permanent product but didn’t feel comfortable in analyzing
this data, as it would require Bella to not only share her phone but also allow Mrs. Tazo access to the
texts. Mrs. Tazo considered collaborating with Bella’s parents to see if they would be able to provide
the number of texts and timing throughout the day through their cell phone carrier. While permanent
product recording would be an excellent method for texting, Mrs. Tazo decided against it. She thought
another recording method would yield useful data while being less intrusive to the student. Additionally,
Mrs. Tazo wondered if the parents collected this data, would it still be considered a direct observation or
would questions of authenticity arise? Furthermore, Mrs. Tazo thought collaborating with parents for
solutions would be better.
Event/Frequency Recording
Event recording can often be the most intuitive type of behavior data collection. Also known
as frequency recording, event recording simply identifies the number of times a behavior occurred
(Fisher et al., 2011). Event recording can encompass a wide range of behaviors, including how many
times a student was tardy the first hour, how many times the student asked for a break, how many
times a student turned off their camera in a virtual classroom, or even how many times a student
pushed another student. As you can see, the common link is how many times a behavior happens.
While extremely intuitive, event recording data are only useful for behaviors that have a clear
beginning and end (Martella et al., 2011). For example, it is easy to tally how many times a student
uses a curse word. This would be an appropriate way to use event recording to collect data. However,
recording a student talking to friends during work time would not be appropriate because too many
concerns are presented. If the student whispered for 30 seconds, would you count that as one event?
What if they whispered for 10 minutes? Would you count every sentence they used? What if they
started to whisper to friends and then stopped, would you count that as an event or not? Since behav-
iors like talking and being on (or off) task may not have a clear beginning or end, event recording is
not the best method to use. Additionally, event recording is not recommended for behaviors that are
occurring at high rates (Martella et al., 2011). It would be extremely frustrating to attempt to record
a behavior that occurred every few seconds. Not only is this not feasible when attempting to teach
and support other students, but when behaviors occur rapidly, using the event recording process may
lead to errors.
Reactivity
Think back to yourself as a student in elementary school. Do you remember the principal walking
into the classroom to watch the teacher? Did you do anything differently to be on “your best
behavior”? When you are driving and a police officer pulls behind you, do you ensure you are
going the speed limit and following all the rules of the road? Students will behave differently
when they know they are being watched. Some students will “be on their best behavior,” while
others will attempt to exhibit every behavior to see your reaction. The Hawthorne Effect is when
individuals modify their own behaviors because they acknowledge they are being observed
(McCambridge et al., 2014). When considering the use of direct observation methods, create a plan
so that you are inconspicuous. Think of ways to collect data that looks “normal” and does not draw
attention to your documentation. If you are requesting support for another adult to observe for
you, contemplate how to make the presence of an additional person natural to your classroom and
how to have this person come in multiple times so that students are not reactive to their presence.
62 Chapter 4
To ensure the accuracy of event recording, teachers must develop an easy, inconspicuous way
to track the data immediately after the behavior has occurred (Sulzer-Azaroof & Mayer, 1991). A
simple and long-established method is to use tally marks on a sheet of paper. After the behavior oc-
curs, make a mark to establish the event. However, many teachers have created other similar systems
including keeping paperclips in one pocket and moving a paperclip to a different pocket when the
behavior occurs or having rubber bands on one wrist and moving one to the other when a behavior
occurs. While the method you use to tally is not important, transcribing the tallies into meaningful
and understandable data as soon as possible is important. Whether immediately after a class, during
a prep period, or at the end of the day, it is essential that the number of events is recorded. Having 20
pieces of paper with no dates but random tallies on each sheet will not support your investigation of
finding any patterns in the data.
Tech companies have also attempted to support educators’ need to collect data. Many apppli-
cation or apps (free and paid) allow teachers to easily collect data on the frequency of behaviors.
In addition to dates and times being automatically linked to each event marked, educators have the
freedom to easily take event recording data on multiple behaviors of one student or on multiple
students.
Regardless of how you decide to collect the frequency of behaviors, it is important again to
consider the rights of students. For teachers that collect data through tally sheets, it is important
to devise a system that allows for confidentiality of the student being monitored and also allow
the teacher to identify what student the data is collected for. If the tally sheet is kept in an active
classroom with students moving around often, including a student’s name on the sheet or their ID
number is not recommended. Furthermore, apps often store inputted data in their own systems.
While entering the school name, grade, student name, and ID number is often an option for app
users, it is not recommended due to infringing on the rights of students. If using an app, consider
ways to create a pseudonym and not include identifying traits of those being observed.
Mrs. Tazo considered each of the three behaviors and decided using event recording would be
perfect to identify how many times Bella shouted curse words in class. Since Mrs. Tazo wears a lab
coat daily to class, she decided to place paper clips in her right pocket. To record the event frequency
of Bella cursing, Mrs. Tazo decided she would move one paperclip from her right pocket to her left
pocket every time Bella cursed. At the conclusion of class, Mrs. Tazo recorded the number of paper-
clips in her left pocket (associated with times Bella cursed) into a secured notebook with the date and
any useful anecdotal notes (e.g., fire drill, lab day, notes day, friend gone). Mrs. Tazo repeated this
method over multiple days and found the process easy to track inconspicuously. See Table 4-2 for Mrs.
Tazo’s collected data.
Duration Recording
Duration recording is another intuitive type of data collection that relies on a behavior having a
clear beginning and end. Instead of tallying the number of times a behavior occurs (event recording),
duration recording documents how long the behavior lasts (Cooper et al., 2007). By collecting the
duration times of the behavior, one can analyze how long this behavior occurs throughout the day
or in the class session. Duration recordings often display that while only one occurrence happened,
the occurrence took place over a long period of time. For example, stating that a student slept once
in class (event) portrays a different picture than stating a student slept for 42 minutes in class (dura-
tion). When considering this over multiple days of data collection, stating a student slept four times
in class (event) provides only a limited understanding of the behavior. Compared to reporting a
student sleeping for a total of 195 minutes in class (duration) as shown by sleeping 42 minutes Day 1,
Table 4-2. Mrs. Tazo’s Frequency Data on Cursing

Date Frequency Recording Any Additional Notes
Tally Marks
10-5 IIII Students were allowed to pair up for
an activity. Bella was able to work with
her best friend.
10-6 IIIII IIIII IIIII Typical lesson structure
10-8 IIIII IIIII IIIII II Typical lesson structure
10-11 IIIII IIIII IIIII Typical lesson structure
10-12 IIIII IIIII IIIII IIIII IIIII When Bella entered the classroom, she
noted that she was upset because of
a fight.
On average, Bella cursed 15 times per class,
with a range between 4 curse words and
25 curse words per class.
12 minutes Day 2, 0 minutes Day 3, 63 minutes Day 4, and 18 minutes Day 5 provides a more detailed
depiction of the data. Behaviors that occur rapidly and frequently are not recommended for duration
recording. For example, tracking a student using duration frequency who is in and out of their seat
numerous times throughout a class period would be challenging and not provide an accurate repre-
sentation of the behavior. However, using duration recording for a student who leaves their seat and
wanders for a period of time would be appropriate to represent the behavior.
To ensure the accuracy of duration recording, teachers must rely on tracking how long the be-
havior occurs. Moreover, teachers must record the times in an inconspicuous way. While technol-
ogy has eased the burden of having access to timers and clocks, to ascertain the device while being
inconspicuous is often challenging. Additionally, teachers using duration recording must know the
exact start and end times of the behavior and will need to watch for the conclusion of the behavior
once it has started. This focused attention may present challenges when attempting to support other
students in the learning environment.
Mrs. Tazo carefully considered how to use duration recording for Bella’s behaviors. She thought that
while duration recording could be used to monitor Bella’s cell phone use, Mrs. Tazo worried this method
would be too conspicuous for her typical daily routine with students. Furthermore, she thought this
method would lead to her own frustration and burnout since she would have to focus her time observing
and not teaching. While she could ask a colleague for assistance, she decided to investigate other data
collection methods.
Latency Recording
Latency recording also involves timing students. However, unlike duration recording, latency
recording documents how long a student takes before starting a behavior after being prompted to
begin the behavior (Martella et al., 2011). For example, if a teacher prompts all students to be seat-
ed, measuring the time it takes for a student to respond and be seated would be latency recording.
Additionally, latency recording can depict how long a student takes before completing a behavior
64 Chapter 4
after being prompted. For example, if a teacher prompts students to complete the daily word prob-
lem, latency recording would report how long it took the student to complete the entire word prob-
lem. Similar to duration, teachers must have access to timing devices and be able to attend to the time
to ensure data collection is accurate.
At first thought, Mrs. Tazo considered latency recording as a good method to record how long Bella
refused to follow directions. Mrs. Tazo knows that Bella refuses to follow directions and typically contin-
ues refusing throughout the entire class period. With this type of behavior, Mrs. Tazo expected the data
collection for latency to be straightforward (notation of when directions were given and amount of time
remaining in class since Bella would refuse for the rest of the period). Despite the ease of data collection,
Mrs. Tazo worried that this method would again require her complete attention to ensure the accurate
amount of time was tracked (from Bella being prompted to when Bella started behavior). If Bella fol-
lowed directions for even a moment, Mrs. Tazo would have to stop the time and report on the latency
amount. Like duration, she decided to not use this method but would consider this method in the future,
with help from colleagues, if needed.
Interval Recording
While each of the previously stated methods for data collection provides accurate and useful
information, the time and attention needed to collect data using these methods is often a barrier
for educators. To overcome this barrier and still collect authentic data, interval recording can be
used. When educators use interval recording of a behavior, the data collected reveals an estimated
number of intervals the behavior occurred vs. did not occur, often shown as a percentage (Cooper
et al., 2007). Any behavior can be recorded through interval recording; however, behaviors without
a clear beginning and end, behaviors that occur frequently, and behaviors that vary in the amount of
time they last are well represented using interval recording (Martella et al., 2011). The three types of
interval recording are whole interval, partial interval, and momentary time sampling.
Whole Interval Recording

When educators have identified a behavior they want to increase (i.e., being on task, reading),
whole interval recording is the best recording method to use (Martella et al., 2011). The whole inter-
val recording method identifies how many intervals the behavior occurred during the entire interval
time. For example, if the chosen interval length is 30 seconds, only when a student reads (behavior)
the entire 30 seconds would the interval be counted as having the behavior occur. If the student reads
for 28 of the 30 seconds, the interval would not be counted as having the behavior occur.
This type of direct observation recording method is extremely beneficial in a classroom.
Educators must still dedicate a specified amount of time observing the student without distractions;
however, the educator has control to specify the total observation period, which may be minimal.
For example, 20 minutes of reading into a personal microphone is assigned to students as an inde-
pendent activity. The educator is not required to watch the student with the behavior in question
during the entire 20 minutes. The educator could dedicate 5 minutes to watching the student. The
educator would then divide the dedicated time up into equal intervals (e.g., five 1-minute intervals,
ten 30-second intervals). This allows teachers to support other students when not directly observing
the student with the behavior of concern. Table 4-3 illustrates how direct observation data would be
recorded for whole interval recording.
Since the student was not observed during the entire reading time of 20 minutes, it would be
appropriate to report the approximation of behavior at 50% (occurred during two intervals, did not
occur during two intervals).
As noted in this example, if the student reads for the majority of the interval, we would still
not count that interval. Whole interval recording underestimates the behavior. Underestimating is
Table 4-3. Example of Whole Interval Data Collection

Target 1st Interval 2nd Interval 3rd Interval 4th Interval
Behavior
0 to 30 seconds 31 to 60 seconds 61 to 90 seconds 91 to 120 seconds
Reading – + + –
aloud (did not occur (occurred during (occurred during (did not occur
into personal during the entire the entire 30 the entire 30 during the entire
microphone 30 seconds) seconds) seconds) 30 seconds)
Table 4-4. Example of Partial Interval Data Collection

Behavior
0 to 1 minute 1 to 2 minutes 2 to 3 minutes 3 to 4 minutes
Student out – + + +
of their seat (student remained (student left seat (student left seat (student left seat
in seat for entire for a few seconds) for a few seconds) for entire minute)
first minute)
important for behaviors we are attempting to increase because it reflects a conservative approxima-
tion of the behavior. Ethically, it is better to provide a conservate approximation of a behavior we
want to increase to ensure we find and utilize an intervention that effectively increases the behavior.
Partial Interval Recording

The procedure of partial interval recording is similar to whole interval recording because educa-
tors again divide up an observation period into equal segments. However, instead of indicating if the
behavior occurred during the entire interval (whole interval recording), educators utilizing partial
interval recording would indicate if the behavior occurred at any time during the interval (Cooper et
al., 2007). It is important to note that when selecting partial interval recording, educators must still
dedicate a specified time to observing the student without distractions. Despite this challenge, the
educator has control to specify the total observation period, which may be minimal.
In addition to the difference of how behaviors are recorded within the interval, partial interval
recording also differs from whole interval recording because it is used to observe a behavior educa-
tors want to decrease (i.e., being off task or out of their seat). The partial interval recording meth-
od overestimates how often the behavior occurs (Martella et al., 2011). For example, if the interval
length is 60 seconds, when the student was out of their seat at any point during those 60 seconds, the
interval would be counted as an occurrence. An interval would be counted as an occurrence if the
student was out of their seat for 1 second or the entire 60 seconds. Table 4-4 illustrates how direct
observation data would be recorded for partial interval recording.
To appropriately report the approximation of behavior above, educators would indicate that the
student was out of their seat 75% of the observed time (occurred during three intervals, did not oc-
cur during one interval).
As noted in the example above, if the student is out of their seat for even just a second during the
interval, we would count that interval as an occurrence. Partial interval recording overestimates the
behavior. Overestimating is important for behaviors we are attempting to decrease because it reflects
66 Chapter 4
Table 4-5. Example of Momentary Time Sampling Data Collection

Behavior
Record at exactly Record at exactly Record at exactly Record at exactly
minute 1 minute 2 minute 3 minute 4
Student – – + –
writing in (student not (student not (student writing at (student not
their journal writing at writing at 180 seconds) writing at
60 seconds) 120 seconds) 240 seconds)
a liberal approximation of the behavior. Ethically, it is better to provide a liberal approximation of a

behavior we want to decrease to ensure we find and utilize an intervention that effectively decreases
the behavior.
Momentary Time Sampling

Momentary time sampling provides the solution for those educators that are not able to dedicate
portions of time observing the student but still need a reflective representation of behavior data.
Instead of observing a student for an entire interval, momentary time sampling requires the educa-
tor to only observe for a moment at the end of the interval (Cooper et al., 2007). For example, an
educator is observing a student’s on-task behavior of writing in their journal. The educator prompts
all students to write in their journals for 8 minutes and decides to create eight 1-minute intervals.
The educator would observe the student only the exact moment between each minute interval, just
for the moment. If at that exact moment the student is exhibiting the behavior, the educator would
mark the interval as an occurrence. If at that moment the student was not exhibiting the behavior,
the educator would mark the interval as a nonoccurrence.
While this method of data collection is far less time intensive for educators, to ensure the ac-
curacy of the data, educators will need to invest in time tools to alert when it is time to observe and
record the data. Recently, educators have used phone timers and wireless earbuds to provide a tone to
alert them but not to disturb the classroom environment. Table 4-5 illustrates how direct observation
data would be recorded for momentary time sampling.
Although this sampling method is advantageous, it is also important to be cognizant that this
method of data collection may not be the most accurate when reflecting on behaviors (Martella et al.,
2011). When using momentary time sampling, we cannot conclude if the momentary observation is
representative of how often the behavior actually occurs. To report the approximation of behavior in
Table 4-5, educators would indicate that the student was writing 25% of the time (occurred for one
moment, did not occur for three moments).
Mrs. Tazo decided an interval recording method would be best to track both of Bella’s remaining
behaviors. When considering Bella’s refusal to follow directions, Mrs. Tazo decides to use partial interval
recording to observe five 1-minute intervals during the class’s 20 minutes of independent work session.
See Table 4-6 for Mrs. Tazo’s data collected through partial interval recording. When considering Bella’s
phone usage in class, Mrs. Tazo remembers this behavior occurs frequently throughout all parts of a
lesson. Mrs. Tazo would like to understand how often it occurs throughout the entire lesson because she
feels this is affecting Bella’s learning, and, therefore, it connected to Bella refusing to follow directions to
complete activities. Since Mrs. Tazo must continue teaching the entire class without interruption, she de-
cided on using momentary time sampling as her method of data collection. For this method, Mrs. Tazo
knew she would have to access a timer that would only alert her and not disturb the class. See Table 4-7
for Mrs. Tazo’s collected data on phone usage through momentary time sampling.
Table 4-6. Mrs. Tazo’s Partial Time Interval Data on Following Directions
Date, Time, Partial Interval Partial Interval Partial Interval Partial Interval Partial Interval
Activity 1 2 3 4 5
10-5 + – – + +
10:30 to 10:35 a.m.
Independent lab work
10-7 + + + + +
10:40 to 10:45 a.m.
10-12 – + + – –
10:30 to 10:35 a.m.
10-13 – – + + +
10:30 to 10:35 a.m.
10-14 + + + + +
10:40 to 10:45 a.m.
Independent reading
time
Out of 25 intervals, Bella refused to comply with directions during 18 intervals or 72% of the time.
68 Chapter 4
Table 4-7. Mrs. Tazo’s Momentary Time Sampling Data on Phone Usage
Date Moment 1 Moment 2 Moment 3 Moment 4 Moment 5 Moment 6 Moment 7
10-8 + + + + – + –
10-11 + + – + + + +
10-12 + + + + + + +
Out of 21 moments, Bella was on her phone for 18 moments or 80% of recordings.
Determining the Length of Intervals

A fundamental consideration related to any of the interval recording procedures is how long the
intervals should be. Educators are urged to use the following questions to help them determine how
long intervals should be:
1. What is a reasonable length for my total observation, and how can I divide that easily into equal
intervals?
2. Can I be fully dedicated to observing the behavior without distractions during each interval for
the entire observation?
3. Based on my knowledge of the student and the student’s behavior, are the intervals at an ap-
propriate length to show occurrences and nonoccurrences (How to ABA, 2021)?
°° If my predata reflection has the behavior occurring once every 5 to 10 minutes, I may want to
consider making an interval every 3 or 4 minutes. Making an interval length 10 seconds may
lead to my own burnout and frustration.
°° If my predata reflection has the behavior occurring a few times a minute, 5- to 15- second
intervals is more appropriate.
4. Am I able to observe during various days of the week, times of day, and portions of a lesson?
°° Do these behaviors occur during a specific day and time that I should plan on observing?
°° Do these behaviors occur at specific portions of the lesson that I should plan on observing?
5. What resources do I need to support my observation? Will I ask another adult to assist in any
way? Will I need a stopwatch? Will I need a timer alert?
6. What tracking tool will I use to record the data?
7. What will other students be doing at this time? Remember, it is best to observe when the identi-
fied student is known to exhibit the target behavior. The observation time should also flow like
any typical day with ordinary lesson plans.
Mrs. Tazo planned to complete her observations throughout a 2-week period and at various times
during her lesson. Review her direct observational data in Tables 4-6 and 4-7.
Summary
This chapter detailed how to accurately define a behavior through the use of objective and clear
definitions with boundaries. Once educators have determined the behavior of concern, it is impor-
tant to clearly describe how often (or not often) the behavior occurs through direct observation
data. Direct observation data are critical to not only understanding students’ behavior but also to
understanding if interventions are effective. Defining a behavior and clearly understanding the oc-
currence of a behavior is critical to the creation of an FBA and behavior intervention or support plan.
This chapter illustrated the various procedures of direct observation recording methods, including
permanent product, event/frequency, duration, latency, and interval recording. A direct observation
data recording method should be chosen based on the type of behavior targeted. Once educators
select the best recording method, preparation must be made to ensure the data are collected precisely
and without error. Results of the data should be examined by the educational team for patterns and
to ensure bias does not exist when focused on a specific student.
70 Chapter 4
Chapter Review
1. What three components should be considered when defining a behavior, and why is each com-
ponent important?
2. Summarize why it is important to collect data directly on student behaviors.
3. Describe each type of direct observation recording methods.
4. Which method of direct observation should be used when attempting to decrease a behavior
because the interval overestimates the behavior occurrence and why?
5. Express the concerns related to educators using recording devices (video or pictorial) when
collecting data on students.
6. Create a list of 10 common behaviors you have witnessed in a classroom. Decide the best way
to collect data on each behavior and justify your response.
7. When determining the length of intervals for interval recording methods, what are seven ques-
tions to consider to help you determine how long the interval should be?
References
Alberto, P. A., Troutman, A. C., & Axe, J. B. (2013). Applied behavior analysis for teachers. Pearson.
Amos, P., White, J., & Trader, B. (2015). Will cameras make schools safer: TASH position statement on camera surveil-
lance in self-contained classrooms [Position Statement]. The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps. http://
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Surveillance%20in%20Classrooms,%20Final,%201-20-15.pdf
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index.php/cjeap/article/view/70205
Sulzer-Azaroff, B., & Mayer, G. R. (1991). Behavior analysis for lasting change. Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Appendix
Example Data Collection Sheet 1: Frequency

Frequency Data on (description of behavior)
Date Time Frequency Recording Any Additional Notes
Period Tally Marks
To find average, count total number of tallies and divide by number of days.
Provide range of lowest number of tallies to highest number of tallies.
Example Data Collection Sheet 1: Duration

Duration Data on (description of behavior)
Date Time Time Total Time Any Additional
Started Ended Notes
To find average, add total times and divide by number of events.

Provide range of lowest time to highest time.
72 Chapter 4
Example Data Collection Sheet 1: Latency

Latency Data on (description of behavior)
Date Time Time Behavior Total Time Any Additional
Prompted Started/Ended Notes
Given
To find average, add total times and divide by number of events.

Provide range of lowest time to highest time.
Example Data Collection Sheet 1: Whole or Partial

Interval Recording
Interval Data on (description of behavior)
Date, Time, Interval 1 Interval 2 Interval 3 Interval 4 Interval 5
Activity
Whole interval recording identifies if the behavior occurs during the entire interval. Partial interval
recording identifies if the behaviors occur at any moment during the interval.
Report data by adding all intervals and stating during how many intervals the behaviors occurred.
Provide a percentage for this value.
5
Assessment of Behavior
Preference, Language, Academics,
and Everything in Between
Sarah Heiniger, MEd, EdS, NCSP, BCBA, LBA-OK;
Brittany L. Hott, PhD, BCBA-D, LBA-OK;
and Jasmine Justus, MEd, BCBA, LBA-OK
INTRODUCTION
Skills assessment is a vital part of any good instructional practice. As everything a
human does is behavior, behavioral skills assessment can help educators working from a
behavior analytic lens better understand their students’ motivators, language skills, daily
living skills, academic skills, interactions with others, and responses. This chapter aims to:
(a) describe both criterion and norm-referenced assessments educators may use in special
education practice, (b) give guidance on the appropriate use of assessments, and (c)
provide examples of how assessment can be easily integrated into the classroom.
Carr, R. N. (Ed.).
© 2023 SLACK Incorporated..
74 Chapter 5
Chapter Objectives
ȘȘ Define assessment.
ȘȘ Discuss the purpose of assessment and the role of assessment in developing behavior
intervention and treatment plans.
ȘȘ Define and provide examples of at least three types of assessment.
ȘȘ Describe the use of and limitations of different assessments.
ȘȘ Explain the importance of reliability, validity, and accuracy when selecting an
assessment.
KEY TERMS
• Criterion-Referenced Assessment: Used to develop goals for an individual and to measure a
student’s progress, or lack thereof, on a specific goal. This form of assessment tends to have less
reliability and validity as they are not standardized and are often locally developed. This form
of assessment looks at an individual’s ability to master a specific skill or concept (Miller et al.,
2012).
• Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM): Initially designed to assess the learning growth of
students with disabilities. CBMs are standardized and have been proven to be reliable and valid.
This form of measurement requires multiple “probes” to be used to best assess the student’s over-
all growth of the concept. CBMs are an alternative to other assessment measures. The materials
and content used with CBMs are similar to what the students use and see everyday. The main
underlying principle of CBM is that the measure being used to assess understanding aligns with
the curriculum being used to educate the student (Hosp et al., 2016).
• Norm-Referenced Assessment: Standardized assessments where the scores are based on com-
parisons of the testing population. Norm-referenced assessments typically have detailed instruc-
tions and testing protocols that must be followed to ensure a valid score (Miller et al., 2012).
• Observational Assessment: Includes the direct observation of the student and the behavior
under review. By observing a student in a natural setting, under common conditions, the ob-
server can notate underlying functions of behavior and begin to evolve the environment to best
fit the student’s needs. Direct observational assessments provide information that was directly
seen by the observer. This information is valuable as it was not collected from other’s accounts
of the behavior and the environment it occurred in. Indirect observational assessments provide
information from others who have interacted with the student. This information is gathered
from interviews or questionnaires from caregivers, parents, and educators (Cooper et al., 2020;
Hadaway & Brue, 2016).
• Percentile Rank: Based on a norm group for the population taking the assessment. Scores go
up to 99 and go as low as 1. If a student were to receive a percentile rank of 36, then that would
translate to the student performing higher on the assessment than 36% of test takers. When
considering a percentile rank, it is important to note that for the majority of assessments 50% is
considered to be an average ranking (Miller et al., 2012).
• Standard Score: A number, the mean, and standard deviation that represents how a student
performed on an assessment. The score is not based on the scores of others in the testers pop-
ulation like a norm-referenced assessment. Standard scores allow for a comparison between
assessments, as the comparison scale remains the same with each administering of the assess-
ment. In most cases, assessments that use a standard score have a classification system to fur-
ther explain the meaning of the score. For example, if a student was administered the Bracken
School Readiness Assessment, Third Edition, and they received a standard score of 92, it would
be determined that the student scored within the average range. The Bracken School Readiness
Assessment of Behavior: Preference, Language, Academics, and Everything in Between 75
Assessment, Third Edition classification system states that a standard score between 85 and 115
is considered within the average range (Fraenkel et al., 2012).
• T-score: Viewed as the level in which a student performed on an assessment. A T-score is rela-
tive to a z-score except the mean is equal to 50 and the standard deviation is equal to 10. A
T-score states the student’s score in terms of standard deviations relative to the mean of 50. For
example, if a student’s T-score for a given assessment was 70, then it would be stated that the
student scored two standard deviations above the mean (Pierangelo & Giuliani, 2015).
• z-score: Used to state a student’s level of performance on an assessment. The z-score is used to
determine how many standard deviations a student scored above or below the mean. Z-scores
have a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. For example, if a student’s z-score for a given
assessment was -2, then it would be stated that the student scored 2 standard deviations below
the mean (McLeod, 2019).
Assessment
Assessment is a critical and often overlooked component of the behavioral intervention process.
If we consider the definition of behavior to be anything a human being does (Cooper et al., 2020), all
types of activities students engage in at school could be considered “behavior” (including academ-
ics). A strong, evidence-based approach to assessment can support the learning of positive behaviors
(e.g., increasing academic progress, demonstrating social skills, following procedures) and the re-
placing of maladaptive behaviors (e.g., calling out, elopement, hitting).
Assessment is an ongoing process that informs intervention and instruction. Planning instruc-
tion from identified areas of strength and need is best practice (Hott et al., 2019). All too often, as-
sessment is glossed over or even omitted. This practice is problematic because, without honing in on
the need through assessment, the selected intervention may not best meet the child’s needs or may
not even be targeting the right skill, leading to delays in intervention and less positive outcomes.
Comprehensive assessment is needed both to make determination of special education services
and provide quality instruction. This process typically involves a team of special educators and spe-
cialist providers, like school psychologists, social workers, speech-language pathologists, reading
specialists, occupational therapists, counselors, physical therapists, nurses, behavior analysts, or be-
havior specialists. Each person on the team has a specific role to play in both the assessment and in-
tervention determination process. As a group, these professionals determine the questions about the
student’s academic and other behaviors through conversation with stakeholders (including parents)
in what is typically known as a domains meeting. These experts then identify assessment tools that
will adequately measure the behaviors in question. The team members who are trained as behavior
analysts are uniquely suited to assessing and measuring behavior and interpreting the results of less
direct assessment in a behavior analytic way to better translate information into intervention or to
recommend further assessment based upon those results. Approximately 2 months will be taken to
perform the assessments, score, interpret, write a report, and schedule a meeting to share the results
with the stakeholders. Following that, an Individualized Education Program (IEP) is developed in
which goals are written and a plan to intervene on the student’s needs is developed. This process can
take a significant amount of time before an intervention can be put into place, upwards of one-third
of a school year.
Although comprehensive assessment is often more closely associated with the special education
evaluation process, classroom-based assessments can be used to assist with intervention determina-
tion and progress monitoring. These can include things like curricular-based measurements (CBMs;
Fuchs & Fuchs, 2002) or rating scales or observations and are relatively brief but high-quality as-
sessments. Classroom-based assessments have a place in the classroom and can be used to support
instruction and intervention decisions. For example, brief behavioral assessments (i.e., observations
and data collection, quick measures of performance fluency, behavior rating scale) can be used to
76 Chapter 5
quickly probe student skills and then implement an intervention sometimes immediately, but most
commonly within the week. These quick assessments can often be performed in about a minute.
Behavior analysts are experts in measures of behavior and can participate or lead all manner of
classroom-based assessment. Some examples of this type of assessment could include an assessment
of reading fluency, an assessment of math problem solving and comprehension, an assessment of
direction following skills, or a screening for social and emotional learning (Hill, 2017). With tools of
this nature in their toolkit, teachers can assess a wide variety of behaviors in a streamlined manner,
get a high-quality intervention based on student need in place, and begin monitoring that student’s
progress, all within the span of a couple of weeks. This is not to say that the special education evalu-
ation process is not helpful. Identifying the needs of children and assigning disability categories can
get more extensive services and access in place for the long term. Both methods identify student
needs to guide decisions regarding placement and service provision, but assessment can also be used
in less formal situations to get students the support they need. Teachers acting in a behavior analytic
way can use assessment to inform their practice with every kind of student and in every kind of
situation. The situation itself will dictate which (or both) methods need to be used and in what order.
Types of Assessments
There are several different types of assessments and the type a teacher might choose depends on
how they answer the W questions of assessment (Table 5-1). Questions like “When in the school year
should this assessment be given?” or “Why is this assessment needed?” can help determine which
assessment should be used.
Teachers operating from a behavior analytic framework can use all of these types of assessment
(and more! See Table 5-2) because the framework from which they operate dictates how they inter-
pret the results and why and how the information is useful.
Traditionally, behavior analysts have focused on assessment behavior strictly through the ob-
servation of the behavior in question. However, more indirect methods can be used, though the
assessor must be aware that measures like interviews or surveys completed by someone are less ac-
curate than actual observation of the behavior (Lopata et al., 2016). Reports on behavior of others
still can be effective means of gleaning information. Next, norm-referenced assessment, criterion-
referenced assessment, behavioral assessment, functional assessment, observational assessment, and
preference assessment are introduced.
Norm-Referenced Assessment
Behavior analytic assessment simply means examining the behaviors in which students engage,
breaking them down into observable and measurable components, and determining what is needed
to sustain, maintain, or improve those behaviors. When it comes to norm-referenced assessment,
that means the behaviors are examined in reference to a normed population or population sample.
This kind of assessment can be based on both direct observation or an indirect reporting of student
behavior (i.e., interview or checklist). Any number of behaviors can be measured using norm-refer-
enced assessment tools. Reading, for example, is an academic behavior that a teacher might measure
using a norm-referenced tool. (Braden, 2013).
A norm-referenced assessment produces scores that are determined by statistical analysis and
compared to a normative curve. This means these scores, typically z-scores or T-scores, are used to
compare a student’s performance to a representative population sample. Percentile ranks, confidence
intervals, and age and grade comparisons are also usually given in the score reports for these as-
sessments. Norm-referenced tests are one formal type of assessment with specific procedures and
scripted instructions that must be followed for the resulting scores to be considered valid. The scores
that result from assessment are based upon the normative sample (i.e., the students who were given
Table 5-1. Questions to Ask Yourself When

Planning to Assess a Student
When?
When in the school year should this assessment be given?
When during the school day?
When should this behavior be assessed?
Where?
Where is the best place to assess this behavior?
Where is the behavior occurring?
Where does the behavior need support?
Who?
Who is qualified to give this assessment?
Who works with this student the most?
Who is the most impacted by the behavior of this student?
Who works best with this student?
Who needs to be assessed (i.e., just one student? A small group of students? A larger group?)?
What?
What is the purpose of this assessment?
What is the behavior that needs to be assessed?
What information does the teacher need to gather?
Why?
Why is assessment needed?
How?
How long will it take to administer the assessment?
the assessment in the testing phase that match the group the assessment will ultimately be used for)
used to establish the instrument’s validity, reliability, and accuracy. When we talk about validity for
an assessment tool, that means that the assessment actually measures what it says that it measures.
When scoring and then sharing the results of assessments, it is extremely important that the assess-
ment can be interpreted and then used for its intended purpose. For example, if a norm-referenced
tool says that it measures reading ability, it should indeed measure a child’s ability to read fluently
and with comprehension and not their ability to look at pictures and retell a story. Reliability de-
scribes how consistently the assessment measures the same phenomenon in the same way. Using the
previous example, when Charlie, a second grader, was given the assessment, he scored at an early
second grade level, which was a valid score. Ainslie also scored at an early second grade level which is
also valid for her. A third student, Esperanza, scored the same, also valid. Accuracy is a description of
how precisely the assessment tool measures the phenomena of interest. With our reading assessment
example, this particular tool measures reading ability compared with typically developing peers to
the grade level and the trimester (i.e., fall, winter, spring). There might be another tool that is less
precise and only measures the grade level, and another tool that is more precise and assigns a score
that aligns more closely with the stage in the learning to read process the student is presently.
78 Chapter 5
Table 5-2. Types of Assessment Behavior Analysts

Can Conduct in School Settings
Observe and collect Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence (ABC) data to complete a functional
behavior assessment (FBA)
Complete a Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC) assessment as an IEP team member
to support the student’s placement
Complete a Social Skills Improvement System Rating Scales (SSIS) assessment to contribute to the
development of IEP goals
Support classroom educators’ complete observation and scaled assessments
Complete a Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program (VB-MAPP) to assess
verbal skills to assist classroom educators’ in providing supports for the student
Conduct an Essential for Living (EFL) assessment to identify adaptive and social skills deficits to
develop IEP goals
Complete an Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) to help with identifications for
special education
Observe a student in the classroom and take baseline data to begin the Response to Intervention
(RtI) process
And so much more!
Norm-referenced assessments can come in several forms, from a fully standardized, scripted,
direct assessment (like the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children [Wechsler, 2014] or the Kaufman
Test of Educational Achievement [KTEA; Kaufman & Kaufman, 2014] to a survey that a parent or
teacher completes to rate their opinions of the child’s behavior. The differences between cognitive
and achievement assessment batteries will be discussed later in the chapter. Norm-referenced assess-
ment tools are typically used to compare a student’s development relative to same age or same grade
peers or to determine a disability (Pierangelo & Giuliani, 2015). See Table 5-3 for some examples of
direct assessments.
Using assessments that are standardized on a sample of a population can be very helpful when
assessing behavior to determine whether the behavior a student is demonstrating is atypical enough
from the population to warrant intervention. Behavior rating scales like the BASC (Reynolds &
Kamphaus, 2015) or Conners 3 (Conners, 2008) have options for scoring that include comparisons
to the typically developing student population, the population sample of children diagnosed with
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, or the population of children diagnosed with a mood disor-
der, among others. It is another way to analyze the resulting scores to determine the level of signifi-
cance. Norm-referenced assessments are important tools for school staff as they give some external
validation to the results of other types of assessment (i.e., when a teacher observes a behavior that
also shows up in the atypical or clinically significant range compared on a norm-referenced behavior
rating scale). This can support a referral for special education or a specific classification for special
education services (Pierangelo & Giuliani, 2015).
As mentioned previously, norm-referenced assessment is highly standardized, both in terms
of administration and scoring. The process of conducting assessment aligns with the technological
dimension of applied behavior analysis, as there has been a specific protocol developed based on his-
tory of response to a set of items that should be followed consistently and systematically to produce
the same result (Cooper et al., 2020). The tests can be direct assessments of behavior with the student
Table 5-3. Examples of Direct and Indirect Assessments

Examples of Direct Assessments
Assessments How Often Can It Be Given?
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) No more frequently than every 12 months
Woodcock–Johnson Tests of Alternate testing protocols can be given every
Cognitive Abilities IV (WJ IV) 12 months
Stanford–Binet (SB-5) No more frequently than every 12 months
Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT) No more frequently than every 12 months
Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement No more frequently than every 12 months
(KTEA)
Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule Every 12 months to track development
(ADOS)
Example of Indirect Assessments
Assessments How Often Can It Be Given?
Behavior Assessment System for Children Rater should know the student for 6 to 8 weeks
(BASC) prior to administration
Can be given periodically to track progress
Conners 3 Conners 3 can be administered routinely as a
screening to help identify students that require
further attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
evaluation or to monitor progress
Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale (BERS) Can be given periodically to track progress
Childhood Autism Rating Scale, Annually (around 12 months) to track change in
Second Edition (CARS–2) symptom presentation
Gilliam Autism Rating Scale (GARS) Annually (around 12 months) to track change in
symptom presentation
Social Skills Improvement System Rating Scales Can be given periodically to track progress
(SSIS)
Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, Periodically (beginning around 4 months) to
Third Edition (Vineland–3) track progress
Repeated administering of the assessment
should only be done when completing the
same version
present and performing directed tasks, examples of which include the WIAT (Wechsler, 2020), the
ADOS (Lord, et al., 2012), Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development (Bayley, 2005), Mullen
Scales of Early Learning (Mullen, 1995), among others. Tests can also be indirect checklists or rat-
ing scales, examples of which include the BASC-3, Conners 3, and Childhood Autism Rating Scale,
Second Edition (Schopler et al., 2010). Table 5-4 provides a list of commonly used norm-referenced
assessments in the school setting.
The answers and scoring are very objective and result in standardized scores calculated either
with an online scoring software or with the help of a manual. The results are then compared to peers
using percentile ranks and descriptive buckets according to where the scores fall on a normative
80 Chapter 5
Table 5-4. Norm-Referenced Assessments Typically

Used in School Settings
Direct Assessments
Behavior Assessed Assessments Assessor Typical Use
Cognitive WIAT School psychologist Special education
abilities/thinking WJ IV qualification for
cognitive impairment
SB–5
or learning disabilities
WPPSI
Academic Achievement Test School psychologist Special education
achievement KTEA Special education qualification for
teacher various disability
WJ IV
categories
Behavior analyst
Challenging behavior Observation Classroom teacher RtI
FBA Special education Special education
teacher evaluation
School psychologist
Behavior analyst
Inattentiveness/ Conners 3 School psychologist Special education
hyperactivity evaluation
Autism eligibility ADOS School psychologist Special education
or special education qualification for autism
teacher who has disability category
completed the ADOS
training
Social skills TRIAD Social Skills Any education Special education
Assessment professional evaluation
Indirect Assessments
Challenging behaviors BASC School psychologist Special education
Conners 3 Social worker qualification for
emotional and
BERS Special education
behavioral disorders
teacher
(EBD) or other health
Behavior analyst impairment (OHI)
(continued)
Table 5-4 (continued). Norm-Referenced Assessments Typically

Used in School Settings
Indirect Assessments
Challenging behaviors BASC School psychologist Special education
Conners 3 Social worker qualification for EBD
or OHI
BERS Special education
teacher
Behavior analyst
Rating scales for CARS School psychologist Special education
autism screening Gilliam Autism Rating qualification for autism
Scale disability category
Social Communication
Questionnaire
Social skills SSIS Any educational Special education
Assessment of Social professional qualification for EBD
and Communication or autism
Skills
Adaptive skills Vineland–3 School psychologist Special education
Adaptive Behavior Social worker qualification
Assessment Systems Special education
teacher
Behavior analyst
curve. The resultant standard scores are typically T-scores or z-scores. T-scores are standardized
scores that, when calculated by subtracting the population mean from the sample mean and divid-
ing that by the sample standard deviation divided by the square root of the sample size, have a mean
of 50 (average score of all the scores in the sample) and a standard deviation of 10 (the measure of
how narrowly or broadly the scores in the sample vary around the mean). Z-scores are standardized
scores that, when calculated by subtracting the mean of the sample from the raw score, then dividing
the standard deviation of the sample, has a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. T-scores are typi-
cally used when the sample size is less than 30 and the population standard deviation is unknown.
If the sample size is above 30 and the population standard deviation is known, a z-score is used. IQ
and achievement assessments will often take these a step further and use deviation standard scores
(mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15 or mean of 10 and standard deviation of 3). In most cases,
you will not be asked to calculate standard scores as the scoring software will do that for you, but it
is helpful to understand the origins of these scores when interpreting the assessment results (Braden,
2013). Some examples of how these scores are reported can be seen in sample reports accessible
from publisher websites. Two examples of which include an example WIAT with the scores plotted
on a normative curve (https://www.pearsonassessments.com/content/dam/school/global/clinical/
us/assets/wiat-4/wiat-4-sample-parent-report.pdf) and a BASC-3 that offers examples of how these
standard scores are interpreted (https://www.pearsonassessments.com/content/dam/school/global/
clinical/us/assets/basc-3/basc-3-rating-scales-report-with-intervention-recommendations-sample.
pdf).
82 Chapter 5
Norm-referenced assessments measure many constructs but must be interpreted in the context
of their purpose. Direct (i.e., the student is asked a question or observed directly engaging in a task)
norm-referenced assessments are NOT to be used for curriculum planning or even intervention
planning. Their purpose is to examine a slice of student behavior that acts as an indicator of global
functioning. These assessments take place over a couple of hours in an isolated clinical setting, dur-
ing which time it is impossible to assess every single skill needing intervention. Rather, these assess-
ments serve to identify the categories in which the student has deficits that need further pinpointing
for intervention. This is where the criterion-referenced assessments will come in (Miller et al., 2012).
The role of the behavior analyst or special education professional working within a behavior analytic
framework is to interpret these results from that perspective for the broader team, whether that is an
IEP team, an RtI team, or a behavior problem solving team. Think about these results in light of what
they tell you about a student given the context and that more information then needs to be gathered
to specifically measure the identified needs.
Indirect assessments (when scored using the online software component) will often generate a
list of areas for intervention along with suggestions for intervention. These assessments typically go
into more specific details about contextual skills that teachers or parents observe so these recom-
mendations can be made with more confidence. However, the team should also take these recom-
mendations within the broader context of all the assessments conducted and only then determine
a course of action. These too should be considered a jumping off point for further, direct, targeted
assessment.
There are qualifications associated with giving norm-referenced assessments. This is because the
criteria for giving the direct assessments and the criteria for scoring both types of assessments are
both so specific that master’s level training is typically required. Classes on administration and basic
statistical analysis should be taken before most types of direct assessment are performed. This is not
because the scoring or administration is particularly difficult; rather, the interpretation can be vastly
misconstrued if the basics of psychometrics are not understood. The interpretation is a vitally impor-
tant component of IEP development and determining what further assessments are necessary. The
professional who administers these assessments should be well versed in administration procedures.
It is not a requirement to have been trained in graduate school to give every assessment on the mar-
ket. The general skills related to administration and scoring are taught so that the school-based pro-
fessional can give any new type of assessment by studying the manual and rehearsing the assessment
process several times before assessing an actual student (Braden, 2013). There are, however, some
assessments that require additional extensive training in programs that are conducted directly by the
publisher. The ADOS is one such example, where the assessor needs to complete a 2-day workshop in
addition to previous formal training in order to be qualified to administer the assessment (Lord et al.,
2012). Publishers typically list the qualifications for administering assessments on their websites and
require proof of credentials before placing an order. These additional qualifications are not necessar-
ily a part of the behavior analytic course of study, but the behavior analyst is uniquely suited to view
and interpret norm-referenced assessment through a behavior analytic lens and to help their school
team understand that these types of assessments are not the best tools for intervention planning on
their own, but that direct observation over time with additional collection of data is necessary.
Reading and interpreting score reports can sometimes be the most challenging part of giving a
norm-referenced assessment. However, if the school-based professional who has administered this
test has been adequately trained, their interpretation and reporting should be helpful to the rest of
the team. Even so, it would be helpful for all educators to understand the basics of what is generated
in order to better support their students, even if just to know which area of need to assess further
with criterion-based or curricular measures.
Case Study
Cynthia is a 6-year-old kindergarten student who is attending school for the first time. Before at-
tending kindergarten, she stayed at home with her biological mother and is an only child. At home,
Cynthia’s mother notices a few behaviors that seem odd, but with no other children for comparison in
the home, she is unsure if they are developmentally appropriate. Within a few weeks of Cynthia attend-
ing school, the teacher asks her mother to come in for a meeting. At the meeting, Cynthia’s kindergar-
ten teacher, mother, and the school’s special education teacher discuss a few behaviors that have been
observed. Specifically, Cynthia has been observed grabbing her ears when loud noises occur, she has a
difficult time at lunch as she does not like any food choices, and she has yet to engage in cooperative
play with other students. As a team, they decide to move forward and start the special education refer-
ral process. Once Ms. Braggs (Cynthia’s kindergarten teacher), Cynthia’s mother, school administration,
and the school psychometrist (who will administer any evaluations) consented for an evaluation, the
team agreed to complete an ADOS, CARS, and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence
(WPPSI). At the next meeting, the results of the assessments were reviewed with the team.
The ADOS results include social effects and restricted and repetitive behaviors domains. For social
effect, the examiners noted that Cynthia often offered information about her thoughts or feelings, but the
conversation was not reciprocal with the examiner. The examiner noted that Cynthia pulled at her ears
nine times throughout the assessment for restricted and repetitive behaviors. The main topic of conversa-
tion was rainbows despite the examiner’s attempt to change the topic. Cynthia’s scores meet the criteria
for autism as per the ADOS, Second Edition scoring protocol.
The CARS is an assessment method that separates a student’s scores into one of four categories. For
a student 6 years old or under, like Cynthia, the scoring goes as follows: 15 to 29.5 is minimal-to-no, 30
to 36.5 is mild-to-moderate, and 37 or higher is within the severe symptoms range. Cynthia’s general
education teacher filled out the rating scale with a raw score of 33, which is within the mild-to-moderate
range.
The WPPSI is used to assess a student’s comprehension and reasoning and determine a full-scale
IQ. Five domains are scored, and then a full-scale IQ is determined. The five domains are verbal com-
prehension, visual-spatial, fluid reasoning, working memory, and processing speed. An average score is
between 85 and 115. Cynthia’s full-scale IQ was determined to be 97, within the average range.
Criterion-Referenced Assessment
Criterion-referenced assessment, on the other hand, is tied not to a normative sample but to a
set of criteria that the assessment designer determined to be most important and relevant to assess-
ing the construct in question. Each criterion is operationally defined, and the student is given points
toward meeting those criteria. These assessments can be conducted through observation alone, in-
terview of someone familiar with the student, or direct assessment. The scores that result from a cri-
terion-referenced assessment are typically used to compare the student to themselves, but sometimes
have an estimate of the score a typically developing child at that age should achieve. Some examples
of typically used criterion-referenced assessments include the VB-MAPP (Sundberg, 2008) or the
EFL (McGreevy et al., 2012).
CBM is a type of criterion-referenced assessment that is tied to a specific skill. CBM is short
and fluency-based to get a snapshot of a skill in order to determine if further assessment is needed
(benchmark screening) or to be used for progress-monitoring purposes. Preschool skills, reading
fluency, reading comprehension, math fact fluency, and math comprehension are all skills that are
commonly assessed using CBM. These typically do have norms attached to them, but also have the
unique capability of allowing a district or school building to develop local norms for comparative
84 Chapter 5
purposes. Some examples of CBMs include Individual Growth and Development Indicators (Carta
et al., 2005), AIMSweb (NCS Pearson, 2012), or Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
(University of Oregon, 2018). CBMs fall into the category of behavioral assessment as they are direct
observations of a specific behavior. Fluency of student behavior is vitally important to mastery of
skills, and CBMs directly examine academic behavior across a unit of time. CBMs are indicators
of broader skill repertoires, like some other assessments that have been discussed, but as they are
direct assessment of skills, they provide a launchpad for error analysis and further component and
composite skill analysis.
It cannot be said enough that the person administering assessment should be prepared to do so
and ensure accuracy in administration, scoring, and interpreting according to what the assessment
creator intended. Even though criterion-referenced assessment might not have as much standard-
ization or rules associated, extreme care should be taken so that the information being gathered
and presented is correct. Misinterpretation can cause harm to students in either underestimating or
overestimating skills, resulting in instruction that does not match student need, which can ultimately
result in more problem behavior and a lack of learning and increased discrepancy from peers. High-
quality assessment practices are just as important as high-quality instructional practices (Miller et
al., 2012).
This type of assessment is much more accessible to either a general education classroom teacher
or a special education classroom teacher. These assessments are tied to a set of skills (criterion)
identified by the assessment creator as necessary for success in a certain type of environment. The
assessments are sometimes designed as checklists and, other times, as direct assessment with specific
criteria for a “correct” response. The purpose of criterion-referenced assessments is to identify holes
in behavior repertoires to then inform instruction. These assessments typically do not have manda-
tory qualifications for who can give them, as long as the person giving them receives the appropriate
training (ranging from either a web-based or in-person workshop to just reading the manual), they
can administer and interpret the assessment, as long as they abide by best practices and assessment
protocols. Behavior analysts can apply their skills of behavior measurement, graphing, and interpret-
ing graphed information to this type of assessment with ease.
The data gathered from norm-referenced assessments can be used to decide which criterion-
referenced assessments should be given. For example, if a child scored relatively low on a cognitive
assessment, a teacher might want to use the PEAK Relational Training System (Dixon, 2014) assess-
ment to determine which areas of cognition could use further instruction and to pinpoint the spe-
cific skills that need to be taught. As another example, if a child scored in a deficit range on the SSIS,
a teacher might want to use the Assessment of Social and Communication Skills for Individuals with
Autism Spectrum Disorder, Revised (ASCS-2; Quill & Brusnahan, 2017) to identify specific social
skill deficits to target with that student.
Criterion-referenced assessments will not typically have web-based scoring components. A few
do that are widely used, such as VB-MAPP or EFL, but overall these assessments consist of a manual
and a scoring sheet, where the points are added up and compared to a standard. Some assessments
give rough estimates of what typical children at various stages are capable of. For example, the VB-
MAPP is arranged in tiers, where performance scores primarily in the Tier 1 range indicate the skills
of a typically developing 0 to 18-month-old child. Other assessments focus more on how many boxes
were left unchecked and to focus on those skills first. For example, the ASCS-2 has categories of
social skills, and then those are ranked according to skills that are completely absent, emerging, mas-
tered, or generalized, which helps the assessor or teacher determine which should be targeted first.
Often, criterion-referenced assessments will also include goal banks to help teachers craft IEP
goals. The VB-MAPP and the ASCS-2 both have goal banks for that purpose. In crafting appropriate
SMART (specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and timely) goals, it is important to go beyond
the goal bank. Consider the student’s baseline levels and the context. In addition, goals pulled from
prepopulated banks typically need to be individualized rather than just used as is to ensure the stu-
dent has a goal appropriate to their particular set of circumstances. Do not just copy and paste from
a goal bank. Use those goal banks as a jumping off point to craft highly individual goals because they
are not always perfect. The goals identified by the assessment should serve to inform instruction,
but further assessment may be needed. If an academic skill deficit has been identified, for example,
the teacher might have a good idea of which curriculum would be a good fit for that student but
may need to give a placement test to further determine where in that curriculum the student begins.
Perhaps a social skills assessment identified an area of need, but the special education teacher who
leads several social-emotional learning groups needs to probe further to determine which skills the
student is actually missing to determine which group would be the best fit.
Criterion-referenced assessments can be given as often as is appropriate. After all, the purpose
of these assessments is to determine instructional needs. Teachers can use these in their classrooms,
typically have all the credentials needed to administer, and can interpret on their own. Some ex-
amples of criterion-referenced assessments can be found in Table 5-5.
Specific assessments exist depending upon the skill that needs to be assessed. Behavior ana-
lysts think about everything a human does as behavior and, therefore, assessable. Again, when we
talk about “behavioral assessment,” that just means an objective, observable, and definable means of
assessment.
After the team determined that Cynthia qualified for special education services, an IEP was created
and implemented. The goals within the IEP addressed appropriate school behaviors and early reading
skills. One of the goals states, “Cynthia will be able to correctly answer 10 out of 12 questions about
the concept of print (e.g., the layout of text, the orientation of books, the difference between letters and
words, sequence of reading) to be determined through a bimonthly CBM assessment and reported in a
9-week report card.” Every 2 weeks, Cynthia’s special education teacher administers the concept of print
CBM assessment, using a different developmentally appropriate book each time. The special education
teacher can assess Cynthia’s current understanding of the concept and make adjustments to her instruc-
tion if needed.
Behavioral Assessment of Language and Cognition

There are several criterion-referenced assessment tools that can measure language and cogni-
tion skills and can be used to remediate student skills. These tools typically measure language skills
like verbal and written receptive and expressive language, as well as cognitive skills like perspec-
tive taking, information processing (both decoding and encoding), logic and reasoning, auditory
and visual processing, speed of processing information, memory, and attention. The VB-MAPP,
Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills, and PEAK are all examples of assessment tools
that measure these skills. All three tools have visual representations of the assessment results, which
are color coded according to the date of assessment and can be given as often as needed to determine
student progress.
There are few criterion-based assessments that have standardized instructions, as the tools are
really just checklists of general skills and the person administering the assessment can decide on the
stimuli to be used, the order of administration, the words to say, how many assessment sessions to
conduct, and so on. The PEAK assessment has a bit more standardization and structure to the assess-
ment and has a built-in preassessment to use as a screener.
These assessments can take upwards of several hours to complete if the student is on the higher
end of the range of skills but can also be completed primarily through an interview of someone who
knows the student really well or through several observations of the student in a free operant setting
where they might demonstrate the required skills. Be prepared to use multiple assessment sessions
(which can just consist of periods of observation) and to modify the environment to get the needed
information.
86 Chapter 5
Table 5-5. Criterion-Referenced Behavioral Assessments

Typically Used in Schools
Assessment Description Purpose Age Ranges
Name
Behavioral Assessment of Language and Cognition
VB-MAPP Assessment of a child’s Determine present 0 to 4 years old
verbal and related skills levels and monitor
progress
Assessment of Basic Assess a child’s language Determine present 0 to 12 years old
Language and and learning capabilities levels and monitor
Learning Skills progress
PEAK Applied behavior analysis Determine present 0 to 16 years old
assessment and treatment levels and monitor
program progress
Behavioral Assessment of Autism Spectrum Disorder Symptoms
ADOS Activity-based Diagnose autism 12 months
assessment to evaluate spectrum disorder through
communication skills, adulthood
social interaction, and
imaginative use of
materials
Behavioral Assessment of Academics
CBMs Short assessments of Determine how School-aged
academic fluency students are children
progressing in basic
academic areas
Behavioral Assessment of Social Skills
ASCS-2 Skills checklist and Assess social skills, 3 to 18 years old
interview to assess social prioritize needs,
and related skills target goals, and
plan intervention,
typically for students
with autism spectrum
disorder
TRIAD Relatively brief, easy- Assess skills in the 6 to 12 years old
to-administer tool for areas of cognitive,
evaluating the complex behavioral, and
social profiles of children affective skills
with autism spectrum
disorder
Developmental Profile Interview and skills Identify 0 to 22 years old
checklists completed by developmental
teachers and caregivers strengths and
weaknesses in
children
Scoring also varies a great deal on these assessments. Two of the previously mentioned tools,
VB-MAPP and PEAK, have rough alignments to age ranges but are not truly standardized like a
norm-referenced assessment. Scores can be calculated, but those scores are not standard scores. They
are meant to be used to compare the student’s performance to themselves over time. These tools are
also not meant to be used as curriculums, which unfortunately, they often are. All do contain a broad
list of skills that students should obtain as they develop, but they are far from comprehensive. They
often make big leaps in skill development without considering component skills. That is the job of
the educator to think analytically about the student, their needs in light of what was assessed (and
also observed and reported), and craft an educational strategy that meets the child at their present
level for maximum growth.
Behavioral Assessment of Disability

Behavioral assessment can also be used to determine whether or not the criterion for a diagnosis
is met. There are a variety of checklists (criterion-referenced measures) and indirect questionnaires
(norm-referenced measures) that can help with ruling in or out a diagnosis when considering eligi-
bility for special education and which category of disability best describes the student’s needs. These
tools are less “behavioral” in nature due to the more speculative nature of indirect questionnaires or
checklists. The behavior was observed at some point, but often by the time the surveys are completed,
the details are not as accurate. Personal bias can also color the answers provided on these assessment
tools. These tools also tend to have less than precise answers to the questions (i.e., never, sometimes,
often, or always) rather than assigning specific measurement to the behavior. They should be con-
sidered a jumping off point for further collection of information (i.e., direct observation and mea-
surement of behaviors across time, context, and with precision) to support a diagnosis rather than a
definitive answer.
Direct assessment of disability is harder to come by with tools that have been tested for accuracy,
validity, and reliability. The ADOS is one such assessment for the diagnosis of autism spectrum dis-
order. The kit requires the person administering the assessment to contrive situations in which the
symptoms of autism spectrum disorder can be observed. Extensive training is required to be certified
to administer the ADOS (about 2 full days of training). This is a unique assessment to determine a
diagnosis (Lord et al., 2012). Most other diagnoses for special education eligibility are determined
by a combination of the methods described above and are done with a consensus of the entire team,
along with a professional trained in differential diagnosis (i.e., a school psychologist).
Behavioral Assessment of Social Skills

Assessing social skills is an important part of intervention across all age ranges. Often, the first
interaction children have with same-aged peers is when they attend school for the first time. With
older children who struggle with social skills deficits, that gap just continues to grow more dramati-
cally over time without intervention. Being able to engage in associative or cooperative play is typi-
cal of a child entering kindergarten. When a student has been in the school setting and is not yet
participating in play with other students, the ethical step is to assess and pinpoint the needed social
skill to give more insight to the teacher and how they can support the student with peers. Social skills
assessments tend to be indirect measures, such as norm-referenced behavior screeners, teacher or
parent questionnaire, or as a criterion-referenced skills checklist. However, there are a few that are
direct assessments of social skills (like the TRIAD from Vanderbilt; Stone et al., 2010). All of these
tools allow educators to pinpoint the exact deficit or aid the special education team in intervention
planning. As with all behaviors, identifying the absent behavior (in this case, a lack of appropriate
ways to enter play or means to express their needs) makes it possible for the educator to teach them
the skill. These assessments can be done with special education students to track progress toward
a goal or with general education students to begin intervention through a RtI process. Assessment
should be flexible and meet the needs of the student and team and may vary depending upon the
identified disability or the way that social skills deficits are manifesting in the particular context
(Freeman & Cronin, 2017).
88 Chapter 5
Social skills assessments are not curricula. Assessments can pinpoint an area of need, aid in goal
creation, and help educators locate the most appropriate curricula. As with academic skills, specific
social skills can be taught using a curriculum. In these instances, the assessment will reveal the deficit
or need and be used as a guide to select appropriate lessons. Several of the assessment tools men-
tioned previously have partnered curriculums to help simplify the assessment to instruction process.
Cynthia has been receiving direct instruction in the area of social skills. The special education
teacher and Cynthia discuss appropriate social skills, work through scenarios, and practice entering
and exiting play appropriately. Each month Cynthia’s special education teacher observes her while she
is playing with students in her general education class. The special education teacher observes and takes
notes on Cynthia’s interactions with her peers during the observation. At the end of the observation, the
special education teacher returns to her room and finishes writing her observation notes. Next, she fills
out the kindergarten social skills checklist. Each skill has been identified as developmentally appropriate
for a typical developing kindergarten student (e.g., remains involved in a single activity/game for at least
10 minutes, follows two-step directions when given by an adult). The checklist asks the observer to mark
one of the following for each skill: 1—Not Applicable (NA), not applicable as the behavior has not been
introduced; 2—Not Yet (NY), the behavior has been introduced, and the student cannot perform the
behavior currently; 3—In Progress (IP), the behavior has been introduced and can be performed inter-
mittently; and 4—Mastered (M), the behavior is being performed appropriately without prompting. The
special education teacher uses the score to determine IEP progress-monitoring percentages, determine
current levels of mastery, and make adjustments to instruction as needed.
Behavioral Assessment of Challenging Behavior

Cynthia is making progress on her IEP goals in both academic and social skills. Recently she has
been continuously sent out of music class for “disruptive behaviors” despite using a visual schedule and
the addition of a teacher’s aide attending music with her. The special education teacher discusses with
the team that the collection of ABC data may be beneficial when determining why Cynthia is having
“disruptive behaviors” within the music class. The team agrees that ABC data collection is needed before
attempting additional interventions or adjusting Cynthia’s schedule. The special education teacher at-
tends music with Cynthia the next time she is scheduled to go. The special education teacher sits in the
back of the room and informs both the music teacher and the teacher’s aide that she will not interact
with any students and is there to observe. As music class begins, Cynthia continues to look at the special
education teacher instead of engaging in the lesson. After a few minutes, Cynthia stops looking at the
back of the room and begins participating in the lesson. On her observation form, the special educa-
tion teacher has noted that she is specifically looking for what occurs around the “disruptive behavior,”
which is defined as “leaving one’s designated seat without permission.” The definitions for the behavior
were determined after speaking with the music teacher and teacher’s aide about what behaviors were
being considered disruptive. The special education teacher noted when the behavior occurred, and what
occurred before and after the behavior. After attending music and collecting the ABC data, the special
education teacher notes that each disruptive behavior occurs when the music teacher gives Cynthia a de-
mand (a task or assignment) and each time the music teacher sends her out of the room to “take a walk”
with the teacher’s aide. The next time Cynthia attends music, the special education teacher attends with
her. Each time Cynthia left her chair without permission, she was prompted to return and continue the
assignment or activity. After leaving her seat three times and being prompted to return, Cynthia stopped
the behavior. Cynthia attempted to leave her seat at the beginning of the next two music sessions, but
the data showed it did not continue after that. The special education teacher was able to determine that
the function of the behavior was escape. Prompting Cynthia to return to her seat and not go on a walk
caused a decrease in the behavior. Without collecting the ABC data, this conclusion may have taken a
long time or not have been reached at all.
Functional Assessment
Behavioral assessments for challenging behaviors are used to pinpoint the function of the be-
havior and support identification of needed intervention. ABC observational assessments are used to
find the function of the behavior and are described in detail in the observational assessment section.
Most schools have staff members trained in assessing and intervening upon behavior, and these per-
sonnel (like behavior analysts, school psychologists, social workers, and behavior specialists) can be
invaluable resources. However, many schools are short staffed or located in areas where specialized
staff are difficult to find. Another option for educators when working through challenging behaviors
is the PBISWorld website (https://www.pbisworld.com/). The website guides the user through the
three tiers of behavior management. The user chooses from the list of behaviors and descriptions.
The website then aids the user in determining the best and least restrictive intervention. It is impor-
tant to start at Tier 1 and work through the least restrictive interventions before moving into Tier 2
or 3. Although the behavior is challenging and can strain the educator, going through the tiers cor-
rectly is ethical, and performing assessment prior to intervention is vitally important. Even though
the behavior appears to be intense, a more invasive intervention could hinder the student’s success
or even exacerbate the problem. For example, a student is engaging in disruptive behaviors. The edu-
cator would open the website and click disruptive. The website will then give the user a description
of the behavior. If the description accurately depicts the behavior being observed in the classroom,
then the user would click “yes” at the bottom of the page. The website will then provide tips for
implementation, possible interventions, and data tracking forms. Just as with academic behavior,
tracking data is an important part of managing challenging behaviors. Without data, the educator
cannot make an informed decision about moving to a different intervention, when to discontinue or
fade out the intervention, and ultimately moving through the tiers to a potential special education
evaluation. The website is a positive and free resource for educators who may not have access to other
assessments and interventions.
Observational Assessment
Observational assessment may be one of the more common methods of assessing behavior be-
cause as long as the observer is well-versed in the specifics of behavior, no formal tool is needed.
Observational assessment is akin to the hammer or the screwdriver of the behavior analyst’s toolbox;
it can be used to measure just about any kind of behavior. It might not give you a comparison to peers
like a norm-referenced assessment or to a set of standards like a criterion-referenced assessment, but
it will tell you what the student is doing, how the student is doing it, how often they are doing it, to
what magnitude they are doing it, how long it takes them to do it, how fluently they are doing it, etc.
(Cooper et al., 2020).
Count or frequency of behavior, duration of behavior, intensity of behavior, and antecedents/
consequences of behavior are all commonly recorded by observers. Teachers can easily record be-
havior in this way. There are a variety of ways to do observational assessment, probably just as many
as the type of person who can record them. There are options for formal worksheets, apps, or tools
that help the assessor record and manage data that are collected. It can also be as simple as making
tally marks on a sticky note or stopping and starting the timer on a smartphone to calculate a total
duration of a behavior. In schools, due to the need for comparison to standards, the importance of
observation can be overlooked. However, observation is vital to support the scores calculated from
indirect assessment and quantify how the behavior manifests in the actual school environment. It
also gives the baseline information from which to determine how to intervene and where to set the
goal. When talking about behavior change, knowing the numbers is incredibly important. You can-
not show that an invention worked if there was not a measured behavior to compare over time. This
goes for all behaviors that a student demonstrates: academic, social, problematic, or anything else.
Completing an indirect assessment is insufficient; behavior must be observed (Cooper et al., 2020).
90 Chapter 5
Table 5-6. Example ABC Assessment Tool

Student name: Date:
Observation start time: Observation end time:
Target behavior (operationally defined):
Time Antecedent Behavior Consequence Result
Attention Verbal Continued
given to peer reprimand Stopped
Attention Redirection Intensified
given to student Ignored
Attention from Other
a peer
Demand
Transition
a peer
Demand
Transition
a peer
Demand
Transition
Total observation time:
Total occurrences for observation period:
Student name: Date:
Classroom teachers can use observational assessments to document classroom behaviors and
determine the best intervention for the student. Table 5-6 is an ABC observational assessment that
is partially completed, to serve as a model for new users in collecting appropriate data. The form is
used when one is directly observing a specific student who is performing the target behavior. It is
important to topographically define the behavior, that is, describe in objective terms what the be-
havior looks like. This will give the observer a clear idea of what they are documenting on the form
and allow others to observe and collect data with the same definition. If a behavior is occurring in
multiple settings different times throughout the day or week, then ABC data should be collected in
each setting, time, and day (Alberto & Troutman, 2012).
Being objective is an important part of completing any observational assessment; the assessor
should only record exactly what is observed. For example, if a “tantrum” is observed, it should be
written down as exactly what is observed, rather than recording that a tantrum happened. More ap-
propriate would be to record that the “student laid down on the carpet, face down, and hit the floor
with closed fists six times.” This statement objectively describes the behavior that was observed in
a way that anyone could measure it and without connotation. It would be inappropriate to write
“student threw a tantrum on the ground because he always gets what he wants,” as that includes the
observer’s opinion about the behavior. The goal of the ABC assessment is to analyze the environmen-
tal conditions around the behavior, as well as begin to develop a hypothesis about the function of the
target behavior. By knowing the function of the behavior, one can create an intervention plan to best
suit the student. It is important to always gather data before determining the function as it should not
be based on an assumption or opinion (Cooper et al., 2012).
Table 5-7 is an assessment tool that measures the level of prompting necessary for a student to
emit a specific behavior. As the ultimate goal is for students to emit behaviors and complete tasks
with full independence, knowing their present level of prompt need is vital. Before a student can gain
independence, the level of prompting it currently takes for the student to complete the task must be
determined. Then, prompting can be decreased to full independence. There are seven levels within
the prompting hierarchy, moving from least to most restrictive: independent, visual, gestural, verbal,
model, partial physical, and full physical. Examples of each prompting level are included in Table
5-7. It is important to note that caretakers, educators, and clinicians should use the least restrictive
prompt necessary for task completion at all times. Much like the ABC data, prompting data should
be collected in multiple locations and times. The setting in which the data is being collected should
not be contrived, meaning that it should be the natural environment in which behaviors are typically
observed. If any adults work with the student in that setting, they should proceed as if they are not
being observed as much as is possible so that the data collected is accurate. A summary of the simi-
larities and differences of norm, criterion, and observational assessment can be found in Figure 5-1.
Preference Assessment
Assessing a student’s preference for participation in the school environment (i.e., the physical
setting, the people, and the sensory surroundings for students) that can be objectively described
may be one of the more important types of assessment in which educators engage (Tiger & Kliebert,
2011). If there is no motivating operation established for learning (Cooper et al., 2020), the stu-
dent is not going to engage in learning behavior. Taking that even further, if there is no motivation
to participate in assessment, it will be even more challenging to determine the student’s strengths
and needs, and it will be much more difficult to design instruction. Preference assessment involves
systematically examining what a student prefers to play with, eat, engage with, look at, touch, and
so on in order to determine what might motivate them to complete tasks they do not particularly
enjoy. These assessments can be very formal and structured or very informal and loose and can eas-
ily be conducted inside the classroom in a short amount of time (Hagopian et al., 2004). Anyone can
conduct a preference assessment once they have been given some brief training and opportunities
for practice. These assessments are powerful tools to increase student motivation to engage with less
preferred tasks and often reveal surprises about what students prefer (Tullis et al., 2011).
In the following sections, we will discuss the different types of preference assessment, how to
conduct them, considerations for doing so, and tips and tricks to make these more meaningful and
valuable to include in the classroom. See Table 5-8 for a description of the different types of prefer-
ence assessments.
Depending on the level of the student, a teacher could begin with a somewhat structured prefer-
ence assessment or a very unstructured preference assessment. Teachers of general education class-
rooms run preference assessments all the time. They send home a “getting to know you” form before
school starts where parents can tell what their child likes and dislikes. For children who need a more
92 Chapter 5
Table 5-7. Direct Assessment of Prompting Levels

Student name: Date:
Observation start time: Observation end time:
Independent (I): The student can complete tasks without prompting or assistance.
Visual (V): Example—The teacher points to a picture of a raised hand to prompt the student to
raise their hand.
Gestural (G): Example—The student is wiggling in seat, the teacher points to the bathroom, and
the student walks to the bathroom.
Verbal (VB): Example—The student needs to turn in their paper, the teacher says “Red Basket,”
and the student walks to the red basket and places paper inside.
Model (M): Example—The student is attempting to open their can of clay, the teacher grabs a
can and models how to open it, and the student grabs their can and opens it.
Partial Physical (PP): Example—The student needs to ask a question, the teacher taps on the
student’s elbow, and the student raises their hand.
Full Physical (FP): Example—The student needs to ask a question, the teacher places their hand
on the student’s elbow and raises the student’s hand.
Behavior Level of Prompting
Toileting
Feeding
Walking in the classroom
Walking in the hallway
Raising one’s hand to signal help is needed
Figure 5-1. Venn diagram of

norm vs. criterion vs. observa-
tion assessment.
Table 5-8. Types of Preference and Reinforcer Assessments

Assessment Type Definition Example
Preference Assessments
Free Operant Observation of student interaction Watch a preschool student play
with the environment to with all of the toys in the play area
determine preference and record duration of each
Single Stimulus Presenting one object or activity Give a student a marker, then a
at a time and record how and fidget, then a clicker and record
how long the student interacts what they do and for how long
with that
Paired Stimulus Two objects or activities are Give a ball and a fidget and record
paired or presented together, and which the student chooses
the student has to choose which
of the two they want
Multiple Stimulus With More than two objects or Present a ball, a fidget, a doll,
Replacement activities being presented and a puzzle. When the student
together in large fields and chooses one, replace with a new
replacing objects when chosen toy
Multiple Stimulus More than two objects or Present a ball, a fidget, a doll,
Without Replacement activities being presented and a puzzle. When the student
together in large fields and NOT chooses one, do not replace
replacing objects when chosen
Rating Scale Survey or list of questions that ask Reinforcer Assessment for
about a student’s behavior Individuals With Severe Disabilities
(Fisher et al., 1996)
Various other reinforcer
assessment scales (Green et al.,
1991; Matson et al., 1999; Parsons &
Reid, 1990)
Reinforcer Assessments
Concurrent Schedule Like a paired or forced choice When doing a reading activity,
preference assessment, but during alternate presenting a fidget and
an activity to see which stimuli a snack to see which is more
gets more (or better quality) effective
responding
Multiple Schedule Like concurrent schedule, but One day, during reading, present
during two different teaching a fidget. The next day, present a
sessions to determine which was snack. Determine which was more
more effective effective
Progressive Schedule Systematically increasing the During reading, start with reading
amount or difficulty of work until 1 sentence, then 5, then 10, then
the breaking point is reached a page, while providing the same
to determine how effective that level of reinforcement for each
reinforcer can be or in what
quantities it is most effective
94 Chapter 5
individualized approach, beginning with this kind of form and progressing into an interview can be
helpful. Something as simple as asking the child what they like best or what would motivate them
to work for can often be simplest and most effective. If a more structured approach is needed, the
teacher can use several different formats to determine the level of preference attached to the identi-
fied objects or activities (Cooper et al., 2020).
Free operant preference assessment can be and is often used during free time. The classroom
is peppered with activities the students have free access to and can choose on their own. There may
be certain rules attached to certain items or activities (i.e., only one student in the reading nook at a
time), but overall, the students can easily navigate the environment and choose what they would like
to do. They are free to choose.
Single stimulus preference assessment (also known as successive choice) involves presenting the
student with one object or activity and taking data on how and how long they interact with that.
When the student is finished with that, another object or activity is presented with subsequent op-
tions, the data on all of which are compared to determine preference. This type of preference assess-
ment is best used with children for whom the other options are not as accessible because they might
get overwhelmed with choice, try to maintain control over multiple objects at the same time, only
select the same side when presented with two options, or engage in extreme problem behavior when
preferred items are taken away. So, while this is not an option that will be used in every case, it is a
good tool for teachers of higher needs classrooms (Chazin & Ledford, 2016).
Paired stimulus preference assessment is when two objects or activities are paired or presented
together, and the student must choose which of the two they want. This is also known as forced choice
as the student is forced to make a choice and cannot have both at once. This method is similar to the
slightly more complex methods described next (multiple stimulus) but is useful for students who get
frustrated with too many choices or have difficulty scanning more than two options. The teacher is
able to create a hierarchy of preference from a forced choice preference assessment to help determine
which items will be most likely to function as reinforcers in the future (Chazin & Ledford, 2016).
Multiple stimulus preference assessments involve more than two objects or activities being pre-
sented together. They can vary in amount, but typically range from about three to ten items. Multiple
stimulus with replacement involves replacing the objects in the field once one has been chosen in
order to determine how often the student goes back to select that object over the others. Multiple
stimulus without replacement involves removing the chosen object so that it can no longer be se-
lected in order to determine a rank order of preference across objects. Multiple trials are conducted
until the child has the opportunity to choose or interact with every single object in the array (Chazin
& Ledford, 2016).
Single, paired, and multiple stimulus preference assessments necessitate an environment where
the teacher is able to work one-on-one with a student. It is possible to conduct these within a general
education classroom setting, but environment considerations would need to be made. Likely, a stu-
dent receiving these types of assessments will be receiving a tiered level of support or special educa-
tion services as their needs for reinforcement are not met with the system of reinforcement already
in place for the whole classroom.
It is important to remember that there is a difference between a preference and a reinforcer. Not
all objects or activities of preference translate to acting like a reinforcer in any given moment. Some
preferences only motivate under certain conditions. Some are not powerful enough to motivate dur-
ing really challenging activities but will during less challenging activities. A reinforcer assessment
must be conducted in addition to a preference assessment to determine whether a specific object or
activity will actually serve its intended purpose. There are three types of reinforcer assessment: con-
current schedule, multiple schedule, and progressive schedule. A concurrent schedule of reinforcer
assessment is a lot like a paired or forced choice preference assessment. Two stimuli (potential rein-
forcers perhaps determined during preference assessment) are presented by alternating between the
two during the same teaching session after the target behavior is performed to see which stimuli gets
more (or better quality) responding. In a multiple schedule reinforcer assessment, two stimuli are
also used, but during two different teaching sessions to determine which was more effective. The pro-
gressive schedule reinforcer assessment involves systematically increasing the amount or difficulty of
work required in order to earn the preferred stimuli until the breaking point is reached to determine
how effective that reinforcer can be or in what quantities it is most effective (Mason et al., 1989).
Summary
Based on the assessments conducted, the IEP team determined that Cynthia qualifies for special
education services under the category of autism. With the collaboration of the IEP team, Cynthia will
now receive special education services that best fit her needs and will aid her in her future successes.
In summation, assessment is a vitally important and often underestimated and underused part
of the behavior analytic arsenal. Without assessment, intervention cannot be assured to fully meet
the needs of the student, and the school professional operating from a behavior analytic lens cannot
know with precision how to intervene. This chapter should help teachers working from a behavior
analytic point of view to determine how to assess behavior (in all its forms) using a variety of tools
and what to do with the information once assessed. It should also help these professionals under-
stand how to interpret assessments from the behavioral perspective rather than the traditional per-
spective of special education professionals working within schools and offer support to the problem
solving or IEP team.
Chapter Review
1. When is it best to use a norm-referenced assessment vs. a criterion-referenced assessment?
2. Why might an indirect assessment of behavior actually be beneficial?
3. Why is a behavior analyst uniquely suited to perform assessments related to diagnosis and
intervention selection?
4. Describe the benefits of direct, observation-based assessment over other types of assessment.
5. Why are preference assessments so important when working with students?
Acknowledgments
The contents of this chapter were developed under a grant from the U.S. Department of
Education, #H325D210042. However, those contents do not necessarily represent the policy of the
U.S. Department of Education, and you should not assume endorsement by the Federal Government.
Project Officer: Tina Diamond.
96 Chapter 5
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6
Why Are They Doing That?
Using Functional Behavior
Assessment to Understand
Problem Behavior
B. Scott Singleton, PsyD, BCBA-D, NCSP
INTRODUCTION
Problem behaviors are becoming more and more prevalent in K-12 classrooms.
Although these behaviors can be disruptive, harmful, and distressing, the behaviors do
serve a unique function for the student. This chapter will teach the reader to use functional
behavior assessment (FBA) to identify the function of problem behaviors through careful
observation and data resulting in interventions that are both effective and efficient.
Carr, R. N. (Ed.).
100 Chapter 6
Chapter Objectives
ȘȘ Describe how behavior works based on environmental antecedents and
consequences.
ȘȘ Operationally define and measure challenging behaviors.
ȘȘ Conduct observations of relevant antecedents and consequences of behavior.
ȘȘ Develop a hypothesis regarding the function of the challenging behavior.
ȘȘ Select functionally equivalent replacement behaviors.
KEY TERMS
• Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence (ABC) Data: Data collected on the antecedents and con-
sequences that occasion a behavior of interest.
• Antecedents: Environmental stimuli that precede a behavior of interest.
• Attention Function: Refers to the purpose of a behavior when it is primarily reinforced and
maintained by social stimuli.
• Automatic Reinforcement: Refers to the purpose of a behavior when the behavior itself pro-
vides its own reinforcement without the need for another person.
• Consequences: Stimulus changes that come after a behavior of interest.
• Discriminative Stimuli (SD): Stimuli that signal the availability of reinforcement given a par-
ticular behavior.
• Escape Function: Refers to the purpose of a behavior when it is primarily reinforced and main-
tained by the delay, avoidance, or escape of a stimulus. Often a stimulus the individual finds
aversive.
• Functional Behavior Assessment (FBA): An assessment of the environmental variables that
influence behavior in order determine the purpose of the behavior.
• Functional Hypothesis: An informed explanation about the purpose of a behavior (i.e.,
function).
• Intervention Integrity: The extent to which an intervention is carried out as intended without
subtractions or additions.
• Motivating Operations (MOs): Stimulus events that temporarily alter the value of a stimulus as
a reinforcer and the frequency of a behavior reinforced by that stimulus.
• Operational Definition: A precise description of the behavior in terms of what an observer
would see or hear. Assumptions of internal states are avoided.
• Replacement Behavior: A behavior selected, taught, and reinforced by an interventionist to re-
place a problematic behavior. Replacement behaviors that serve the same function as the prob-
lem behavior are preferred.
Why Are They Doing That? 101
Case Study 1
Tanner, a fifth grade boy with a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder and a history of behavior
issues, recently transferred schools and was assigned to Ms. Kline’s classroom. Ms. Kline prides herself
on learning everything she can about her students so she poured over Tanner’s records and saw that
he had a history of verbal outbursts and elopement (e.g., leaving the classroom and/or school without
permission). Ms. Kline also spent time brushing up on her knowledge of autism by getting a new book
and reviewing several websites. Approximately 2 weeks after his arrival to her classroom, Tanner began
arguing with her about assignments and often left the classroom without permission. Based on her read-
ing about autism spectrum disorder, Ms. Kline decided to create a visual schedule and began offering
several sensory breaks throughout the day. Despite Ms. Kline’s valiant efforts and many hours of read-
ing, these strategies never seemed to work for more than a day or two. Tanner continued leaving the class
without permission and even left school on one occasion. Ms. Kline was at a loss. She started to wonder
if she was spending so much time on Tanner, other students were not getting the attention they needed.
Why Are They Doing That?

Challenging behavior can be one of the most difficult parts of teaching. Interrupting instruction,
stalling progress, and derailing the classroom, challenging behavior can be frustrating. Some reviews
of prevalence rates for challenging behaviors among children with disabilities report that half of
children, or more depending on disability category, exhibit challenging behaviors (Simó-Pinatella et
al., 2019). Complicating the issue, a myriad of programs, theories, and explanations are proposed as
answers for dealing with challenging behaviors. The behaviors often seem inexplicable and without
cause. One common misguided explanation is that a particular condition causes the behavior, but
upon further inspection, the reasoning dissipates. For example, a student who appears distracted and
often talks out may be said to have an attention disorder, but the reasoning for the behavior becomes
circular. The student is said to have an attention disorder based on their observed behavior, but their
observed behavior is said to be caused by the attention disorder. Such reasoning takes us into a loop
that never leads to practical solutions. Luckily, there is another approach.
The behavioral science called applied behavior analysis (ABA) yields an approach to behavior
that is practical, explanatory, and based in science. The application of the science of behavior analysis
has been found effective with a wide variety of ages, abilities, and circumstances (LaVigna & Willis,
2012). And, this is no coincidence. ABA is based on observable, field-tested procedures that have
been found to be consistent across all people. It ultimately seeks to answer the question, “Why are
they doing that?”
Knowing why a behavior is occurring is the key to formulating a plan to change it. If you know
why and the why is found in variables that we can control, then we are in a position to make substan-
tial changes. Changes that will result in better outcomes for our students.
So, let us start with the foundational elements of a behavior. Firstly, we must understand that the
behaviors we see produce something for the individual exhibiting those behaviors (Skinner, 1963).
After all, if the behaviors did not do something for the behaving individual, what would be the point?
We would be robots simply carrying out commands, rather than humans adapting to a complex
environment. Unfortunately, the system of behavior humans has to help adapt to the environment
around us can, at times, result in the adoption of behaviors that may not produce productive long-
term outcomes. Behaviors such as physical aggression, self-injury, avoidance of important work,
or doing things to impress others may do something for the individual in the short term despite
102 Chapter 6
limiting long-term growth and a better life. The key is determining what the behavior does for the
individual in the immediate, short-term, and teaching another way to achieve the same or similar
outcome. That is, teach a new behavior that can serve the same function.
Because behavior, including challenging behavior, is maintained when it produces a particular
outcome, we are tasked with discovering that specific outcome. We must be on the hunt for the out-
come that gives the behavior its purpose. These outcomes of the behavior are referred to as reinforc-
ers. Reinforcers are stimuli in the environment that follow a behavior, strengthening it, and making
it more likely to occur again in the future.
The best way to determine the outcome or the reinforcers maintaining a particular behavior is
to observe them. Because we know that reinforcement comes after the behavior, we pay particular
attention to what happens after the behavior. What happens after the behavior is referred to as the
consequence. The consequence refers to any stimulus change that is an outcome of the behavior. For
example, aggressive behavior from a student typically results in changes such as reprimand from the
teacher, aggression from others, and/or removal from the classroom. These are stimulus changes that
include additions and subtractions from the environment. The stimulus changes are consequences
of the behavior in that they are an outcome produced immediately after the behavior and as a result
of the behavior.
In addition to consequences, there are events in the environment that make those consequences
available and valuable. Said another way, certain events may signal the availability of a reinforcer, and
certain events may create value in the reinforcer. Imagine that you wake up feeling terrible. It would
be natural in such a situation to want to avoid work that day. The offending event, such as contracting
a stomach virus, might produce nausea and increase the value of missing work. The event produced
nausea, and nausea provided motivation for missing work (i.e., subtracting work from your environ-
ment). Notice, feeling sick does not mean you will be able to avoid work, but that it is particularly
valuable. Upon waking, you feel an awful feeling in your stomach, and you see your phone nearby.
The phone signals the opportunity to avoid work by calling in to report that you are sick and will
not be present. Nausea produced by a virus created value in avoiding work. Access to your phone
signaled the opportunity to call in sick. Both value and opportunity were present, so you engaged in
the behavior of calling in sick (Figure 6-1). The resulting consequence was avoiding work for the day.
The nausea and the phone came before the behavior. They were both antecedents to the behavior but
only relevant because of the desired consequence of avoiding work (i.e., reinforcer).
In this chapter, we will guide you through these primary building blocks of behavior referred to
as antecedents and consequences. We will focus on two types of antecedents and one type of conse-
quence while showing you how they relate to one another. Finally, we will provide you with a nine-
step process for conducting an FBA in order to provide effective intervention.
Consequences
When we use the term consequences in behavior analysis, we are referring to any change that is
a result of the behavior. Consequences in this model are not synonymous with attempts to discipline
the student or control the behavior. Although those types of changes that follow the behavior are
considered, any other changes that may have resulted are also considered consequences (Sloman et
al., 2005). The particular consequences we are interested in are additions or subtractions from the
environment that are an outcome of the behavior. Oftentimes, these consequences come in the form
of social interaction or delay of work. Sometimes, these consequences are purely sensory experiences
without need for another person. Consequences may also include access to a tangible item, but in
school settings, it is frequently the case that tangible items also include a social interaction. For ex-
ample, consider when a teacher tries to retrieve an item or denies access to an item.
Figure 6-1. Illustration showing the ef-

fects of motivating and discriminative
stimuli.
104 Chapter 6
Essentially, what we are looking for when observing consequences are reinforcers. Reinforcers
are immediate environmental changes that are an outcome of the behavior and strengthen the be-
havior. Behavior that persists over time exists because of reinforcement. That is, something is hap-
pening after the behavior that makes it more likely that the behavior will repeat itself in the future
under the same circumstances. It is important to note that reinforcement is not the same as reward.
Rewards might come sometime after the behavior and are subjectively good. Reinforcements, on
the other hand, may be subjectively good or bad. For example, one of the most frequent reinforcers
observed in school settings is a reprimand. A reprimand would never be used as a reward, yet it can
strengthen behavior because social interaction is a powerful stimulus. In fact, in behavior analysis,
subjective appraisals such as “good” or “bad” are not included in the definition of reinforcement.
To be a reinforcer, the stimulus change that follows a behavior must increase the future probability
of the behavior. Many types of stimulus additions or subtractions may act as consequences that
strengthen future behavior (i.e., reinforcement).
Because reinforcement comes in the form of consequences and maintains behavior, one of our
primary objectives in dealing with a problematic behavior is to identify the reinforcer. The reinforcer
can then be categorized. The primary categories of reinforcement include escape, attention, tangible,
and sensory, often summarized.
The first category we will cover is escape. This category is unique because it represents the sub-
traction of a stimulus (Rogalski, 2020). The consequence of the behavior in this category is the ter-
mination or removal of something. In a school setting, the stimulus being removed is often some sort
of demanding task. In behavior analysis, when a stimulus is subtracted, we use the word negative.
Negative does not refer to a subjective appraisal but a subtraction. Likewise, positive refers to addi-
tion. Because behavior analysis is a science, it is easy to remember that positive and negative are used
in the mathematical sense, not the subjective.
It is very likely that as a teacher you have or will encounter students whose problematic behavior
occurs at precisely the time you present them with a task. The behavior results in delay, avoidance, or
escape of the task. Even a short delay can act as a reinforcing consequence (Athens & Vollmer, 2010).
In practice, escape-maintained behaviors are often maintained by consequences, such as breaks,
choices, or alternative activities being offered in response to the problem behavior. Sometimes, a
behavior that requires the teacher to delay the task for some amount of time can also be reinforced
by that delay. For example, if a student becomes aggressive when asked to count to 10, the teacher
will be forced to stop the task and maintain safety. In the future, the student may be likely to become
aggressive again because it has resulted in a delay of the task.
The attention category includes any form of social interaction. Attention may include speaking
to the student, touching the student, moving closer to the student, others laughing at the student, or
any other form of social interaction that comes as a consequence of the behavior. Identifying the re-
inforcer can often be difficult because some of the consequences intended to reduce the behavior ac-
tually strengthen it. Consequences that might be used to reduce behavior but act as attention-based
reinforcers include reprimands, coaxing apologies, or verbally processing the incident. In fact, there
are many forms that attention-based reinforcement can take (Kodak et al., 2007). If those activities
occur immediately after the behavior, they may very well be making things worse.
The third category of reinforcement we will cover is tangible reinforcement. Tangible reinforce-
ment is just as it sounds. The outcome of the behavior is access to a tangible object. Imagine a student
who really likes the sensation of squeezing a squishy ball especially when upset. The teacher seeing
that the child is upset quickly gives the ball to the student in an effort to help them calm down. This
scenario seems harmless until you analyze how the tangible reinforcer is obtained. In order for the
student to access the ball, they must act upset. All the behaviors associated with being upset become
reinforced. The student may learn that being upset is a necessary condition for getting their wants
and needs met. Tangible can often be mixed with the attention category and the sensory category.
For the attention category, the problem behavior often occurs because the student has been denied a
tangible item which means that another person is involved. Similarly, a problem behavior can erupt
because the student is being asked to give up a tangible item. Attention, in those examples, plays a
role in the access or loss of the tangible item.
Sensory maintained behaviors are those behaviors that automatically produce their own re-
inforcement without requiring the action of another person (Vaughan & Michael, 1982). Sensory
reinforcement is also referred to as automatic reinforcement. A simple example is scratching an itch.
The scratch is the behavior and the reinforcer, and the reinforcement occurs automatically with the
behavior. Behaviors that are considered stereotypies are sometimes, but not always, sensory func-
tioning behaviors. Stereotypies are behaviors that seem to occur at a higher rate within certain diag-
nostic categories, such as autism spectrum disorder. The behaviors are stereotypical of the condition.
These behaviors might include self-injury, motor tics, or vocalizations that are out of context. It is
important to note, however, that the nature of these behaviors cause others to react which can make
the behaviors fit into the attention or escape categories. That said, when these behaviors occur in
the absence of demands or other people, they may simply be reinforcing on their own. They may be
sensory or automatically functioning behaviors.
Sensory behaviors are difficult to distinguish from other functions. Sensory functioning behav-
iors often result in attention and are incompatible with school-related tasks. One key observation is
whether or not the behaviors will occur in the absence of tasks or when the student is or believes they
are alone. That is, the behavior occurs even when there is not an opportunity for escape or attention-
based reinforcement (Querim et al., 2013).
Ms. Kline had the opportunity to speak with the school psychologist about Tanner’s behavior. The
school psychologist urged Ms. Kline to objectively consider the common consequences of Tanner’s behav-
ior. After some thought and observation of her own and other’s behavior when Tanner left the classroom
without permission, Ms. Kline noticed that Tanner avoided classwork and obtained attention from staff
chasing, following, and trying to coax him back to the classroom. Now Ms. Kline was getting to the heart
of the issue. She was figuring out why the behavior was happening.
Antecedents
While consequences, and, in particular, reinforcing consequences, maintain behavior, anteced-
ents set the stage for the behavior. In order for a student to engage in problematic behavior, they
need to have the opportunity and motivation to do so. Unfortunately, motivation is something that
supposedly exists inside of the individual and as such is not accessible to an outside observer until it
is too late. Observing the opportunity for a student to obtain reinforcement presents its own prob-
lems. It may seem that the opportunity always exists, yet behavior analysis has demonstrated that is
rarely true. For example, imagine a student that becomes aggressive for no apparent reason. Having
just read about behavior analysis, you decide to carefully observe this seemingly random event. After
a few observations carefully recording everything that is happening in the room, you notice that a
paraprofessional standing up from their seat, across the room from the student, reliably predicts the
student’s aggressive behavior. You follow the sequence of events that unfold and observe that when
they stand up, they proceed to another part of the room to obtain the student’s materials, then ap-
proaches the student to begin instruction. Although there is both time and physical distance between
the paraprofessional and the student, the student has become sensitive to this chain of events, so the
paraprofessional simply standing up from across the room is now enough to evoke the aggressive
behavior resulting in a delay of instruction (i.e., reinforcement). Careful observation, in this ex-
ample, leads to seeing the observable events that created the motivation and opportunity to engage
106 Chapter 6
in aggressive behavior. Behavior analysis has demonstrated that for the purposes of predicting and
influencing behavior, opportunity and motivation are best conceptualized as observable events that
occur before the behavior. In order to precisely describe these antecedent events, we use two terms,
motivating operations (MOs) and discriminative stimuli.
Discriminative stimuli, abbreviated as SD (pronounced ess-dee), are stimuli in the environment
that have been associated with reinforcers (Cooper et al., 2019). These can often be people in the
environment. You may have the experience where a student behaves one way for one teacher but
differently for another. If you were to carefully observe and analyze the student–teacher interactions,
you would likely find that one teacher reinforces certain behaviors, and the other teacher does not.
One teacher signals the opportunity for reinforcement. These types of antecedents are important be-
cause they indicate a certain likelihood that the behavior will happen and show a behavior-reinforcer
relationship that may need to be diminished. SD signal that reinforcement is available if the right
behavior happens. Although SD are often the people that make reinforcement likely, it could also
include other stimuli such as an open door for elopement and escaping a classroom. Recognizing
certain stimuli as signaling the availability of reinforcement may reveal the specific conditions under
which intervention needs to occur. For example, if a student was aggressive, but only in the presence
of one particular teacher’s aide, then intervention could focus on that aide rather than all staff that
come into contact with the student.
While a behavior may have a history of reinforcement and a situation may arise that contains SD
signaling that reinforcement is available, it does not follow that the behavior will always occur. The
reinforcer needs to be valuable enough in the moment to bring about the behavior. This is the job
of the MO. The MO is an event that causes the reinforcer to go up and down in value often through
deprivation or satiation (Rispoli et al., 2013). Let us use water as a simple example. If you have been
deprived of water for a long enough period, it will begin to increase in value. At a certain point, the
value of water will reach a point that it causes you to act. You will seek out water. Likewise, if you have
had two cups of tea and a glass of lemonade, water is going to be less valuable. Various events happen,
often minute to minute, that make certain things valuable. For example, a student who has been sit-
ting alone for several minutes. As they are sitting alone, without attention, the value of attention will
gradually rise. If they have been given attention in the past by screaming loudly, then the progressive
deprivation of attention will eventually reach a point that they may scream. Of course, something in
the environment needs to signal that screaming will be reinforced, and suppose Mr. Johnson is pres-
ent. Mr. Johnson always rushes over to console the student when they scream. Mr. Johnson is an SD,
and the time alone is the MO that makes attention valuable. At this point, attention is both valuable
and available, so the behavior is very likely to occur. After all, it is the behavior that has resulted in
reinforcement in the past under similar conditions.
Returning to Tanner and Ms. Kline, the consequences of Tanner’s behavior appeared to be attention
and escape. Ms. Kline decided to see what the antecedents might tell her about the behavior. She noticed
that Tanner primarily engaged in elopement when she was present or her aide was present but not when
Tanner was in other classrooms. She also noticed that while there were times that a task was put in place
prior to elopement, typically elopement occurred after a period of independent work or transitions when
Tanner was least likely to receive her attention. Additionally, Ms. Kline was aware that Tanner’s father
had recently left their home. A traumatic experience for Tanner, and one that created a persistent loss
of attention. The antecedents seemed to point to herself as an SD, signaling that attention was available,
and the absence of attention as an MO establishing it as a valuable reinforcer. Her observations lead her
to hypothesize that Tanner’s behavior functioned to access attention. Ms. Kline was now determined to
offer more frequent personal attention when Tanner was in the room, and as little attention as safely
possible when Tanner left the room without permission. While the extra attention was time consuming
at first, Ms. Kline noticed the length of time Tanner spent out of the room gradually decreased, allowing
her much more time to deal with all of her students.
Determining the Function of a Behavior

Now that we have an understanding of how behavior works, and the circumstances under which
it occurs, we can discuss how this information is used to determine the function of the behavior.
Knowing the function of the behavior provides the answer to the question of why students may en-
gage in problematic behaviors. Further, it gives us the foundation necessary to do something about it.
The FBA is used to determine the controlling variables, including reinforcement, that maintain a
problematic behavior. From that information, a hypothesis can be generated about the function (es-
cape, attention, tangible, and/or sensory). A school-based FBA is typically carried out through inter-
views and observations. Although the gold standard for conducting an FBA involves experimentally
manipulating the environment, such methods, referred to as a functional analysis, are generally con-
ducted by Board Certified Behavior Analysts (Iwata et al., 1994). Less intensive assessment methods,
however, are often used in schools and can still be effective in determining the function of a behavior
(Alter et al., 2008). We will focus on these methods for conducting an FBA in a school setting.
Case Study 2
Ms. Jackson is a high school special education teacher who leads a self-contained classroom for
students with intellectual disabilities. One of her students, Terrence, has recently been engaging in physi-
cal aggression toward her and her teaching assistants. The aggression has escalated, and the staff are
becoming afraid to work with him. Ms. Jackson recently attended a professional development training
to learn how to conduct an FBA.
A Functional Behavior Assessment for Teachers

For the remainder of this chapter, we are going to provide a nine-step process for completing an
FBA. The process has been tailored specifically for teachers but may be carried out by other school
professionals. The process includes the following steps:
1. Define the behavior.
2. Start progress monitoring.
3. Interview relevant stakeholders.
4. Conduct ABC observations.
5. Generate a hypothesis.
6. Select a replacement behavior.
7. Implement an intervention.
8. Evaluate intervention implementation.
9. Evaluate early intervention outcomes.
To begin the process, we need to define the behavior.
108 Chapter 6
Define the Behavior

Precision is extremely important when conducting a behavioral assessment or providing inter-
vention (Kazdin, 1977). When conducting assessment, if two people observe something in different
ways, it will lead to inconsistent data. In intervention, if two people observe something in different
ways, it will lead to inconsistent implementation. Inconsistency can wreak havoc on an assessment
and intervention process. Teachers know that inconsistency causes many issues in regards to behav-
ior and learning. Operationally defining behaviors is one way to avoid inconsistency.
When operationally defining a behavior, we have to carefully consider what physical actions
we are seeing, and in the case of vocalizations, the audible sounds we are hearing. At the same time,
we have to avoid our attribution of those observations to the internal state of the student. When we
move from reporting what is seen and heard to what may be happening inside the student, we lose
precision. Consider, for example, the descriptive word overstimulated. There may be a few situations
where two people could agree that someone was overstimulated, but it is also very likely that there
will be some occasions of disagreement on whether or not a student is experiencing overstimulation.
These small differences in perception will result in varying responses to the behavior. Some may
count it as occurring and skew the data, while another may count it as not happening and deliver
reinforcement at the wrong time. These minor inconsistencies can lead to substantial problems and
may make the problematic behavior more resistant to change.
Creating strong operational definitions requires the use of action words and descriptions of the
physical characteristics that are unlikely to be disputed when observed. For example, “The student
makes forceful, physical contact with another student” is less likely to be misinterpreted than “The
student becomes angry and aggressive.” Common problems in operational definitions are reliance
using an internal, emotional state. Words such as angry, sad, anxious, or upset require too much
inference on the part of the observer. Additionally, many of these emotions may be appropriate for a
given situation, but it is the behavior that is not. If you note your data are drastically different across
two observers, one of the first considerations should be if your operational definition is specific and
objective enough.
Operational definitions are observable and measurable. While we often see the terms observ-
able and measurable interpreted as being able to calculate a percentage, a better interpretation is to
ensure that the definition allows the behavior to be accurately counted or timed. A definition that
results in consistent count or timing across observers is likely a strong definition. In fact, a simple
measure of reliability is to have two observers complete an observation at the same time and compare
the data. Using frequency data, the smaller number obtained by observation is divided by the larger
number. The result (quotient) should be 0.8 or higher. This formula is a simple form of interobserver
agreement.
Another method for evaluating the strength of an operational definition involves a logical analy-
sis rather than a statistical one. The method referred to as the Stranger Test requires the individual to
simply consider whether or not a stranger could read the operational definition, conduct an obser-
vation simultaneously with the stranger, and acquire the same data. If it is likely that the definition
could be interpreted differently resulting in variations in data collection, then the definition needs
improvement.
A simple internet search for behavioral or operational definitions will lead to resources and
examples of various definitions for a variety of behaviors. An effective method for finding readily
available definitions may also include reviewing journal articles from journals, such as the Journal
of Applied Behavior Analysis. Searching the journal using general descriptions, such as aggression,
noncompliance, or elopement, will lead to articles where the authors have defined the behaviors.
Ms. Jackson spoke to her team about Terrence’s behavior and was able to determine the range of
aggressive responses that have been exhibited. She defined the behavior as follows: Aggression is forceful
physical contact and includes hitting, kicking, grabbing, and scratching.
The team agreed on the operational definition and believed it would be precise enough to measure
consistently.
Start Progress Monitoring

Behavior change does not normally follow a straight line or change overnight. Often, an effective
intervention results in change that is slow but steady, and the day-to-day changes are imperceptible.
The danger of this imperceptibility is that we are likely to make poor intervention decisions. We
may give up on an effective intervention or stick with an intervention for months even though the
behavior is not improving. Additionally, there are times where the behavior is on an improving trend
prior to intervention, but because the levels are not zero, we do not realize it is getting better. As you
are probably aware, intervention can require substantial resources. You would not want to use up
valuable resources unnecessarily or take the real risk of making the situation worse by changing up
an environment that is working.
These pitfalls can be avoided by monitoring progress from the outset. Immediate progress moni-
toring of the behavior allows you to collect baseline data so that you can truly compare outcomes
both pre- and post-intervention (Vanselow et al., 2011).
Data collection that can be used to monitor progress is covered in more detail in Chapter 4 of
this text, but we will cover the most common methods. Simply recording the frequency or the du-
ration of the behavior can be very accurate methods for monitoring the behavior. When collecting
frequency, duration, or any behavioral data, the observer must specify the observation period, so the
data is comparable from day-to-day. The observation period should include times when the student
is likely to be present. For example, the teacher may start the observation period at 8:45 a.m. each
day even though school starts at 8:30 a.m. to ensure that the student will be present. Simply mea-
suring the behavior “for the day” may yield some inconsistencies due to variations in the student’s
arrival and departure times. Some buffer time can be useful. Additionally, the teacher may want to
consider only conducting the observations when the behavior is likely to happen. Since time is a
premium in schools, observing for an entire day may be unrealistic and unnecessary. The observa-
tion periods should be consistent, but the key is to collect data during a time period that includes
both occurrences of the target behavior, as well as some time without an occurrence of the target
behavior. Observation periods that capture the presence and absence of the behavior will make it
possible to see increases or decreases in the behavior over time. For example, if a problem behavior
typically lasts 1 hour, but the observation period is only 30 minutes, then it would take some time
to see if the intervention is working. The behavior may only decrease by a few minutes a day, but the
observation data would show the behavior happening constantly until its duration eventually went
below 30 minutes. An observation period should reach a balance between ease of use and capturing
some of the behavior.
While duration and frequency are excellent measures, they can often be difficult to manage reli-
ably. Some behaviors happen so quickly that an accurate frequency count is difficult. Additionally,
behaviors that happen quickly or require safety measures make timing them unreliable. It can be
difficult to manage a stopwatch at just the right moment during an aggressive episode. Some data
collection methods can help overcome these issues. In particular, partial interval recording may be
a more feasible option. Partial interval recording involves dividing up the observation period into
equal intervals of time. For example, a 1-hour observation period could be broken into 12, 5-minute
intervals. Then, rather than recording each occurrence, the observer would simply mark whether or
not the behavior happened at any time during the interval.
110 Chapter 6
Figure 6-2. An example of a completed scatterplot data collection sheet.
Figure 6-3. An example of a completed duration data collection sheet.
Figure 6-4. An example of a completed interval data collection sheet.
Let us imagine that you are measuring a difficult-to-measure behavior, such as hitting. Counting
each hit while recording data is difficult if not impossible, but if you were able, frequency data might
look like Figure 6-2. Since the hitting behavior appears to come in episodes, you may try to use
duration of hitting episodes (operationally defined, of course) yielding data that looks like Figure
6-3. The same data using partial interval recording would look like Figure 6-4. While partial interval
data (Figure 6-4) may lack some of the precision of the other methods, you can see how it might be
easier to complete and, therefore, more reliable. You would only need to make a single mark while
the episode is occurring. In some cases, you may only need to mark “No” when the behavior is not
occurring and fill in the gaps with “Yes” after the event has passed. While frequency and duration may
yield more precise data, certain situations may be more appropriate for partial interval recording.
Recall that Ms. Jackson and her team were in the beginning stages of conducting an FBA. They
formulated an operational definition for Terrence’s aggressive behavior. In order to collect baseline data
to establish a current level of the behavior, the team will need to select a method of progress monitoring.
Ms. Jackson knew frequency could work but was concerned that her team may not be able to col-
lect data while Terrence was being aggressive. They would need to maintain safety. Ms. Jackson also
considered duration since the hitting came in episodes, but again, the ability to collect that type of data
and manage a stopwatch during the event may be difficult. She decided that partial interval would be
best. The team could mark “No” when appropriate, pay attention to the time, then fill in “Yes” once the
behavior stopped. Ms. Jackson knew the behavior happened mostly in the afternoon, but he could go for
periods of 30 minutes without displaying the behavior. She decided to use 15-minute intervals and use
12:00 p.m. to 3:00 p.m. as the observation period. Ms. Jackson felt they would get occurrences and no
occurrences of the behavior during that time, and it would be a good bellwether for Terrence’s progress
on a behavior plan.
Interview Relevant Stakeholders

The interview is the first step that involves the function of the behavior. The interview is used to
assist in conducting direct observation by identifying some of the variables that may be important
by interviewing relevant parties including other school staff members, as well as parents/guardians.
Interviews may help determine some common consequences to the behavior, likely SD, and both
recent and distant MOs.
The interview should be conducted with individuals who are present in the setting where the
behavior occurs, or who may have some knowledge of the MOs that may have an effect on the value
of various reinforcers. The interview can also alert you to when the behavior is most likely or least
likely. Additionally, it may alert you to health, medical, or home issues that may increase or decrease
the value of certain reinforcers. For example, poor sleep or a new medication may increase the value
of escape. A change in custody or sudden absence of a parent may increase the value of attention.
Likewise, a period of no interaction that occurs just prior to the behavior of interest may indicate the
possibility that attention has temporarily increased in value.
Ms. Jackson was ready to complete the next step by interviewing relevant people, but since the child
was in her classroom, extensive interviewing of others would not be necessary. She decided to focus on
interviewing Terrence’s mother. Terrence’s mother was a single mom with two children. During the in-
terview, Ms. Jackson found that Terrence often had issues sleeping. Ms. Jackson had worked with many
children with sleep issues and knew that a sleepy student was not usually in the mood to work in school.
Being tired could be a strong MO that would increase the value of escape-related behaviors.
In sum, the interview should tell you about the possible reinforcers, SD, and MOs. The interview,
then, will serve as a guide for observation including time, setting, location, and how others respond
to the behavior. The interview should not be used alone to determine the function of the behavior.
In isolation, interviews and other indirect methods, such as rating scales, have been found to have
inconsistent outcomes (Barton-Arwood et al., 2003; Green et al., 1988). Perhaps the most important
part of the FBA process described here is the direct observation of antecedents and consequences.
Conduct Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence Observations

Direct observation is always preferred over verbal reports including interviews or rating scales
(Dufrene et al., 2017). Direct observation can confirm what was learned in the interview. Using
information from the interview, the next step is to select the most appropriate times to conduct
observations. Selecting observation times that will capture the behaviors is very important. It will
be necessary to observe the behavior in order to observe its antecedents and consequences (Mace &
Lali, 1991). This type of observation is referred to as the ABC observation. During the ABC observa-
tion, the observer waits for the behavior to occur, then objectively records variables that occurred
both before and after the behavior. This information is then analyzed to select the most likely func-
tion. Each behavioral event can then be categorized by function, and the sum of each category can
be calculated for the purposes of differentiating among the possible functions. For example, over the
course of a few observations, you may have seen 11 occurrences that were classified as attention, 3
that were classified as escape, zero tangible, and 1 possible automatic. The greatest sum of these ob-
servations would fall in the attention category; therefore, leading you to hypothesize that attention is
the function of the behavior (Figure 6-5).
When determining the most likely function for each event, you should first consider the con-
sequences. The consequences are where reinforcement lies. Recall that reinforcement occurs after
the behavior and increases its future probability. For this reason, it is the simplest place to look for
the function, whether it be escape, attention, tangible, or sensory. From the consequences, you can
typically see if there was some form of attention, some delay of a task, or one of the other classes
of reinforcement. One of the downfalls of this form of observation (compared with a functional
112 Chapter 6
Figure 6-5. A bar graph can be used

to display the outcome of ABC data
collection.
analysis) is that it has an attention bias. The fact that an FBA is being conducted usually means the
behavior is of some significance. Behaviors of significance get attention. Sometimes this is unavoid-
able. Although, generally, the behavior does not require the level of attention that it receives, the
behavior may require some attention in order to maintain safety. This leads to the attention bias. The
consequence data may include indicators of multiple functions. While it is certainly possible to have
a multifunctioning behavior, it is also possible that some of the consequences are false positives for
a particular function.
If the consequences of a behavioral event are not enough to adequately differentiate among the
functions, the next step is to look at the antecedents. That is, look for what reinforcer was available
and valuable based on the antecedent events. Is the person a likely SD for escape or attention? Is there
an MO, such as a task demand, making escape valuable? Is there no direct demand, but some period
of time in which the student was independent which acts as an MO for attention? These antecedent
variables can assist you in determining which function is most likely maintaining the behavior.
Ms. Jackson and her team began collecting ABC data. They collected data for 1 week and had 30
observations of the behavior. She found that the majority of the events yielded both attention and escape
consequences. After all, the nature of the behavior required some attention be given to maintain safety,
and it is difficult to do class work and hit at the same time! Since the consequences lead to two possible
functions, Ms. Jackson looked next at the antecedents to determine if the behavior functioned for both
or if one function was more consistent. The antecedents showed that a recent demand was much more
likely to result in the behavior. Additionally, nondemanding or preferred situations, even in the absence
of attention, did not tend to result in the aggressive behavior.
Generate a Hypothesis
After completing ABC observations, you should have data at your disposal to assist in develop-
ing a hypothesis. Each observed occurrence of the behavior was classified into a function category.
From this information, you should have an impression of why the behavior persists. You may ad-
ditionally have any information to reliably describe the conditions under which the behavior is likely
to be exhibited. The data and information acquired thus far will allow you to write a hypothesis
statement.
Hypothesis statements are useful not only because they summarize the assessment data, but the
statement also serves to keep the team focused on the function while selecting interventions (Sugai
et al., 1998). The statement summarizes the behavior, it is most likely antecedents, and the probable
type of reinforcement. Here is an example of a hypothesis statement:
When presented with an academic task, Leo engages in aggressive behavior in order to avoid
the task.
Notice, the example includes an antecedent, the behavior, and the hypothesized function, avoid-
ance. Including all three of those elements will set the stage for intervention. It tells the reader the
situations that should be addressed in an intervention and by implication, provides information on
situations that may not need intervention. Such information can help conserve valuable resources
by being precise with intervention efforts. Additionally, the statement tells the reader the type of
reinforcement that will be most potent. While other reinforcers may be helpful, they would not be
the primary stimulus to motivate the student. In our example, Leo may be willing to engage in a
smaller amount of a task if we reward him with a break or small reduction in work (i.e., avoidance).
As teachers, this would put us in a solid position to gradually increase expectations building on a
small amount of success using the function of the student’s behavior.
When creating a hypothesis, there may be times that the antecedent is unclear. It may seem that
the behavior could occur under any conditions. In situations such as these, it is acceptable to leave
the antecedent off of the hypothesis or state that it occurs in multiple settings. For example:
In a variety of settings throughout the school day, Joseph’s hand biting behavior is maintained
by sensory reinforcement.
Although this is acceptable, always make an effort to hypothesize the function if doing so is sup-
ported by the data and information that was collected. Including the antecedent, when possible, will
make intervention more targeted and likely effective.
Now that Ms. Jackson had completed the ABC observations, she was ready to create a hypothesis. In
her review of the data, she determined that attention and escape were the most common consequences,
but the most likely antecedent was an academic demand indicating escape as the function of Terrence’s
aggressive behavior. Furthermore, her interview with Terrence’s mother yielded information about sleep
issues, which may make escape more valuable indicating a likely MO (in addition to the demand itself).
Based on this data and information, Ms. Jackson creates the following hypothesis: When presented with
an academic demand, Terrence’s aggressive behavior functions to escape the demand.
Start a Replacement Behavior

As teachers, we want to make sure we are always building skills rather than stripping them away.
When a behavior serves a function for the individual, we have a responsibility to teach them a better
way. Teaching a better, more appropriate behavior will allow the individual to continue having their
wants and needs met, but in a way that is socially adaptive.
The replacement behavior replaces the problematic behavior with one that is an acceptable al-
ternative (Dwyer et al., 2011). The acceptable alternative may be the perfect behavior given the situ-
ation, or it may be a temporary behavior that will result in a better outcome for new but could be al-
tered in the future bringing the individual closer and closer to the end goal. For example, if a student
engages in tantrum behavior in order to get attention, ultimately, we may want them to wait until
the appropriate time, such as recess, to interact appropriately with others. Unfortunately, a behavior,
such as a tantrum that has been inadvertently and immediately reinforced with attention, may be
resistant to waiting. In such situations, an intermediary replacement behavior, such as asking to sit
next to a friend, may be needed. Allowing a student to sit next to a friend any time they ask to do so
may not be the perfect behavior, but it is an improvement over tantrums, and a behavior that we can
then improve on by teaching the student to wait or complete work.
114 Chapter 6
When selecting a replacement behavior, the most important aspect is to choose a behavior that
is functionally equivalent. That is, the replacement behavior should be able to serve the same func-
tion for the individual. If the individual verbally refuses to complete classroom tasks, for example, a
replacement behavior could be asking for a short break.
Here are some examples of replacement behaviors:
• The student will request a break.
• The student will request help.
• The student will request to do an activity with a peer.
• The student will request a preferred item.
In addition to the above replacement behaviors, as the student’s behavior improves, the addition
of waiting and working for the reinforcer may be included.
• The student will request a break and demonstrate appropriate waiting after the request is made
for up to 30 seconds.
• The student will request an activity with a peer then wait and complete work for up to 15 minutes.
Replacement behaviors teach the student socially appropriate ways of meeting their own needs
and wants. The replacement behavior renders the problem behavior inefficient or unnecessary which
can lead to more durable positive behavior change (Durand & Carr, 1992).
Ms. Jackson has determined, based on data, that the function of Terrence’s aggression is to escape
academic demands. Given the function of the behavior, Ms. Jackson considers an alternative behavior
that could more appropriately function to escape. She decides on the following: When Terrence is given
an academic demand or task, he will complete the task or touch a break card in order to temporarily
escape.
Ms. Jackson’s selected replacement behavior will be more adaptive than aggression and will es-
tablish an appropriate behavior–reinforcement relationship (i.e., touch break card—escape task) that
includes a kind of permission from Ms. Jackson. Put another way, Ms. Jackson’s permission is now in the
equation rather than simply jumping straight to aggression.
Implement an Intervention
The next stage of the FBA includes designing and implementing intervention. A number of in-
terventions may be used and are more appropriately covered in other chapters. However, the initial
implementation of the intervention is an important part of the process because it allows us the op-
portunity to confirm or reject our hypothesis about the function of the behavior.
Intervention based on functional assessment should focus primarily on the teaching and rein-
forcing of the replacement behavior and putting tactics in place that can prevent the behavior. Tactics
used in response to the problem behavior should be a smaller proportion of the intervention and be
focused on eliminating to the maximum extent possible inadvertent reinforcement.
Ms. Jackson puts together an intervention that focuses on the functional hypothesis and replace-
ment behavior she has selected for Terrence. First, she meets with Terrence’s mother to go over a plan
to establish expectations and rewards around bedtime. Next, she establishes a simple one to five rating
of how well he has slept each night that the mom can text to her each morning. If Terrence’s report is a
one or two, Ms. Jackson will offer Terrence a chance to rest once he is at school. Ms. Jackson then sets up
a plan to teach and practice how to use the break card by setting up trials early each day in which she
presents a demand and immediately prompts Terrence to touch the break card. Once he touches it, Ms.
Jackson praises and gives him a break by temporarily removing the task demand. Additionally, when
Terrence displays the aggressive behavior, Ms. Jackson has trained the team to keep everyone safe but to
keep the demand in place and prompt Terrence to touch the break card.
Evaluate Intervention Implementation

Although implementing the intervention is needed to confirm the hypothesis, if the intervention
is not being carried out as intended, any assumption about the function may be incorrect. Referred
to as intervention integrity, evaluating the implementation is critical to effective decision making
(Sanetti & Kratochwill, 2009).
Intervention integrity can be measured using observation and self-report. Often, the interven-
tion will be broken into its critical components. From these components, a checklist can be created
and used during the observation of staff members completing the intervention. As the student’s
teacher, you will be able to use the checklist to observe any assistants that may be implementing the
intervention. Likewise, you may have an assistant observe you or ask a peer to observe and complete
the checklist to see where any issues may lie. When running an intervention, especially in the early
stages, it is very difficult to observe yourself. We often do not notice missteps in the intervention
while we are busy implementing it. It is therefore important to recruit the help of a peer who can
observe and give you feedback according to an intervention integrity checklist. Here is an example of
a few items from an intervention integrity checklist:
1. Staff member has materials prepared to begin instruction Yes No
2. Staff member prompts student to use replacement behavior Yes No
3. Staff member immediately reinforces replacement behavior Yes No
Integrity checklists should have at least 10 items, and a percentage of steps implemented cor-
rectly is calculated. A goal of 90% should be used as the minimum expectation, although you may
select items that are critical and must be achieved during each observation to confirm the interven-
tion is being done in a way that makes success possible.
Implementing intervention and ensuring intervention integrity allows staff to confirm the ac-
curacy of the original hypothesis. If an intervention based on the function was implemented with
integrity, and the behavior is improving, then we can say with confidence that the functional hypoth-
esis was accurate.
Ms. Jackson created a list of the 10 most critical aspects of Terrence’s Behavior Intervention Plan.
She shared the list with the team and worked with everyone to ensure each part of the plan was imple-
mented. On one occasion, she noticed one of her aides following most of the plan but giving Terrence a
break when he began hitting without requiring him to touch the break card. Ms. Jackson reviewed the
intervention plan with the aide and explained how giving a break without requiring Terrence to touch
the card is reinforcing aggression. The aide began prompting and requiring Terrence to touch the card.
The integrity of the intervention improved and was consistently at 100% by the end of the first week.
Evaluate Early Intervention Outcomes

Once a plan based on the function of the behavior is implemented with integrity, the outcome
data can be evaluated to determine the likelihood that the functional hypothesis is accurate. Data
are essential to maintaining an effective behavior change program (Horner et al., 2001). Progress-
monitoring data plotted on a graph can be used to determine whether the data are moving in an
improving direction. If the data are moving in the right direction, then the FBA is complete, and the
intervention should continue until the problem is resolved. The effects of a Behavior Intervention
Plan may take some time to take hold. Initially, the behavior can escalate while the student learns
that doing the problem behavior does not work as well, and the replacement behavior is more likely
to lead to what they want.
116 Chapter 6
Ms. Jackson noticed that Terrence’s data improved the first couple of days, but on Day 3, aggression
spiked. Terrance tried the old behavior, and when it did not get him out of the work, he increased the be-
havior. When the increase in behavior was not effective at escaping the task, but touching the break card
was, Terrence’s aggressive behavior began a consistent and gradual decline. Although the day-to-day
changes were not always noticeable, 2 weeks’ worth of progress data showed a clear downward trend.
Summary
FBA tells us why a behavior is maintained in a student’s repertoire. It can pinpoint the anteced-
ents and consequences. Specifically, it tells us how the environment may be reinforcing the behavior,
and what environmental conditions and stimuli are signaling the reinforcers’ availability and value.
After operationally defining the behavior and selecting a method to monitor progress, the teach-
er can begin collecting ABC data. ABC data are then used to create a hypothesis about the function
of the behavior. Effective interventions are then built around this hypothesis because it gets to the
heart of the behavior. It helps teachers answer the question, “Why are they doing that?”
Chapter Review
1. Why do problem behaviors occur? How are they maintained?
2. What is the purpose of conducting an FBA?
3. How are antecedents relevant to the behavior?
4. How are consequences relevant to the problem behavior?
5. Why is it important to have a replacement behavior that can take the place of the problem
behavior?
6. Why is it important to develop a hypothesis prior to designing an intervention?
7. How does evaluating the implementation of the intervention assist in the process of confirming
a functional hypothesis?
References
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118 Chapter 6
Appendix
Functional Behavior Assessment Interview
Student: Teacher:
Grade: Date:
Interviewer: Interviewee:
1. What behavior causes the most concern?
2. When is it likely to occur?
3. Where is it likely to occur?
4. Is it more likely to occur with a particular staff member or other student present?
5. If you wanted to make the behavior happen, what would you do?
6. If you needed to avoid the behavior, what would you do?
7. What, if anything, do you believe the student is communicating by doing the behavior?
8. Is the behavior more likely if the student is ignored?
9. Is the behavior more likely when you are attending to another student?
10. Is the behavior more likely if the student is given a task?
11. Is the behavior more likely when the student is asked to change tasks or activities?
12. Is the behavior more likely when the student is denied access to an item or activity?
13. Is the behavior more likely when the student is asked to give up a preferred item or activity?
14. Is it likely that the behavior would happen if the student was alone and no tasks are provided?
15. How do you and other staff respond to the behavior?

Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence Observation
Student:
Behavior:
Notes Antecedents Consequences Possible Function
Escape
Attention
Tangible
Sensory

Escape
Attention
Tangible
Sensory

Escape
Attention
Tangible
Sensory

Escape
Attention
Tangible
Sensory
120 Chapter 6
Partial Interval Recording Sheet
Interval Length:
Student:
Behavior:
Dates:
Interval Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
Number
1 Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No
Total YES
Total ÷
Intervals
Percent YES =
7
Using Reinforcement
Strategies to Promote
Positive Student Outcomes
in the Classroom
Benjamin S. Riden, PhD, BCBA-D
and Kathleen M. Randolph, EdD, BCBA-D
INTRODUCTION
Reinforcement strategies are proven approaches teachers can utilize to increase desired
student behavior, reduce disruptive behavior, and foster a positive learning community
within their classrooms. This chapter aims to (a) describe the principles undergirding
reinforcement strategies, (b) provide descriptions and examples of individualized
reinforcement strategies, (c) provide descriptions and examples of group reinforcement
strategies, and (d) demonstrate how to use data on student behavior during instructional
decision making.
Carr, R. N. (Ed.).
122 Chapter 7
Chapter Objectives
ȘȘ Describe different terms associated with reinforcement, delivery options, how it can be
used to increase target behaviors, and types of reinforcers that can be applied in and
out of classrooms.
ȘȘ Describe various individual reinforcement contingencies, along with specific strategies
that can be used in school, clinic, or home settings.
ȘȘ Compare and contrast group reinforcement contingencies along with specific strate-
gies that can be used in school, clinic, or home settings.
KEY TERMS
• Conditioned Reinforcers: Stimuli that have been paired with other reinforcers and become
reinforcers themselves over time; also called secondary or learned reinforcers.
• Consequences: Stimulus changes that come after a behavior of interest.
• Dependent Group Contingencies: Group contract where behavior of one or a few students
determines if whole group earns reinforcers; called hero procedure.
• Differential Reinforcement: Where one response is reinforced while withholding reinforce-
ment for another response class, provides reinforcement contingent on the individual displaying
the replacement (i.e., ideal) behavior, and does not provide reinforcement when the problem
behavior is present (Cooper et al., 2020).
• Independent Group Contingencies: Group contract but reinforce individual students contin-
gent on their behavior.
• Interdependent Group Contingencies: Group contract where all students have to pass the con-
tract for any student to earn the reinforcer; all for one and one for all.
• Negative Reinforcement: The removal or reduction of a stimulus immediately following a
behavior that increases the future occurrence of that behavior and others like it in the future
(Cooper et al., 2020).
• Positive Reinforcement: S timuli delivered immediately after a behavior and increases the fu-
ture occurrence of that specific behavior (Cooper et al., 2020).
• Preference Assessment: Assessments to evaluate the student’s preferences for reinforcement;
formal (presentation of options and data collection for items selected most often) or informal
(conversation, surveys).
• Reinforcement: Stimuli provided after an appropriate (i.e., desirable, replacement) behavior
with its delivery intended to increase the occurrence of that behavior in the future (Cooper et
al., 2020).
• Satiation: When a reinforcer is no longer effective for the individual.
• Unconditioned Reinforcers: Natural reinforcers, also called primary or unlearned reinforcers.
Using Reinforcement Strategies to Promote Positive Student Outcomes 123
Reinforcement
This chapter will provide readers with a substantial amount of information on reinforcement.
You have already read about reinforcement in prior chapters, but this chapter will give a more in-
depth look at the science and application of this term. Reinforcement is provided after an appropriate
(i.e., desirable, replacement) behavior with its delivery intended to increase the occurrence of that
behavior in the future (Cooper et al., 2020). This chapter will examine different terms associated
with reinforcement, delivery options, how it can be used to increase target behaviors, and types of
reinforcers. Following that, the chapter discusses individual and group reinforcement, along with
specific strategies for each. The chapter concludes with ways to collect data on reinforcement and
implementation fidelity, along with fading strategies that lead to generalization and maintenance.
Positive Reinforcement
Often, reinforcement and punishment are used interchangeably when referencing increasing
desirable behaviors or eliminating undesirable behaviors. Unfortunately, most people have a misun-
derstanding of reinforcement and its use in increasing the future frequency of whatever behavior it
follows. The misunderstanding that occurs most often is with the terms positive and negative rein-
forcement. Positive reinforcement is delivered immediately after a behavior and increases the future
occurrence of that specific behavior (Cooper et al., 2020). The important word in the sentence is
delivered. Instead of delivered, you can think about the process as something desired being provided
or given after the behavior.
Positive reinforcement is typically delivered in a three-term contingency, also commonly known
as antecedent-behavior-consequence (ABC). The three-term contingency is a temporal, or time-
sensitive, relationship with the ABC. The antecedent precedes the behavior and is followed by the
consequence, which in this case is positive reinforcement. For example, a teacher tells a student to
sit on their number during circle time (antecedent), the student sits (behavior), and then the teacher
says, “Great job sitting on your number” (consequence, positive reinforcement). The ABC three-term
contingency occurs nearly all day long where utilizing positive reinforcement as the consequence
increases the likelihood that the student will perform that behavior more often in the future.
Negative Reinforcement
On the other hand, negative reinforcement involves the removal or reduction of a stimulus im-
mediately following a behavior that increases the future occurrence of that behavior and others like
it (Cooper et al., 2020). Negative reinforcement is often confused with punishment because negative
is often correlated to something bad while positive is correlated with something good. This is not
the case with these two terms in this situation. Instead, think of it in mathematical terms where
positive relates to + numbers or adding something and negative relates to – numbers or subtracting
something. You can also think of it as being related to the intensity of the stimulus; positive is adding
intensity to the stimuli after the behavior, and negative is removing the intensity to the stimuli after
the behavior. In a future chapter, you will learn about punishment where the same idea holds true for
positive punishment (added stimuli results in decreased future behavior) and negative punishment
(removed stimuli results in decreased future behavior). Figure 7-1 provides a visual of positive and
negative reinforcement and punishment.
124 Chapter 7
Figure 7-1. Positive and negative reinforcement.
Three-Term Contingency
Behavior occurs in the middle of the three-term contingency, antecedent-behavior-conse-
quence, also known as the ABCs of behavior analysis (Cooper et al., 2020). The three-term contin-
gency includes the antecedent (the thing that happens right before a target or expected behavior), the
behavior (i.e., action or response), and the consequence (the reinforcement following the behavior).
The consequence influences the behavior in the future, and, in the case of reinforcement, causes it to
increase. Punishment as a consequence typically results in a decrease of that behavior. Table 7-1 pro-
vides examples of the positive and negative reinforcement within three-term contingencies.
Types of Reinforcement
There are several ways to reduce problem behaviors and increase replacement behaviors using
reinforcement procedures. Each procedure (i.e., schedule) provides a rule where it describes contin-
gency and conditions where reinforcement is present. Reinforcement ranges from continuous rein-
forcement, where reinforcement is provided for every instance of the target/replacement behavior, to
noncontingent reinforcement, where reinforcement is provided on a schedule, with no contingency
in place, rather it is provided on an interval schedule. Differential reinforcement, where one response
is reinforced while withholding reinforcement for another response class, provides reinforcement
contingent on the individual displaying the replacement (i.e., ideal) behavior and does not provide
reinforcement when the problem behavior is present (Cooper et al., 2020). There are several types of
differential reinforcement procedures used to support replacement behaviors and decrease problem
behaviors, including differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA), differential reinforce-
ment of incompatible behavior (DRI), differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO), and dif-
ferential reinforcement of low rates of responding (DRL). Table 7-2 provides a definition of each type
of differential reinforcement.
Reinforcers
There are two categories of reinforcers: those that are natural reinforcers, unconditioned reinforc-
ers (also called primary or unlearned reinforcers), and those that are paired with other reinforcers
and become reinforcers over time, conditioned reinforcers (also called secondary or learned reinforc-
ers). Unconditioned reinforcers are those that are biologically reinforcing, such as food, water, sleep,
and warmth, where if someone is deprived of them, they are naturally reinforced by receiving them.
Table 7-1. Three-Term Contingency Examples

Antecedent Behavior Consequence Effect on
Future
Behavior
Car radio is quiet Turn up the radio Hear the song on the Positive
radio reinforcement
In the future, you turn
up the radio to hear
the music
Car radio is loud Turn down the radio Hear what the other Negative
people in the car are reinforcement
saying In the future, you turn
down the radio to
hear the conversation
You are thirsty Take a drink of water Tastes so good and Positive
from your water bottle you are no longer reinforcement
thirsty In the future, when
you are thirsty, you
take a drink of water*
Your pants are You take off the Your new pants are Negative
uncomfortable uncomfortable pants comfortable reinforcement
and replace them with In the future, you
comfortable pants will take off the
uncomfortable pants
and replace them with
comfortable pants
*There is an argument in the field of behavior analysis that the distinction between positive and negative may no
longer be needed. One reason is situations like this: when you are thirsty and you drink water, the consequence is the
great taste of the water and thus you drink more water in the future (positive reinforcement). However, when you drink
water, you remove the negative state of dehydration/thirst and thus drink more in the future (negative reinforcement).
In both situations, you increase water intake, and those two reasons may not be able to be differentiated.
Conditioned reinforcers are ones that have been paired with primary reinforcers and have a history
of reinforcement, such as money and candy. Conditioned reinforcers are often part of a token econ-
omy where multiple levels of reinforcement are used to improve classroom behavior and students
earn tokens as primary reinforcement, then collect those tokens to exchange for back-up reinforcers,
typically larger, personally reinforcing items.
Identifying Reinforcer Preferences

The simplest way to identify preferences for individual students is to observe the student, ask
them what they like or what they would prefer to work for utilizing open-ended questions, or observe
their current reinforcers and evaluate if a new reinforcer may be needed, but this may not always be
the case (Chazin & Ledford, 2016; University of Minnesota, n.d.). A more formal and systematic way
to identify reinforcers that motivate students is to conduct a preference assessment where the teacher
presents multiple items and collects data based on the number of times each reinforcer is chosen.
Chapter 5 of this book covered the various types of preference assessments, but the main idea of the
126 Chapter 7
Table 7-2. Differential Reinforcement

Type Acronym Definition
Differential reinforcement DRA Reinforces instances of the replacement behavior
of alternative behavior and does not reinforce the problem behavior.
Differential reinforcement DRI A type of DRA, this procedure reinforces a
of incompatible behavior replacement behavior that cannot occur at the
same time as the problem behavior because it
is physically impossible for the replacement and
problem behaviors to occur at the same time.
Differential reinforcement DRO Reinforcement is contingent on nonoccurrence of
of other behavior the problem behavior throughout time. You can
also think of the O as omission training (i.e., interval
DRO and momentary DRO).
Differential reinforcement DRL Reinforcement is contingent on the number of
of low rates of responding occurrences of the target behavior occurring below
either a predetermined amount of time (interval
DRL) or number of times (spaced-responding DRL).
Adapted from Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2020). Applied behavior analysis (3rd ed.). Pearson.
assessment is to evaluate the student’s preferences for reinforcement. Providing the student with
choice and ranking their reinforcer preferences can help to identify possibly strong reinforcers with
reliable reinforcement effects and those that may not be as effective to provide reinforcement. The
reinforcers presented in the preference assessment are those that are higher value and should serve
as a backup to typical reinforcement presented consistently and often, including praise, tokens, time
earned, and other commonly used class-wide and individual reinforcement. Keep in mind that stu-
dent preferences will change. Due to this, preference assessments will need to be conducted regu-
larly to prevent satiation, which is when a reinforcer is no longer effective for the individual. The
individual basically loses interest in the reinforcer and no longer finds it reinforcing. For example, if
peanut butter cups are a student’s favorite candy, and they are provided multiple peanut butter cups
throughout the day, they will eventually stop wanting them because they are full, tired of sugar, or
because they want something else. Satiation tends to happen with edible (i.e., food) reinforcement.
On the other hand, when a reinforcer is not offered as frequently, reinforcement deprivation occurs,
which means that the item is more desirable because they do not have frequent access to it, and its
value increases because it is not freely available.
Reinforcer Delivery
When delivering reinforcers, the more immediate the reinforcer, the more reinforcing it will be
to the student receiving it. Reinforcement should be systematic, positive, and immediate (Scheeler
et al., 2006). The closer reinforcement is to the behavior it is reinforcing, the better the chance it
reoccurs in the future. Reinforcement should be delivered within 3 to 5 seconds to be effective and
associated with the behavior.
Behavior-specific praise (BSP) refers to a praise statement related to a specific action or achieve-
ment completed by a student (Markelz et al., 2020). An example of this would be instead of the teach-
er saying, “Excellent work,” the teacher might say, “Excellent work following the classroom rules. I
love the way you have your materials ready for class to begin.” By praising students in a behavior-
specific manner, we are helping the students make the connection between the desired behavior they
engaged in and the reinforcer (i.e., BSP) they received. Therefore, strengthening the behavior and
increasing the likelihood the desired behavior increases in the future. When working with students
with greater cognitive impairment, consider using “good” (verb) as your praise statement, such as
good walking, good sitting, and good hands in lap.
There are several considerations we need to keep in mind when deciding if BSP is the right
strategy and ensuring it is implemented correctly. First, provide praise based on a specific behavior
and name the behavior in the praise statement. Second, ensure the BSP statement is contingent on
the student engaging in the desired behavior. As such, we have to make sure we are monitoring our
student’s behavior closely. We also want to vary our praise statements to avoid satiation of the rein-
forcer. A final consideration when deciding if BSP is an appropriate strategy to implement is func-
tion of behavior. For BSP to be effective in increasing desired behavior, the student’s behavior must
be maintained by attention. If a student’s behavior is maintained by a different function (i.e., escape,
access to tangibles, automatic), it is likely that praise will not act as a reinforcer for that particular
student and a different strategy should be selected.
Token Economy
Token economies are a systematic program of reinforcement tied to reinforcers such as points,
stickers, or other tokens that can be exchanged for a backup reinforcer. There are three essential
components of a token economy: (a) clearly defined behaviors, (b) a medium of exchange, and (c)
backup reinforcers. Token economies are built on the theory of conditioned and generalized condi-
tioned reinforcers. In Figure 7-2, you will find a task analysis on how to implement a token economy
in your setting.
Behavior Contracts
A behavior contract is a document created by a teacher with the target student that outlines
particular contingencies for reinforcement. These contingencies can be stated in if/then statements.
Behavior contracts are effective because they require achievable tasks and desirable outcomes to be
specified and operationally defined. This strategy is a complex intervention based on a combination
of related behavior principles (i.e., positive and negative reinforcement, rule-governed behavior). In
order to create the contract, a teacher must include an operational definition of the behavior, criteria
for success or task requirements, and potential reinforcers to be earned. By including these compo-
nents, a student knows what behaviors to engage in, what they can earn, how often they can earn,
and when the reinforcer is available. When implementing a behavior contract, the teacher must write
it in collaboration with the student, state the contingencies positively, focus on accomplishing tasks
rather than obedience, and it must be implemented systematically. See Figure 7-3 for a task analysis
of the contracting process.
There are several advantages to creating and implementing a behavior contract. First, the con-
tract can be used as a permanent product that records the variables of the original contingency that
was identified and discussed between the teacher and the student. Next, contracting is a collaborative
128 Chapter 7
Figure 7-2. Creating a token economy.
Figure 7-3. Task analysis of the contracting process.

and creative approach that affords the student some autonomy in what is going to occur and allows
them to see themselves as active participants in the learning. Third, it has the potential to allow for
positive rapport building with the target student. A fourth advantage is that the contracting process
emphasizes the focus on the individual in a positive manner. Lastly, a behavior contract can act as a
provisional document that states current objectives between individualized education plan meetings.
Daily Behavior Report Cards

An effective Daily Behavior Report Card (DBRC) intervention is based on the basic principles
of applied behavior analysis (Riden et al., 2021). DBRCs are implemented by a teacher to reduce
challenging, but not dangerous, student behavior by: (a) specifying student behavior, (b) rating that
behavior at least daily, and (c) sharing that information with the student and someone other than
the rater (Chafouleas et al., 2002). There are nine critical steps for developing and implementing this
intervention in schools: (a) identify and define target behavior, (b) hypothesize function of behavior,
(c) select a rating system, (d) identify setting, (e) select reinforcers, (f) consider replacement behav-
iors, (g) identify criteria for success, (h) determine when feedback will be provided, and (i) evaluate
data.
Case Study 1
Ms. Crosby is a 10th-grade math teacher. She has always loved teaching the content to all of her
learners. Lately, her student (Sidney) has been off task quite a bit. Sidney has a hard time responding
to the teacher, orienting to the materials and task, asking and answering questions, and respecting oth-
ers in the building. Sidney receives special education services under the category of autism spectrum
disorder. She approached Ms. Lafferty, who is a Board Certified Behavior Analyst, for guidance. She
explains to Ms. Lafferty that she enjoys having Sidney in class but struggles to help him succeed in math
class. Ms. Crosby explains that she often relies on punitive/punishment procedures (e.g., sending student
out of the room, detention) to try and get Sidney to engage academically. From time to time, Sidney
engages with the lesson, but Ms. Crosby is tired of going through the same cycle with Sidney every day.
Ms. Lafferty knows that escape is a maintaining consequence based on the results of Sidney’s functional
behavior assessment. Ms. Lafferty believes a DBRC may be an effective strategy to provide Sidney, Ms.
Crosby, and herself data on Sidney’s behavior during math class. Ms. Lafferty and Ms. Crosby agree
that incorporating the schools ROAR (Respond to the teacher, Orient to the materials, Ask and answer
questions, Respect each other) behaviors in the DBRC is the correct course of action because they are
centered on engagement and respecting others in the class. Ms. Lafferty tells Ms. Crosby that she will set
up the DBRC based on ROAR behaviors, and they will reconvene to discuss implementation.
Ms. Lafferty, Ms. Crosby, and Sidney meet to discuss the DBRC intervention, and how it can help
Sidney succeed in class and help him have an all-around better day. They talk with Sidney about a few
things they would like to see him improve, like responding to the teacher, orienting to the materials,
asking and answering questions, respecting each other, staying engaged in the academic task, and being
less of a distraction to his peers. After meeting with his teachers, Sidney agrees that these behaviors are
important and thinks a DBRC is worth a shot. As the intervention is being implemented, Ms. Crosby
collects data on the target behaviors and sees the problematic behaviors trend in a therapeutic direction.
She is excited that the intervention is working so well and decides to invite Ms. Lafferty into the class to
see the progress. See Figure 7-4 for an example of Sidney’s DBRC.
130 Chapter 7
Figure 7-4. Daily Behavior Report Card.

Figure 7-5. ROAR card.
Group Contingencies
There are times when educators want to arrange contingencies in the classroom to support the
outcomes of the entire class. This section will focus on three different approaches to managing group
behavior: (a) independent, (b) dependent, and (c) interdependent group contingencies. A group
contingency is when a reinforcer is contingent upon one member of a group, a segment of the group,
or the group as a whole.
Independent group contingencies allow a teacher to focus on the same behavior at the group level
but reinforce individual students contingent on their behavior. Reinforcers are typically delivered in
the form of a token. There are several favorable characteristics associated with independent group
contingencies. First, no student is penalized (i.e., not receiving reinforcer) based on another student’s
behavior. Next, each student has access to the reinforcer under the exact same terms as everyone else
in the class. Third, individual students are recognized and reinforced based on their behavior.
Case Study 2
Mrs. Claypool, a special education teacher, taught in a sixth-grade self-contained classroom. Her
students have a wide range of disabilities (e.g., emotional behavior disorder, autism spectrum disorder),
and she really wants to focus on increasing her students’ academic engagement. She understands that for
her class an independent group contingency means delivering reinforcers based on their individual be-
havior. Mrs. Claypool decides to base the independent group contingency on the phrase ROAR because
their school mascot is a tiger. ROAR is a pneumonic that stands for Respond to the teacher, Orient to
the materials, Ask and answer questions, Respect each other. In order to keep track of individual per-
formance, she creates a punch card (Figure 7-5). Each ROAR card consists of 20 possible points. Every
time Mrs. Claypool observes a student engaging in one of the class’s ROAR behaviors, she takes her
hole punch and marks one of the spaces on the card. Once a student gets their whole card punched for
the day, they are able to earn a larger (terminal) reinforcer. Terminal reinforcers might include a quiz/
homework pass, time on a class tablet or computer, or access to a snack from the class store. The key to
terminal reinforcers is to talk to the student about what they want to work for.
132 Chapter 7
Interdependent group contingencies follow the logic of all for one and one for all. Meaning that
all of the students have to perform particular skills or engage in certain behaviors as a group in order
to earn a reinforcer. This approach allows teachers and students to focus on the same behaviors in a
class and work toward reaching a class goal that results in a terminal reinforcer being delivered to the
class. Terminal reinforcers could include a pizza party, pajama day, or extra recess. It is important that
the terminal goal is something the entire class is interested in obtaining.
Mrs. Claypool wants to focus on increasing her students’ academic engagement. She understands
that for her class an interdependent group contingency means delivering reinforcers based on the group’s
behavior. Mrs. Claypool decides to base the interdependent group contingency on ROAR behaviors. To
do this, Mrs. Claypool places a large mason jar on her desk, and whenever she sees the whole class en-
gaging in one of the ROAR behaviors, she places a marble in the jar. Once the jar is full, the entire group
is rewarded with access to a terminal reinforcer.
Dependent group contingencies, also known as the hero procedure, means that the success of the
class hinges on the behavior of one student or a select few students. In other words, with a dependent
group contingency, reinforcers are delivered to the entire class based on the performance of selected
student or students (Williamson et al., 2009). Due to the focus on the performance of a selected
number of students, dependent group contingencies may result in undue peer pressure, retaliation,
or social punishment for the targeted students (Davis & Blankenship, 1996). Clearly, with the poten-
tial for unintended side effects of this approach, it is important that educators approach this strategy
with care. One way to avoid the unintended side effects is to have the hero be anonymous to the class.
If we harken back to Mrs. Claypool’s classroom, we will remember that she is trying to increase
academic engagement. To do this using a dependent group contingency, she selects three students to act
as the heroes (Chase, TJ, and Vanessa) but does not inform the class who she selected. Whenever Chase,
TJ, or Vanessa engage in one of the ROAR behaviors 85% of the time during a particular activity, she
drops a homework assignment for the entire class for the following day.
Chapter Review
1. Describe the difference between positive and negative reinforcement.
2. Reinforcement is provided after an appropriate (i.e., desirable, replacement) behavior with its
delivery intended to increase the occurrence of that behavior in the future. Provide two novel
examples of positive and negative reinforcement.
3. Reinforcement ranges from continuous reinforcement, where reinforcement is provided for
every instance of the target/replacement behavior, to noncontingent reinforcement, where re-
inforcement is provided on a schedule, with no contingency in place, rather it is provided on an
interval schedule. Describe why these differences in reinforcement schedule exist.
4. Describe what differential reinforcement of other behaviors is and how it can inadvertently
reinforce new inappropriate behavior.
5. Unconditioned reinforcers are also called primary or unlearned reinforcers. Provide three ex-
amples of unconditioned reinforcers and how we can use those to reinforce behavior.
6. Identifying reinforcers is incredibly important to the work we do. Describe how we can identify
preferred items that might be used as reinforcers.
7. Token economies are a systematic program of reinforcement tied to reinforcers such as points,
stickers, or other tokens that can be exchanged for a backup reinforcer. Identify the essential
components of a token economy.
8. A behavior contract is a document created by a teacher for the target student that outlines
particular contingencies for reinforcement. Describe the steps in creating a behavior contract.
9. Define the three different approaches to group contingencies. How are they similar and how
are they different?
References
Chafouleas, S. M., Riley-Tillman, T. C., & McDougal, J. L. (2002). Good, bad, or in between: How does the daily behavior
report card rate? Psychology in the Schools, 39(2), 157-169. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.10027
Chazin, K. T., & Ledford, J. R. (2016). Preference assessments. In Evidence-based instructional practices for young children
with autism and other disabilities. http://ebip.vkcsites.org/preference-assessments
Davis, P. K., & Blankenship, C. J. (1996). Group-oriented contingencies: Applications for community rehabilitation pro-
grams. Vocational Evaluation & Work Adjustment Bulletin.
Markelz, A., Riden, B., & Hooks, S. D. (2020). Component analysis of training and goal setting, self-monitoring, and
tactile prompting on early childhood educators’ behavior-specific praise. Journal of Early Intervention, 43(2). https://
doi.org/10.1177/1053815120927091
Riden, B. S., Markelz, A. M., & Taylor, J. C. (2021). Using and evaluating daily behavior report cards for students with chal-
lenging behaviors. Intervention in School and Clinic, 57(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/1053451221994823
Scheeler, M. C., McAfee, J. K., Ruhl, K. L., & Lee, D. L. (2006). Effects of corrective feedback delivered via wireless technol-
ogy on preservice teacher performance and student behavior. Teacher Education and Special Education, 29(1), 12-25.
https://doi.org/10.1177/088840640602900103
University of Minnesota. (n.d.). Positive reinforcement…a proactive intervention for the classroom. https://ceed.umn.edu/
wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Positive-Reinforcement.pdf
Williamson, B. D., Campbell‐Whatley, G. D., & Lo, Y. Y. (2009). Using a random dependent group contingency to in-
crease on‐task behaviors of high school students with high incidence disabilities. Psychology in the Schools, 46(10),
1074-1083.
134 Chapter 7
Appendix
Frequency Data Collection Sheet

Student name: Class: Date:
Teacher name: Observer name:
Target behavior:
Operational behavior:
Start time End time Frequency tally Total frequency

8
You Want Me to Do What?
Effective Strategies for
Teaching New Skills
Sara M. Snyder, PhD, BCBA-D

and Benjamin S. Riden, PhD, BCBA-D
INTRODUCTION
In a perfect world, we could easily teach the most complex skills to all students.
However, this is not always the case for all skills and all learners. Some skills will need to be
broken down into smaller teachable components. Some learners will require specialized
instructional procedures in order to acquire the components of a larger skill. In this
chapter, we describe: (a) how to develop a task analysis for a chained skill, (b) how to teach
the steps of the chained skill, and (c) how to systematically use prompts to maximize skill
acquisition and minimize errors that derail instruction.
Carr, R. N. (Ed.).
138 Chapter 8
Chapter Objectives
ȘȘ Develop a task analysis to teach a chained skill.
ȘȘ Describe procedures for teaching the steps of a chained skill.
ȘȘ Compare and contrast response prompts used to teach both chained and discrete
skills.
ȘȘ Describe strategies that maximize learning efficiency and minimize errors.
KEY TERMS
• Backward Chaining: A process for teaching chained skills where instruction begins by teaching
the last step in the sequence, then proceeding to teach the second-to-last step once the last step
is mastered, and so on.
• Chained Skill: A skill that consists of multiple observable steps or observable responses that
need to occur in a specific sequence.
• Controlling Prompt: The least intrusive prompt that the learner will consistently respond to.
• Discrete Skill: A skill that consists of a single observable step or single observable response.
• Forward Chaining: A process for teaching chained skills where instruction begins by teach-
ing the first step in the sequence, then proceeding to teach the second step once the first step is
mastered, and so on.
• Task Analysis: When a chained skill is segmented into single observable steps or observable
responses in order to teach those specific steps or responses.
• Total Task Chaining: A process for teaching chained skills where instruction occurs on all the
steps in the sequence at the same time.
Case Study
Mr. Jameson is teaching fourth grade for the first time. As a student teacher, he enjoyed working
with older elementary school students. In fourth grade, students begin to transition to more complex
tasks and learning compared to the “learning to learn” focus of earlier elementary school.
In the first few weeks, Mr. Jameson is surprised that not all of his fourth graders are ready to make
that switch from “learning to learn” to the more complex learning required in fourth grade and beyond.
For example, one thing fourth graders must learn to do is look up words in a glossary or dictionary.
Although this skill always seemed easy for Mr. Jameson, he is realizing that this is a complex, multi-step
skill for his fourth graders. Some of his students are showing similar difficulty with math concepts like
rounding to the ten thousands and writing equivalent decimals and fractions.
Mr. Jameson knows he needs to make the tasks more simple for his learners who are struggling,
but he does not know how. He has been doing these skills for so long that it just feels automatic to him.
You Want Me To Do What? Effective Strategies for Teaching New Skills 139
The Big Picture

Teaching is what we do in K-12 schools. In fancier terms, skill acquisition is the primary focus of
our work. We teach a wide variety of skills to learners across grade levels. We teach skills across a va-
riety of domains, including practical skills (e.g., washing hands, zipping up jackets, opening a locker)
and academic skills in all the content areas (e.g., solving long division problems, writing paragraphs,
reading historical documents). Skills learned in school consist of single-step skills, such as naming a
vocabulary word when told a definition. Single-step skills are often referred to as discrete skills. We
also teach multi-step skills like completing chemistry labs, solving complex mathematical equations,
and writing essays. Advanced learning in K-12 is primarily multi-step. From hand washing to solv-
ing problems with the quadratic equation, students of all ages and abilities must learn to complete
multi-step skills. How will we break down these complex multiple step skills into units we can teach
and assess?
Task Analysis: Making Lengthy or

Complex Skills Into Teachable Units
Students will often need multi-step skills broken down into manageable instructional units. This
is true well beyond K-12 schools. Have you ever bought a piece of furniture that you had to assemble
yourself? Furniture assembly instructions usually segment a multi-step process into steps presented
individually. Without this presentation of steps one at a time, a multi-step process of assembling an
end table would be impossible for all but the most experienced furniture assemblers.
Task analysis describes when a complex or lengthy task is segmented into individual steps or
skills (Sam & AFIRM Team, 2015). It is both a process and a product. When an instructor takes a
complex or lengthy task and segments it into smaller steps, this is the process of task analysis. The
term task analysis also describes the end result of the task analysis process (Ledford et al., 2019).
Although the term may be unfamiliar to some, we use task analyses all the time. Examples of task
analyses include using instructions to build something, following a recipe, and even completing your
taxes using an online program.
Important Considerations for Developing Task Analyses

There are two important considerations for using task analyses in schools. First, a teacher needs
to be able to create an effective task analysis for a skill. What is “effective” depends on both the skill
and the learners (Carter & Kemp, 1996). The degree to which the teacher has to break down the skill
into incremental steps will be largely dependent on learning history, or how much prior instruction
the learner has had with the skill. Depending on the learner’s current skill level or phase of learning
(e.g., acquisition, fluency, maintenance) with the skill, some learners will do well if the task analysis
groups some steps together for brevity. However, other learners may need a more structured, detailed
task analysis if they are learning a skill for the first time (i.e., initial skill acquisition) for the speci-
fied skill. For example, learners who are new to writing five paragraph persuasive essays will need a
more intensive task analysis as they first acquire the skill. This initial task analysis might have mul-
tiple steps. As they master the five paragraph persuasive essay, they may still need a task analysis to
remember the steps, but this task analysis might be much simpler (Table 8-1).
Task analyses may need to vary in complexity dependent on student-level factors (Collins, 2012).
Ability to sustain attention, process spoken and written language, and engage short- and long-term
memory may also factor into how exhaustively the skill needs to be broken down into individual
components (Carter & Kemp, 1996). These student-level concerns may be developmental (i.e., we
expect most 16-year-olds to remember more information at a time than we expect of 6-year-olds)
140 Chapter 8
Table 8-1. Task Analysis for Essay Writing

Beginning task analysis for Task analysis for students
writing a five-paragraph who have mastered the five-
persuasive essay paragraph essay but still need
some reminders on the steps
1. Brainstorm ideas 1. Brainstorm ideas
a. Develop your claim or main idea 2. Create an outline
b. Consider evidence for and against your 3. Write a draft
claim 4. Edit the draft
2. Create an outline
a. Paragraph 1: State your claim and briefly
summarize ideas that support your claim
b. Paragraphs 2 to 4: Write one paragraph
with details for each supporting idea
i. The first sentence introduces the
supporting idea
ii. The other sentences provide
additional detail
c. Paragraph 5: Write a closing paragraph
i. Restate your claim
ii. Summarize your supporting ideas in
new words
iii. End with a strong sentence
3. Write the draft using ideas from your outline
4. Edit the draft. Check your draft for:
a. Spelling
b. Punctuation
c. Word usage
The left column depicts the steps of writing an essay segmented into incremental skills for a student writing an essay
for the first time. The right column depicts what this task analysis would look like for a student who has mastered all the
steps in the left column and no longer requires a detailed task analysis.
or student specific, particularly working with students with learning differences or disability. Also,
students who are English-language learners may need a different task analysis (with different length
and vocabulary) than a task analysis used by their same-aged peers considered proficient in English.
The teacher will also need to consider how to present the task analysis to the students. Task
analyses can be presented in a variety of forms. A written task analysis will work well for proficient
readers. Emerging readers may need a written checklist in simple terms with visual supports (e.g.,
photographs, clip art). Some students will require a task analysis that consists entirely of pictures.
Task analyses can also be presented in video form. Have you ever watched a video on the internet
to learn how to do a multi-step skill? With the proliferation of minimally expensive video recording
technology, teachers may be able to video record a task analysis for learners to access to complete a
task.
The second important consideration for using task analyses in school is that we must teach
students to effectively follow task analyses. When following a recipe, you learn to read one step, then
complete the step before moving on to the next step. Perhaps you also learned to read the entire task
analysis before you started so you were sure you had all the needed materials and tools to complete
the task. Our students may require explicit instruction in how to read and follow a task analysis
and complete the skill at the same time. One strategy for teaching students to use task analyses is
a model–lead–test strategy, also sometimes referred to as I Do–We Do–You Do. First, the teacher
models how to use the task analysis to the students, sometimes using “think alouds” to make explicit
what they are thinking as they use the task analysis to guide their completion of the skill. Second, the
teacher guides the students in practice with using the task analysis. The final component of teaching
would be for students to practice using the task analysis independently with teacher support and
feedback as needed. If the goal is for students to use task analyses independently, we may need to
teach our students to mark off when the step is completed. In order to limit cognitive load, we may
need to teach our students to turn the page or cover up the completed steps so they can focus on the
current step of the task analysis.
Developing the Task Analysis

Prior to developing a task analysis, it is important to step back from the teacher’s current ability
to complete the task. Instead, the teacher will need to develop the task analysis with the students’
needs in mind. For example, an experienced algebra teacher may be able to solve an equation involv-
ing polynomials with the briefest task analysis or none at all. However, the algebra teacher’s students
may need a task analysis that breaks down this complex task into the most incremental steps.
Before developing the task analysis, teachers should consider assessing the students’ current or
baseline skill level to guide task analysis development. This important step can help teachers cre-
ate a task analysis that is “just right,” not too short and not too long. For example, Mr. Jameson
is teaching his students to graph a line on a coordinate plane using the slope and y intercept (i.e.,
y = mx+b). First, he conducts a baseline skill assessment to determine what, if any, steps the students
can already do prior to instruction on the skill. During the baseline assessment, he determines that
students already know how to plot the y intercept, likely because they learned how to plot ordered
pairs in a previous math course. Knowing this, Mr. Jameson’s task analysis for this skill can have a
shortened section on plotting the y intercept, with lengthier and more detailed steps dedicated to the
other parts of the task.
Baseline skill assessments can be highly structured assessments. They can also be simply observ-
ing the learner’s attempt to complete the skill. For example, Dr. Morgan needs to teach Maya how
to complete an online job application. For the baseline skill assessment, he opens the application on
the computer and asks Maya to complete the first page. He does not provide instruction while she
completes the application, but he occasionally provides encouragement and praise to keep going. In
his observation, he notices that Maya can type all her personal information correctly, but Maya does
not know how to complete the education and past employment section of the application. Knowing
this, Dr. Morgan creates a task analysis to help Maya complete those difficult sections.
For some learners, it may be important to observe the student’s attempt to complete the skill
more than once just to be sure student-level factors did not impact the student’s performance on the
baseline skill assessment. For example, perhaps a student takes medication with drowsiness as a side
effect. If the teacher observed the student attempt the skill when drowsiness was at its peak, the base-
line skill assessment may not capture everything the student can do because drowsiness impacted
student performance. If time is a concern, then observing most students attempt the task one time is
certainly better than no baseline skill assessment at all.
142 Chapter 8
After observing the student, the teacher can develop the task analysis by breaking the skill into
teachable steps. In some cases, the teacher may also want to consult an expert on the skill to review
the task analysis. For example, a special education teacher skilled in teaching methods may want to
ask a content area specialist to review a task analysis to be sure that all required steps of the skill are
included and adequately described (Carter & Kemp, 1996).
Many task analyses are written in temporal form which means that the steps are listed in the
order in which they should occur (Carter & Kemp, 1996). When developing the task analysis, the
teacher should consider if completing the steps in the exact order is important. For example, when
solving a math problem using order of operations, following the sequence (e.g., parentheses, expo-
nents, multiplication) is critical for solving the equation correctly. If you are teaching a student to
put on a shirt, some students may prefer to put their head in the shirt first. Other students may opt
to put the sleeves on first. The teacher needs to decide if it is acceptable for the student to complete
some or all steps out of order.
When developing the task analysis, it is important to consider exactly what you want the learner
to do for each step. Do you want the learner to do something (e.g., point, gesture, write something,
press buttons on a calculator)? Do you want the learner to say something? What do you want the
learner to say, and what alternate forms will you accept? For example, if you want the student to
state the names of the seven continents, does it matter what order they state those continent names?
Considering the form of the student’s response (whether the learner is doing something or saying
something) is important at this step because it will determine what response prompts can be used
for teaching.
Mr. Jameson has created a task analysis to teach students how to add fractions with unlike denomi-
nators (Table 8-2). Now that he has developed a task analysis for the skill, he realizes it is a lengthy task
analysis with many steps. The first step, find the least common multiple (LCM), is more complex than
just a single step. Mr. Jameson is unsure how to proceed. Should he teach the entire skill at once? Should
he focus on certain parts of the task analysis before teaching other parts?
Teaching New Skills Using Behavior Chains

When teaching a student a complex, multi-step skill, it is sometimes necessary to use a strategy
called chaining. Chaining is a sequence of stimuli and responses, sometimes referred to as a behav-
ior chain. Within this chain, each response made by the student produces a change in the environ-
ment that acts as a signal to engage in the next response, which may be the next step in the skill or
sequence. Behavior chains can help strengthen new responses based on principles of reinforcement
(see Chapter 7 of this book). There are three distinct types of behavioral chaining strategies: (a) total
task chaining, (b) forward chaining, and (c) backward chaining. See Table 8-3 for an example of the
chaining strategies described next.
Total Task Chaining

Total task chaining is implemented by completing the entire sequence of behaviors in the chain-
ing and receiving reinforcement at the end of the completed task. When deciding to use total task
chaining, a teacher must decide if the learner has the prerequisite skills to successfully complete
the behaviors in the chain and would only need a few trials to successfully master the skill to a set
criterion. In order to teach a skill using total task chaining, the student attempts to go through the
chain on their own as the teacher constantly repeats the steps. The teacher would then tell the student
every move to make and guide them through the chain. The chain is taught until the student is able
to complete all behaviors in the chain correctly. As the student is completing the task and when they
Table 8-2. Task Analysis for Fractions

Task Analysis: Adding Fractions With Unlike Denominators
1. Find the LCM of the two common denominators.
2. Look at fraction 1. Multiply the denominator by the factor that results in the LCM.
a. Write the new denominator.
3. For fraction 1, multiply the numerator by the same factor.
a. Write the new numerator.
4. Look at fraction 2. Multiply the denominator by the factor that results in the LCM.
a. Write the new denominator.
5. For fraction 2, multiply the numerator by the same factor
a. Write the new numerator.
6. Add the numerators of the two fractions together.
7. If the answer is an improper fraction, change it to a mixed fraction.
8. Simplify the fraction if possible.
a. Do not change the whole number in the mixed fraction.
This table depicts a task analysis that segments how to add fractions with unlike denominators into incremental steps.
complete the chain, the teacher should provide reinforcement by using praise or tangible reinforcers
to reinforce the correct completion of the behavioral chain. Using a total task chain is most often to
teach functional skills or skills that cannot begin and end readily.
For example, total task chaining would be appropriate when teaching a student to order a pizza
over the phone. To teach a skill using total task chaining, a teacher must teach the total chained task
at once and allow the learner to complete each step in the chain. The teacher would then need to
follow the following steps to teach the behavior using a total task chaining procedure. First, prompt
students through steps based on the selected prompting procedure (discussed later in this chapter).
Then, reinforce the learner after each step is completed. Next, the teacher must save the strongest
reinforcer for the end of the total task. Finally, as the student masters the task, fade the reinforcers as
the chain is practiced.
Forward Chaining
Forward chaining is implemented by having the student learn the skill in a logically occurring
order. Every step of the task analysis is taught with the student learning the first step. Each step com-
pleted correctly is reinforced immediately after successfully displaying the skill. After the first step
is completed correctly, the student is taught the second step of the task analysis with reinforcement
contingent on correctly completing all of the previous steps. After the student can finish the first step
successfully, without additional prompts, then they can move on to the next step in the task analysis.
Each step of the task analysis builds on the previous until the entire behavior chain is completed cor-
rectly. Typically, when the student successfully completes a step in the task analysis three consecutive
times, they move on to the next step.
An example of forward chaining could be paying and selecting an item from a vending machine.
To teach this skill, you might have the student first select a desired item from the machine, acquire
the amount needed to purchase the item, put the money in the machine, select the correct button
for the desired item, and remove the item from the machine. The procedure for teaching this would
include teaching the first step and proceeding to the following step after the first step of the skill
144 Chapter 8
Table 8-3. Total Task, Forward, and Backward Chaining

Skill: The student will measure the length of an item using metric measurement
(e.g., centimeters).
Step 1: Name the appropriate metric unit for the Forward Chaining: Start by teaching
item (e.g., centimeters, meters). this single step.
Total Task Chaining: Teach all the
steps, starting with this step.
Step 2: Identify the appropriate measuring tool
(e.g., tape measure, ruler).
Step 3: Line up the edge of the item with the 0
mark of the measuring tool.
Step 4: Extend the measuring tool over the length
of the item.
Step 5: Identify the largest whole number on the
measuring tool. Write it down on your paper.
Step 6: Count the lines past the largest whole
number.
Step 7: Write the number of lines as a fraction Backward Chaining: Start by teaching
after the whole number. Because it is metric this step. The instructor will model all the
measurement, the denominator of the fraction steps up to this step.
will be 10 (e.g., 7/10).
This table depicts the steps of measuring the length of an object using the metric system. The right column
demonstrates the first step to teach depending on which chaining method was selected for teaching.
is mastered. The student completes the initial step (with appropriate prompting), then the teacher
would complete the rest of the steps in the task analysis. The steps required to teach a skill using
forward chaining are as follows: (a) prompt the student to complete the first step in the task analysis
based on the selected prompting procedure, (b) reinforce the learner after the successful completion
of the step in the task analysis the student is learning, (c) guide the student through the remaining
steps of the task analysis, and (d) move to the next skill in the behavior chain once mastery of the
previous step is achieved.
Backward Chaining
Backward chaining is implemented opposite of forward chaining. All behaviors in the task
analysis are initially completed by the teacher except for the final step in the behavior chain. When
the student performs the last step in the task analysis successfully, reinforcement is delivered. Next,
reinforcement is presented when the last and the next to last steps in the task analysis are performed
to a predetermined criterion for success. The task analysis proceeds backward through the behavior
chain until all the steps of the task analysis are presented in inverse order and practiced as a whole.
The student finishes all steps of the task analysis without any reminders, except for the last step of
the task analysis they are learning. One advantage to backward chaining is it directly ties the inde-
pendent completion of the final step of the task analysis to the immediate delivery of reinforcement.
After the student can complete the final step successfully, they can work on completing the second
to last step and so on.
An example of backward chaining might be teaching a student how to tie their shoes, having the
teacher complete all the steps until the learner completes the final step (tying the laces tight against
one another) of the behavior chain. The procedure for teaching a skill with backward chaining is
that the last step of the task analysis is taught to the student and then the next to last step is taught
after successful acquisition of the previous step. Then, the teacher completes all the remaining steps
within the student’s view and then prompts the learner to complete the last step. This process con-
tinues in a backward fashion as the student masters steps in the behavior chain. To do this, a teacher
should follow the following steps to successfully use backward chaining. First, the teacher would
help the student to complete the initial steps until the step in the task analysis that the student is
working on acquiring. Then, the teacher would prompt the student to complete the identified step
based on the selected prompting procedure chosen. Next, the teacher would provide reinforcement
to the student contingent on the successful completion of the step. Finally, as the student masters
steps in the task analysis, the teacher would begin adding the logical next step of the task analysis in
a backward fashion.
Mr. Jameson decided to teach the skill of adding fractions with unlike denominators using forward
chaining. He chose forward chaining because he decided that the first step of finding the LCM was criti-
cal to completing the other steps. This particular step was also a complex step. Finally, he decided that
having the students watch him complete the remaining steps might make it easier for them to complete
those steps when he was ready to explicitly teach those later steps.
Mr. Jameson has been working with a small group of three students who have not mastered the first
step in whole group instruction. He knows he needs a teaching procedure that provides more support to
this small group than the strategies he used during whole group instruction. However, Mr. Jameson has
limited time for small group instruction. He needs a teaching procedure that will result in efficient skill
acquisition so the small group can move on with the larger class to the next step in the task analysis for
adding fractions with unlike denominators.
Using Response Prompts to Support Skill Acquisition

A response prompt is defined by Cooper et al. (2020) as a prompt that operates directly on the
response to cue a correct response. In other words, the response prompt demonstrates what you
want the student to do—it shows them or tells them. The three major forms of response prompts
are verbal instruction, modeling, and physical guidance. There are two hierarchies to consider when
implementing response prompts, most to least and least to most. Both procedures can be utilized
with discrete trial teaching, as well as teaching successive steps to a task, such as brushing teeth.
Additionally, prompting procedures can be utilized to teach a chain of tasks (Cengher et al., 2017),
such as completing a morning routine.
Most to Least Prompt Hierarchy

Most to least prompting involves teaching a skill by starting with the most intrusive prompt in
the hierarchy that is needed to ensure the student engages in correct responding and contacts rein-
forcement for the correct responding. The intrusiveness level of the prompts is then systematically
faded across successful demonstration of the skill. Later in the chapter, we address how to systemati-
cally execute least to most prompting.
146 Chapter 8
Figure 8-1. Hierarchy of response prompts. On the left side, the response prompts are ordered from least intrusive to
most. On the right, they are ordered from most intrusive to least. Teachers will not need to use every type of prompt
depicted in the figure for each skill.
Least to Most Prompt Hierarchy

With least to most prompting, the student is provided with an opportunity to independently re-
spond to teacher instruction. If the student engages in no response or an incorrect response, a more
intrusive prompt will be provided at the next presentation of teacher instruction. The intrusiveness
of the prompt systematically increases with each learning trial until the student engages in a correct
response (Cengher et al., 2017). The least to most prompt hierarchy starts with the least intrusive
prompt, independent and correct engagement of the skill being learned, with the teacher moving
through the hierarchy to more intrusive response prompts based on the needs of the student. Please
see Figure 8-1 to see the different levels in the response hierarchy for least to most prompting as well
as most to least prompting. Figure 8-2 describes examples of prompts in the prompt hierarchy. Later
in the chapter, we address how to systematically execute least to most prompting.
Considerations for Using the

Response Prompts Hierarchy
When you are working with a student learning a skill with the prompt hierarchy, it is important
to remember we do not need to use all the prompts in the hierarchy for teaching a given skill. Ideally
you should use two to three prompt levels but using more may be more supportive of the learner.
You will need to use the data collected on your student’s performance to make data-based decisions
surrounding prompt levels and usage. Equally as important to understand is that some prompt levels
are not appropriate for all learners. For example, using a gestural prompt with a student who is blind
would not be an appropriate use of the response prompt hierarchy. Another example of the inappro-
priate implementation of the response prompt hierarchy would be using a physical prompt to teach
a skill to a student who has an aversion to physical touch. It is critical for teachers to balance the
need to provide appropriate support with instructional efficiency. The greater the number of prompt
levels engaged in by the teacher, the longer instruction will take. So, pick the prompts that give you
the most bang for the buck.
Figure 8-2. Description of response types. The figure shows examples of what each prompt level would look like if a
teacher were asking the student to show the capital city of Georgia or state the name of the capital city of Georgia. It
is important to note that these are two separate skills, illustrating that some prompts will not work for a particular skill
(e.g., a verbal prompt does not demonstrate how to point to a city on a map nor could a teacher use a physical prompt
to prompt a student to state the name of a city).
Using Response Prompts for Teaching

Prompting is teaching. We write this here to directly address misconceptions about prompts.
Some teachers may falsely assume that prompts are akin to “cheating” or doing something for the
student rather than teaching the student how to do it for themselves. However, when prompts are
delivered systematically and effectively, prompting can facilitate skill acquisition.
Systematic instruction (SI) refers to a set of teaching procedures that utilize response prompts.
You learned previously that response prompts demonstrate what you want the student to do: it shows
them or tells them. The SI procedures leverage response prompts across and within instructional ses-
sions by varying the intensity of the prompt and the timing in which the prompt is delivered. Each
of the SI procedures does this in a unique way. There are five SI procedures: most to least prompting,
least to most prompting (also referred to as system of least prompts), constant time delay (CTD),
progressive time delay (PTD), and simultaneous prompting (SP).
Previously, you learned about the most to least prompting hierarchy. This section addresses
how to implement most to least in a systematic way. This teaching procedure is well-suited for very
young students and for students with significant cognitive disabilities (Collins, 2012). In most to
least prompting, instruction begins with immediate delivery of the most intrusive prompt. Often,
this is a full physical prompt. Prompts are faded across instructional sessions. For example, you are
teaching a young child to zip up a jacket. Once the jacket is on and the zipper is engaged, you provide
a full physical prompt (i.e., hand-over-hand assistance) to help the learner to pull the zipper up. You
may use the full physical prompt for three consecutive days before fading to the next most intrusive
prompt. You can combine most to least with forward, backward, or total task chaining. There are
specific procedures for fading the prompt intensity but given that this procedure does not have wide
applicability with most students, the reader is encouraged to consult other sources for more infor-
mation about how to implement most to least prompting (e.g., Collins, 2012; Ledford et al., 2019).
148 Chapter 8
Least to most prompting is conceptually the opposite of most to least prompting (Table 8-4).
Rather than prompts decreasing in intensity across sessions, in least to most prompting, prompts
increase in intensity as needed within the learning session. When using least to most prompting, the
learner is first given a chance to perform the step of the skill independently. The teacher waits then
implements the next most intrusive prompt (e.g., verbal prompt). If the verbal prompt is not effec-
tive, then the teacher continues to implement increasingly intrusive prompts until the learner is able
to complete the step. The time between prompts is known as the response interval, which is usually
a few seconds. Least to most prompting is also referred to as the system of least prompts (Ledford et
al., 2019).
Returning to the jacket example, when using least to most prompting to teach zipping up a jack-
et, the teacher ensures that the jacket is on and the zipper is engaged. Perhaps the teacher has done
all those steps for the student (consistent with backward chaining) or perhaps the learner has com-
pleted all the initial steps (consistent with forward chaining). The teacher gives the learner a chance
to pull the zipper up independently. If the learner is not able to do that, the teacher may then gesture
to the student to pull the zipper up. If that does not work, the teacher may then model how to pull
up the zipper by doing so on the teacher’s own jacket. Whereas most to least fades prompts across
sessions, least to most fades prompts within sessions. Prompts are also faded across sessions because
over time, the learner should require less prompts (or less intrusive prompts) to complete the task.
The benefit of least to most prompting is that the student is only given the prompts needed. This
is very helpful for learners who are considered prompt-dependent or will not initiate a task on their
own without prompts. For students who can complete a step with less intrusive prompts, least to
most may be very efficient. The more prompts the teacher has to give for each step, the longer it takes
to conduct teaching using least to most (Collins, 2012), which will impact instructional efficiency.
In least to most, teaching begins with the least intrusive prompt. Then, the learner is given an
opportunity to respond to each prompt level during the response interval. Therefore, errors are pos-
sible. Anything can happen during the response interval and teachers need to stand ready to imme-
diately interrupt and correct an error. Least to most is not a good choice for learners who do not do
well with errors or when errors would negatively impact skill acquisition.
Response prompts can vary in topography or form. Refer back to Figure 8-1 to see the hierarchy
of prompts. The most intrusive or intensive prompts are typically full and partial physical prompts.
Prompts that are less intrusive could include gesture or verbal prompts. There is some variability in
this hierarchy, particularly in the less intrusive prompts. This variability is based on the student’s
needs and preferences and also the skill itself. For some students, a gesture prompt might be less
intrusive than a verbal prompt. Think about the student who may feel embarrassed when receiving
verbal prompts from a teacher, especially when those prompts must be given in front of the student’s
peers. For this student, the gesture prompt may be considered less intrusive. A model prompt could
be less intrusive for some students and skills than a gesture or verbal prompt. Imagine a teacher writ-
ing a sentence on a dry erase board with students copying the modeled example on their own papers.
Not only is this a common activity within classrooms, but also an example of when a model might be
less intrusive than verbally prompting the students to write the sentence.
Both most to least and least to most fade prompts by reducing or increasing the prompt intensity
or intrusiveness. PTD and CTD are procedurally different; both time delay procedures fade prompts
by adding a delay between the initial instruction and when the prompt is provided. Therefore, the
two time delay procedures each use only one prompt which is determined before instruction begins.
For example, in least to most, the teacher may choose to use a model, verbal, and gesture prompt.
In both time delay procedures, only one prompt is used (e.g., gesture; Ledford et al., 2019). The
selected prompt is sometimes called the controlling prompt. The controlling prompt should be at the
prompt level that is least intrusive but will still evoke the desired response from the student. In other
words, the controlling prompt is the least intrusive prompt that will “get the job done.” The control-
ling prompt will vary by task and student (Ledford et al., 2019). Like most to least prompting, both
time delay procedures fade prompts across sessions. See Table 8-5 for the steps for the time delay
procedures.
Table 8-4. Steps for Using Least to Most Prompting

Steps for Implementing Least to most Prompting
1. Secure the learner’s attention.
2. Deliver the task direction.
3. Wait _ seconds for the learner to complete the task or step independently (response interval).
a. Praise success (“Great work!”) and continue the task analysis.
b. Or, interrupt an error as it occurs. Go to Step 4.
c. Or, if there is no response at the end of the interval, go to Step 4.
4. Give the next most intrusive prompts for that task or step.
5. Repeat Steps 3 to 4 until learner responds correctly.
6. Always praise a correct response regardless of the prompt level required.
7. Continue through the task analysis if working on a chained task.
This table illustrates a task analysis of the steps in least to most prompting.
When starting either time delay procedure (progressive or constant; PTD and CTD), the teacher
secures the learner’s attention then delivers the task direction. For example, when teaching the learn-
er to spell a new word, the teacher gives the task direction “Spell night.” Then, the response prompt
is delivered based on a predetermined delay. In initial instructional sessions, the time delay is 0
seconds, meaning that the response prompt is provided immediately after the task direction. For the
spelling example, the teacher says “Spell night on your paper. N-I-G-H-T.” The response prompt in
this example is the verbal prompt of the teacher spelling the word out loud. The student’s response is
to spell the word by writing it on their paper. If you were teaching the student to spell a family of -ight
words, you would use this same procedure to teach the student to spell every word in the stimulus
set (i.e., all the targets you are teaching in the lesson). In this example, the stimulus set might include
night, light, sight, fright.
You can conduct as many teaching sessions using the 0-second delay as necessary. Remember
“prompting is teaching”? The 0-second delay condition is the teaching condition. For some learners,
you may only conduct one 0-second delay session. For other learners, you may conduct multiple 0
second delay conditions. You can determine how many 0-second delay sessions you will conduct
before you start teaching by considering both the learner and skill.
In the 0-second delay sessions, the learner never gets a chance to “show what they know” or
perform independently because the prompt is always given immediately. Therefore, after a few 0-sec-
ond sessions, the teacher will need to introduce a time delay between the task direction (e.g., “spell
night”) and the response prompt (e.g., verbal spelling of the word) in order to give the student a
chance to perform the skill without prompts. This is where PTD and CTD diverge.
In CTD, there are only two time delays used: 0 seconds and some other time delay determined
by the teacher before instruction begins. For many students, a 3- or 4-second time delay between the
task direction and response prompt will be sufficient. The appropriate time delay depends on stu-
dent-level factors. Some students will need more time to process the teacher’s direction and initiate
a response. These students may include students with language impairments, students with physical
disabilities, and students who are multilingual who may need a few extra sessions to process and re-
spond to the task direction. Some tasks take longer to initiate and complete. For example, if the task
direction was “Solve the equation,” some equations may take longer to solve than others. The teacher
will have to determine what time delay is appropriate based on the student and skill.
150 Chapter 8
Table 8-5. Time Delay Procedure

General Procedure for Time Example: Teaching a student
Delay (both progressive and to make sets of objects with
constant) quantities Zero to Five
• Secure learner’s attention • Teacher: “Andre, if you’re ready to work,
put your hands on the table.”
• Remind the learner to wait • Teacher: “Remember, if you don’t know the
°° Only do this when the time delay is answer, wait and I’ll help you.”
longer than 0 seconds
• Provide the task direction • Teacher: “Show me three quarters.”
• Allow the delay interval to pass • Teacher waits and says nothing.
°° If 0 seconds, skip this step and
immediately provide the response
prompt
• Provide the controlling prompt • In this example, the model prompt was
selected for the student and task. Model
prompt: Teacher counts out a set of three
quarters while the student watches.
• Give the student a chance to respond to • Within 3 seconds, Andre responds by
the controlling prompt by allowing the making his own set of three quarters.
response interval to pass
• Reinforce the student’s behavior if they • Teacher: “That’s amazing! You made a set of
respond correctly to the controlling prompt three quarters!”
OR
• If the student makes an error, implement
an error-correction procedure
This table illustrates a task analysis of the steps in a time delay prompting procedure.
For example, a teacher is using CTD to teach a student the U.S. state capital cities. The stimulus
set includes 10 U.S. states (e.g., Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee). The teacher plans to introduce new
stimulus sets once this set is mastered. The stimulus sets may be organized by region of the country
depending on how the U.S. geography unit is organized (e.g., southeast, midwest). In this example,
the teacher points to a state on a map of the United States and gives the task direction “Name the
capital city.” In a 0-second delay session, the teacher says the capital city name immediately after the
task direction. Then the student repeats the teacher’s vocalization. Prompting is teaching.
After three sessions of the 0-second delay, the teacher moves to a 3-second time delay. This time,
a new element is added before the task direction. The teacher may say, “We’re going to work on our
state capitals. Remember, if you don’t know an answer, wait and I will help you.” Why? When the
time delay is extended, the student has a chance to demonstrate their learning or show what they
know. However, we do not want the learner to make an error during that delay. Ideally, we want
the student to answer correctly within the 3-second delay, and if they do not know, say nothing to
prevent problems with error-correction. After reminding the learner to wait, the teacher gives the
task direction “Name the capital city,” then waits 3 seconds. In the 3-second delay, the learner can
respond with the correct capital city name or ideally wait until the delay is over if they are not sure
of the answer.
Table 8-6. Progressive Versus Constant Time Delay

Progressive Time Delay Constant Time Delay
• 1 or more 0-second sessions • 1 or more 0-second sessions
• 1 or more 1-second sessions • 1 or more _-second sessions
• 1 or more 2-second sessions °° Where the _ is whatever delay interval is
• 1 or more 3-second sessions appropriate for the student and skill
• 1 or more 4-second sessions • 3 to 4 seconds is common
• And so on until you reach the desired
terminal time delay length
This table depicts how you could sequence teaching sessions when using PTD and CTD. The teacher should choose a
sequence that best meets the learner’s needs.
Three seconds sounds short but can be a very long time for a teacher and student to stare at each
other while waiting. Some students will not be able to wait as long as 3 seconds. They may blurt out
an answer that is incorrect or engage in off-task behavior. This is where PTD shines. CTD involves
only two delay intervals: 0 and n seconds. PTD involves multiple time delays, typically 0 and multiple
other delays that increase progressively by a single second. In other words, a lesson using PTD could
have the following time delays: 0 seconds, 1 second, 2 seconds, 3 seconds, 4 seconds, and 5 seconds.
The time delay is gradually and progressively increased to accommodate students who engage in
impulsive behaviors or need help to learn to wait. See Table 8-6 for a comparison between PTD and
CTD.
CTD is likely easier for teachers to implement because there are only two time delays to remem-
ber. Most students will be successful with CTD because the reminder “If you don’t know, wait and I’ll
help you” is sufficient to get the student to refrain from answering if they do not know. PTD is a great
option for young students or students who struggle to refrain from off-task behaviors during a long
delay. PTD may also be a good option for students who cannot tolerate errors (Ledford et al., 2019).
In either procedure, the teacher can implement as many 0-second conditions as needed. Some learn-
ers and some tasks may require many 0-second conditions in order for skill acquisition to occur.
The previous examples describe how to implement CTD and PTD with an individual student.
However, you could also use these procedures in small groups or even with an entire class. In the
state capital example, picture the teacher standing in front of the classroom with a large map. The
teacher prompts the entire group to respond. CTD becomes a little muddier in the 3-second time
delay because some students may vocalize the answer during the time delay, thereby prompting the
students who do not know before the time delay ends. This may or may not be detrimental. After all,
prompting is teaching, and peers can be effective prompters. If it is detrimental, an alternative would
be for the teacher to conduct the 0-second condition with the whole group, then conduct individual
sessions using the 3-second time delay to determine who has mastered the content with 0 seconds
and who has not. The teacher can then group the students who have not mastered the content into a
smaller instructional group to conduct more 0 second sessions.
The final SI procedure is SP. Like PTD and CTD, SP uses one single controlling prompt. Also like
PTD and CTD, SP uses a 0-second teaching condition. SP consists of two teaching conditions: the
probe session and 0-second delay session. A probe session is like a test condition and is always con-
ducted before a 0-second delay session. In the probe session, the teacher provides the task direction
then allows the student to respond independently without prompts. When working on multiplication
flashcards in the probe condition, the teacher shows the students a series of multiplication facts. The
student has a chance to provide the answer without prompts. The teacher can praise the student for
continuous effort (e.g., “You’re working so hard!”). In some variations of SP, the teacher may provide
152 Chapter 8
feedback for correct answers, and in other variations, the teacher provides no feedback. The teacher
records data for correct and incorrect responses. Either immediately after the probe session or some-
time later in the day, the teacher conducts the 0-second delay session on the same task. This time, the
teacher provides the answer immediately (0-second delay). This same probe session 0-second delay
is followed for multiple days. The teacher monitors the probe data to determine when skills or targets
are mastered (Collins, 2012).
SP has a wide range of uses and is very simple to implement. When considering using it with
small or large groups, a teacher may consider conducting a quick probe session with individual
students, then conducting the 0-second delay condition with a larger group. This would work well
when students are required to respond vocally. The group can emit one single response during the
0-second delay condition using choral responding (i.e., everyone responds vocally at the same time
with the same answer).
Mr. Jameson chose to use least to most prompting in his small group instruction. He used the fol-
lowing prompt hierarchy: independent, gesture, direct verbal, then modeling. Two of the three students
quickly learned how to find the LCM when Mr. Jameson used least to most prompting. The third stu-
dent, Beth, continued to make errors during the response interval. Beth would guess what to do next, but
often she got the steps of the skill out of order. Mr. Jameson would tell her she was incorrect, but she con-
tinued to guess rather than wait for him to deliver the next prompt in the least to most prompt hierarchy.
Use Strategies to Prevent Errors Before They Occur

Four of the SI procedures are also sometimes referred to as errorless learning procedures. The
four errorless learning SI procedures are most to least prompting, CTD, PTD, and SP (note that least
to most prompting is not considered an errorless learning procedure). The term errorless is a misno-
mer. These procedures do not completely eliminate errors, but when implemented correctly, errors
are minimized (Mueller et al., 2007).
Why should we minimize errors during the learning process? First, errors take time away from
instruction because errors must be addressed using error-correction procedures. Therefore, errors
may also slow down skill acquisition. Second, some learners may have a difficult time recovering
from errors. Some students may engage in disruptive behaviors when told “No” or “That’s wrong.”
Other students may simply shut down which can also derail instruction. Finally, other students may
contact reinforcement for the error which makes the error difficult to unlearn (Ledford et al., 2019).
For example, a small child may say a bad word which is generally considered an error by most adults.
However, someone laughs when the child says that bad word. Then, the small child goes on to say the
bad word 20 more times including at the most inopportune times. These are all reasons why some
learners may benefit from an errorless SI procedure.
Least to most prompting is not an errorless learning procedure. During the response interval be-
tween the prompt and the student executing the step, an error could occur. There is also potential for
errors to occur in CTD and PTD when the delay is longer than 0 seconds (Ledford et al., 2019). This
is why teachers must give the reminder “Wait, and if you don’t know, I will help you.” Some students
may still provide a wrong answer during the delay despite this reminder. Therefore, teachers who are
using least to most, CTD, and PTD will need a systematic strategy to address errors when they occur.
There are many different error-correction procedures, but for simplicity, only two types of error-
correction procedures will be reviewed here—demonstration and repeat trial with prompt. Blocking
or interrupting the error is an important initial step for both procedures. If a student begins to emit
the wrong answer, the teacher will want to try to interrupt or block the error from occurring. This
requires some speed and will not always be possible. For example, the teacher has three flashcards,
each with a sight word printed on it, then asks the student to select the word who. The teacher ob-
serves the student reaching toward the wrong flashcard. The teacher can put her hand down on top
of the wrong card or pull the wrong card back to block the student from selecting it. For other tasks,
the teacher may position their body in a way that blocks the response. Student vocal responses are
particularly challenging to stop, but the teacher can attempt to interrupt the student. Blocking or
interrupting the response is especially important for students whose learning is derailed by making
errors. However, if the teacher is unable to block or interrupt the error, the more important task is to
implement the rest of the error-correction procedure.
The demonstration error-correction procedure is simple to implement. When the student emits
the incorrect response, the teacher simply states the correct response, then begins the next learning
trial. Using the example of sight words from the previous paragraph, when the student selects the
wrong sight word, the demonstration error-correction procedure looks like the teacher touching
the correct sight word and saying, “This is who.” Then, the teacher moves on to the next trial or step
(e.g., sets out three new flashcards and asks the student to point to the word why). No praise or posi-
tive reinforcement is provided (Cariveau et al., 2019). Note that the demonstration error-correction
procedure simply demonstrates or shows the student the correct response. It does not involve error
statements like “No” or “That’s wrong.” For some students, it may be important to avoid saying those
words if they are likely to evoke a negative emotional response.
We call the second error-correction procedure repeat trial with prompt because the name de-
scribes what happens, but it may also be referred to by other names. In the repeat trial with prompt
error-correction procedure, the teacher withdraws any learning materials for 1 to 2 seconds, then
re-presents the same learning materials to repeat the trial a second time, but this time implements
an intrusive prompt on a 0-second time delay (Cariveau et al., 2019). In the sight word example, the
teacher will attempt to block the student from selecting the wrong card. The teacher will pause for a
brief second, then ask the student to select the word who again, but this time the teacher will imme-
diately provide a prompt that shows the student the correct response. In other words, the teacher will
say “Point to who” then immediately touch the flashcard that says who. The teacher can augment this
prompt by also vocally repeating the word who. The vocalization of the word is an added bonus, but
the gesture toward the correct card is the important part of the prompt because the gesture prompt
demonstrates the correct response. Once the student copies the teacher’s response, the teacher pro-
vides positive reinforcement for responding correctly to the prompt. See Table 8-7 for a comparison
between the demonstration and repeat trial with prompt error-correction procedures.
Let us consider an example where the student needs to vocalize the name of a three-dimensional
shape when shown an example of the shape. The teacher shows the student a roll of paper towels and
says “Name this shape.” The correct student response is the student saying “Cylinder.” If the student
responds with an incorrect answer, the teacher pauses for a second, then shows the shape again
and says “Name this shape. Cylinder.” Then, the student will respond by repeating the vocalization
“Cylinder.” The teacher says “You got it! That’s a cylinder” and may also provide some other form of
positive reinforcement as needed (e.g., a sticker, a check mark).
Summary
Teachers need procedures to help teach students skills in the most efficient and effective way
possible. In this chapter, we focused on how to teach discrete and chained skills. Chained skills are
multi-step skills that can be broken down into smaller, teachable steps through the process of task
analysis. When teaching chained skills, teachers may choose a chaining procedure (e.g., total task,
forward, and backward chaining) to determine the order in which the steps will be taught. We also
focused on using response prompting procedures for teaching, including most to least, least to most,
CTD, PTD, and SP. Response-prompting strategies are versatile tools shown to lead to efficient skill
acquisition. In response prompting, sometimes learners will make errors, so we addressed two strat-
egies to address errors when they occur.
154 Chapter 8
Table 8-7. Error-Correction Procedures

Demonstration Repeat Trial With
Error-correction Prompt Error-correction
• Teacher blocks or interrupts error if possible • Teacher blocks or interrupts error if possible.
• Teacher states or demonstrates the correct • Teacher removes any learning materials.
answer • Teacher waits 1 to 2 seconds.
°° Do not say “No” or “That’s wrong” • Teacher introduces the same learning ma-
°° Do not provide praise terials and provides the same task direction
°° Do not ask the student to do it again on the same target.
• Move on to the next instructional trial • At the same time, teacher immediately
implements an intrusive response prompt.
• The student complies with the teacher
prompt.
• The teacher provides the student with
praise and other reinforcement.
• Move on to the next trial.
Chapter Review
1. What is the difference between a chained skill and a discrete skill?
2. What is a task analysis and how can teachers use it when teaching complex tasks?
3. Describe forward, backward, and total task chaining. Which two teach a single step at a time?
4. How are forward and backward chaining different in regard to what step is taught first?
5. Think of a skill you might teach to a learner. Describe examples of what different response
prompts would look like for that skill (e.g., indirect verbal, direct verbal, gesture, model, partial
physical, full physical). Are there prompts that you would not use for this particular skill?
6. Describe how most to least and least to most prompting differ in terms of the intensity of the
prompts and the order in which they are delivered.
7. Describe how CTD and PTD differ. How many delay intervals are used in CTD? How many
delay intervals are used in PTD?
8. Describe how the probe sessions and teaching sessions are different when using SP.
9. Two different error-correction procedures are described in the chapter. Articulate the differ-
ences between the two in regard to what the instructor does and says and what the learner does
and says.
References
Cariveau, T., Montilla, A., Gonzalez, E., & Ball, S. (2019). A review of error correction procedures during instruction for
children with developmental disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 52, 574-579. https://doi.org/10.1002/
jaba.524
Carter, M., & Kemp, C. R. (1996). Strategies for task analysis in special education. Educational Psychology, 16(2), 155-170.
Cengher, M., Budd, A., Farrell, N., & Fienup, D. M. (2018). A review of prompt-fading procedures: Implications for effec-
tive and efficient skill acquisition. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 30, 155-173.
Collins, B. C. (2012). Systematic instruction for students with moderate and severe disabilities. Brookes Publishing.
Ledford, J., Lane, J. D., & Barton, E. E. (2019). Methods of teaching in early education. Routledge.
Mueller, M., Palkovic, C., & Maynard, C. (2007). Errorless learning: Review and practical application for teaching children
with pervasive developmental disorders. Psychology in the Schools, 44, 691-700.
Sam, A., & AFIRM Team. (2015). Task analysis. National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorder,
FPG Child Development Center, University of North Carolina. Retrieved from http://afirm.fpg.unc.edu/task-analysis
9
When Reinforcement
“Does Not Work”
Troubleshooting Behavior
Interventions for Success
Emily M. Kuntz, PhD, BCBA
and Mary Crnobori, PhD, BCBA
INTRODUCTION
Decades of research illustrate the effectiveness of reinforcement-based interventions
to improve even the most severe problem behaviors of individuals with and without
disabilities. However, in practice, teachers and school teams may struggle to effect
meaningful behavior change with some students. In these cases, it is necessary to
go beyond the basics of ABC (antecedent-behavior-consequence) and examine the
complexities of the natural environment (e.g., school and home settings).
Carr, R. N. (Ed.).
158 Chapter 9
Chapter Objectives
ȘȘ Identify areas of improvement for both academic and behavioral Tier 1/class-wide
instruction and how they serve as a critical foundation for individualized plans.
ȘȘ Describe the difference between performance deficits and skill deficits and how to
alter intervention approaches accordingly.
ȘȘ Explain what motivating operations are and the importance of the physiological stress
response, and how they can impact reinforcement (including how social-emotional
learning and trauma-informed practices can address these issues).
ȘȘ Describe the matching law and how different schedules of reinforcement evoke differ-
ent patterns of behavior.
ȘȘ Caution the use of extinction procedures when extinction cannot be guaranteed and
provide alternatives.
KEY TERMS
• Extinction: Withholding reinforcement for a specific behavior that previously received that
reinforcement.
• Matching Law: The principle that the occurrences of the behavior will be allocated in propor-
tion to each schedule of reinforcement in effect (Cooper et al., 2020).
• Motivating Operations (MO): Stimulus events that temporarily alter the value of a stimulus as
a reinforcer and the frequency of a behavior reinforced by that stimulus.
• Performance Deficits: Deficits occur when the environment does not support the skill or be-
havior sufficiently enough to maintain it (Duhon et al., 2004).
• Physiological Stress Response: Neurobiological impacts of elicited emotions stemming from
trauma and trauma triggers.
• Schedules of Reinforcement: Guide the contingencies, or environmental arrangements, which
determine when reinforcement is provided as a consequence of a behavior (Cooper et al., 2020).
• Skill Deficit: W
hen an individual lacks the skill or behavior in their repertoire (Duhon et al.,
2004).
Behavior analysts who support teachers and schools in implementing positive behavior inter-
ventions are often faced with challenges in implementing well-established and evidence-based prac-
tices in complex, multifaceted, real world settings. These challenges present real barriers to fidel-
ity of the intervention as well as maintenance of the intervention. Often, teacher behavior is more
readily shaped by the implementation of an intervention than the students’ behavior they seek to
support. When collaboratively developing Behavior Intervention Plans, teachers may make com-
ments similar to, “I already do these things,” alluding to basic elements of classroom management
(e.g., rules/expectations, reinforcement system), “I have already tried that with this student,” or even
“Reinforcement does not work for this student.”
The principles of behavior analysis are tried and true. Reinforcement, by definition, always
“works” for the student. If problem behavior persists, it is being reinforced. However, reinforcement
is not always a teacher-identified or teacher-preferred reward, item, activity, or praise statement.
The principles of applied behavior analysis (ABA) including those of reinforcement extend beyond
antecedent-behavior-consequences (ABC).
When Reinforcement “Does Not Work” 159
Effectiveness of Reinforcement-Based Strategies

in Reducing Problem Behavior
Reinforcement is one of the most important principles of behavior (Cooper et al., 2020). While
initially studied in laboratory animals, its use as an intervention gained popularity in the mid-20th
century. Early studies showcase demonstrations where teacher behavior was manipulated as rein-
forcement for desired student behavior (e.g., Hall et al., 1968; Thomas et al., 1968). Seminal studies
manipulated consequences to identify the reinforcers of problem behavior leading to effective func-
tion-based interventions (e.g., Iwata et al., 1982). More recent work utilized functional behavior as-
sessments (FBAs) to develop Behavior Intervention Plans (BIPs) with function-based reinforcement
procedures to increase replacement behaviors while decreasing problem behaviors (e.g., Sullivan et
al., 2021).
The effectiveness of interventions utilizing function-based reinforcement strategies is so strong
that federal legislations required FBAs to be completed with an accompanying function-based BIP
(i.e., the plan outlining the change in reinforcement contingencies). The Individuals with Disabilities
Education Improvement Act (IDEA) of 2004 states that if a student with a disability is displaying
problem behaviors determined to be a manifestation of their disability, the Individualized Education
Program team must conduct an FBA and modify any preexisting BIPs (IDEA, 2004). However, en-
suring the BIP is effective and implemented correctly has its challenges.
Challenges in Practice
Teachers often report using punishment-based reactive strategies (e.g., loss of privileges, repri-
mand, parent contact, sent to office) as common practice for managing problem behaviors (Scott et
al., 2005). So, making the shift to a positive behavior support plan may be challenging. IDEA does
not specify the components of the BIP beyond that they need to be individualized and focused on
positive behaviors (Drasgow & Yell, 2001). Teachers and other education professionals must rely on
their own knowledge and skills to create a plan that will decrease occurrences of the problem behav-
ior and increase the occurrences of the replacement behavior (i.e., differential reinforcement). Even
when a BIP is well-written and function-based, barriers to implementation exist. If the plan is not
feasible and difficult to implement by the student’s team, the problem is low fidelity. Even if the BIP
can and is implemented as written, the interventions may not have the desired effect on the problem
behavior. This can lead teachers to believe that “reinforcement does not work.” However, there are
several elements of reinforcement that may need to be addressed to impact the problem behavior.
Advanced Organizer of Going Beyond

Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence
In order to address these challenges, this chapter will discuss five aspects of BIPs that should
be addressed when problem behavior is not decreasing. First, we will explain how Tier 1 classroom
management is an integral part of BIP implementation. Second, we will discuss the importance of
identifying if the replacement behavior is a performance deficit or skill deficit and what to do in each
case. Third, we will explain how motivating operations (MOs) impact the value of reinforcement and
how physiological stress responses are important considerations when developing a BIP. Fourth, we
will discuss how the schedules of reinforcement can be adapted and why matching law needs to be a
part of the BIP conversation. Finally, we will provide some caution when utilizing extinction proce-
dures in BIPs and how they may be doing more harm than good.
160 Chapter 9
Tier 1 as a Foundation: Case Study 1

Mr. Thomas is a first-year teacher. He was excited to finally get into his own classroom and cre-
ate exciting learning opportunities for his students. He bought a poster outlining his classroom rules
and hung it on his wall. He has taught his students several procedures to help the class run efficiently.
However, nearly every day, Mr. Thomas feels like all he does is “put out fires” and reprimand his stu-
dents. He was recently informed that one of his students has a BIP. Now he is worried how he will be able
to implement the BIP adequately when he struggles to get the rest of his class to behave. What could Mr.
Thomas revisit or improve upon to help support the implementation of his student’s BIP?
What Is a Tier 1?
In Multi-Tiered Systems of Supports, such as positive behavior interventions and supports, Tier
1 is described as the school-wide or class-wide foundation of academics and behavior (Center on
Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports, 2021). Practically speaking, this is the classroom
behavior management plan and academic instruction developed and implemented by the classroom
teacher. Regarding classroom behavior management, there are five core evidence-based practices
all teachers should incorporate into their instruction: (a) maximize structure and predictability; (b)
post, teach, review, monitor, and reinforce expectations; (c) actively engage students in observable
ways; (d) use a continuum of strategies to acknowledge appropriate behavior; and (e) use a con-
tinuum of strategies to respond to inappropriate behaviors (Simonsen et al., 2008, 2020).
Maximize Structure and Productivity

Structure refers to the extent to which teachers are involved in classroom activities, including how
routines are taught and how the classroom is physically arranged (Simonsen et al., 2008). Classrooms
are full of routines that function as a highway system of sorts—directing an efficient, high-speed system
of task completion. For instance, classroom routines include arrival time (e.g., sit at desk, put materials
on the desk, complete the activity posted on the board independently), heading a paper to make grad-
ing and organizing more efficient (e.g., student name, date, class period, and assignment name in top
left corner), getting help during independent practice (e.g., “ask three then me”), checking out a book
from the class library (e.g., fill out the library log sheet), and end-of-the-day dismissal (e.g., seated at
desk with belongings, put chair up and walk out of class when bus number is called). The physical
arrangement of the classroom can facilitate routines, minimize congestion (problem behaviors), and
provide accessibility to class activities (Simonsen et al., 2008). Storage for class materials allows items to
be located quickly and minimizes cluttered distractions when not in use. Well-lit, open space can allow
for visibility of instructional materials, work areas, traffic flow, and people. Classes with structure have
been shown to facilitate appropriate academic and social behaviors, such as friendlier peer interactions,
more attentive behavior, and less aggression (Simonsen et al., 2008).
Structure and predictability serve as a foundation for the structure and predictability of in-
dividualized intervention plans. Creating clear routines for interventions, like check-in/check-out
(Majeika et al., 2020), rest on the stability of Tier 1 classroom routines. As another example, pro-
cedures for implementing and cashing out a token board may rely on the physical accessibility of
an earned reward without disrupting the workflow of other students. If the structure of a Tier 1
classroom plan (or lack thereof) is impeding or could be improved to support the implementation of
individualized interventions, observe in the classroom and identify ways to increase the class-wide
structure to better support the individualized plan.
Reflection check: What are the routines and physical arrangement of the general classroom?
How well do they align to a student’s individual plan? How could the structure of the general class-
room and the individual plan be improved to support each other?
Teach Expectations
A core component of any classroom management plan is rules and expectations. However, rules
and expectations transcend a store-bought poster that hangs on the wall with little more than a men-
tion on the first day of school. Rules and expectations are the lifeblood of a class. They create a class
culture developed with the voice of each student (Leverson et al., 2016, p. 9). Once created, rules are
not only posted but taught, reviewed, and monitored by the class regularly (Simonsen et al., 2008).
They serve as a reference point for all class activities. Directions can incorporate rules and serve as
a precorrection for a new activity (e.g., “Nolan, remind us how we can show respect while working
in our groups.” [Rule: Be respectful.]). Teachers provide feedback to correct inappropriate behavior
(e.g., “Ella, leaning back in your chair is not safe. Keep all four of its feet on the floor please.” [Rule: Be
safe.]) and reinforce appropriate behavior (e.g., “Landen, thank you for being responsible and having
all your materials ready to go.” [Rule: Be responsible.]).
Another crucial element of monitoring implementation of rules and expectations is a teacher’s
active supervision (i.e., engaging in behavior for monitoring, scanning, and interacting with stu-
dents; Menzies et al., 2018). Behavior management is not a “set it and forget it” system. It requires
monitoring and evaluation. To do this, teachers must be attentive to the behaviors of all the stu-
dents in their classes while leading academic instruction. This can most effectively be accomplished
through looking around the class at student behavior (i.e., scanning), moving about the classroom
within proximity to all students (i.e., monitoring), and engaging with students about behavior or on
social topics to build rapport (i.e., interacting).
Many individualized interventions center on defining clear behavioral expectations. Point
sheets, for example, often incorporate classroom rules or student-specific rules for more explicit
feedback throughout a school day. Token economies are designed around clear behavioral expecta-
tions for which behaviors earn tokens at brief intervals throughout a class. If the rules and expecta-
tions are either not clear or not consistently monitored and retaught in a Tier 1 class, it could send
mixed messages to a student on an individual plan (e.g., behavior plan expectations are not aligned
to the unclear class expectations) or make the implementation of an individual plan less likely to oc-
cur (e.g., if a Tier 1 plan is not implemented, a plan requiring more intensity and monitoring likely
will not be implemented). Teachers can revive and reteach the class-wide rules and expectations of
the class and incorporate them into their routines and directions.
Reflection check: What are the rules and expectations in the general classroom? How well do
they align with a student’s individualized intervention? How can the rules and expectations in the
general classroom or individualized plan be better improved and monitored to support each other?
Actively Engage Students

Instruction is a protective factor. When students are engaged in lessons, they are unable to be
unengaged in their learning. These two behaviors are incompatible. The Tier 1 instruction in the class
serves as a protective factor that can mitigate social, emotional, and behavioral problems (Simonsen
et al., 2021). To do this, teachers should create an effective learning environment that is predictable,
safe, and welcoming. The content should be appropriate with enough challenge and support for all
the learners in the class. Strategies like high rates of opportunities to respond, direct instruction,
guided notes, and peer tutoring have been shown to improve Tier 1 instruction (Simonsen et al.,
2008).
162 Chapter 9
The Universal Design for Learning also emphasizes the importance of student academic en-
gagement (Center for Applied Special Technology, 2018). One of its core principles, provide multiple
means of engagement, explains how students need to be engaged in their work and how teachers can
develop student engagement and motivation. Center for Applied Special Technology identifies three
areas around which teachers can foster student engagement: (a) recruiting interest (e.g., optimize
choice, relevance, and minimize distractions), (b) sustaining effort and persistence (e.g., heighten
salience of goals, optimize challenge, foster collaboration, increase feedback), and (c) self-regulation
(e.g., promote expectations and beliefs, facilitate coping strategies, develop reflection).
Student unengagement and distraction occurs often in Tier 1 classrooms (Harrison et al., 2012).
Similarly, Tier 1 classrooms may have extended periods of no instruction or activity (Kuntz & Carter,
2021). For students needing individualized behavior interventions to become and stay engaged in in-
struction rather than their problem behavior, the Tier 1 instruction in the general classroom matters.
If the classroom instruction does not consist of high-quality and engaging material, promoting en-
gagement in students with persistent problem behaviors is even more difficult to achieve. Likewise, if
the instruction consists of excessive downtime or extraordinarily slow-paced activities, students will
be more likely to engage in behaviors they find more fun and interesting (i.e., problem behaviors). If
we expect students with intervention plans to meet goals for prosocial, on-task behaviors yet the rest
of the class is displaying high rates of off-task behavior, we send mixed messages and set our students
up for failure. Teachers can improve their instruction by adopting the principles of Universal Design
for Learning and collaborating with colleagues to improve instruction. Quality classroom instruc-
tion can facilitate individualized behavior plans by providing a foundation of alternative behaviors
ready to be reinforced and readily observable peer models.
Reflection check: What does instruction look like in the general classroom? How well does it
support a student’s identified replacement behavior and individualized intervention? How can the
instruction in the general classroom be better improved to engage students with individualized in-
tervention plans?
Acknowledge Appropriate Behavior

Once behavioral expectations are taught and instruction provides high levels of engagement,
it is important for teachers to reinforce the positive behaviors displayed by their students. It is logi-
cal to assume that the behaviors of students within a Tier 1 classroom are maintained by multiple
functions. Therefore, teachers should utilize reinforcement procedures that address multiple func-
tions. Most simply, behavior-specific praise (BSP) is a low-intensity and effective reinforcement
strategy shown to improve behavioral performance, decrease disruptive behaviors, and increase
academic engagement (Ennis et al., 2020). BSP can be paired well with other aspects of class-
room behavior management, such as monitoring rules and providing feedback to opportunities
to respond.
A token economy is another strategy that teachers can implement to reinforce a range of ap-
propriate behavior while providing a range of reinforcement options (Maggin et al., 2011). Teachers
select the token (e.g., paper tickets, digital points, tally marks) and award them to students with BSP
for occurrences of appropriate behavior. Students then can exchange their earned tokens for a back-
up reinforcer, such as lunch bunch with the teacher, sitting in the teacher’s chair, being the line leader
for a day, a sticker, or piece of candy. Similar to a token economy, group reinforcement contingencies
are effective strategies to reinforce appropriate behaviors of larger groups of students. The Good
Behavior Game (Donaldson et al., 2021), behavior bingo (Collins et al., 2018), and others (Clair et al.,
2018; McArdle et al., 2021) demonstrate the flexibility of these strategies in acknowledging appropri-
ate behavior class-wide.
Individualized student intervention plans often require high rates of reinforcement for occa-
sions of the replacement behavior. If teachers do not have a foundation of acknowledging appropri-
ate behavior frequently at the class level, the likelihood of acknowledging appropriate behavior from
• Repeating, vibrating timers

°° Use an app on a smartphone or a device like the GymBoss or MotivAider
°° Set the device to your selected interval (e.g., 2 minutes)
°° Keep the device where you will feel the vibration (e.g., pocket, lanyard, waistband)
°° Deliver praise or reinforcer each time the timer goes off if desired behavior is displayed
• Paper tickets (if already using a token economy)
°° Determine your goal (i.e., the number of tickets you want to deliver in a day or class period)
°° Clip that number of tickets to a lanyard or punch a hole in the tickets and attach them to
a ring clip
°° As desired behaviors are displayed, tear off a ticket and deliver it to the student with verbal
praise
°° Self-assess after each day or class to determine if the goal was met
• Tally marks (if not already using a token economy)
°° Determine your goal (i.e., number of praise statements you want to deliver to your students)
°° With a dry erase marker, tally that number in a visible location on the board at the begin-
ning of the day or class period
°° As desired behaviors are displayed, provide praise for the behavior and erase one of the
tally marks
°° Self-assess after each day or class to determine if the goal was met
Figure 9-1. Strategies for increasing teacher praise and positive feedback.
a specific student is not high. Acknowledging appropriate behavior is a skill that requires fluency and
automaticity. Without a conscious effort (i.e., self-monitoring) from teachers to ensure they regularly
reinforce appropriate behaviors, an emphasis is likely to be placed on inappropriate behaviors—put-
ting out fires, so to speak. Teachers should develop a reinforcement system that works for them in
order to build their fluency in addressing appropriate behaviors. They can recruit the support of col-
leagues, administrators, or behavior analysts to observe them and provide feedback. Other strategies
to increase rates of praise and token delivery are shown in Figure 9-1. As fluency develops at the Tier
1 level, it can also improve at the more individualized level.
Reflection check: What does the reinforcement system look like in the general classroom? How
fluent is the classroom teacher in using their system? How can the reinforcement system in the
general classroom be better improved to acknowledge the replacement behaviors of students with
individualized intervention plans? Is the reward system realistic for the personnel in the classroom?
Respond to Inappropriate Behavior

Despite our best efforts, as educators, to prevent problem behaviors at the Tier 1 level, they
will inevitably still occur. Students may still be off task, disruptive, argumentative, and even ag-
gressive. Teachers need a plan to respond to these inappropriate behaviors consistently (Simonsen
et al., 2008). Many strategies are used frequently in schools—moving the student’s seat, calling
home to a parent or guardian, or sending the student to the office. In addition, several strategies
have been shown effective in managing problem behaviors. As a first line of defense, brief, specific
error-correction can be used. This is an informative statement made by the teacher contingent on
the problem behavior and includes the observed behavior and the alternative, appropriate behav-
ior (Simonsen et al., 2008). Differential reinforcement is another strategy. Differential reinforce-
ment builds off of a teacher’s system for acknowledging appropriate behavior by ensuring the rates
of reinforcement for the appropriate behaviors are higher than the rates of reinforcement for the
inappropriate behavior (Cooper et al., 2020). This shares similarities with another strategy—time
164 Chapter 9
out from reinforcement. With time out from reinforcement, teachers remove or do not provide
a reinforcer (e.g., computer time, preferred toy, token, using equipment at recess) when an inap-
propriate behavior occurs (Cooper et al., 2020).
If inappropriate behavior is not addressed quickly and consistently, it may persist or even es-
calate. While many individualized intervention plans focus on the preventative strategies of teach-
ing and reinforcing a replacement behavior, oftentimes a reactive component is needed to respond
to occurrences of the problem behavior. When implementing an individualized intervention plan,
it is important to minimize the reinforcement of the problem behavior especially during an ex-
tinction burst (i.e., an escalation in the behavior when it is no longer reinforced). If inappropriate
behaviors in the Tier 1 classroom are addressed inconsistently, this might provide an unstable
foundation for implementing an individualized intervention plan with consistency. Teachers may
benefit from observations from behavior analysts, administrators, or other colleagues to assess the
implementation of reactive strategies. Teachers could use self-monitoring to evaluate their own
behaviors regarding implementation of the Tier 1 system or an individual student’s intervention
plan.
Reflection check: How is the teacher responding to inappropriate behaviors in the general class-
room? What strategies do they use, and how consistently do they use them when inappropriate
behaviors occur? How can teachers respond to inappropriate behavior in the general classroom to
better improve implementation of individualized intervention plans?
Summarizing Tier 1 as a Foundation

When individualized intervention plans do not result in the expected outcomes, one strategy
is to assess the Tier 1 classroom behavior management system and evaluate how it is being imple-
mented. Teachers can review the structure and predictability in their classrooms, rules and expecta-
tions, student academic engagement, acknowledgment of appropriate behaviors, and responses to
inappropriate behaviors.
A couple months later, things are greatly improved! Mr. Thomas spends time teaching the rules,
expectations, and procedures in his classroom. Additionally, he makes a point to use the language of his
rules and expectations when giving directions and feedback. He engages in high rates of positive student
feedback—a behavior he increased by using a repeating, vibrating timer clipped to his waistband. He
also implements a hierarchy of steps to correct inappropriate behavior that he posts next to his rules
and expectations for easy reference. With these small changes, Mr. Thomas has seen a big impact and is
much more confident and capable at implementing his student’s BIP.
Performance Versus Skill Deficits

When intervening to improve a student’s problem behavior, it is important to identify the un-
derlying reason a student is not displaying a more desired replacement behavior. The possible reason
encompasses one of two things. The nonoccurrence of the replacement behavior could be due to
either a skill deficit or performance deficit.
Case Study 2
Ms. Palmer is Samantha’s kindergarten teacher and has many years of experience. This is
Samantha’s first year in school, and she is struggling. Given delays they observe in Samantha’s develop-
ment, the team has decided to pursue an evaluation for special education. Meanwhile, Ms. Palmer is
at a loss as to how to support Samantha. After a few minutes of sitting on the carpet for the morning’s
activities, she starts to crawl over the other students and runs around the classroom. While Ms. Palmer
tries to redirect Samantha back to the carpet, Samantha will make eye contact, laugh, and run away.
Samantha rarely completes any classwork, and when she does, her work is scribbled or cut to shreds.
What could Ms. Palmer consider when developing supports for Samantha?
What Are Skill Deficits?

Skill deficits exist when an individual lacks the skill or behavior in their repertoire (Duhon et al.,
2004). For example, if a student is not writing their name on an assignment, this could be because the
student does not know all assignments should be named or does not know how to write their name.
In other words, the student has not acquired the skill to label assignments or write out their name.
It has been suggested that antecedent manipulations or interventions may assist in skill acquisi-
tion, as opposed to consequence (i.e., reinforcement) manipulations alone (Eckert et al., 2002, 2005).
Teachers could use antecedent prompts, visual cues, repeated practice, peer models, and other strate-
gies to teach the skill. If skill deficits exist and are not addressed, behavior change is unlikely as the
student does not have the replacement behavior in their repertoire to begin using. Teachers will need
to use direct instruction to ensure the student acquires the replacement behaviors.
What Are Performance Deficits?

Performance deficits occur when the environment does not support the skill or behavior suf-
ficiently enough to maintain it (Duhon et al., 2004). For example, the student may have the ability
to spell out their name, but tearing the assignment up may produce a more salient reinforcer than
writing out their name. In other words, the replacement behavior is not accessing reinforcement at
rates similar to the problem behavior.
Even if a student is able to perform a replacement behavior, setting it as a goal on an interven-
tion plan is not likely to have significant impact on the behavior. The contingencies, or consequence-
based interventions, pertaining to the problem behavior and the replacement behavior must be ad-
dressed. Reinforcement for the replacement behavior needs to be more salient and accessible to
increase the future occurrences of those behaviors. Inversely, reinforcement for the target behavior
needs to be less salient or eliminated altogether, if possible, to decrease the future occurrences of
those behaviors.
Why Do They Matter?

When analyzing challenging behaviors and identifying treatment plans that have an enhanced
likelihood of success, it is also important to consider the role that past, current or chronic, and per-
vasive experiences of adversity and symptoms of trauma may play. This is particularly important as it
pertains to both performance and skill deficits because adversity and trauma can impact a student’s
ability to stay regulated under various conditions, and regulation can play a strong role in both skill
and performance deficits.
166 Chapter 9
Regulation (often referred to as emotional regulation and co-occurring with behavior) refers
to a physiological state in which we feel calm and in control of our emotions and behavior. When
students are regulated, they are neurobiologically positioned to be able to access the parts of the
brain responsible for logic and reasoning and are better able to self-manage their emotions and be-
havior. Dysregulation refers to a physiological state in which the stress response is heightened, and
neurobiologically, we are less available for learning and struggle to manage emotions and behavior
and keep reactions within a typical or acceptable range. Emotional dysregulation can manifest in
a wide range of behaviors (internalizing or externalizing) and emotional symptoms (e.g., sadness,
withdrawal, anger, irritability, frustration; Cuncic, 2020). Rather than being dichotomous, regulated
and dysregulated states exist on a continuum of intensity (Figure 9-2).
While some aspects of a student’s regulation state are empirically observable through behavioral
manifestations and expressions of emotion, regulation (and dysregulation) is best explained by an
understanding of neurobiological development and the physiological stress response. The very real
(and empirical) internal mechanisms occurring when a student is in a dysregulated condition are
strongly connected to physiological state but may only be observable through a brain scan (e.g.,
functional magnetic resonance imaging) or medical measures, such as cortisol levels, blood pressure,
and pulse rate.
Regulation (and co-occurring emotions and behaviors) must be considered in the context of im-
mediate state or physiological and emotional regulation level (regulated or dysregulated), as well as
typical trait (overall ability to consistently maintain an emotionally and behaviorally regulated state
across various conditions). For example, a student may have developed an overactive physiological
stress response due to a chronic history of adversity and trauma and thus have the trait of a low win-
dow of tolerance for stress and becoming easily dysregulated, which can easily be associated with a
skill deficit. Or, a student may typically be able to maintain appropriate behavior under predictable
and safe conditions, but become dysregulated when a trauma trigger (which is often invisible and
counter-intuitive) is present in the environment.
In short, both skill and performance deficits may be highly dependent on history of adversity
and trauma and the interplay of life experiences and neurobiological development. Childhood expe-
riences that have a profound impact on how the brain and body interact (e.g., stress response system,
immune system) include both current and historical behavioral conditions (e.g., antecedents, posi-
tive and negative reinforcement, extinction, punishment) and the environmental context and condi-
tions a student has been exposed to throughout phases of development (e.g., quality of relationships
and rapport with caregivers, teachers, or interventionists and history, timing, and intensity of ACEs).
While Samantha can cut, color, and name some of her letters, Ms. Palmer is not confident these are
skills with which Samantha is fluent. Ms. Palmer decides to take a dual-sided approach to supporting
Samantha (i.e., address both skill and performance deficits). She provides adaptations and scaffolds in
her instruction to help lower a physiological stress response from Samantha while learning the skills
required for each activity. Simultaneously, Ms. Palmer provides reinforcement for on-task behaviors on
a denser schedule than reinforcement for off-task behaviors.
Adverse Childhood Experiences, the Psychological

Stress Response, and Motivating Operations
To further understand the legitimacy and impact of regulated or dysregulated states on chal-
lenging behaviors, and why traditional reinforcement-based interventions are not resulting in be-
havior change, we must first understand the neurobiological science of adversity and the impacts of
our students’ trauma history on the physiological stress response and MOs. We first must understand
Figure 9-2. Continuum of regulated and dysregulated states.

168 Chapter 9
growing evidence that reveals an important and groundbreaking correlation between adverse child-
hood experiences (ACEs) and diminished lifelong outcomes in the areas of physical health, mental
health, and quality of life (Felitti et al., 1998), including challenging behaviors and even school failure
(Blodgett, 2015; Craig, 2016).
Case Study 3
Ms. Robbins teaches fifth-grade in a Title I school and has several students with individual Tier 2
and Tier 3 needs, including James. James is often dropped off at school by his grandmother (who is listed
as his guardian in the school records), but Ms. Robbins met his mother at the school’s open house last
week and noticed she seemed withdrawn or nervous when she tried to talk to her. James often arrives at
school or returns from related arts or lunch angry and upset and refuses to complete work and becomes
disruptive in the classroom. While James clearly wants to have friends, he often has difficulty or refuses
to work with peers and pushes them away by getting very upset and lashing out over seemingly minor
things. To make things worse, James and a couple of other classmates often set each other off, and the rest
of the class becomes distracted, excitable, and difficult to redirect back to the task at hand. Ms. Robbins
knows she must work to prevent her students’ problem behaviors while also responding in a way that
will be effective in getting both individuals like James and the whole class back on track. What could Ms.
Robbins consider as she plans and implements supports and interventions in her classroom?
Adverse Childhood Experiences

ACEs at the individual level can include various forms of abuse (e.g., physical, emotional, or
sexual), neglect (e.g., physical or emotional), or household dysfunction (e.g., mental illness, domes-
tic violence, substance abuse, divorce or parental separation, or incarceration of a parent; Felitti et
al., 1998). But, adversity that occurs at the individual level does not happen in a vacuum. Adversity
can also occur at the community, societal, or environmental level (Figure 9-3). Furthermore, ACEs
may be intense and acute, occurring at a single timepoint, or chronic, pervasive, and ongoing
resulting in symptoms of complex trauma from experiences like intergenerational and historical
racial trauma. Examples of adverse community environments include lack of equitable access to
quality health care, housing, job opportunities with a living wage, education, or the social effects of
poverty or community violence. Adverse environmental experiences may include the COVID-19
pandemic or natural disasters occurring at a higher frequency due to climate change, such as tor-
nados and hurricanes, wildfires, or extreme heat and drought. Children today are also potentially
exposed to more collective or societal traumas, such as exposure to overly mature content in the
media and social media (e.g., cyberbullying, cybervictimization, child adultification through ex-
posure to porn or violent content), divisive political movements, and the many forms of oppres-
sion that exist in larger society.
The absence of positive childhood experiences (e.g., feeling safe and protected by an adult at
home, feeling of belonging in school, felt experience that family is supportive in difficult times,
feeling supported by friends) also parallels outcomes associated with trauma, especially when it
results in unstable or chaotic relationships and environments (Bethell et al., 2019). A converging
body of scientific disciplines is clear that ACEs, and even without adversity, a lack of access to the
safe, stable, nurturing relationships and environments essential for healthy development, can nega-
tively impact neurobiological development and school success and even diminish lifelong health
and quality of life.
Figure 9-3. Three realms of ACEs. (Reproduced with permission from PACES Connection.)
Prevalence of Adverse Childhood Experiences

The prevalence of childhood adversity is shockingly high in our society and likely more so in
schools and classrooms today. The widely known ACE study (Felitti et al., 1998) and years of follow-
up research clearly demonstrate a shockingly high prevalence of ACEs across individuals of virtually
all demographic characteristics. In a typical American public elementary school classroom, estima-
tions hold that at least half of all students are likely to have at least one ACE, 25% are likely to have
multiple ACEs, and more than 6% are likely to have four or more (Bethell et al., 2017). By high
school, nearly half (or about 13 of 30) students in a typical classroom may have experienced three or
more ACEs (Blodgett, 2012).
School-aged students with higher ACE scores have been associated with higher risk for a host
of negative school outcomes, such as lower academic performance and standardized test scores, lan-
guage difficulties, behavior and discipline problems, low attendance, and deficits in social and emo-
tional skills (Bethell et al., 2014; Blodgett, 2015; Jimenez et al., 2016; Massachusetts Advocates for
Children, 2005; Wolpow et al., 2009). This can be explained not only by behavioral principles, such
as functions of behavior, learning history, and MOs, but also with a clear understanding of neurobio-
logical development or the way the brain and body adapt to stress and trauma.
170 Chapter 9
Neurobiological Development, the Psychological

Stress Response, and Behavior
Early experiences matter because the basic architecture of the brain is built from the bottom
up throughout development from before birth through adulthood. The more primitive parts of the
brain dedicated to survival and the fight-flight-freeze stress response develop first, providing a sturdy
or weak foundation for the more advanced prefrontal cortex, which develops later. The prefrontal
cortex is responsible for executive functioning, or all the cognitive and self-regulation capacities that
are essential for success in school and life. Safe, stable, nurturing experiences and positive, reciprocal
interactions with adult caregivers build a strong foundation, while ACEs can weaken the foundation
and lead to behavioral and other challenges during schooling and throughout life (Harvard Center
on the Developing Child, 2017). Short, toxic stressful environments or ACEs that are unmitigated by
protective relationships and environments can derail healthy development of the brain and body and
lead to a stress response system that is overactive and highly sensitized to environmental stressors
(e.g., antecedents or triggers) or even permanently set to high.
Impacts on Behavior
Students with ACEs and toxic stress or symptoms of trauma may struggle in school due to
a neurobiologically and physiologically legitimate disruption in the ability to self-regulate the be-
haviors needed for school success. Behavioral skills and response to environmental conditions and
behavioral interventions, including reinforcement-based interventions, may be negatively impacted.
Learning behaviors (e.g., ability to sustain attention to academic lessons and tasks and general avail-
ability for learning) and social-emotional skills or behaviors alike may be negatively impacted. For
example, academic deficits may include difficulties with learning and retrieving new information,
problem solving and analysis, cause and effect relationships, organizing narrative material, listening
to orally presented information, sustaining attention to assigned tasks, and generally engaging in the
curriculum.
Behavioral difficulties may include internalizing behaviors (e.g., withdrawal, anxiety, depres-
sion, perfectionism, being overly compliant) or externalizing behaviors (e.g., low frustration toler-
ance and reactivity, impulsivity, defiance, aggression). Social-emotional skills may also be impacted,
and students may have difficulty regulating emotions, establishing or maintaining relationships with
peers or adults, code switching between social situations, trusting others, or responding appropri-
ately to authority figures. In summary, the neurobiological storyline is clear: the quality of life ex-
periences, particularly ACEs and access to safe, stable, nurturing relationships and environments, is
a critically important factor in understanding behavior and the effective application of behavioral
interventions. And, application of trauma-informed school practices at both universal and targeted
levels of support (e.g., Tier 2 and Tier 3 interventions within a Multi-Tiered System of Supports
model) are essential. See Table 9-1 for an example of a practical framework for creating trauma-
informed classrooms and schools.
Motivating Operations and Repercussions

for Behavioral Interventions
Alongside traditional behavioral principles, consideration of the impacts of students’ life experi-
ences and associated learning history on shaping neurobiological development, physiological stress
response, and current behavioral performance is essential to identifying effective behavioral inter-
ventions with a high probability for success. The behavioral concept of MOs is particularly relevant
to this discourse.
Table 9-1. A Practical Framework for

Creating Trauma-Informed Schools and Classrooms
Component Exists Does Notes/Action Items
Not
Exist
Mindset shift that
prioritizes safe, stable,
nurturing relationships
and environments as the
essential foundation for
learning
Low stress physical spaces
and environments that
support belongingness
and inclusivity
Explicitly teach regulation
and integrate stress
reduction practices into
the daily schedule
Regulation areas (e.g.,
peace corners) or tools
in every classroom (plus
regulation room if possible)
Responding to symptoms
of stress and dysregulation
vs. reacting to problem
behavior
Strategies and supports
for promoting educator
wellness
Copyright © 2019. Mary Crnobori, PhD, BCBA. All rights reserved.
An MO was originally defined as an environmental variable that temporarily changes the value
of a consequential stimulus (e.g., reinforcer or punisher) and the probability of the functional re-
sponse elicited (Laraway et al., 2003). More recently, the MO concept has been updated to include a
more accurate categorization of unconditioned and conditioned types (Michael, 1993) and terminol-
ogy for the various effects of MOs including establishing, abolishing, evocative, and abative opera-
tions (Laraway et al., 2003).
In contrast to the outdated concept of setting events from past literature, there is an evidential
requirement to classify an event as an MO, which includes functionally defined events that meet be-
havior-altering features by temporarily altering the reinforcement effectiveness of a stimulus (or item
or event) according to the specified definition. An establishing operation is an event that increases
the current effectiveness of a stimulus to make it more reinforcing (Cooper et al., 2020). For example,
if a student did not have access to adult attention at home all weekend, the reinforcing effectiveness
of teacher attention may be increased on Mondays.
172 Chapter 9
An abolishing operation is a type of MO that decreases the current effectiveness of a stimulus

as a reinforcer (Cooper et al., 2020). For example, a student who lives in a one-bedroom apartment
with one parent and four siblings may be satiated on attention and avoid social interaction and peer
and teacher attention on Mondays.
While the value-altering effects of events (including ACEs) on increasing or decreasing the ef-
fects of stimuli as positive or negative reinforcers are helpful and informative, one criticism of the
functional approach is that it assumes that all behaviors serve to access or avoid something. When
used in isolation and without consideration of the role of ACEs and trauma, the concept of MOs fails
to consider the physiological stress response and neurobiological impacts of elicited emotions stem-
ming from trauma and trauma triggers.
By integrating our understanding of trauma and behaviorism, we can easily discern how trauma
often creates an MO for negative reinforcement. Students may seek to avoid or escape the stimuli,
conditions, or emotions that were historically associated with ACEs or trauma. Furthermore, asso-
ciations or correlations between the trauma trigger and response it elicits often occur without the
awareness of the student themselves or the supporting teacher or interventionist. For example, too-
calm or too-overstimulating classrooms, aversive task demands, or seemingly unrelated behaviors or
benign qualities in teachers or peers may have an abolishing effect.
Implications for Reinforcement-Based Behavior Interventions

In summary, when applicable, we must first understand the impacts of ACEs and trauma on
neurobiological development and school behavior and familiarize ourselves with the life experi-
ences our students have faced (in the past or present) and bring to the classroom today. It is thereby
important to consider including screening and identification procedures designed to detect students
who may have symptoms related to emotional and behavioral disorders or trauma. Once students
are systematically and accurately identified, targeted academic and behavioral interventions can be
determined with a consideration of ACEs, functions of behavior, and MOs in an effort to meet indi-
vidual needs and elicit desired behavior change.
It is also important to note that the success of behavioral interventions for students with a trauma
history are highly dependent on adults who can provide high-quality rapport and demonstrate com-
passion, flexibility, and responsibility when responding to student needs. The most effective behavior
interventions may be those in which there is a positive relationship between the teacher (or interven-
tionist) and the student, and the supporting behavior analyst or teacher takes the quality of the student’s
experience into consideration. The adults’ ability to develop and maintain a calm and emotionally and
behaviorally regulated state themselves and provide high-quality rapport is paramount.
Ms. Robbins first decides she needs to get to know James and his family better, as well as her other
students and families. When James has a good day, she calls home to share the good news and works to
build a rapport with his grandmother who answers the phone. His grandmother appreciates the posi-
tive phone call and says she expected to hear he was in trouble again. She also shares that his dad left
when he was a baby, and his mom is in and out of his life depending on whether or not she is using or
has a boyfriend. Ms. Robbins decides to learn more about James and her other students by giving them
the writing prompt “What I wish my teacher knew…” to complete in their journals. With this new lens
of understanding, Ms. Robbins also decides to implement regularly scheduled mindfulness-based brain
breaks during the most challenging times of day—arrival and after related arts and lunch—as well as
on-the-spot when needed when her students become dysregulated or disruptive. Ritualistically includ-
ing breathing, grounding, and movement-based strategies to help students learn and practice regulating
emotions and behaviors helps her regain classroom management and focus on individual student needs.
She also sets up a Peace Corner where students can go to take a break and use these calming strategies to
self-regulate when needed. While at first he struggled to follow the procedures she established, over time
James used this space more frequently and was able to step away from what was bothering him before
becoming angry. Ms. Robbins noticed that the more she got to know her students and build safety and
trust and meet their needs, the more successful James and his peers were in her classroom.
Schedules of Reinforcement and Matching Law

Reinforcement of the replacement behavior is essential in seeing behavior change from an in-
dividualized intervention plan. However, seeing positive changes is not often as simple as providing
reinforcement or implementing a token board. Sometimes there needs to be an analysis of how the
problem behavior was reinforced to guide how the replacement behavior needs to be reinforced. To
do this, we must become familiar with schedules of reinforcement.
Case Study 4
Mrs. Martin is Evan’s special education teacher. Evan frequently calls out in class and loudly states
things like “I don’t want to do this” and “I already know this.” After conducting an FBA and determin-
ing the behavior is likely maintained by attention, Mrs. Martin has developed a BIP for Evan’s general
education teachers to use with his disruptive behaviors. The BIP consists of a well-defined replacement
behavior and reinforcement strategies for the replacement behavior. However, the plan is not working
even though the teachers are following it. What could Mrs. Martin do to troubleshoot the implementa-
tion of the BIP?
What Are Schedules of Reinforcement?

Schedules of reinforcement guide the contingencies, or environmental arrangements, which de-
termine when reinforcement is provided as a consequence of a behavior (Cooper et al., 2020). There
are four main schedules of reinforcement: fixed interval, variable interval, fixed ratio, and variable
ratio (Figure 9-4). While there are compound schedules of reinforcement consisting of various com-
binations of these main schedules, these four schedules are foundational in evaluating an interven-
tion plan.
Fixed Interval Schedules

These schedules provide reinforcement for the first occurrence of a specified behavior after a
set amount of time, or interval, has elapsed (Cooper et al., 2020). The interval can be any amount of
time determined to be appropriate, such as 30 seconds or 5 hours, but is the same for each interval.
Behaviors that occur during the interval do not produce reinforcement. Behaviors tend to increase in
frequency as the end of the interval approaches and do not occur for a brief period of time (i.e., the
post-reinforcement pause) after the interval when reinforcement has been produced. For example,
if mail is delivered every day in the evening, all occurrences of checking the mailbox, listening for
the mail truck, and watching out a window will not produce reinforcement. However, as the interval
comes to an end, those behaviors will be reinforced and likely not occur until the next evening.
Variable Interval Schedules

These schedules provide reinforcement for the first occurrence of a specified behavior after an
average period of time, or interval, has elapsed (Cooper et al., 2020). The interval can be any amount
of time that averages a set length of time and are different each interval. If the average interval is
10 minutes, one interval may be 15 minutes, another might be 4 minutes, and another might be 11
minutes. For example, if social media posts arrive in your feed on a variable interval schedule, all
occurrences of checking the application or refreshing your feed will not produce reinforcement.
However, once the interval elapses, the next occurrence will produce reinforcement (e.g., seeing or
hearing information from people of interest). This schedule often produces consistently high rates
of the behavior.
174 Chapter 9
Figure 9-4. Types of schedules of reinforcement.
Fixed Ratio Schedule

These schedules provide reinforcement for a specified behavior once a set number of occurrenc-
es of the behavior is displayed (Cooper et al., 2020). This ratio (i.e., behavior:reinforcement) resets
and repeats once reinforcement has been produced. The schedule may consist of two occurrences
of the behavior or 25, but the number is the same to produce reinforcement. For example, upon ap-
proaching a vending machine, typically one occurrence of a simple behavior chain (i.e., inserting a
payment and selecting an item) produces reinforcement (i.e., the selected snack). To reproduce this
reinforcement, the behavior would need to be repeated at the same ratio. This schedule of reinforce-
ment typically results in steady rates of behavior.
Variable Ratio Schedule

These schedules produce reinforcement for a specified behavior once an average number of oc-
currences of the behavior is displayed (Cooper et al., 2020). Like with the fixed ratio schedule, this
ratio also resets and repeats once reinforcement has been produced. The schedule may be an average
of 20 occurrences, which may include five occurrences to produce reinforcement, then 40 occur-
rences, then 15 occurrences. For example, a slot machine may produce reinforcement (i.e., a jackpot)
after 1,000 pulls, then 1,500 pulls, then 500 pulls. This schedule of reinforcement typically results in
consistently high rates of behavior.
What Is the Matching Law?

The previous four main schedules are in effect for all behaviors in which we engage. Two or
more schedules of reinforcement for behaviors that are in effect at the same time are called concur-
rent schedules of reinforcement. Matching law is the principle that the occurrences of the behavior
will be allocated in proportion to each schedule of reinforcement in effect (Cooper et al., 2020). For
example, if we want an ice cream cone from a fast-food restaurant, and we have the option to park
and walk into the store (Schedule 1) or stay in our vehicle to use the drive-thru (Schedule 2), we may
be more likely to use the drive-thru to get our quick snack than to deal with the hassle of ordering
in the store.
Why Do They Matter?

Understanding schedules of reinforcement and matching law can shed light on persistent prob-
lem behaviors. If the schedule of reinforcement for the problem behavior is denser (i.e., less response
effort is required to produce reinforcement) than the replacement behavior, we would not see the an-
ticipated behavior change with decreases in the problem behavior. When developing an intervention
plan, it is not enough to define the replacement behavior and outline a schedule of reinforcement.
The schedule of reinforcement for the replacement behavior must be considered in relation to the
problem behavior. For example, if a student is calling out responses in class to get teacher attention
(i.e., fixed ratio schedule), raising their hand to be called on in a group of 25 other students (i.e., vari-
able ratio schedule) will likely not produce reinforcement at a sufficient rate to change the behaviors.
Teachers can evaluate the schedules of reinforcements for both problem behaviors and replacement
behaviors to make change to the contingencies to ensure behavioral goals are met.
Upon closer review, Mrs. Martin notices that each time Evan is disruptive, his general education
teachers reprimand or redirect him. However, when Evan is nondisruptive and working on-task, his
general education teachers rarely acknowledge him. Mrs. Martin decides she will explicitly describe a
leaner schedule of reinforcement for the target behavior and a denser schedule of reinforcement for the
replacement behavior. She will also model these schedules for the teachers and provide coaching as they
develop this skill.
A Word of Caution About Extinction Procedures

While behavioral procedures involving extinction or punishment are sometimes necessary, they
are generally not consistent with a trauma-informed approach and should only be used with great
caution for students with history and symptoms of trauma. Furthermore, they should not be consid-
ered unless less restrictive procedures are demonstrated to be ineffective or ruled out.
Extinction procedures consist of withholding reinforcement for a specific behavior that previ-
ously received that reinforcement. Eventually, the behavior is no longer emitted since it is no longer
reinforced. For example, the behavior of putting money into a vending machine and pushing a code
is often reinforced by access to the desired beverage or snack. During extinction, the beverage or
snack is withheld upon payment and the code and the use of that machine decreases. Under these
conditions, an extinction burst is often observed. An extinction burst is a temporary increase in the
frequency, intensity, or duration of a behavior due to extinction procedures. For example, someone
whose snack is stuck and inaccessible in the vending machine after inserting money and pressing the
code may try re-entering the code or shaking the machine (i.e., an extinction burst). Without access-
ing the snack, the behavior decreases, and the person likely walks away.
Extinction procedures can be effective in eliminating the occurrences of a behavior. However,
trouble can be found if reinforcement is provided during an extinction burst. In this case, reinforce-
ment is provided for more frequent or more intense behaviors that could have serious consequences
if the behavior is dangerous. In many school settings, withholding attention (i.e., extinction of atten-
tion-maintained behavior) and forcing task completion (i.e., extinction of escape-maintained behav-
ior) is not feasible. At some point, behaviors may be severe enough where they need to be attended
to and attention and a break from the work task may be necessary, thus reinforcing higher levels of
the behavior. With this in mind, extinction procedures may not be recommended in favor of other
interventions without potential, negative side effects.
176 Chapter 9
Many behavioral interventions, including reinforcement-based behavior interventions, are par-

ticularly compatible with a trauma-informed approach and recommended for students with a his-
tory of ACEs and trauma. In general, use of noncontingent reinforcement, differential reinforcement
of alternative behavior, competing stimulus assessment, demands fading, social skills or behavior
skills training, naturalistic teaching procedures, and functional communication training are recom-
mended for students with a trauma history.
Functional communication training is more than the act of teaching children to appropriately
ask for what they want. For example, a student may yell out in class when the appropriate act would
be to raise their hand and wait to be called on. Functional communication involves determining why
a behavior is occurring and teaching an alternative behavior to take its place (a type of differential
reinforcement of alternative behavior, as described in earlier chapters). Teaching students to com-
municate in a functional way is an important tool to manage behaviors in the classroom as well.
Functional communication can include manding (requesting items), tacting (labeling items), and
intraverbals (conversational skills).
Functional communication differs from person to person and can be taught in different set-
tings, such as the classroom, recess, and lunchroom. Learning what is considered functional for one
student may differ from another and is determined through the steps of the FBA. If you do not de-
termine the appropriate function, you will notice that inappropriate responses will continue to occur.
For example, if it is determined that the function of the student’s yelling out behavior is attention,
providing them with an alternative behavior of raising their hand and waiting quietly until they are
called on helps the student to engage in a form of functional communication. If the function for the
same behavior is determined to be escape, the student can be prompted to signal to you that they
need a short break. Once again, pairing the replacement communicative behavior with the function
of the target behavior is a required first step.
While more restrictive procedures may be necessary for critically needed behavior change that
supports safety and school success, less restrictive procedures (like those above) should always be
attempted first. Interventionists should be aware that procedures involving escape-extinction, pun-
ishment, negative reinforcement, and physically restrictive procedures are generally not consistent
with a trauma-informed approach and should only be used with extreme caution and sensitivity.
Summary
There are many potential reasons why the implementation of a BIP may not work as expected.
Even if the BIP is function-based and feasible, the plan may not produce the intended outcomes.
This might lead some to believe that “reinforcement does not work.” To address this, we examined
several elements of reinforcement that may impact the problem behavior and success of our BIPs. In
this chapter, we discussed five aspects of BIPs that may be contributing to why the problem behavior
is not decreasing. First, we explained how Tier 1 classroom management is an integral part of BIP
implementation. Second, we discussed the importance of identifying if the replacement behavior is
a performance deficit or skill deficit and what to do in each case. Third, we explained how MOs im-
pact the value of reinforcement and how physiological stress responses are important considerations
when developing a BIP. Fourth, we discussed how the schedules of reinforcement can be adapted
and why matching law needs to be a part of the BIP conversation. Finally, we provided some caution
when utilizing extinction procedures in BIPs and how they may be doing more harm than good.
Chapter Review
1. What are the implications of ACEs on outcomes in the areas of physical health, mental health,
and quality of life? What can teachers and other professionals do to address this?
2. What are the implications of MOs on reinforcement systems outlined in BIPs? What can teach-
ers and other professionals do to address this?
3. How does the matching law impact the effectiveness of a BIP? What considerations do teachers
and other professionals need to make when developing plans to decrease the target behavior
and increase the replacement behavior?
4. How important are the implementation and effectiveness of Tier 1 classroom management
plans when developing BIPs? Are there any ethical considerations surrounding delivering indi-
vidualized BIPs in classrooms with inadequate classroom management?
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10
Methods to Decrease Behavior
Punishment–Behavior Reduction
Procedures in Schools
Lesley A. Shawler, PhD, BCBA; Manish Goyal, MA, BCBA;

and R. Nicolle Carr, PhD, BCBA-D, LBA-OK
INTRODUCTION
Students often display behavior in the classroom that needs to be decreased.
Though there are many options to consider when doing this, many procedures may
be ignored completely because they are considered “punishment” procedures. This
chapter will explain why this is not a “dirty word” necessarily and provide methods to
decrease behaviors safely, ethically, and appropriately. Material from prior chapters will
be reviewed as appropriate (differential reinforcement, teaching replacement skills, etc.)
while also ensuring an understanding of positive and negative punishment and the ethical
guidelines defining the boundaries for utilizing these procedures safely and humanely.
Carr, R. N. (Ed.).
182 Chapter 10
Chapter Objectives
ȘȘ Differentiate between a nonscientific (societal) understanding of “punishment” and a
scientific (behavior analytic) account of punishment, including the reinforcing effect
that using punishment may have on the implementers’ behaviors.
ȘȘ Understand the historical use of punishment procedures and their current use in
school systems.
ȘȘ Become familiar with and identify the various position statements about the integrity
and use of intrusive procedures, such as seclusion and restraint.
ȘȘ Differentiate when to use punishment procedures and how to mitigate the cost-bene-
fit ratio so that risk of harm can be minimized.
ȘȘ Consider the ethical concerns when utilizing punishment procedures.
ȘȘ Learn the importance of treatment integrity and social validity with regards to the effi-
ciency and effectiveness of using punishment procedures.
KEY TERMS
• Aversive Stimulus: An event or stimulus that is intended to function as a punisher to decrease
the future probability of behavior when delivered or presented consequently for that behavior.
For example, a fine for speeding.
• Cost-Benefit Ratio (or Risk-Benefit Analysis): A process of evaluating the risks/harmful side
effects of an intervention vs. the benefits/positive side effects of an intervention before con-
ducting a behavior analytic based assessment and/or before implementing a behavior-based
intervention. For example, one should consider the risks/harmful side effects of using time-out
procedure for severe aggression and the potential benefits that may result from the intervention.
• Exclusionary Time-Out: A procedure for implementing time-out where, contingent on the oc-
currence of the behavior (i.e., typically an inappropriate or harmful behavior), the student is
either instructed, guided, or physically removed from the reinforcing/current environment until
a predetermined criterion is met. For example, removing a student from recess for 3 minutes
(predetermined criteria) is contingent upon that student hitting their peer.
• Functional Equivalent Replacement Behavior (FERB): The selection of a replacement be-
havior that serves the same function as the challenging behavior targeted for reduction. For
example, teaching a child to say “excuse me please” as a replacement behavior to get someone’s
attention instead of hitting.
• Functionally Equivalent: A set of two or more behaviors which serve the same purpose or
function. When two or more behaviors, whether topographically similar or not, produce the
same consequence, they are functionally equivalent. For example, saying “excuse me” to get
someone’s attention and tapping someone on the shoulder to get their attention are functionally
equivalent because both behaviors serve the same function/purpose.
• Negative Punishment: The removal of a reinforcing stimulus or activity contingent upon the
occurrence of a behavior (i.e., inappropriate, harmful, and/or maladaptive behaviors) which
decreases the future probability of occurrence of that behavior. For example, taking away video
game privileges contingent upon Jimmy yelling at his sister (contrast with Positive Punishment).
• Nonexclusionary Time-Out: A procedure for implementing time-out where, contingent upon
the occurrence of a behavior (i.e., inappropriate or harmful behavior), access to a reinforcing ac-
tivity is removed (or the person is removed from the reinforcing activity) until a predetermined
criterion is met while the person remains in the same environment/setting. For example, asking
a student to sit on the bench at the playground during recess for 3 minutes contingent upon the
student pushing one of their peers (contrast with Exclusionary Time-Out).
Methods to Decrease Behavior 183
• Overcorrection: A procedure where contingent upon the occurrence of a behavior (i.e., inap-
propriate or harmful behaviors), the learner is requested or instructed to engage in an effortful
activity for a predetermined amount of time or a predetermined number of times. For example,
contingent upon the student throwing paper on the floor, the student is requested and/or in-
structed to walk to the trash can and back a set number of times or for a certain amount of time.
Forms of overcorrection are restitutional overcorrection and positive practice overcorrection
(see also Positive Practice Overcorrection and Restitutional Overcorrection).
• Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS): Tiered system of support used by
schools that includes prevention methods from universal to targeted to individualized supports.
• Positive Practice Overcorrection: A form of overcorrection, where contingent on the occur-
rence of a behavior (i.e., inappropriate and harmful), the learner is requested and/or instructed
to repeat an appropriate (sometimes behavior incompatible with the challenging behavior) form
of the behavior until a predetermined criterion is met, which may entail an adaptive or educa-
tional component. For example, contingent upon the student biting their hand, instructing the
student to clap their hands repeatedly for a set number of times (e.g., 10; see also Overcorrection
and Restitutional Overcorrection).
• Positive Punishment: The addition/introduction of an aversive stimulus or event, contingent
upon the occurrence of a behavior (i.e., inappropriate, harmful, and/or maladaptive behavior),
which decreases the future probability of occurrence of that behavior. For example, a supervisor
sends an email reprimanding the work team after someone arrives late, and the team stops being
tardy to work in the future (contrast with Negative Punishment).
• Punisher: A stimulus change that decreases the future occurrence of behavior that immediately
precedes it. For example, instructing Jimmy to sit on the bench during recess when he hits his
peer results in the “hitting” behavior decreasing (see also Aversive Stimulus).
• Punishment: A basic principle of behavior that describes the functional relationship between a
response and its consequence, where behavior is immediately (or with some delay) followed by
the addition of an aversive stimulus or the removal of a reinforcing stimulus which decreases the
future probability of occurrence of that behavior (see also Negative Punishment and Positive
Punishment).
• Punishment Trap: An event that immediately suppresses the undesirable behavior of the mis-
behaver, therefore, increasing the likelihood that the implementer will respond similarly in the
future (i.e., reinforcement). For example, if instructing Jimmy to sit on the bench during recess
when he hits his peer results in the hitting behavior decreasing, this decrease in behavior may
then reinforce the teacher’s behavior of “benching” Jimmy in the future.
• Reprimand: The use of disapproval contingent upon the occurrence of challenging (problem)
behavior. Reprimands are mostly implemented to decrease the future frequency or probability
of the challenging behavior. For example, saying “no” is contingent upon Jimmy stomping on
ants in the playground.
• Response Cost: The removal of a positive reinforcer that the student already has access to is
contingent upon the occurrence of a behavior (i.e., inappropriate, harmful, and/or maladaptive
behaviors), which results in decreasing the future probability of occurrence of that behavior.
This is a form of negative punishment. For example, taking away the video game controller from
a student’s hands is contingent upon the student spitting on his friend.
• Restitutional Overcorrection: A form of overcorrection where contingent on the occurrence of
a behavior (i.e., inappropriate, harmful, and/or maladaptive behaviors), the learner is requested
and/or instructed to repair the damage by returning the environment to its original context
AND to improve the environment to leave it much better than its previous state. For example,
contingent upon a learner tearing up a piece of paper and throwing it on the floor, the learner is
then required to pick up the pieces and throw them in the trash in addition to any other trash
that is on the floor (see also Overcorrection and Positive Practice Overcorrection).
184 Chapter 10
• Restraint: There are three basic or common types of restraints: personal restraint, protective
equipment restraint, and self-restraint. When using physical restraint, the implementer most
commonly physically restricts and/or blocks challenging behaviors (i.e., inappropriate, harmful,
and/or maladaptive behaviors) by holding the body parts which produce challenging behavior
under the guidelines specified by evidence-based and socially validated crisis management or
safety care procedure. For example, contingent upon repetitive and severe aggression of self-
injurious behavior, the implementer may temporarily restrict access to the person’s arms or legs
to minimize injury or harm to the person or others. When using protective equipment restraints,
the implementer may use evidence-based and tested safety equipment (e.g., padded helmets,
arm splints, boxing gloves, padded hand mitts, safety belts, and safety straps), which are specifi-
cally designed for use during a crisis or emergency to protect individuals from causing serious
injury either to themselves or others. For example, contingent upon repetitive hand-to-head
hitting, the implementer may place a helmet on the individual’s head for safety until a pre-
established criteria is met. Self-restraint is a procedure commonly used by learners who engage
in self-injurious behavior where the learner either on their own, or when prompted by the in-
structor/implementer, engages in behaviors to restrict the occurrence of self-injury or harm to
themselves. For example, sitting on their own hands, placing their arms between folded legs, and
wrapping their arms in tight clothing instead of engaging in self-injurious behavior. Whenever
restraint is considered, see Cost-Benefit Ratio.
• Seclusion: The removal of an individual from a reinforcing environment and isolating them
from other individuals to disrupt and intervene on the challenging behavior that places the
individual and others at risk of harm. For example, if an individual engages in severe aggression
toward their peers in the classroom that is unsafe to manage, the individual may be placed in
seclusion until a predetermined criteria is met (see Cost-Benefit Ratio).
• Social Validity: A measure of the acceptability and appropriateness of the particular assessment
procedures selected, the behaviors targeted for reduction, the skills targeted for development,
the intervention procedures selected, and the significance/importance of the changes and collat-
eral behaviors produced by the intervention, as determined by the learner (as appropriate), the
intervention team, caregivers, and other personnel involved in the day-to-day decisions about
the learners’ academic, social, psychological, and physical growth.
• Treatment Integrity: A measure of the degree to which the treatment is implemented as pre-
scribed by the intervention plan.
Methods to Decrease Behavior

When most people hear the term punishment, likely, the first response is to think of some sort
of discipline or method that should be used when someone “gets in trouble” or does something un-
desirable (perhaps retribution). Parents and teachers may believe that children should be “taught a
lesson” following what they deem as inappropriate actions with the hopes of improved behavior in
the future. We have all been exposed to punishment whether from our actions, our parents, teachers,
or society in general. Types of punishment procedures can vastly vary based on the context, person,
setting, and severity of the behavior. In some cases, a simple reprimand or explanation may be used,
while in other cases, consequences such as time-out, detention, or suspension could be implemented.
Historically, severe instances of punishment have resulted in physical or mental harm to an
individual, sometimes disproportionate to the act committed. As such, punishment quickly becomes
associated with an undesirable type of consequence that will sometimes be feared or avoided in the
future. Moreover, the societal perception of the word punishment has become tainted because of its
historical use, which was often unregulated in certain environments (e.g., corporal punishment in
schools). From the vignette in Box 10-1, Manish’s teachers were initially “taken aback” when “punish-
ment” was mentioned. The school psychologist then had to reassure the teachers that “Manish will
not be hurt.” This scenario exemplifies a common response when the word punishment is brought
up. In modern times, speaking of punishment has become somewhat taboo and may evoke or elicit
emotional responses.
Although there is some merit for societal perceptions of punishment procedures, we must pro-
vide a clear understanding of this process. From a technical perspective, punishment is best un-
derstood by the effect a stimulus (e.g., reprimands, bee sting) has upon the future probability of a
behavior (e.g., being late to class, disturbing a beehive; Cooper et al., 2020). Thus, it is not the type of
procedure that matters, but rather, whether the event effectively decreases undesirable behavior. Said
another way, punishment is defined based on the effect it has on behavior, not the form (topography)
or intention of the procedure. To illustrate, after a child curses in class and is then required to stay
in during recess, the student continues to curse in class the following day. This reoccurrence of the
behavior suggests that missing recess was not a punishing event. Alternatively, if the teacher sends a
letter home to the child’s parents following cursing and reports the child is no longer cursing for the
remainder of the week, a letter home would be defined as having a punishment effect. Table 10-1 de-
picts the potential effects that an event may have on behavior. What may be considered punishment
in one context may be reinforced in another context, and vice versa.
Box 10-1. A Short Story About Manish and His Shenanigans

Consider this example, a 12-year-old child named Manish engages in disruptive behaviors during
class hours, such as getting out of his seat, making car sounds (e.g., vroom vroom) very loudly,
and slapping the desk with his hands, which makes a loud clapping and drumming sound.
Whenever Manish engages in disruptive behaviors, the teachers usually ask him what he is doing,
or they stand right beside him and occasionally ask if he is okay. Many teachers have previously
tried reinforcement systems for attending to his class work, such as implementing a token
system where he could earn tokens for completing his classwork quietly without disrupting his
peers. Tokens could be exchanged for toys and/or food items that he likes at the end of the day.
Teachers also tried delivering highly preferred toys (e.g., a toy car) when Manish exhibited on-task
behavior. However, none of these strategies have worked consistently, so naturally, his teachers
became a little frustrated and concerned about his academic progress.
One day, the teachers finally decide to call a meeting to figure out what they can do about
Manish and invite the school psychologist to attend the meeting with them. The school
psychologist listens intently to the challenges the teachers face, and at the end of the meeting,
she says, “How about we try punishment?” The teachers are immediately taken aback. Seeing
their shocked expression, she continues and assures them that Manish will not be hurt. She
explains to them that punishment is a technical way of describing any procedure that leads to
a behavior reduction. Punishment could include a variety of different strategies and techniques,
and what works for one may not be effective for all 100% of the time. She also explains that
punishment strategies can be combined with reinforcement procedures to increase appropriate
behaviors. She then says, “Next time, as soon as Manish takes his seat or begins his classwork, tell
him what a wonderful student he is. After that, if he gets out of his seat or bothers others, tell
Manish to ‘Stop getting out of his seat and bothering his peers and ask him to sit back down.’ If
his peers get distracted, then politely ask them to get back to work and praise them for doing
their classwork diligently.” The teachers are skeptical; however, they say they will try this strategy
and reprimand Manish every time he is disruptive.
(continued)
186 Chapter 10
Box 10-1. A Short Story About Manish and His Shenanigans (continued)
For a while, Manish continues to be disruptive. However, after a few sessions, the teachers notice
that Manish has reduced the number of times he gets out of his seat, and he is even starting to
do his classwork! Ms. Pam still is not satisfied, and she tells the school psychologist, “I don’t think
Manish likes me. During recess, he’s always throwing the ball and hitting other students, and
sometimes he even does that to me. I tried your strategy at recess, and it just doesn’t work. In
fact, I think he throws the ball at me and students more when I tell him to stop it.” The school
psychologist then says, “Great observation! Let’s try a different approach here. Whenever he is
playing with the ball appropriately and does not throw it or hit anyone with the ball, you could
praise him for playing appropriately. For example, you could say, ‘Manish, I really like how you kick
the ball toward the goal’ or ‘Manish, I really like how you throw the ball in the air and then catch
it. You’re really good at it.’ However, since he generally does not like sitting down or writing, next
time he throws the ball at you or one of his peers, perhaps you could take the ball away and ask
him to sit down and write, ‘I will not throw the ball and hit other people’ 10 times. Then after
that, you could give the ball back to him.” Lo and behold, a few weeks later when Ms. Pam runs
into the school psychologist, she grabs hold of her and informs her that it worked! Manish still
throws the ball at his peers occasionally, but he hardly ever does it anymore.
In Manish’s case in Box 10-1, reprimanding his disruptive behavior functioned as a punisher
in the classroom given the decrease in this behavior. However, as Ms. Pam stated, she attempted the
same procedure with Manish at recess with no success. Instead, Manish started to throw the ball
more. Based on this effect, we could conclude that reprimands for throwing the ball at his peers
and Ms. Pam during recess actually functioned as a reinforcer since the behavior increased over
time. However, when Ms. Pam had Manish sit out and write sentences as a consequence related to
his behavior, she reported that his behavior then decreased. In this scenario, writing sentences dur-
ing recess would be classified as punishment as she saw Manish’s ball throwing decrease over time.
Manish’s case exemplifies how punishment should be defined based on the effect a consequence has
on the behavior over time and not on the type of procedure itself.
Although some may argue that teachers and parents should never use punishment, there is no
empirical support for that assertion (Vollmer, 2002). In fact, “punishment happens” (Vollmer, 2002, p.
469) and is an integral part of survival and success. As an inherent process, engaging in certain harm-
ful behaviors (e.g., laying in the sun too long resulting in sunburn, getting burned when we touch
something hot) teaches us not to continue to emit those behaviors in the future (i.e., punishment
occurs). Thus, punishment may be important as it increases the probability of survival by reducing
harmful and/or unsafe behaviors. For example, once we experience the pain of touching a hot stove
with our bare hands, we are less likely to engage in the same behavior in the future. Said another way,
the behavior of touching the stove was punished by burning our hands.
As a more related example, consider a 12-year-old child named Jude who tends to tease and
push a 10-year-old boy named Jeremy every time he goes to the swing set during recess. As time
goes by, the teacher notices that Jeremy has stopped going near the swing set. Now, without discuss-
ing the inhumane values of bullying (this is a discussion best reserved for ethical and moral social
conduct) and keeping our focus on Jeremy to understand punishment, what we observe happening
is every time Jeremy went close to the swing set, his behavior was punished by Jude’s teasing. Thus,
the presentation of an unfavorable event (i.e., bullying) resulted in Jeremy reducing the frequency
with which he approached the swing set during recess (punishment). What these behaviors all have
in common is that their consequences decrease the future likelihood of their recurrence.
In society, punishment takes many forms, such as reprimands, fines, penalties, incarceration,
retribution, rehabilitation, and corporal punishment, where the severity of the punishment is some-
times context-dependent and sometimes context-independent. It has been applied across a myriad of
Table 10-1. Possible Behavioral Effects

Consequence Following a Effect on the Future Occurrence
Behavior of Behavior
Aversive stimulus presented Decrease
(Positive punishment)
Aversive stimulus removed Increase
(Negative reinforcement/escape)
Stimulus presented Increase
(Positive reinforcement)
Reinforcing stimulus removed Decrease
(Negative punishment)
When a stimulus follows a behavior, the behavior will increase or decrease in the future. This chapter primarily focuses
on changes that decrease behavior in the future (punishment).
situations, such as within the criminal justice system (e.g., incarceration after being found guilty of
committing a crime, solitary confinement, beheading, electric chair), sports (e.g., students being made
to run laps for allowing the opposition through by missing a tackle during a football game), businesses
(e.g., employees are provided warnings or fired for underperforming and not achieving expected stan-
dards), politics (e.g., impeachment of the president), home (e.g., being grounded or having play time
reduced), with peers (e.g., name calling and teasing), and most notably, in educational settings (e.g.,
bullying, time-out, detention, seclusion, corporal punishment, spanking, overcorrection).
As mentioned, punishment can be widely observed within the educational system. Sidman
(1999) reported the story of a speaker who argued, “A classroom without punishment is an abnormal
environment; that children should not be exposed to it” (p. 81). This statement describes the histori-
cal prevalence of punishment procedures within the classroom. The various types of punishment
procedures commonly used within the classroom will be highlighted later; however, it is important
to note the long-standing precedence of such procedures within educational settings.
Sidman (1999) also posited that, at times, it may be unclear whether an individual elects to use
punishment as a last resort or due to their history of reinforcement for using such procedures. Kazdin
(2012) described this “punishment trap” as an event that immediately suppresses the undesirable be-
havior of the misbehaver (e.g., child); therefore, increasing the likelihood that the implementor (e.g.,
teacher) will respond similarly in the future (i.e., reinforcement). However, the event itself may not
change the misbehaver’s future behavior, but its temporary cessation may be reinforcing to the imple-
mentor. As an example, when considering the vignette with Manish and Ms. Pam, Ms. Pam required
Manish to write sentences following him throwing the ball at his peers. Consequently, Manish’s behav-
ior immediately stopped, likely reinforcing Ms. Pam’s behavior. Ms. Pam is now more likely to have
Manish sit out and write sentences when he is disruptive in the future. A keen observer, however, should
continue to monitor whether Manish’s behavior does decrease. If Manish continues to throw balls at his
peers or teachers, then by definition, punishment has not occurred, despite Ms. Pam’s continued use of
this procedure. See Figure 10-1 for a visual illustration of how the punishment trap may occur.
Before we briefly dive into the history of punishment within behavior modification and foray
into the role of punishment, you will notice that we slowly shift from talking about disciplining or
punishing “students” and begin speaking about managing student behavior. It is important to note,
early in the chapter, that with a behavior analytic approach, we never punish or reward a person.
What we do learn is how to manage their (e.g., student) behaviors by understanding the functional
relationship between what sets the occasion for the behavior (antecedent), the behavior itself, and
its consequences (e.g., reinforcers and punishers; Iwata et al., 1994). See Figure 10-2 to illustrate the
different effects of consequences on Manish’s behavior.
188 Chapter 10
Figure 10-1. As an example of a “punishment trap,” Ms. Pam’s behavior is likely reinforced when she stops Manish from
playing after he throws the ball and has him write sentences. Due to this immediate cessation of disruptive behavior, Ms.
Pam is likely to use this strategy again, regardless of whether Manish’s behavior decreases.
Evolution of Punishment
Throughout the history of behavior modification, punishment has been an integral part of be-
havior change procedures and utilized in numerous ways with varying degrees of severity to manage
student behavior (Middleton, 2008). Maag (2001) argued that American educators likely embrace
punishment as it is easy to administer, is often effective while not always producing challenging
behaviors, and has been part of the Judeo-Christian history that dominates much of American cul-
ture and society. When discussing the history of punishment, we would be remiss to avoid the giant
“elephant” in the room. Punishment continues to be controversial, with some arguing that it is never
needed to change behavior, while others posit that when used with reinforcement, it can be even
more efficacious (DiGennaro Reed & Lovett, 2008). Again, keeping in mind the true definition of
punishment, it simply exists to decrease undesirable or harmful behaviors and thus is sometimes
warranted for reasons we will discuss later.
Though there are many nonphysical forms of punishment, such as reprimanding, fines, and
scolding (Middleton, 2008), physical forms of punishment were once common. Corporal punish-
ment has been on a steady decline from 4% of all school children in 1978 receiving this form of
punishment to less than 0.5% in 2015 (Gershoff et al., 2015). Corporal punishment includes the use
of physical force to cause physical pain to a child to attempt to correct misbehavior (Straus, 2001). In
the mid-19th century, attendance in schools was made mandatory by the government which resulted
in educators (e.g., school teachers) assuming a disciplinarian role for much of the day. As such, edu-
cators were allowed the freedom to apply traditional forms of parental discipline to students during
school hours (Middleton, 2008). In doing so, many teachers and administrators implemented corpo-
ral punishment as a form of discipline by using items like belts, canes, rulers, and their hands and feet
to discipline students for a large range of behaviors without consistency across school or administra-
tion. However, it must be noted that many have used milder forms of punishment, such as scolding
and time-out, as well as those who did not use punishment strategies for disciplining students at
all. In this regard, there have been, and continue to be, divergent views on the acceptability of using
punishment, regardless of its form and severity (DiGennaro Reed & Lovett, 2008).
Throughout the 1970s to 1990s, a variety of punishment procedures were used to reduce cases of
severe self-injury among individuals with developmental disabilities. Such procedures included con-
tingent shock following self-injury (Linscheid et al., 1990), spraying water mist in an individual’s face
to decrease self-injury (Dorsey et al., 1980), applying lemon juice in one’s mouth to decrease biting
self and others (Matson et al., 1990), and presenting aromatic ammonia (smelling salts) to suppress
severe hair pulling (Altman et al., 1978). It is important to acknowledge that at the time these inter-
ventions were implemented, there was more societal acceptance of these procedures, based on the
Figure 10-2. This figure shows how the same consequence (reprimands for disruptive behavior) can have different ef-
fects on behavior (punishment or reinforcement); therefore, it is the effect on the future probability of the behavior that
matters rather than the consequence itself.
available knowledge for treating severe challenging behavior at that time than there would be today.
Since that time, guidelines on the use of punishment procedures have been enacted to help regu-
late when and how punishment can be implemented (Board Analytic Certification Board [BACB],
n.d.; Vollmer et al., 2011). However, procedures, such as the ones previously described, would likely
not be approved today by review boards or other governing agencies without grossly extenuating
circumstances.
Today, some Behavior Intervention Plans created to decrease severe challenging behavior have
included more restrictive procedures, such as restraint and seclusion, following destructive behavior,
aggression, or self-injury. Physical restraint is often defined as, “a personal restriction that immobi-
lizes or reduces the ability of a student to move his or her torso, arms, legs, or head freely” (Office
of Civil Rights [OCR], 2018, p. 1). Typically, these procedures are considered “most restrictive” and
warranted only as a last resort for imminent risk of severe harm or danger. Unfortunately, there have
been occasions in which restraint or seclusion are haphazardly implemented, with inadequate train-
ing, supervision, or instructions (Association for Professional Behavior Analysts [APBA], 2010).
Likewise, restraint and seclusion procedures have been often misused or abused by being applied to
benign or nonsevere behaviors or for extended periods (National Disability Rights Network, 2009).
Seclusion involves the removal of the child from an environment. This may occur when be-
haviors become disruptive and are likely to cause significant harm to themselves or others. The stu-
dent is moved toward a less reinforcing environment, by themselves, for a specified amount of time
(Tingstrom, 1990). Data suggest that there is sometimes a reliance on time-out rooms as they may
serve as a negative reinforcer for teachers (i.e., punishment trap; Skiba & Raison, 1990). Such proce-
dures should only be implemented by staff when there is a perceived imminent risk of harm due to
challenging behavior. To implement seclusion, we must ensure that we have a safe way of instruct-
ing and/or transporting the child to a safe room that is devoid of reinforcers and/or items that can
be used to harm oneself or others, no property that can be significantly damaged, no persons in the
room who may be at risk for harm, and where the child can be alone. Many school districts have
strict rules about how and when to implement seclusion; newer legislation in some states completely
prohibits the use of certain types of seclusion or time-out rooms due to historical cases of abuse and
negligence (e.g., Illinois).
190 Chapter 10
Between 2015 and 2016, it was reported that 124,500 students (approximately 0.2% of enrolled
students) experienced a mechanical or physical restraint or seclusion procedure (OCR, 2018).
Among those, 70% of students were mechanically or physically restrained, and 30% of students were
secluded (OCR, 2018). Students with disabilities made up 71% of restrained students and 66% of
secluded students (OCR, 2018). Media stories have reported on school employees using inappropri-
ate amounts of force during physical restraints, keeping individuals in seclusion rooms for excess
amounts of time, and directing students to time-out despite no clear protocols to do so. These re-
ported abuses of power have led to serious injury, neglect, and even death (Nunno et al., 2021). In a
recent review of restraint fatalities among children and adolescents from 1993 to 2018 in the United
States, asphyxiation was the most common reason for death (Nunno et al., 2021).
Krasner (1976) discussed an important consideration that is worthy of mention in the context of
schools. It is not the effectiveness of aversive procedures that schools are debating, but the acceptance
of such procedures by parents, the public, and professionals (Krasner, 1976). Considering the intru-
siveness of seclusion and restraint, and the probability that it could cause physical, emotional, and/
or psychological harm to the student, as well as others present in the environment, schools strictly
require that the procedures be included as part of an intervention plan. Thus, it is very important
that before they are used, teachers obtain full consent from those responsible for decision making,
especially the caregivers/guardians of the students (or other relevant caregivers). Moreover, see Table
10-2 for other considerations that should be followed when implementing restrictive procedures.
Positions on Restraint and Seclusion

It is important to note that several behavior analytic organizations (e.g., Association for Behavior
Analysis International, APBA) have released position papers in which they strongly oppose the inap-
propriate use of seclusion, restraint, or other intrusive interventions (e.g., time-out; Vollmer et al.,
2011). This is not to say that they argue for never using these procedures; however, they reviewed the
conditions under which these types of procedures may be warranted. The positions asserted were
based on guiding principles including the welfare of the individual as the highest priority, individu-
als and guardians having the right to choose, and following the path of least restrictiveness (APBA,
2010; Van Houten et al., 1988; Vollmer et al., 2011, Wolf et al., 2006). In some cases, severe challenging
behavior may be resistant to treatment, with less restrictive procedures ineffective, unsafe, or inef-
ficient (APBA, 2010).
The utility of punishment procedures that are intrusive and restrictive should be defined clearly,
concisely, and operationally, so that procedures such as restraint, seclusion, and time-out have mea-
surable parameters (e.g., amount of time a student is placed in seclusion) to minimize the risk of
abuse, neglect, and harm. In this regard, the parameters of utilizing such procedures are extended to
ensure that they serve a protective, as well as a therapeutic, outcome. The aforementioned position
papers all very strongly assert that the misuse and abuse of the restraint and seclusion procedures in
the name of behavior management and discipline is indefensible.
Table 10-3 provides some possible problems related to the use of restraint and seclusion, as well
as potential solutions to mitigate these challenges. The necessity of using punishment strategies, es-
pecially seclusion and restraint, as crisis management procedures to manage emergencies should be
carefully considered and based on a set of well-defined predetermined criteria. Included within these
sets of criteria should be an evaluation of risks vs. benefits for the individual and the group. Failure to
appropriately use and/or establish such boundaries increases the probability of harm to the student,
as well as any other students and staff present in the immediate environment. Thus, these procedures
must be used with complete oversight and monitored by well-trained professionals to ensure the
effectiveness of said procedures is upheld to the highest standards. Additionally, such oversight is
required to ensure that the student’s rights to effective and humane treatment are upheld and that the
students are treated with respect and dignity (Van Houten et al., 1988).
Table 10-2. Considerations When Implementing

Restrictive Procedures Task Analysis
Step Task Date Completed Teacher Initials
1 Identify behavior concern.
2 Operationally define target behavior.
3 Conduct cost-benefit ratio on effect
of procedure.
4 Record a baseline of target behavior
(at least three observations).
5 Try less restrictive procedures first
and document results.
6 Increase current levels of
reinforcement (if needed and
feasible).
7 Determine the type of procedure to
be used.
8 Decide on time-out/seclusion area
and duration of time-out/seclusion
period.
9 Determine the contingencies that
will lead to restrictive procedure
(e.g., restraint, seclusion).
10 Determine the specific instructions
to be used to alert child that the
procedure will be implemented.
11 Create clear parameters that
will signal discontinuance of the
procedure or restarting the time-out
time (if applicable).
12 Write up procedures or behavior
support plans.
13 Request peer or supervisor review
of the document for feedback (this
may include a panel of experts to
evaluate the ethics or institutional
review in some cases).
14 Once approved and feedback is
addressed, review the procedure/
plan with relevant guardian(s) and
gain guardian approval.
15 If appropriate, review procedure
with student.
(continued)
192 Chapter 10
Table 10-2 (continued). Considerations When Implementing

Restrictive Procedures Task Analysis
Step Task Date Completed Teacher Initials
16 Train relevant staff to implement the
procedure and collect data daily to
monitor progress.
17 Complete incident reports or
other paperwork, contact relevant
caregivers if needed for injury or
harm.
18 Modify the procedure when
changes are warranted (based on
data).
19 Each time the procedure is used,
set a meeting so that staff can
review the incident and discuss
strengths and problems with the
implementation.
20 Supervisors should plan for frequent
monitoring of treatment integrity of
procedures by implementers.
Moreover, the use of punishment procedures must be consistent with scientific literature and
best practices (APBA, 2010). To the best extent possible, they must be used as part of a behavioral
intervention plan with due consideration given to incorporating reinforcement-based procedures
within the program. A behavior analyst should not use punishment without attempting multiple
other (less restrictive) procedures first and maintaining a reinforcement program at the same time
as any punishment procedures (BACB, n.d.). This consideration allows us to teach students socially
appropriate skills and is guided by information based on evidence-based practice including func-
tional behavior assessments (FBAs) and continuous data collection, which allows for evaluation and
data-based decision making. Doing so enables us to maintain the efficacy of the programs in reduc-
ing harmful behaviors and mitigating the risks associated with the amount of time seclusion and
restraint are used to achieve calm.
In sum, before implementing restraint or seclusion, school personnel MUST:
• Consult an expert (e.g., Board Certified Behavior Analyst, psychologist)
• Complete a cost-benefit ratio (described later)
• Gain consent and approval from relevant parties (e.g., parents, legal and school authorities)
• Create an FBA and function-based intervention plan
• Receive the appropriate training necessary to carry out such intrusive procedures
• Collect continuous data
• Document the progress to determine the effects of restraint and seclusion on a child’s behavior
• Monitor for treatment integrity errors
• Request ongoing training and supervision as needed
• Make data-based decisions as necessary
Table 10-3. Problems and Solutions Related

to Restraint and Seclusion
Problems Related to Possible Solutions
Restraint and Seclusion
Individual engages in severe Function-based Behavior Intervention Plan with less
aggression or self-injury resulting restrictive procedures incorporated first (e.g., reinforcement,
in risk of harm to others or self antecedent strategies)
Conduct cost-benefit ratio of the specific situation
Continuous data collection of challenging behavior to
assess the efficacy of procedures
Create/define clear fading procedures to minimize
intrusiveness as soon as possible
Obtain social validity of all procedures prior to use
Behavior plan attempted and Reinforcement procedures for adaptive behavior AND
individual continues to exhibit proactive/antecedent strategies to prevent challenging
severe challenging behavior at an behavior are combined with any type of punishment
unacceptable rate procedure
Sufficient training by a highly qualified individual completed
prior to implementation
Consult with crisis management experts on use of safety
management procedures
Assess treatment accuracy through procedural fidelity
measures to ensure failure to produce behavior change is
not related to inaccurate implementation of procedures
Use of restraint or seclusion may be warranted with
proper consents and approvals from guardian and other
stakeholders
Inappropriate use of seclusion or Proper training is mandatory with clear behavioral
restraint by educators or staff definitions and procedures prior to procedures
implemented
Frequent feedback and practice of procedures to maintain
treatment adherence by all staff
Oversight of procedures by a highly trained and qualified
individual with experience in severe behavior treatment
Treatment integrity assessed for all individuals
implementing the plan to ensure accuracy or retraining as
needed
Multiple staff available when procedures are used to
decrease burnout and increase accountability of procedures
Document all instances of restraint and seclusion, including
times and duration of procedures, and conduct follow up
debriefings following each incident
194 Chapter 10
So, When Do We Use Punishment?

Outside of the more extreme cases of restraint and seclusion, less-restrictive punishment pro-
cedures do exist and are often found in schools. Opponents of punishment may argue against its
use based on the potential side effects that may accompany it. Some of the most common concerns
related to applying punishment include (a) the negative emotional side effects, (b) short-lived behav-
ior change effects, (c) the potential for abuse when implementing punishment procedures, and (d)
punishment procedures do not require teaching alternative replacement repertoires (Vollmer, 2002).
Punishment procedures may teach an individual what not to do but fail to teach them what to do
instead (Kazdin, 2012).
Punishment procedures may be needed to decrease challenging behavior when the relevant
variables maintaining the behavior cannot be identified or when challenging behavior must be sup-
pressed quickly due to imminent risk of harm or danger (Lerman & Vorndran, 2002). Attempts at
incorporating reinforcement-based procedures and antecedent manipulations should always be
tried first or simultaneously with punishment-based procedures. It is only if these procedures fail to
change challenging behavior, or if there is an immediate risk of harm or injury, that punishment pro-
cedures may be warranted. Moreover, punishment procedures should be combined with (as opposed
to replacing) less intrusive procedures to increase the intervention’s overall efficacy. Punishment pro-
cedures should be faded out or removed from the treatment plan as soon as it is safe to do so when
data suggest it is not effective or when alternative treatments are effective in changing behavior on
their own.
Cost-Benefit Ratio
As with most things in life, there is a time and a place for punishment. It is important to consider
the cost-benefit ratio of using punishment based on the severity of the behavior being treated. For
example, imagine our friend, Manish, from the earlier scenario who now has a history of exhibiting
severe head banging at school (to the point of causing a concussion and other major head injuries),
and he has been resistant to less restrictive interventions, such as reinforcement procedures or an-
tecedent strategies. His doctor reports that continued head injuries may result in permanent brain
damage or stroke. As such, immediate intervention is necessary. In such a case, due to the severe
ramifications of the head banging, punishment procedures, such as physical or mechanical restraint,
are likely warranted. Despite some possible emotional side effects from the use of restraint, the alter-
native of Manish banging his head to the point of brain injury could be irreversible.
Alternatively, now consider Manish’s original behavior (out-of-seat behavior and disruptive
sounds) during class work time. Manish’s behavior is highly disruptive to his peers and annoying
to his teacher, but it does not result in harm. Requesting the use of punishment procedures (at least
initially) in this case is unlikely to be viewed as necessary given how mild Manish’s behaviors are.
Thus, the emotional side effects that are produced from some type of punishment procedure may be
worse than the original behavior. In these examples, the benefit of using punishment must outweigh
the potential effects that occur in response to the punishment procedure. In other words, the side
effects of the type of punishment procedure recommended should be less than that of the behaviors
being targeted. Figure 10-3 illustrates a visual depiction of a cost-benefit ratio when considering an
exclusionary time-out procedure for aggression.
Minimizing Risk
If it is determined that some type of punishment procedure is necessary, it is important to ensure
the risk of harm associated with these procedures is minimized to the best extent possible. Similar
to the use of restraint or seclusion, the specific domains that need to be addressed to minimize the
risk of harm include but are not limited to (a) the experience of the teachers utilizing punishment
Figure 10-3. Hypothetical cost-benefit ratio for using exclusionary time-out for a
child who engages in aggression toward others. In this case, the cost of using exclu-
sionary time-out seems to be more costly than any benefits gained.
strategies, (b) the intensity of the behaviors the students engage in, (c) the suitability of the physical
environment in which the behaviors occur, (d) the environment to which the students are trans-
ported to, and (e) the number of staff and personnel available to safely implement the punishment
strategies (Wiskirchen et al., 2017). Before implementing punishment procedures, following these
guidelines adapted from Wiskirchen et al. (2017) may help mitigate the risks associated with utilizing
punishment procedures (Box 10-2).
Current Use of Punishment in Schools

Teachers report a desire to learn more about behavior management in classrooms (Maag, 2001).
Despite the initial avoidance of “punishment,” it is important to delineate that punishment proce-
dures are still rampantly used within the school systems. However, current punishment procedures
may differ from what may be commonly expected. Again, what constitutes “punishment” relies on
the effect that an event has on future behavior. Some may assume that certain procedures serve as
punishment, when in fact, the future effect is not yet known. In what follows, we describe common
categories of punishment procedures that have shown efficacy in decreasing various behaviors.
Two procedural variations of punishment include the delivery of stimuli following a response
that decreases the future frequency of behavior (i.e., positive punishment) and the removal of stim-
uli following a response that decreases the future frequency of behavior (i.e., negative punishment;
Cooper et al., 2020). Importantly, the “positive” and “negative” do not refer to the valence of a pro-
cedure, but simply the presentation of or removal of an event, respectively. We will briefly describe
some common procedures and examples from each punishment procedure category.
196 Chapter 10
Box 10-2. Safety Guidelines for Risk Management

1. First, the teachers must ensure that any medical and/or biological causes for the occurrence
of unsafe problematic behaviors are ruled out, and where necessary, request a medical ex-
amination (BACB, n.d.; Iwata et al., 1994). For example, if an individual starts hitting their ear
very forcefully “all of a sudden,” we highly recommend a medical evaluation to rule out ear
infections or other head-related pain.
2. A systematic approach must be undertaken and should include the utility of a punishment
procedure within a behavior support plan, where the specific criteria for measuring the use
and efficacy are clearly defined. Teachers must explicitly state the termination criteria based
on behavioral and medical needs, with these decisions based on data that are continuously
measured to determine the efficacy of the procedures utilized (Kahng et al., 2015; Weeden
et al., 2010). Caregiver input should also be solicited and included when determining the
criteria.
3. Teachers must ensure that before using punishment procedures, the environment is ar-
ranged such that anything that functions as a hazard is removed (Matson, 2012).
4. Where necessary, staff should begin first with the least intrusive punishment procedures,
and if the need arises to utilize slightly more extreme measures (it should be clearly speci-
fied when this occurs). Teachers and other personnel may be provided with protective gear
(Marcus et al., 2001).
5. If there is a need to utilize safety equipment when managing challenging behavior, proce-
dures should be individualized and customized for the safety and benefit of the students
engaging in challenging behavior, as well as for the staff and other personnel present in the
environment (Wallace et al., 1990). Teachers must identify any precursor behaviors that occur
prior to the target behaviors so they have an opportunity to use antecedent interventions
and intervene before the terminal behavior becomes dangerous (Lalli et al., 1995).
6. Staff should be well trained in crisis management strategies and in managing emergencies
(Poling et al., 2012) with adequate supervision and ongoing oversight throughout the en-
tirety of the event. Additionally, prior to implementing a punishment procedure, the teachers
must ensure there is adequate support and oversight from trained individuals available if
needed. Ongoing training needs to be provided to staff so that attrition of skills is mitigated.
7. After each episode of utilizing punishment strategies, teachers should thoroughly debrief
to identify how the occurrence of such events can be prevented. Whenever possible and to
the best of everyone’s abilities, intervention should always occur proactively as opposed to
reactively.
8. Teachers must identify alternate socially appropriate and acceptable skills that serve the
same functions as the challenging behavior (i.e., FBA).
9. Teachers must ensure that consent from all authorities involved in the decision-making
process is sought, including but not limited to, school personnel, parents and guardians,
legal authorities, and others, so that the transparency of utilizing punishment procedures is
maintained.
10. There must be an evaluation of moral and ethical digressions to ensure that the students
right to an effective, evidence-based intervention is upheld. In doing so, one must not be
complacent and prioritize upholding the dignity of the student. In this regard, the punish-
ment should not be greater than the offense committed. Further, employing any strategies
that may result in the student intentionally being embarrassed and ridiculed must be avoid-
ed at all costs.
Adapted from Wiskirchen, R. R., Deochand, N., & Peterson, S. M. (2017). Functional analysis: A need for clinical decision
support tools to weigh risks and benefits. Behavior Analysis Research and Practice, 17(4), 325-333.
Positive Punishment Procedures

Reprimand
A common example, likely based on the availability and ease with which it can be implemented,
is a verbal reprimand following an undesirable behavior. Providing a statement of disapproval is a
very common practice among caregivers and teachers. For example, Hall et al. (1971) implemented
an intervention where they sternly and loudly said, “No!” while pointing to a 7-year-old girl with
hearing impairments following pinching and biting herself or others. Following this reprimand,
pinching and biting decreased. However, when the intervention was removed, they observed that
the rates of pinching and biting increased. This reversal shows that the intervention of delivering a
reprimand effectively decreased the target behaviors but that a functional replacement behavior was
probably not taught in its place.
Overall, the effects of behavior change because of verbal reprimands are inconsistent with per-
manent behavior change (Kazdin, 2012; Thomas et al., 1968). Some hypothesize their inefficacy could
be due to the prevalence (i.e., they are used very frequently and for many different behaviors) with
which they are administered in school settings (Thomas et al., 1968) or based on how the reprimand
is delivered (Van Houten et al., 1982). Interestingly, we continue to see a large reliance on reprimands,
despite their poor influence on behavior over time. It may be that reprimands immediately sup-
press the undesirable behavior; therefore, negatively reinforcing the teacher or caregiver’s behavior
(see “punishment trap” described previously). Thus, providing reprimands less frequently, as well as
increasing the rate of positive reinforcement for desirable behaviors, may increase the potency of
reprimands when they are used.
It should be noted that for students who have challenging behavior maintained by attention,
providing reprimands following target behavior may be contraindicated as it results in reinforcement
for those behaviors. That is, attempting to “correct” the child’s behavior in this manner may result
in the behavior occurring more in the future (due to attention to the target behavior). Therefore, a
functional assessment should always be completed before implementing any punishment procedures
to avoid countertherapeutic effects.
Overcorrection
Overcorrection requires that an individual perform or engage in an alternative response follow-
ing an undesirable behavior. Two types of overcorrection can be introduced. Restitutional overcor-
rection includes correcting and then improving the environment based on inappropriate behavior
(Cooper et al., 2020). For example, a student who rips up their worksheet during independent work
time because the assignment is too difficult would be asked to pick up the pieces of their worksheet,
throw them in the trash, and then pick up all the trash in the classroom. In this case, the student is
making the environment better than it was before the behavior they displayed. Positive practice con-
sists of prompting the individual to practice the desired behavior repeatedly (Cooper et al., 2020).
From the previous example, the student would be prompted to request “help” repeatedly (i.e., prac-
tice) since this is an appropriate response when an assignment is too difficult. Another example is a
child who slams their books on the table may be asked to pick them up and place them quietly on the
desk 10 times before sitting and starting their work. Trott and Maechtlen (1986) applied restitutional
overcorrection and positive practice procedures to an 11-year-old girl in a classroom who excessively
drooled. During treatment, the participant was directed to clean up saliva on her clothing, furniture,
or area (overcorrection) with a brief reprimand following an episode of drooling. During positive
practice, she was directed to press a tissue under her lip for 30 seconds after drooling. Overall, both
overcorrection procedures resulted in a decrease in drooling as compared to baseline, and it was
maintained for up to 10 weeks.
198 Chapter 10
Negative Punishment Procedures

Response Cost
Response cost consists of the loss of some type of positive reinforcer contingent upon unde-
sirable behavior (Cooper et al., 2020), which decreases the frequency of that behavior in the future.
In everyday life, response cost procedures include fines for breaking laws, fees for late returns
on important items, and loss of privileges often associated with children who break the rules. In
schools, response cost procedures are often used in combination with token reinforcement systems
(Alberto & Troutman, 1999). Students receive tokens for appropriate behavior but lose tokens
for inappropriate behavior. Similarly, students may lose privileges (e.g., front of the line, extra
recess time) following less preferred behavior. Conyers et al. (2004) implemented response cost
and differential reinforcement of other behavior to decrease disruptive behavior in a preschool
classroom. During response cost, children had 15 tokens and could receive preferred edibles at the
end of the day if they had 12 or more tokens left. Students would lose tokens following disruptive
behavior. During the differential reinforcement procedure, children would earn tokens at the end
of an interval if they stayed on task and no disruptive behavior had occurred. Overall, response
cost led to a greater reduction in disruptive behavior as compared to both the differential rein-
forcement procedure and baseline.
An important consideration for using response cost is that for it to be effective, the student must
already have access to the reinforcer. One cannot lose more tokens if all the tokens have already been
removed. As such, response cost is best implemented in conjunction with reinforcement-based pro-
cedures so that positive behaviors may be reinforced as well. Otherwise, once all the tokens are “lost,”
the motivation to behave appropriately is likely reduced or eliminated. Can you imagine being in the
hole 10 tokens and you need 5 to earn watching washing machines online for 3 minutes? That means
the student must actually earn 15 tokens without losing any in the interim. For many students, de-
pending on the criteria for earning a single token, this point would likely seem too effortful to work
for those 5 original tokens.
Time-Out
Time-out includes the removal from or loss of positive reinforcers following an undesirable be-
havior for a brief period (Kazdin, 2013). Donaldson and Vollmer (2011) found time-out decreased
disruptive behaviors for four preschool-aged children with high rates of challenging behavior as
compared to no intervention during baseline. Time-out may consist of nonexclusionary time-out
(e.g., contingent observation where a child is still present at recess but not allowed to engage with
others for a period) and exclusionary time-out (e.g., the child is completely removed from recess
and told to wait at their desk with their head down). For example, the vignette of Manish at the start
of the chapter exemplifies nonexclusionary time-out during recess. For another example, basketball
athletes who are benched for not blocking out, running fast, or following a play designed by the
coach are subjected to nonexclusionary time-out often. In its most extreme case, time-out could
include seclusionary time-out, as previously described.
One consideration for teachers and caregivers using time-out is that adults will have to direct
the individual to time-out. Most likely, once the child becomes agitated, they will not cooperate
with prompts to go to the designated time-out space, posing more challenges for the adult (Kazdin,
2013). Moreover, if the student is trying to escape or avoid a certain nonpreferred situation, putting
them in time-out following challenging behavior may be counter-therapeutic. In other words, to
use time-out effectively, the time-in environment must be desired, and the time-out environment
must be undesired. Otherwise, using time-out could reinforce the challenging behavior and make
it more likely the behavior will occur in the future in a similar context. For example, pretend you
have a student who dislikes math races on the whiteboard. Just before their turn, they call you a
hippopotamus butt. You send them to their desk, and they do not get to participate in the “fun
game” of whiteboard races, right? Wrong. The student may start calling you the backside of all sorts
of animals now that they know they can avoid losing and being embarrassed in front of their peers
because their math skills are lacking. (Remember, it is the effect on behavior that dictates the type of
procedure, not the form or procedure itself.)
Additionally, a vast difference exists between the various punishment procedures. For instance,
removing a token after a student hits a peer compared to placing a child in seclusionary time-out
for hitting are not comparable. Thus, despite both procedures potentially having the same effect on
behavior, the restrictiveness and intrusiveness of exclusionary time-out are much more significant
than removing a token from a board. This point emphasizes the importance of the cost-benefit ratio
and other relevant variables (e.g., ethical) that may impact which punishment procedure to use.
Ethical Considerations
As educators, we have a professional responsibility toward ensuring our students receive the
most effective education and that we teach them socially significant behaviors (Van Houten et al.,
1988). In this regard, it is our responsibility to ensure that before we attempt to use punishment
strategies, we have exhausted all other positive strategies via evidence-based practices, demonstrat-
ing their ineffectiveness through data, not anecdote. We are morally and ethically accountable for
ensuring that (a) punishment is used as a last resort, and (b) that we teach socially significant behav-
iors before or concurrently with attempting to decrease challenging behaviors. Baer (1999) states, “A
good rule is to not make any deliberate behavior changes that will not meet natural communities of
reinforcement” (p. 16). This is because the isolated use of punishment does not produce functional
reinforcers nor does it teach functionally appropriate skills to the student/child.
With the advent of the FBA process, a shift toward employing function-based reinforcement
procedures to change behavior has been widely adopted (Kahng et al., 2002). In other words, practi-
tioners have focused on reinforcing behaviors that produce the same outcome as engaging in chal-
lenging behavior. For example, if it is determined that a child engages in aggression to access at-
tention from the teacher, a functionally equivalent replacement behavior (some call this a “FERB”)
would teach the child how to gain attention appropriately (e.g., raise a hand, say “excuse me”), poten-
tially obviating the need to continue to engage in aggressive behavior. This process can then decrease
the likelihood that punishment procedures may be needed. Think of it as a Jenga game (Oxford
Games Ltd). If you remove a wood block (target inappropriate behavior), you must replace it with a
new wood block (FERB or appropriate behavior), or else the whole thing will eventually fall over. If
a behavior analyst comes into your classroom, they will implement punishment under the consid-
erations as defined in Section 2–Responsibility in Practice in the Ethics Code for Behavior Analysts
(BACB, 2022).
Other Considerations
Treatment Integrity
Treatment integrity measures are essential in ensuring that procedures are implemented as pre-
viously defined. Including treatment integrity measures are important when attempting to demon-
strate robust treatment effects, especially when using punishment. In other words, by measuring the
accuracy with which these procedures are implemented, we can determine whether behavior change
(or lack thereof) may be due to the procedures themselves or from implementing the procedures in-
correctly. When considering punishment procedures, due to the inherent risk that these procedures
can sometimes bring, steps must be taken to minimize inaccurate implementation. For example,
Donaldson et al. (2013) asserted that treatment integrity errors may be prevalent when parents and
teachers are implementing a procedure such as a time-out, as they are frequently required to engage
in multiple tasks at the same time (e.g., attend to others in the classroom). Consequently, they are less
likely to implement time-out correctly and consistently.
200 Chapter 10
Social Validity
Given the controversy surrounding the use of punishment, it is always recommended to evaluate
the social acceptability of behavior reduction procedures from relevant stakeholders (Wolf, 1978).
The stakeholders should include teachers, teachers’ assistants/aides, parents/guardians, the student,
administration, and others who would be needed to implement the student’s program. Teachers may
often be advised or instructed to conduct certain procedures in their classroom, so increasing the
likelihood of buy-in and acceptance is essential. Social validity measures can take many forms but
are often presented as a brief survey assessing several areas, such as acceptability, feasibility, prefer-
ence of procedures, and willingness to implement procedures in the future (Table 10-4). The results
of these measures should be incorporated into future treatment recommendations.
Alternatives to Punishment
Punishment can decrease behavior; however, it does not teach alternative responses on its own
(Sidman, 1999). It has also been shown to have temporary effects. As such, it is no surprise that
a decrease in behavior following punishment is less likely to happen without intentionality in the
creation of a treatment plan. Many of the chapters in this book highlight relevant strategies that can
supplant or be used in conjunction with punishment procedures (e.g., reinforcement-based proce-
dures [Box 10-3], extinction, antecedent strategies). It seems best to close with an assertion from
Maag (2001) in which he posited that the most effective teachers “Acknowledge that reinforcement
and punishment occur naturally, and consequently, analyze and modify environmental, curricular,
and instructional variables to promote appropriate behavior” (p. 184).
Summary
This chapter provides an overview of the term punishment as well as some everyday common
examples. Colloquially, punishment may be viewed from a negative perspective based on its his-
torical use, its wide prevalence in society, and some of the possible side effects. However, the word
punishment should not be defined based on the type of procedure that is used, but rather, the effect
it has on behavior. When an event follows a behavior (is presented or is removed) and the future
frequency of that response decreases, punishment has occurred. Punishment procedures in schools
have evolved over time but continue to be implemented today. It is important to acknowledge that
punishment procedures can range in intensity from mild (e.g., delivering a reprimand) to more se-
vere in nature (e.g., restraint or seclusion). However, this is not to say that punishment procedures
should never be used. Prior to using or determining the intensity of punishment, much deliberation
should be taken including (a) assessing its risk through a cost-benefit ratio, (b) ensuring supplemen-
tal less restrictive alternative strategies are available, and (c) adhering to ethical guidelines. Moreover,
given the range of procedures available, there has been a rise in organizational oversight when using
punishment procedures to serve as a safeguard for vulnerable individuals. Final considerations such
as the use of treatment integrity and social validity measures should also be included to ensure the
safety and acceptance of all individuals involved.
Table 10-4. Social Validity Example

For each of the statements below, based on your experience with the intervention(s) for the
target student, indicate a response from 1 – strongly disagree, 3 – neutral, to 5 – strongly agree.
1. This intervention was acceptable for the target behavior of concern.
1 2 3 4 5
2. Other teachers would find this intervention to be acceptable.
1 2 3 4 5
3. I liked the procedures used in this intervention.
1 2 3 4 5
4. As a result of this intervention, there were negative side effects observed.
1 2 3 4 5
5. This intervention produced appropriate, alternate behaviors.
1 2 3 4 5
6. This intervention resulted in negative effects for the child.
1 2 3 4 5
7. The child’s target behavior matched the intensity of this intervention.
1 2 3 4 5
8. I am willing to use this intervention in the classroom.
1 2 3 4 5
9. This intervention would be acceptable to other teachers with children with similar target
behaviors.
1 2 3 4 5
10. This intervention caused minimal stress for the child.
1 2 3 4 5
Hypothetical survey to assess teacher’s perspectives and views on an intervention used for a student in their classroom.
Box 10-3. Positive Behavioral Interventions and Support

A more modern development has included a shift toward positive interventions to decrease
challenging behavior in schools called PBIS or school-wide PBIS. School-wide PBIS is based on
operant learning, focused on consistent positive reinforcement for appropriate behavior and
minimizing reinforcement for challenging behavior, based on consumer preferences for all
students (Dunlap et al., 2008; Horner & Sugai, 2015; Horner et al., 2010). PBIS and ABA share many
commonalities; however, they also include some noteworthy distinctions (Dunlap et al., 2008).
Dunlap et al. (2008) described the defining features of PBIS (see previous chapters) to clarify its
unique contributions to the treatment of challenging behavior. PBIS emphasizes the redirection
of problematic behavior and reinforcement of appropriate behavior producing long-lasting
and impactful change so that punishment procedures can be avoided altogether (Carr et al.,
1999). More eloquently said, Carr et al. (1999) posited that by teaching appropriate behaviors to
replace undesirable behaviors, we are aiming to make the challenging behavior ineffective and
inefficient. While punishment procedures will always be a reactive strategy once challenging
behavior occurs, PBIS is a proactive method to prevent the occurrence of challenging behavior.
202 Chapter 10
Chapter Review
1. You have a difficult student in your class and you think a response cost would work well add-
ing to the current token economy. The general education teacher tells you that it should be no
big deal adding this extra intervention since it is so common. How would you respond to the
teacher to ensure you are being ethical and ensuring a least restrictive environment?
2. There are many forms of punishment—both positive and negative. Write out five or more forms
that you have learned about here that fall under a mix of positive and negative punishment.
How would you rank them in regard to social validity from most accepted to least accepted?
How did you come to those conclusions?
3. Explain the role of data collection and punishment. Remember to consider how it plays a role
in keeping us ethical within the use of punishment.
4. Consider a student you have worked with in the past who had very challenging behaviors.
Consider both a reinforcement and punishment method that might have been effective if they
had been used. Complete the cost-benefit ratio for each. What would be your final selection for
this behavior?
5. Why do you think punishment gets such an emotional reaction from people that they just want
to not consider it at all (even if it is currently being used unofficially in the form of reprimands
from teacher, etc.) as part of a program?
References
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www.apbahome.net/resource/collection/1FDDBDD2-5CAF-4B2A-AB3F-DAE5E72111BF/Restraint_Seclusion_.pdf
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11
Academic Skills Are
Behaviors, Too!
Using the Instructional Hierarchy to
Improve Student Performance
Corey Peltier, PhD; Andrew Heuer, MEd;
Fanee Webster, MEd; and Amanda M. VanDerHeyden, PhD
INTRODUCTION
The instructional hierarchy is a powerful framework educators can use to match
instructional tactics to current student proficiency. The alignment between tactic and
student performance accelerates performance, whereas a mismatch reduces growth and
has been termed the skill-by-treatment interaction. The chapter will aim to (a) describe the
levels of the instructional hierarchy (i.e., acquisition, fluency, generalization, adaptation),
(b) demonstrate how to use data to identify where a student falls in the instructional
hierarchy, and (c) provide descriptions and examples of tactics educators can use for each
stage of the instructional hierarchy.
Carr, R. N. (Ed.).
206 Chapter 11
Chapter Objectives
ȘȘ Rationale for using the instructional hierarchy.
ȘȘ Define the role assessment and data play in the implementation of the instructional
hierarchy.
ȘȘ Define the teacher behaviors and tactics used at each level of the instructional
hierarchy.
KEY TERMS
• Acquisition Stage: The initial stage of learning. When attempting the skill independently, the
student is not accurate or fluent in the skill.
• Adaptation Stage: The final stage of learning. The stage in which a student is accurate and fluent
in the skill but lacks the ability to modify or adapt the skill to fit different situations.
• Fluency Stage: The second stage of learning. The student accurately completes target skills but
lacks fluency (speed of response).
• Frustrational Range: Takes place during the acquisition stage. When attempting the skill in-
dependently, the student struggles to perform the target skill and becomes frustrated with the
task at hand.
• Generalization Stage: The third stage of learning. The student has acquired accuracy and flu-
ency in target skills but struggles applying the skill to similar situations.
• Independent Level: Takes place during the generalization stage. The student can independently
complete the given task.
• Instructional Range: Takes place during the fluency stage.
• Instructional Tactics: Teaching methods precisely selected to achieve specific instructional
goals where individual approaches are uniquely suitable for certain levels of the instructional
hierarchy.
• Progress Monitoring: Systematic collection of data on students’ academic performance or
classroom behavior to drive decision making.
• Rate: A ratio of count per unit of time.
• Skill-by-Treatment Interaction: A dynamic relationship between student skill level and in-
structional tactics where appropriate alignment of skill and tactics accelerate learning and mis-
alignment impedes learning. Conceptualized by Haring and Eaton (1978).
• Universal Screening: A diagnostic assessment given to all students for the primary purpose of
identifying individuals that would benefit from (or qualify for) targeted, strategic intervention.
Academic Skills Are Behaviors, Too! 207
Using the Instructional Hierarchy

to Improve Student Performance
There is a famous clip of Stephen Curry hitting 105, consecutive 3-point basketball shots in prac-
tice (see https://bit.ly/Curry105). Another clip shows Paul Simon describing his process for writing
Bridge Over Troubled Water (see https://bit.ly/SimonTroubled). These video clips provide an account
of how two individuals developed expertise in their respective skills. I (CP) have never seen Stephen
Curry play guitar or Paul Simon shoot a basketball, but my hypothesis is if we flipped the roles, we
would see novice level performance. How does one build expertise? Is there a robust theory and
framework to explain this process? From the field of applied behavior analysis (ABA), the answer is
a resounding, “Yes!”—it is coined the instructional hierarchy (Haring & Eaton, 1978).
Over the past 2 decades, science has emerged as the arbiter of educational investments and
policies with the idea being that children should not be exposed to unconsented experimentation
in schools and systems cannot afford to spend resources on tactics that do not work. The emphasis
on science-based instruction is evident in policy (e.g., Sugai et al., 2016), legislation (e.g., Every
Student Succeeds Act, 2015; Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 2004), and in recent ad-
vocacy-driven efforts to promote choosing instruction based on evidence that it is effective (e.g.,
the Science of Reading; Solari et al., 2020). Concurrently, the notion that not all learners will thrive
given core instruction and that many of those students could benefit from instructional intensifica-
tion in general education has become a cornerstone of the PreK–12 effort to support all learners and
improve achievement systemwide. This movement, called Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS),
emphasizes data-driven determination of academic risk and data-driven intensification of instruc-
tion with progress monitoring. Because these initiatives emerged concurrently, MTSS and evidence-
based instruction legislation include mutually referential language that prioritizes evidence as the
basis for decisions in schools. Yet, there is no such thing as a universal evidence-based practice for all
learners at every point in time. Rather, there are practices that have been shown to work for specific
students with specific knowledge of the skill in specific contexts. What has occasionally been lacking
in the vernacular of MTSS, particularly regarding core instruction and intensification of instruction,
is the how to connect student data to instructional tactic selection. A useful way to match the most
appropriate instructional tactic(s) to students is via direct assessment of student performance. As
Bushell and Baer (1994) highlight “close, continual contact with relevant outcome data” is what sets
apart the experimental analysis of behavior, which includes academic skills, from other behavioral
sciences and is a useful methodological characteristic to inform instruction (p. 7). The instructional
hierarchy is the mechanism that enables data-driven instruction and especially data-driven instruc-
tional intensification (Haring & Eaton, 1978).
Case Study
Cameron walks slowly into Ms. Nguyen’s third-grade class after recess. He sits down and retrieves
his math worksheet from his desk. All of the excitement from the break has left, and he now sits with
multiplication facts staring back at him from the paper. He does not even know where to begin. He
remembers that Ms. Nguyen talked about them yesterday and before lunch today, but he is still so con-
fused. Ms. Nguyen tells the class all problems on the sheet are multiplication facts. She tells the students
they have 2 minutes to answer as many as they can when she says begin. Cameron hears Ms. Nguyen
say, “Begin!” and he slowly starts working through the problems. He is able to complete the multiplica-
tion facts with factors of 0, 1, and 2 but is stuck and frustrated with other factors. He tries to complete
the other facts by counting on his fingers, but after trying a few problems, he gives up. He hears Ms.
Nguyen say “Stop,” and he passes his paper in.
208 Chapter 11
The instructional hierarchy emerged from early work in precision teaching and ABA. Early work
focused on operant learning discovered a standard unit by which behavioral principles could be dis-
covered, defined, and replicated. The standard unit was rate of responding. Early behavioral research-
ers used rate of academic responding to attempt to understand and quantify learning. For example,
in early studies, researchers examined the rate of responding on academic tasks for adults without
disabilities, adults with disabilities, and children with disabilities, finding that rate of response dif-
fered, as expected. This work led to researchers characterizing rate of academic responding as being
at mastery or not and developing models of screening and progress monitoring that were attached to
benchmark criteria in what were precursor MTSS models in schools. The Great Falls Project (Beck &
Clement, 1991) is one of the widely referenced demonstrations of the effectiveness of the use of pre-
cision teaching. The core mechanisms involve (a) practice core skills, (b) continual, close observation
of daily growth, (c) matching current target skill to student current performance, and (d) teacher use
of data to guide these decisions. Subsequently, Deno and Mirkin (1977) relied heavily on this early
work to build what is now called curriculum-based measurement (CBM), which involved important
refinements to the measurement stimuli and conditions around the original rate of response. The
instructional hierarchy was developed in the 1970s as a prescient way to connect the measured rate
of response to specific instructional tactics that would be of greatest benefit to students.
Originally, the instructional hierarchy specified four stages of learning through which all
learners progress on their way to mastery: (1) Acquisition, (2) Fluency, (3) Generalization, and (4)
Adaptation. Later researchers connected the instructional hierarchy to experimental analyses of aca-
demic responding (Daly et al., 2005, 2006; Duhon et al., 2004; Noell et al., 2001; VanDerHeyden
et al., 2009), demonstrating that functional relations between environmental contingencies and
stimulus arrangements and student responding could be empirically derived to both identify and
“road-test” academic interventions prior to their use. For example, words read correctly per minute
could be evaluated given on-grade-level and below-grade-level passages with and without passage
previewing and/or overcorrection. Thus, teachers could begin with a set of evidence-based tactics
(e.g., repeated reading, guided practice with error-correction, easier passages, contingent reward),
and the teacher could select “the right” intervention for the student based on the student’s own data
and response to the intervention. For example, children who could read in the instructional range
on a grade-level passage would be ideal candidates for a repeated reading intervention, which is a
fluency-building intervention.
In our discussion of the instructional hierarchy, we will describe student performance in a tar-
get skill as frustrational, instructional, or mastery (Figure 11-1) and teacher instructional tactics
as acquisition, fluency, or generalization (Figure 11-2). Thus, if a student is performing in the frus-
trational range, then an educator would aim to teach student to discriminate between correct and
incorrect responding of the target skill and select instructional tactics suited for acquisition. If a
student is in the instructional performance range, an educator would aim to increase the rate of cor-
rect responding and select tactics suited to build fluency. Last, when the student is performing in the
mastery range, then an educator would push for the student to discriminate between related skills
or apply the skill to novel tasks or situations and select tactics suited for generalization. The correct
match of student performance level and instructional tactic is critical to accelerate growth; a mis-
match will decelerate growth (Figure 11-3). A teacher who delivers acquisition tactics to a student in
the instructional range will decelerate growth, similarly, using fluency-building tactics for a student
in the frustrational range will also result in decelerated growth. This has been known as the skill-by-
treatment interaction effect and has been demonstrated across numerous academic skills (Burns et
al., 2010; Figure 11-4).
Figure 11-1. Categorizing student level

of performance.
Figure 11-2. Categorizing teacher in-

structional tactics.
210 Chapter 11
Figure 11-3. Matching instructional tac-

tics to student performance.
Frustrational Range, Acquisition Tactics

How can teachers use data to determine if a student is in the frustrational range of learning a new
skill? The frustrational range in learning a new skill is characterized by a high error rate with slow
performance. An observer would describe the performance as slow, halting, and unsure. Empirically,
we can define the frustrational range based on a very low rate of correct responding (i.e., this deter-
mination is made by comparing rate to norm data or a prespecified criterion). Although some still
use an accuracy criterion to determine instructional tactics, we will recommend rate throughout this
chapter. An issue with strictly relying on an accuracy criterion is the data can lie. For example, one
student may provide two correct responses out of two total responses yielding an accuracy score of
100%, whereas another student may provide 17 correct responses out of 20 total responses yielding
an accuracy score of 85%. Ignoring rate of performance will lead a teacher to conclude Student 1 has
demonstrated greater performance in the skill (i.e., 100%) than Student 2 (i.e., 85%) and, further-
more, would identify fluency-building tactics as appropriate for Student 1 and acquisition tactics as
appropriate for Student 2. Student 2 still may benefit from additional acquisition tactics to reduce
errors before fluency-building; however, the more blatant error lies in the decision a teacher would
make for Student 1. The student is accurate, however, given the slow rate of performance, the skill
likely needs more reinforcement with teacher guidance. Therefore, a rate criterion (i.e., correct per
minute) rather than accuracy criterion to make decisions is more appropriate, which is corroborated
by empirical data (Figure 11-5). Several studies in math and reading have shown rate is more reliable
than accuracy in classifying student performance (Burns et al., 2006; VanDerHeyden et al., 2019). In
the context of using math computation CBM for second and third-grade students, the criterion of
shifting to fluency-building would be 14 digits correct per minute (Burns et al., 2006).
Ms. Nguyen gets to Cameron’s CBM and begins to score correct digits. She notices he answered a
couple correctly. He answered 5 x 1 = 5, which is one correct digit, and 2 x 6 = 12 is 2 correct digits.
However, she did identify many errors. For example, for 3 x 8, he wrote 29, which is one correct digit.
Overall, she counted 14 correct digits in 2 minutes, and she converts this to the number of correct digits
Figure 11-4. Skill-by-treatment interaction effect.
per 1 minute by doing 14 digits/2 minutes = 7 correct digits per minute. She also converts his accuracy
score by identifying 14 correct digits/35 digits provided = 40% accuracy. She consults the norms for
digits correct per minute for third-grade students: (a) frustration range = less than 14 digits correct per
minute, (b) instructional range = 14 to 31 digits correct per minute, and (c) mastery range = more than
31 digits correct per minute (Burns et al., 2006). Ms. Nguyen identified that Cameron’s performance
placed him in the frustrational range. Seven digits correct per minute is less than 14 digits correct per
minute, and she realized she needed to adjust her instructional tactics to focus on acquisition.
Once a student is correctly identified as performing in the frustrational range for a specific skill,
what type of instructional tactics should a teacher use to produce the greatest rate of growth? First, it
is helpful to consider student performance and the goal behind acquisition instruction. The student
is performing in the frustrational range, meaning without teacher support, the student will have
a high error rate and slow rate of performance. The goal of acquisition instruction is to support a
student in acquiring or learning a new skill by maximizing correct responses and minimizing incor-
rect responses during the instructional cycle (Daly et al., 1996). This is a goal that is referred to as
“discrimination” in behavioral literature.
From an instructional design standpoint, the teacher must make several decisions that will im-
pact the efficacy of acquisition instruction. First, the teacher must verify the necessary prerequisite
skills for the target task. This means that the teacher must situate the skill in a task hierarchy and
sample back through successively easier skills in sequence until the student demonstrates mastery.
Let’s consider a concrete example to unpack the complexities involved in this process. A teacher
administers a CBM consisting of addition of two-digit integers requiring regrouping. A student per-
forms in the frustrational range. However, for this target skill to be appropriate for acquisition in-
struction, the teacher must consider the student’s performance in the immediate prerequisite skills.
This requires sampling backward to pinpoint student performance with prerequisite skills. The im-
mediate prerequisite is addition of two-digit integers without regrouping. If the student performs
in the frustrational range for this prerequisite skill (i.e., addition with two-digit numbers without
212 Chapter 11
Figure 11-5. Using data to identify student level of performance.
regrouping), then this would become a more appropriate skill for acquisition. This backward sam-
pling of prerequisite skills would keep going until the teacher can identify (a) the earliest skill that
is mastered and in need of generalization tactics, (b) the prerequisite skill in the instructional range
and in need of fluency-building tactics, and (c) the earlier skill in the frustrational range and most
appropriate for acquisition tactics (Figure 11-6).
Once the appropriate skill is identified, the teacher can focus on instructional delivery. The most
effective acquisition tactics include modeling correct responding, narrowing and controlling the task
presentation to facilitate the child’s correct responding, and immediate corrective feedback that will
be more elaborate in nature (Engelmann et al., 1991). The teacher must clearly model the target skill
by showing the salient steps or behaviors the student needs to perform and provide an explanation
using clear, concise language. It will be imperative at this step that teachers choose example and
nonexample problems strategically for the modeling portion. One example cannot highlight the sa-
lient features of the concept and demonstrate the boundaries in applying the skill. For example, if a
teacher targets addition of fractions with like denominators, the following problem will fit the target
skill 1/3 + 1/3 = X. However, this would be insufficient to use as the only model for students; inaccu-
rate conclusions may be drawn about the application of the skill such as (a) skill can only be applied
to fractions with a numerator of 1, (b) skill can only be applied to fractions with a denominator of
3, or (c) skill is only applicable to fractions less than 1. Thus, a series of examples will highlight the
salient features that are constant across the set, and strategically chosen nonexamples will highlight
inaccurate application of the target skill.
Another critical tactic teachers should use when providing acquisition instruction is feedback.
Feedback during acquisition instruction must be immediate. Second, feedback should be more
elaborate during acquisition for both affirmative and corrective feedback. Following modeling of
the target skill, teachers will then aim to provide guided practice opportunities for the student to
Figure 11-6. Backward sampling of prerequisite skills.

214 Chapter 11
demonstrate or apply the skill. At this stage of the process, it will be important to break the entire
skill into smaller, manageable parts. For example, the teacher may chunk the task into four steps and
provide clear, salient prompts at each step. As the student performs the step correct, clear affirmative
feedback is provided to reinforce correct responding. This procedure will ensure the entirety of the
steps performed to complete the target skill will become acquired and retained. Across subsequent
guided practice opportunities, the teacher will reduce the level of prompting provided, thus build-
ing independence for the learner to perform the skill without a high level of guidance and hopefully
reducing prompt dependency.
A question that may arise is: how should a teacher respond when a student provides an incor-
rect response? As part of the feedback cycle, having a clear error-correction procedure will reduce
likelihood of additional errors and increase accurate responding. If a student provides an incorrect
response, the teacher should engage in a four-step process that includes (1) clearly identify response
as error, (2) model correct response, (3) present another opportunity to provide correct response,
and (4) provide affirmative feedback for correct responding. This feedback cycle helps students dis-
criminate between correct and incorrect responding.
One beneficial intervention for acquisition is cover-copy-compare. An experiment conducted
by Skinner and colleagues (1991) highlights the nuance in its implementation. In their experiment,
researchers compared two different applications of cover-copy-compare. When using cover-copy-
compare, the students study a worked example (e.g., 8 x 7 = 56), cover the worked example so they
cannot see it, copy the problem via writing (i.e., student writes 8 x 7 = 56), and then compare what
they wrote to the worked example. In their experiment, Skinner and colleagues (1991) compared
written cover-copy-compare with verbal cover-copy-compare; the key difference is whether the stu-
dents wrote or spoke during the copy step. Authors hypothesized written cover-copy-compare would
yield better effects because the behavior of writing matched the mode of assessment. However, au-
thors were surprised to find students made more gains on verbal cover-copy-compare. The authors
concluded the most logical explanation for this finding is during the verbal cover-copy-compare
condition, students received a lot more practice opportunities with feedback because it took less time
to orally say the multiplication fact (e.g., 8 x 7 = 56) than it did for them to write the multiplication
fact. Although responding verbally may not always be possible, for example, when working on fac-
toring quadratic equations, understanding how mode of responding impacts time spent practicing
will maximize time.
Ms. Nguyen realizes Cameron needs an acquisition intervention rather than fluency-building. His
error rate was high, and his rate of performance was low, evidenced by 7 correct digits per minute. She
aimed to first identify if the concept of multiplication was known before pinpointing the best suited in-
tervention for Cameron. In a one-on-one setting, she asked Cameron how he could represent 8 x 7 with
addition. Cameron immediately said, “That is 8 groups of 7 so I could add 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7.”
Ms. Nguyen realizes that the concept of multiplication is known. Cameron needs practice with immedi-
ate feedback along with a systematic sequence of introducing multiplication facts to increase accuracy
before fluency-building can commence. Ms. Nguyen opts to use cover-copy-compare given its extensive
research base; however, she aims to make a slight deviation. Cameron is a slow writer, so when tran-
scribing the problem during the “copy” step, she is worried it will slow down his practice opportunities.
Thus, she switches to verbal cover-copy-compare where Cameron will verbally repeat the multiplication
fact during the copy stage. She believes this will give him additional practice opportunities with feed-
back. Another instructional strategy she employs is to restrict the task by first having Cameron focus on
multiplication facts with factors of 2, 3, 4, and 5. She plans to weave in greater factors once Cameron’s
accurate responding increases for these target multiplication facts.
When a child is provided with fluency-building instruction, but the child’s performance is in
the frustrational range, then, in effect, the teacher is providing the student with an opportunity to
practice incorrect responding because the child has not acquired the skill. Student performance will
worsen. Similarly, if the child is provided with generalization opportunities, but the child reads the
text in the frustrational range, again, performance will worsen. Often challenging behavior in class-
rooms arise because students are being given work that is too difficult or too easy for their current
performance, or stated another way, the instruction is misaligned with their skill proficiency (Brophy
& Good, 1974; Witt et al., 2004).
Instructional Range, Fluency Tactics

How can teachers use data to determine if a student is in the instructional range of learning a
new skill? The instructional range in learning a new skill is characterized by a student discriminat-
ing between correct and incorrect responding, yet the rate of correct performance is insufficient. As
mentioned previously, typically these data will be collected through CBMs (see Figure 11-3), and a
rate criterion is used.
Once a student is identified as performing in the instructional range for a specific skill, what type
of instructional tactics should a teacher use to produce the greatest rate of growth? First, it is helpful
to consider student performance and the goal behind fluency-building instruction. The student is
performing in the instructional range, meaning the student can discriminate between correct and
incorrect responding, yet the rate of performance is slow. The goal of fluency-building instruction is
to build the speed with which a student correctly responds. An observer might describe responding
as easy, facile, smooth, and confident or without hesitation. Behavioral fluency can be measured in
several ways (e.g., latency, responses correct per unit of time), but the most common is responses
correct per unit of time (Ardoin et al., 2005; Binder, 1996).
Fluency is built through productive practice, which prioritizes a high dosage of opportunities to
respond as the most critical active instructional ingredient. To maximize opportunities to respond,
teachers must reduce their use of tactics that decrease them. For example, modeling, prompting, and
immediate corrective feedback, which are critical when learning a new skill, become barriers during
fluency-building. These instructional tactics reduce the dosage of opportunities to respond that can
be delivered during the instructional session (Ardoin & Daly, 2007). If a teacher is providing affir-
mative feedback at each correct step, or even correct problem solved, this wastes instructional time
and will reduce the number of opportunities for the student to perform the skill. Another thought
to consider is the mode of student responding when engaged in practice. Modes that allow students
to provide responses more easily (i.e., require less student effort or time) also maximize opportuni-
ties to respond. For example, the use of choral responding, punch cards, or use of individual student
whiteboards to provide written responses all increase the opportunity to respond rate for all students
via an easy medium. Similarly, requiring all students to respond every time is an important rule of
effective fluency-building. Games where students take turns responding often are not as effective
because students do not get enough practice opportunities when they must wait to respond. Whereas
games that allow all students to respond every occasion (e.g., response card, bingo) are more effective
because of the increased rate of practice. Computer-based practice activities may seem appealing
because they are low effort on the part of the teacher, but such practice may not always be optimal.
Specific context situations to evaluate include (a) student attending to the practice opportunity, (b)
technology glitches, and (c) ease in which to respond using technology (e.g., typing responses may
increase time lessening practice opportunities). Always, production-type responding is superior to
selection-type responding, and progress can be monitored using rate of responding.
Like acquisition instruction, a critical decision teachers must make is correctly identifying a
skill that is appropriate for fluency-building. High-quality fluency-building instructional tactics will
yield ineffective gains for students if the skill is not appropriate for a student. If a target skill requires
acquisition instruction, and the teacher provides fluency-building instruction, we may see some det-
rimental outcomes. First, providing high levels of opportunities to practice a skill without feedback
from a teacher will likely result in a student practicing incorrect procedures and reinforcing this
216 Chapter 11
incorrect responding. Second, if the task is frustrational to the student, providing repeated practice
opportunities without teacher feedback or direct instruction will be a punishing experience to the
student and may result in negative affect toward mathematics. Conversely, continuing to provide
fluency-building to a skill that is mastered will have minimal benefits. There is likely a certain thresh-
old where increasing rate is not going to be beneficial for additional performance. For example, if a
student can solve 80 correct digits per minute, should we spend more time on fluency-building to
achieve 85 correct digits per minute, or are these 5 extra digits per minute providing little additive
benefit to further mathematical achievement? Supporting the student in the application of the skill
to new or novel stimuli, settings, or contexts would be more fruitful; therefore, it would be beneficial
to shift to generalization tactics.
Ms. Nguyen and Cameron have been using verbal cover-copy-compare along with teacher-mediat-
ed practice opportunities with feedback for 8 weeks. On the weekly CBM focused on multiplication facts,
Cameron scored 15 digits correct per minute, which now places this skill in the instructional range. Ms.
Nguyen is thrilled with the progress Cameron has made and now focuses on fluency-building instruc-
tional tactics for this target skill. Cameron made strong progress using verbal cover-copy-compare, so
Ms. Nguyen decided to use a similar intervention for fluency-building—time trial. However, she noted
that Cameron shared with her that he found it a little boring to work by himself, so she decided to train
a peer to implement the intervention. Kylie and Cameron play on a soccer team together and work well
together in the classroom, plus Kylie is performing in the mastery range on multiplication facts. Ms.
Nguyen has one more trick up her sleeve, too; knowing Cameron is a competitive student, she plans to
implement a self-graphing component to the intervention as well. At the end of each intervention ses-
sion, Cameron will complete as many math facts as he can in 2 minutes. Cameron will then graph the
number of correct problems he solved. His goal is to beat his previous score. Ms. Nguyen trains Kylie on
the procedures of timed trial and supervises the first couple sessions to ensure the intervention is being
implemented correctly.
When a student’s performance is in the instructional range, but the student is provided with
acquisition instruction, student performance will predictably worsen because the student will expe-
rience unnecessary prompting and antecedent supports (which invites prompting dependence) and
unnecessary corrective feedback (which will reduce the opportunities to respond). Similarly, if a stu-
dent needs to build fluency, but instead receives generalization opportunities, student performance
will again worsen because the necessary response will be too effortful, and errors will occur as the
child attempts to solve multi-step problems or answer application questions.
Mastery Range, Generalization Tactics

During fluency-building, rate of correct responding will increase until it approaches a ceiling
or asymptote. Somewhere just below that ceiling is a level of performance that has a high prob-
ability of being retained over time, permitting faster learning of more complex related skills, and
has a high likelihood of generalization. This type of performance can be defined as a particular rate
of correct responding by skill, grade, and response modality. For example, a student in third grade
reading 100 words correctly per minute is likely to be able to recall what they have read and be
able to answer comprehension questions following the reading. An observer would describe mastery
level performance as effortless, easy, and adaptable. Expert performance is masterful performance.
Mastery performance is the type of performance that enables musicians to generate creative pieces
of music, writers to write masterpieces, and scientists to make discoveries. In the classroom, when
a child has reached mastery, the teacher can introduce novel problems or old problems that require
different solutions. This type of instruction is the kind of instruction teachers often enjoy focusing
on and can include group work, think aloud tasks, and creative and multi-step projects. Increasing
the challenge level of the work is appropriate when performance is at mastery, and as long as children
have mastered the fundamental skills, generative performances may emerge without additional in-
struction (Johnson & Layng, 1992). Thus, mastery is the type of performance that creates efficiency in
instruction (new skills can be acquired without instruction through generalization), but this requires
careful acquisition and fluency-building first and the masterful tending of student responding by the
teacher. Generalization failures must be detected and lead to corrective feedback, which may again
be elaborate, followed by a new generalization attempt.
When mastery level performance is given acquisition instruction, student performance will
worsen, and off-task behavior may occur. When mastery level performers are given fluency-building
instruction, students may become frustrated or bored and reduce their effort.
Progress Monitoring
“Close, continual contact with relevant outcome data” is at the heart of the instructional hi-
erarchy (Bushell & Baer, 1994, p. 7). Engaging in progress monitoring of student performance on
the target skill is critical. Throughout the chapter, we have identified how these data help educators
identify the level of student proficiency (i.e., frustrational, instructional, mastery) and select the most
appropriate instructional tactics (i.e., acquisition, fluency, generalization) to promote learning. We
want to focus on the last aspect of this phrase, “relevant outcome data.”
If we obtain “good” data, this will likely beget “good decisions”; conversely, “crummy data” will
beget “crummy decisions.” A critical need is to maximize the likelihood that the progress-monitoring
data being collected are reliable and valid. Educators can maximize the likelihood of obtaining reli-
able and valid data through two overarching ways. First, educators can select progress-monitoring
probes that have evidence of yielding reliable and valid scores of students’ academic achievement.
Second, educators can ensure the standardized protocol for administering and scoring probes are
adhered to.
When selecting or creating progress-monitoring measures, it is important for teachers to adhere
to research-based suggestions for this process. The National Center on Intensive Intervention (NCII)
provides a tool chart that includes the current reliability and validity evidence for various screeners
and progress-monitoring measures for academic skills (Table 11-1). In the area of reading, we have
a host of measures for early literacy skills and literacy skills that are robust in terms of predicting
later reading achievement and evidence of reliability. In mathematics, this is a little more difficult.
Specifically, as we have highlighted throughout this chapter, educators may aim to target individual
skills, such as addition of two-digit integers without regrouping, for intervention. In this case, teach-
ers may need to create probes that are single-skill measures.
A second issue for teachers to consider is the adherence to a standardized protocol for admin-
istration of the CBM. By isolating as many variables as possible, we are hoping to ensure the only
change in the student performance can be attributed to student learning. For example, if a school site
flip flops between a teacher administering and scoring the measure and a paraeducator administer-
ing and scoring the measure, this is a variable that has been altered from measurement to measure-
ment. Another variable that may be altered is time of the day, for example, administering the probes
at 9:00 a.m. when school starts or at 2:00 p.m. before dismissal. This could lead to differential student
performance. The key takeaway is to attempt to standardize as many of the variables related to the
administration protocol as possible, and if deviations occur, notate them on the data collection sheet.
This might provide some context if variability in student performance is identified when evaluating
the progress-monitoring data.
Once educators maximize the likelihood of obtaining reliable and valid progress-monitoring
data for students, the data must be presented and analyzed. Time-series graphs have many benefits
for educators, with the biggest being a visual display of rate of improvement, slope, of student learn-
ing. Time is presented along the x-axis; we suggest making these dates (e.g., September 10). Outcome
218 Chapter 11
Table 11-1. Supplemental Resources

Source How to Access What is Inside
Curriculum-Based Measurement
ABCs of CBM Hosp, M. K., Hosp, J. L., & Howell, K. W. (2016). Description of CBM,
The ABCs of CBM: A practical guide to curriculum- progress monitoring, and
based measurement. Guilford Publications. the role within tiered
intervention frameworks.
Provides standardized
protocols, scoring
protocol, norms, and
descriptions for various
CBMs across content area
and grades
Intervention https://www.interventioncentral.org/ Standardized
Central curriculum-based-measurement-reading-math- administration protocol,
assesment-tests scoring protocol, norms,
and description for
various CBMs
NCII Screening https://charts.intensiveintervention.org/ Psychometric evidence
Tool Chart ascreening for academic screeners
broken down by content
area and grade-level
NCII Progress- https://charts.intensiveintervention.org/ Psychometric evidence
Monitoring Tool aprogressmonitoring for academic screeners
Chart broken down by content
area and grade-level
Intensive Interventions
Intervention https://www.interventioncentral.org/ Directions for
Central implementation,
materials, and description
for various interventions
aimed at academic skills
NCII Academic https://charts.intensiveintervention.org/ Synthesizes level of
Intervention aintervention evidence for various
Chart interventions aimed at
academic outcomes
NCII Behavior https://charts.intensiveintervention.org/ Synthesizes level of
Intervention bintervention evidence for various
Chart interventions aimed at
behavioral outcomes
Graphing
Evan Dart https://youtu.be/bQZet226W4o Step-by-step tutorial
Graphing Tutorial to construct progress-
monitoring graphs using
Microsoft Excel
Figure 11-7. Progress monitoring Cameron’s performance.
data are presented along the y-axis; we suggest ensuring this is measured as a form of rate (i.e., see
previous text on why rate is a better metric than accuracy). As data are collected, trend lines can
be added to the graph to estimate the rate of improvement the student is making within phases of
instruction (i.e., during acquisition, during fluency). See Figure 11-7 for an example progress-moni-
toring graph, and Table 11-1 for video model explaining how to create a graph in Excel.
Chapter Review
1. Reread the case study in this chapter. What instructional range is Cameron currently perform-
ing in?
2. List three instructional tactics that are salient for acquisition instruction.
3. List three instructional tactics that are salient for fluency-building instruction.
4. What intervention components, or instructional tactics, can teachers use to increase student
engagement and motivation?
5. Describe the process for backward sampling prerequisite skills to pinpoint prerequisite skills
that are in the student’s mastery range and instructional range.
6. If a teacher shifts to fluency-building instruction and student error rates increase, how should
the teacher respond?
7. Describe the skill-by-treatment interaction effect and its implications for enhancing learning
rates.
8. Why is the metric rate of responding more reliable and valid than accuracy?
220 Chapter 11
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15.2004.12086254
12
Including the Excluded
Puberty, Development, and
Comprehensive Sexuality Education
for Students With Disabilities
Tracy E. Sinclair, PhD, BCBA-D; James Sinclair, PhD;
and Joshua M. Pulos, PhD, BCBA
INTRODUCTION
You may be wondering why there is a chapter about sex education in book about
behavior analysis for special education teachers. The beginning of this text covered
the basic principles, guiding philosophy, and behavioral definitions of applied behavior
analysis (ABA) relevant to the special education classroom. This chapter, like others in
the second half of this book, demonstrates how to apply all you have learned thus far
to areas necessary for positive student outcomes. Too often, as educators, we forget to
include comprehensive sexual health as an indicator of student success. As a science, ABA
has historically been pigeonholed as only applicable to individuals with autism spectrum
disorder; however, its utility is far more vast. We can use ABA as a science to overlay
upon other content areas capitalizing on best instructional practices to enhance overall
student learning and our skills as educators. This chapter will provide an overview of not
only the need for comprehensive sexuality education programming but provide practical
examples of how to apply behavioral analytic strategies within a sexual health course of
study, bridging the connection between theory to practice in a way not necessarily seen
as a “conventional” application of the science of behavior analysis. Educators rarely receive
comprehensive training in puberty, development, or sex education. This may result in
shared misinformation, feelings of discomfort when providing instruction, or creating
an environment that is suppressive for students. Complicating matters, state and district
administration often severely limit what may be taught or discussed in the classroom.
Students with disabilities are a particularly vulnerable population. Reactionary measures
to inappropriate sexual behaviors are not enough—educators must proactively approach
Carr, R. N. (Ed.).
222 Chapter 12
sexuality education. In spite of limited empirical research on best practices in teaching sexuality
education for students with disabilities, this chapter will cover: (a) what is known regarding the
implementation of CSE in classroom settings, (b) best practices for teaching and considerations
for teachers, and (c) discuss the need for inclusive sexuality education that takes into account
the needs of gender and sexual minority students.
Chapter Objectives
ȘȘ Gain knowledge about comprehensive sexuality education (CSE) programs and essen-
tial components.
ȘȘ Understand the importance of including youth with disabilities in CSE programming.
ȘȘ Apply principles of behavior and evidence-based strategies in the classroom during
CSE instruction.
KEY TERMS
• Abstinence Only: Abstinence is the expected standard of behavior for teens.
• Abstinence-Plus: Stresses abstinence but also includes information on contraception and
condoms.
• Antecedent Techniques: A proactive approach of manipulating an environment prior to and
independent of the occurrence of target behaviors.
• Behavior-Specific Praise (BSP): A consequent technique where an affirmation is paired with a
student’s specific behavior that may function as a reinforcer and increase the likelihood of that
student demonstrating the same behavior in future occurrences.
• Comprehensive Sexuality Education (CSE): Provides medically accurate age-appropriate in-
formation about abstinence, as well as safer sex practices including contraception and condoms
as effective ways to reduce unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections (STIs).
Comprehensive programs also usually include information about healthy relationships, com-
munication skills, and human development, among other topics.
• Consequent Techniques: Events following behaviors which may increase behaviors (i.e., posi-
tive/negative reinforcement) or decrease behaviors (i.e., positive/negative punishment).
• Group Contingencies: A consequent intervention to increase the likelihood of prosocial class-
room behaviors among a group of students taking place in the future.
• LGBTQIA+: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, questioning, intersex, asexual, and other
nonhetereosexual orientations.
• Precorrection: An antecedent intervention based on reteaching and antecedent prompting to
promote positive teacher–student relationships and appropriate classroom behavior.
Including the Excluded 223
Access to sexual health is identified as a human right by the World Health Organization; how-
ever, students across the United States receive markedly different levels of access, exposure, and par-
ticipation in education on this topic. For a variety of reasons, some students in the United States will
be excluded or removed from classrooms teaching sexual health education. Unfortunately, students
with disabilities are disproportionately limited or excluded in their access to sexual health educa-
tion (Treacy et al., 2018). These exclusionary practices are particularly alarming in light of statistics
regarding individuals with disabilities and sexual behavior. Throughout their lifetime, an individual
with a disability is more likely to experience forced sexual trauma, sexual violence, unintended preg-
nancy, a high number of sexual partners (10 or more), and higher rates of sexually transmitted infec-
tions (STIs; Rowen et al., 2015). As many as approximately 80% of women and 30% of men with a
developmental disability have been sexually assaulted, and close to half never report the incident to
the authorities (Weiss, 2012). These disheartening numbers highlight the vulnerable nature of the
disability community and critical need for sexual health education.
Proactive Versus Reactive Measures

Historically, educational movements regarding behavior have been reactionary in nature.
Detentions and suspensions are given after an infraction occurs in the hopes of preventing future
behavior, but, as we know as educators, this rarely works for most students. Hence the success and
adoption of systemic proactive approaches like School-Wide Positive Behavior Interventions and
Supports and Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS). Rooted in antecedent-based behavioral
principles, we know it is far better and more efficient to intervene before a behavior occurs. The same
theoretical framework can and should be applied to sexual health. Providing students comprehen-
sive sexual education programming early and progressively throughout their school career allows for
students to become informed decision makers.
The Challenge
Unlike issues of classroom management and discipline, issues of sexual health are highly con-
troversial, contested, and politicized; so much so that many states have strict regulations on what can
and cannot be taught in schools specific to sexual education or gender identity. This chapter outlines
what is currently known about sexual education programming, what is currently happening across
the country’s schools, considerations for classrooms, instructional best practices, recommendations
for evaluating available curricula, and the need for inclusive comprehensive sexual educational pro-
grams for all students.
What Is a Comprehensive Sexuality Education Program?

Complicating matters further beyond the politicized nature of access or inclusion of sexual edu-
cation programming in schools is the defining of what makes a comprehensive, quality program.
Figure 12-1 illustrates the myriad of ways CSE programming may be referred to in schools. Several
prominent, well-respected organizations have provided guidance and critically defining features of
programming.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention outline the requirements for an exemplary
sexual health program in schools to include:
...a systemic approach informed by research and practice that emphasizes planned, sequen-
tial learning across grade levels…that are medically accurate, developmentally appropriate,
culturally relevant, and recognize the diversity of adolescents and their communities to
enhance knowledge and skills to prevent negative sexual health outcomes. (2019, p. 3)
224 Chapter 12
Figure 12-1. Common language found in

definitions.
Other institutions provide guidance within their definitions on specifics about topics covered
within a CSE program. Such as the Kaiser Family Foundation, whose language is as follows:
Provides medically accurate, age-appropriate information about abstinence, as well as safer
sex practices including contraception and condoms as effective ways to reduce unintend-
ed pregnancy and STIs. Comprehensive programs also usually include information about
healthy relationships, communication skills, and human development, among other topics.
(2018)
Abstinence education typically falls within either abstinence only or abstinence “plus” educa-
tion. The Kaiser Family Foundation defines abstinence only education as abstinence is the expected
standard of behavior for teens. Teaching abstinence only usually excludes any information about the
effectiveness of contraception or condoms to prevent unintended pregnancy and STIs. Another op-
tion for sexuality education that some states implement is abstinence ‘plus’ education. The Kaiser
Family Foundation reports that abstinence plus stresses abstinence, but also includes information on
contraception and condoms.
States Make the Choice

States have the authority to decide what is covered in their sexuality education curriculum.
Figure 12-2 provides a snapshot of the number of states that have different requirements for sexu-
ality education content. These different requirements for sexuality education content taught does
impact outcomes. For example, in states that were more likely to promote or stress abstinence, teens
were more likely to become pregnant (Stanger Hall & Hall, 2011). Whereas researchers have found
the implementation of CSE can reduce the frequency of sex, the number of partners, the incidenc-
es of unprotected sex, and increases the use of condoms and contraception among sexually active
youth (Advocates for Youth Report; Sexuality Information Education Council of the United States
[SIECUS], 2021).
Figure 12-2. SIECUS 2021 statistics.
Barriers to Access for Students With Disabilities

Teaching CSE is a critical component to an individual’s development and overall educational
experience. For students with disabilities, there continues to be extra barriers to CSE, including (a)
exclusion from the general education curriculum, (b) inaccessible curriculum materials, (c) lack of
accommodations or modifications during instruction, (d) lack of inclusionary topics and adapta-
tions for the continuum of body types, (e) teacher efficacy to teach students with disabilities, and
(f) family removal from CSE content due to potential stigma of asexuality (Sinclair et al., 2015). For
special educators, it is important to understand those barriers exist and what one can do to support
increasing access to CSE for all students, including students with disabilities.
Unfortunately, for special educators, there are a myriad of factors that impact the what, when,
and how of teaching CSE. Due to the ever-varying guidance at local and state levels, it is first recom-
mended special educators discuss what the current practices and state laws are guiding CSE for stu-
dents with their building and district administrators (Sinclair et al., 2017). If there is uncertainty as to
what the guidelines for teaching CSE to students are in your state, there are resources to help provide
a snapshot of what is and what is not sanctioned (e.g., SIECUS [www.siecus.org] for resources).
Implementation of CSE can be a murky endeavor. If there is unclear guidance from local ad-
ministrators, or if there is freedom to implement CSE in the classroom, special educators can refer
to the National Sexuality Education Standards: Content and Skills K-12 for guidance. These stan-
dards were informed by experts across multiple health and education related fields, the National
Health Education Standards, and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s Health Education
226 Chapter 12
Figure 12-3. Ecological model on individual and school engagement with CSE.
Curriculum Analysis Tool. Currently the national standards for grades 9 to 12 include the following
categories: (a) anatomy and physiology, (b) puberty and adolescent development, (c) identity, (d)
pregnancy and reproduction, (e) STIs and HIV, (f) healthy relationships, and (g) personal safety.
Due to the systemic barriers faced by schools and students implementing CSE, we propose an
ecological model that presents supports for schools to implement CSE and students to access infor-
mation. This ecological model (Figure 12-3) begins with the student at the center. Students should
have equitable access to a developmentally appropriate curriculum and the opportunity to actively
engage in their learning and provide assent to participating in CSE. Second, the ecological model
identifies the family as a critical partner to supporting students’ access to CSE. Families are consid-
ered the primary provider of CSE outside of the school setting, and families also provide consent for
their youth to access CSE. Families also play a critical role in their youths’ learning, as opportunities
for personal conversations and situational generalization will occur outside of the classroom setting.
This “real life” generalization is critical for a youth’s continued learning of the nuances experienced in
romantic and sexual relationships. The third aspect of the ecological model is teachers. Teachers are
the pivotal keystone that allow for CSE to be implemented effectively in the classroom. For students
with disabilities, teachers provide individualized education, accommodations, and modifications.
Teachers provide instruction and create relevant content for students in the classroom. In addition,
teachers work within the classroom to set rules and expectations while configuring the classroom
for optimal learning. The last aspect of the ecological model, which encompasses all of these com-
ponents, is the school district and school administrators. The school district and school administra-
tors build a system in which CSE can exist and flourish. In essence, they have the decision-making
power to select a CSE curriculum that is inclusive and accessible to all students. This includes but
not limited to students with disabilities, students with diverse gender identities and expressions, and
students from racially and ethnically diverse backgrounds. Furthermore, school districts and school
administrators have an opportunity to positively communicate with families. Open communication
and autonomous decision-making power for familial consent to participate can support positive
partnerships.
Classroom and Instructional Best Practices

The classroom, a complex and multifaceted environment that serves the needs of diverse learn-
ers (including students with disabilities), can be a conduit for teaching CSE when intentionally
planned. Much of what is known about practices related to classroom management that promote
positive behavior and prosocial skills are derived from ABA. Research confirms that “teacher at-
tention to nurturing and managing the classroom, student behavior, and social aspects of learning
involving behavior management and...[ABA] contribute significantly to promoting an environment
that is conducive to teaching and learning” (Bryant et al., 2020, pp. 272-273). With the manipulation
of antecedents (i.e., contexts, settings, and stimuli occurring before and influencing positive behav-
iors) and consequences (i.e., events following behaviors that may increase or decrease those behav-
iors; Kazdin, 2002), the bedrock of ABA, special education teachers can confidently and effectively
teach their students with disabilities CSE.
Prior to beginning instruction, special education teachers should check their school and district
policies for how families consent to student participation in CSE. Once families consent and students
assent, teachers should encourage maximum participation as possible. However, to ensure success,
special educators should first consider those antecedents and consequences they can manipulate
within their locus of control to promote a positive and nurturing classroom environment. Using
procedures couched in principles of behavior to bolster the constructive interactions between teach-
er–student and student–student may result in successful learning experiences related to sexuality
education. A primary element of classroom management is the use of antecedent (i.e., preventative)
techniques. With the identification and implementation of these techniques, the promotion of ap-
propriate behaviors with the demotion of challenging and disruptive behaviors takes place (Conroy
et al., 2008). A number of empirical studies support the use of antecedent techniques in the class-
room environment, including (a) classroom arrangement, (b) classroom rules, (c) classroom sched-
ule, and (d) precorrection (Banks, 2014; Colvin et al., 1993; Vaughn & Bos, 2015).
Antecedent Techniques
Classroom Arrangement
The physical arrangement of the classroom environment can assist in the prevention of chal-
lenging and disruptive classroom behaviors when sexuality education is being taught. Special edu-
cation teachers should be mindful of the accessibility and organization of their classroom (Banks,
2014). Accessible classrooms afford flexibility for different instructional arrangements during the
dissemination of sexuality education. This includes (a) large-group instruction, (b) small-group in-
struction, (c) independent learning, (d) cooperative learning, (e) peer teaching, and (f) class-wide
peer tutoring (Vaughn & Boss, 2015). Special education teachers should pay close attention to the
type of sexual health program being taught so they can match it to the type of instructional ar-
rangement to optimize learning. In addition, the organization of the classroom environment ensures
classroom materials and resources are readily available for students (Banks, 2014). An organized
classroom includes routines, which should be taught early in the school year (Smith & Misra, 1992).
These routines should consist of academic and nonacademic business. Academic business includes
“the manner in which lessons are begun and ended, how students can request teacher assistance, or
how a learning center is used” (Smith & Misra, 1992, p. 357), while nonacademic business includes
transition periods between instructional time, obtaining permission to leave the classroom, and free
time. When routines are required, special educators should identify the routine, develop it, and teach
their students the routine in an explicit manner. When students with disabilities have a clear un-
derstanding of the classroom arrangement and how to navigate their classroom through routines,
minimal disruption occurs.
228 Chapter 12
Classroom Rules
Classroom rules, an integral antecedent technique, serve as behavioral expectations that foster
a productive learning environment (Conroy et al., 2008). When developed through a shared ap-
proach (i.e., teacher–student development), classroom rules can promote a positive classroom com-
munity where students with disabilities understand what will and will not be tolerated (Vaughn &
Bos, 2015). A few guidelines are important to follow when establishing rules. First, when teachers
solicit input from their students in the development of classroom rules, this increases students’ com-
mitment and willingness to follow them (Smith & Misra, 1992). For example, when teaching CSE,
classroom rules should be reflective of the overall classroom community and the topics being ad-
dressed. Specific to CSE, it is encouraged teachers spend time asking students how they would like
sensitive topics to be discussed, what kind of language students and teachers should use (i.e., respect-
ful language), standards of confidentiality (i.e., what is said in the classroom stays in class), when it is
appropriate to take a break, and how students should indicate when they need a break. Second, less is
more; it is recommended no more than seven rules be established. Any more than seven can make it
difficult to monitor and enforce. Third, rules should be stated in a positive manner. For example, the
rule “Do not use judgmental language” can be modified to “Use respectful communication,” or “Do
not interject and use opinions” can be modified to “Use factual statements when discussing a topic.”
Fourth, make sure to display a list of the rules in a permanent and prominent place in the classroom
environment. This serves as a reference point for teachers and a reminder to their students. Fifth,
rules should be taught consistent with CSE. This should be done through a systematic and explicit
approach where each rule is presented and modeled (Banks, 2014). This should include examples
and nonexamples of rule following (Smith & Misra, 1992). This affords students to discriminate
between what is expected and what is not. For example, students can practice raising their hand for
a break if they are uncomfortable with the content being discussed rather than just eloping without
teacher permission. Finally, teachers must monitor and enforce rule following and rule breaking.
This should include working with students to identify the infraction in a nurturing manner and
modeling the correct response. By focusing on this simple, yet effective, antecedent technique, CSE
can be disseminated to students with disabilities in a respectful and caring classroom.
Classroom Schedule
Classroom schedules, another antecedent technique in a special education teacher’s toolkit,
communicates in advance the classroom expectations, which is likely to increase students’ knowledge
and understanding of what is expected of them throughout the school day (Banks, 2014; Smith &
Misra, 1992). Classroom schedules can reduce the likelihood of challenging and disruptive behaviors
demonstrated by students with disabilities because those students can predict what is to transpire
and how long each event will last. There are eight steps to consider when developing a classroom
schedule: (a) special education teachers and their students with disabilities should shoulder the re-
sponsibility of developing the classroom schedule together; (b) the classroom schedule should be
displayed in a permanent and prominent place in the classroom environment; (c) use the Premack
Principle (Premack, 1959) when developing the classroom schedule; this is where a low probability
activity is followed by a high-probability activity (i.e., students are more likely to engage in math con-
tent if they know recess is to follow); (d) an activity’s length should reflect the abilities of the students
served (e.g., find multiple opportunities for students to engage with the same content, such as when
talking about consent, have multiple activities that build off of each other but take smaller lengths
of time; this could include going over the definition of consent, watching a video of what consent
means, and having a role play between students within the teaching time); (e) avoid any revisions
to the classroom schedule; (f) the classroom schedule should motivate students to progress through
each planned activity throughout the school day (e.g., a discussion on gender roles and norms could
include more relevant outlets of information or topics, including reading news articles about local
sports teams, discussing video game characters, or celebrities students like; highly engaging media,
such as music videos, can be good tools to utilize as content but also as a strong reinforcement for
exceptional behavior in class); (g) the efforts of students should be reinforced even when planned
activities are not fully accomplished; and (h) a copy of the classroom schedule should be sent home
to students’ families.
Precorrection
Precorrection is an instructional approach for managing predictable problem behaviors of stu-
dents with disabilities (Colvin et al., 1993). Precorrection is a proactive approach, whereas correc-
tion is a reactive approach. The responses of special education teachers occur before inappropriate
behavior is demonstrated by students with disabilities. “The antecedents of the [student’s] behavior
are manipulated and appropriate behaviors are prompted to increase the likelihood that appropriate
behavior will occur and decrease the likelihood that inappropriate behavior will occur” (Colvin et
al., 1993, p. 145). Simply put, correction procedures are designed to signal and stop challenging and
disruptive classroom behaviors after their occurrence, while precorrection procedures are developed
to prevent the occurrence of predictable challenging and disruptive classroom behaviors and assist
in the occurrence of more suitable replacement behaviors. Special education teachers should follow
seven steps when developing a precorrection plan: (a) identify the context and predictable behaviors,
(b) specify the expected behaviors, (c) modify the context, (d) conduct behavior rehearsal, (e) pro-
vide strong reinforcement for expected behaviors, (f) prompt expected behaviors, and (g) monitor
the plan. See Table 12-1 for an example precorrection plan related to CSE.
Consequent Techniques
Special education teachers play a key role in shaping the effective education, including appropri-
ate classroom behaviors, of their students with disabilities (Korpershoek et al., 2016). A cornerstone
to shaping this desirable behavior is through consequent techniques (or positive reinforcement).
“The term reinforcement simply refers to circumstances in which an action or event occurring just
after a behavior has the effect of making that behavior more likely to occur in the future” (Scott &
Landrum, 2020, p. 69). Positive reinforcement is a powerhouse when used correctly and in tandem
with antecedent techniques (Hattie, 2009; Scott & Landrum, 2020). A number of empirical studies
support the use of consequent techniques in the classroom environment, including behavior-specific
praise and group contingencies (Cooper et al., 2020; Ennis et al., 2018).
Behavior-specific praise, an effective, efficient, low-intensity, and easy-to-use strategy, can be
used to positively reinforce the appropriate classroom behaviors of students with disabilities (Ennis
et al., 2018). Praise can be codified as general or behavior-specific. With general praise, a cloaked
recognition is used, for example, “Nice job!” or “Well done, Kate.” With behavior-specific praise, the
cloak is raised where the additive of a “specific behavioral description [is used] to clarify the observed
behaviors [special education] teachers are acknowledging and, likely, hoping to occur more often in
the classroom” (Ennis et al., 2018, p. 134). For example, “Nice job using the correct pronouns of your
classmates, Ryan,” and “Class, thank you for intently listening to Miss Avery when she described and
provided examples of consent.” Although the literature supports the use of behavior-specific praise
in the classroom environment to bolster student achievement (e.g., Hollingshead et al., 2016; Royer
et al., 2019), research also suggests special education teachers do not take full advantage of praise
to positively reinforce the appropriate classroom behaviors of their students with disabilities, and
when they do, it resembles the form of general praise (Ennis et al., 2018). Therefore, it is paramount
special education teachers understand how to effectively deliver behavior-specific praise. A seven
230 Chapter 12
Table 12-1. Precorrection Examples for

Precorrection Components Precorrection Plan
1. Identify the context and Students enter the classroom immediately following
predictable behaviors the first bell of the day.
Students saying something judgmental about
another student’s experience (e.g., consent,
pronouns).
2. Specify the expected behaviors Students entering the classroom, while respecting
each other.
3. Modify the context Prior to the first bell, the teacher meets her students
at the classroom door and reminds them, “One of our
expected behaviors during our time together is using
respectful language toward one another.”
4. Conduct behavior rehearsal Teacher models respectful behavior and asks
students to imitate her behavior. In addition, she
asks a student what the expected behavior they just
practiced was called.
5. Provide strong reinforcement for Teacher tells her students, “If I see respectful behavior
expected behaviors throughout today’s lesson on STIs, each of you will
get 5 additional minutes of computer time.”
6. Prompt expected behaviors Teacher uses a mixture of the following procedures to
prompt expected behaviors of her students:
a. Teacher immediately acknowledges the
expected behavior (i.e., being respectful)
when students demonstrate it in the natural
environment (vs. the rehearsal that just took
place outside the classroom).
b. Teacher provides a reminder of the expected
behavior as part of her rules during the
introduction of the STIs unit.
c. Teacher privately speaks to students when
disrespectful language takes place by
providing error-correction procedures and
any consequences predetermined by rule
breaking.
7. Monitor the plan Teacher develops a monitoring plan that includes
two parts:
a. Teacher develops the seven-part precorrec-
tion plan that provides descriptions of what
to do during each step.
b. Teacher records her students’ performance
(i.e., expected respectful behavior vs. pre-
dictable disrespectful behavior).
step process should be considered: (a) evaluate the current rates of general and behavior-specific
praise taking place in the classroom environment, (b) identify behaviors to positively reinforce, (c)
practice the delivery of behavior-specific praise, (d) observe the behavior of students with disabili-
ties, (e) provide behavior-specific praise immediately following appropriate classroom behavior be-
ing demonstrated, (f) monitor the use of behavior-specific praise, and (g) seek student input on the
implementation of behavior-specific praise in the classroom environment.
Group Contingencies
When properly handled, group contingencies are an effective approach to altering the behavior
of groups of people (Cooper et al., 2020), which can be quintessential when delivering CSE to stu-
dents with disabilities. This includes improving the academic and behavioral performance of school-
age children school-wide and in the classroom environment (Skinner et al., 2009). Simply defined,
“a group contingency is a common consequence...contingent on the behavior of one member of the
group, the behavior of part of the group, or the behavior of everyone in the group” (Cooper et al.,
2020, p. 664). Group contingencies can be categorized as dependent, independent, or interdepen-
dent. This section will focus on an interdependent group contingency where “an entire group must
engage in the behavior to receive the reinforcement” (Pokorski, 2019, p. 341), specifically the Good
Behavior Game.
Good Behavior Game

The Good Behavior Game, an interdependent group contingency, is a class-wide intervention
where students are divided into teams and compete for a reward by demonstrating appropriate class-
room behaviors (Fallon & Kurtz, 2018). While described in greater depth in Chapter 2 of this book,
here we list a few recommendations when using the Good Behavior Game in the context of CSE.
First, ensure rules are relevant to CSE. For example, appropriate behaviors associated with the learn-
ing environment and acquisition of CSE may include (a) respectful behavior toward peers’ expe-
riences, (b) using correct pronouns, and (c) using facts instead of opinions. Second, the winning
criterion should match the level of CSE rigor during the lesson (i.e., did the lesson review previously
learned material or was it new knowledge gained on CSE). Finally, at the end of the Good Behavior
Game, immediately reward the winning team with the predetermined reinforcer, and explain what
they did correctly to gain it (e.g., “Wonderful job, team! You correctly used the pronouns of your
peers five times in a row.”).
Beyond evidence-based best practices in instruction as described previously, special educators
should be equipped with curricula specific to sexual health that both fits school, district, and state-
mandated guidelines and exemplifies best practice in sexual health education within those param-
eters. The next section of this chapter dives into available sexuality health curricula for students with
disabilities. Furthermore, we provide you with a research-based framework to examine a curricular
program critically.

Curriculum and Resources
The primary way that CSE is taught is through commercial curricula available for purchase.
However, there are a plethora of curricular materials that have been developed to teach CSE in class-
rooms and clinical settings published by local departments of health and human services, advocacy
organizations, and public health offices. While these localized resources can be exceptional and help-
ful for students with disabilities, they also may be lacking in comprehensiveness. Ultimately, what
232 Chapter 12
Table 12-2. Abbreviated Sexuality Education Protocol

Section Construct Exemplar Questions
A Goals and Objectives • Are goals and objectives behaviorally stated?
B Scope and Sequence • Are background knowledge and prerequisite con-
cepts identified?
C Instructional Strategies • Does the curriculum provide multiple medium types
to support instruction?
• Are multiple instructional strategies used throughout
the curriculum?
• Is there an evaluation component to the curriculum?
D Curriculum • Has the curriculum been tested or evaluated in some
Development and manner?
Evaluation • Are there reference aids to support learning?
E Curriculum Adaptation • Is there a consistent structure to lessons?
Strategies • Is content presented in multiple ways?
F Curriculum Concepts • Does the curriculum have a comprehensive ap-
proach to sexuality health education?
Adapted from Wolfe, P., & Blanchett, W. (2003). Sex education for students with disabilities: An evaluation guide.
TEACHING Exceptional Children, 36, 46-51.
is taught in the classroom should be approved by the state and school building administrators. If
provided the opportunity, teachers should advocate for a curriculum that is comprehensive and, if
possible, accessible to students with disabilities. Wolfe and colleagues (2018) have completed a com-
prehensive review of commercialized curriculum, which is highlighted and described.
Curriculum for Students With Disabilities

There continues to be limited resources available for districts and special education teachers
to use for implementing CSE in classrooms, and as mentioned previously, what is available will be
highly dependent on state laws and district decisions. However, there are resources available to help
select curricula if teachers have the flexibility to do so. For teachers who are not provided the flexibil-
ity or autonomy to select their own sexuality health curriculum, a strategy that can be implemented
is evaluation of the available curriculum to identify areas of strengths, weaknesses, and individual-
ization necessary to instruct students with disabilities. Wolfe and Blanchett (2003) developed the
Sexuality Education Protocol (SEP). The SEP provides a structure for evaluating sexuality health
curriculum across multiple constructs (see Table 12-2 for an abbreviated SEP).
Evaluation of curriculum prior to implementation is strongly encouraged. Through evaluation,
special educators can identify areas within the curriculum that may need specific scaffolding for the
classroom population. Evaluation beforehand also provides an opportunity for teachers to make sure
content is reflective and sensitive to classroom students. For example, many curriculums may be
considered comprehensive due to the amount and variety of content taught, yet some curriculums
may be exclusionary to students who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, question-
ing, intersex, asexual, and other nonhetereosexual orientations (LGBTQIA+). Exclusion within a
curriculum can be quite subtle, just the absence of referencing LGBTQIA+ identities and relation-
ships can be detrimental to learning and stigmatizing to students from this population. Teachers can
thus supplement curriculum by affirming same sex relationships when discussing different kinds of
healthy relationships, gender roles, or if sanctioned, intercourse. Another often exclusionary practice
within the curriculum is the lack of representation of abilities and body types. Special education
teachers can be prepared to discuss romantic and sexual relationships with students of different body
types by incorporating readings from outside of the curriculum. For example, students who use mo-
bility devices, such as a wheelchair, may feel excluded if the only body type presented are those who
have the ability to stand and/or walk, with full torso control. Furthermore, students with complex
medical needs may feel excluded if a discussion about what a typical relationship looks like does not
include care and empathy for another’s needs to use the restroom or wear certain equipment. Being
sensitive to student needs within the classroom will ultimately keep students engaged as content
becomes relevant to their lived experience. Furthermore, there is a pervasive view in society at large
that individuals with disabilities are asexual beings, and while asexuality is a valid sexual expression,
assuming this can be detrimental to youth on multiple levels. Special educators must be mindful to
not allow societal biases to hinder instruction in the classroom.
Another aspect important to consider when evaluating the assigned curriculum or selecting a
new one is the evaluation procedures to monitor student learning. Teachers may want to have mul-
tiple means for evaluating knowledge acquisition and generalization of concepts learned. To moni-
tor student learning, teachers can implement either formative or summative evaluation procedures.
Formative evaluation procedures may look similar to completing wrap-up activities in which stu-
dents may demonstrate their content knowledge by communicating orally or through a worksheet
after each lesson. Conducting formative evaluation is critical for students with disabilities during
implementation of sexuality health education as students often need multiple opportunities to learn
key concepts (Rowe et al., 2018). Formative assessment during the curriculum implementation will
allow for teachers to gauge student progress while teaching. In addition, summative evaluations can
provide teachers an overall understanding of student knowledge. Some curriculums may have their
own summative evaluation guidelines or tests. If not, teachers can supplement the curriculum by
implementing some of the many assessments available.
Kramers-Olen (2017) provides a summary report of commonly used sexuality health assess-
ments. The following have been described as available for current use. Table 12-3 includes a brief
description and reliability and validity data for each assessment outlined by Kramers-Olen (2017).
If teachers have the opportunity to select a curriculum, Wolfe et al. (2018) has conducted
an evaluation on widely used classroom curricula. The authors evaluated a total of nine curricu-
lum, which included (a) Learn About Life, (b) Life Cycle: How We Grow and Change, (c) Life Facts:
Sexuality, (d) Life Horizons, (e) Family Life and Sexual Health (FLASH), (f) Intimate Relationships and
Sexual Health, (g) Positive Choices, (h) Sexuality Education for Adults With Developmental Disabilities
(DD), and (i) Sexuality Education for Children and Adolescents With DD. Six key concepts and top-
ics, (a) human development, (b) relationships, (c) personal skills, (d) sexual behavior, (e) sexual
health, (f) society and cultural, identified by SIECUS, were evaluated for scope and depth across
each curriculum.
The authors note that only one of the reviewed curricula is specifically aligned with health edu-
cation standards—the FLASH curriculum. For special educators, aligning curriculum content with
any state standard can be helpful in lesson planning and also provide additional policy support if the
content is questioned by an administrator or caregiver. The SIECUS publishes with the Future of Sex
Education initiative the National Sex Education Standards that can be reviewed and support lesson
planning (https://siecus.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/NSES-2020-2.pdf). In their review, Wolfe
et al. (2018) reported most curricula were likely to address content with more traditional topics in-
cluding human development, sexual health, puberty processes, reproductive anatomy, reproduction,
and STIs.
234 Chapter 12
Table 12-3. Additional Information on

Sexuality Knowledge Questionnaires
Name of Description Metrics
Questionnaire
General Sexual • 63-item semi-structured interview Chronbach’s alpha ranges
Knowledge questionnaire from 0.35 to 0.94 across
Questionnaire • Covers six themes six themes
(Talbot & Langdon, • 30-minute completion time
2006)
• Use for individuals with mild disabilities
Socio-Sexual • Assess socio-sexual knowledge in indi- Strong internal
Knowledge viduals with intellectual disability consistency across seven
and Attitudes • Mainly nonverbal responses needed to knowledge subscales
Assessment Tool– picture problem solving questions
Revised (Griffiths & • Seven knowledge subscales
Lundsky, 2003)
Sexual Knowledge, • Has multiple versions for different Minimal to no
Experience, Feelings disability types, including intellectual metrics reported, but
and Needs Scale disability author reports good
(McCabe, 1993) • 13 subscales psychometric properties
• Three different interviews for up to (Borawska-Charko et al.,
3 hours of assessment 2017)
Assessment of • Has two main subsections: Internal consistency as

Sexual Knowledge (1) knowledge and (2) attitudes measured by Chronbach’s
(Butler et al., 2003) • Has accessible yes/no quiz for alpha = 0.89. Test–retest
assessment reliability percent
• Approximately 45 minutes to complete agreement ranged
between 60 to 100%
(Galea et al., 2004)
Topics that were least likely to be covered (with a broad scope or depth) were gender iden-
tity, sexual orientation, and issues of diversity. This may mean that special educators will need to
supplement their instruction to cover this topic. Websites, such as Learning for Justice (https://www.
learningforjustice.org/topics/gender-sexual-identity), are a wonderful resource for teachers to learn
more, but also kick start lesson plans for students across ages. Other sites, including the Human
Rights Campaign (https://welcomingschools.org/resources/lesson-plans-gender-identity-transgen-
der-non-binary) and the Gay, Lesbian, and Straight Education Network (https://www.glsen.org/
activity/inclusive-curriculum-guide), have resources as well to supplement student learning.
Summary
This chapter presented current practice in implementing CSE in the classroom, utilizing prin-
ciples of behavior, resources for materials, and suggestions for evaluation and further learning. For
many special educators, systemic barriers that perpetuate inequitable access to sexuality education
continue to exist. Often, these barriers are uninformed by science and continue an ableist view of
human sexuality. There are still challenges special education teachers face to change the existing nar-
rative to one that supports youth with disabilities as inclusive with equitable access to CSE. Paradigm
shift can take time to resonate, but special educators should advocate for the right that all students
have the opportunity to learn in an inclusive and culturally responsive and sustaining environment,
with disregard to content taught.
Chapter Review
1. Why do you think the World Health Organization identifies sexual health as a human right?
What does this mean to you? How does this affect students who do not receive access to sexual
health education?
2. Discuss the difference between proactive and reactive practices in the field of education. What
are some proactive and reactive practices relative to sexual health education? How can they be
helpful and/or hurtful for learners?
3. How can you navigate discussing a CSE program with families of students with more signifi-
cant support needs who have been historically excluded from these types of instruction? What
are some strategies to approach this conversation?
4. What are some strategies to tackle the barriers to access to a CSE program within the school
environment?
5. How can behavior analytic techniques be applied in the classroom to support sexual health
education instruction effectively?
6. What are some key questions to ask when considering and adopting a CSE program? Why do
you think these are most important to consider?
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13
Using Applied Behavior
Analysis Methodology
to Improve Transition to
Postsecondary Education
and Employment
Mindy E. Lingo, PhD, BCBA-D; Malarie E. Deardorff, PhD;
and Kendra Williams-Diehm, PhD, BCBA
INTRODUCTION
Applied behavior analysis (ABA) methodology and strategies have long been used
to address behavior and academic concerns for young children, especially children with
autism spectrum disorder. However, these strategies are equally helpful and appropriate to
use at the secondary level as students focus on transition planning and employment skills.
Key principles of this chapter include the research base connecting ABA methodology to
(a) improvements in transition and employment outcomes for students with disabilities,
(b) preparation for postsecondary education, and (c) how educators can effectively
implement basic strategies to improve outcomes in their classroom.
Carr, R. N. (Ed.).
238 Chapter 13
Chapter Objectives
ȘȘ Describe the research connecting ABA methodology to improvements in transition
and adult outcomes for students with disabilities.
ȘȘ Discuss how teachers can prepare students for postsecondary education and
employment.
ȘȘ Effectively implement basic strategies to improve outcomes in the classroom.
KEY TERMS
• Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA): The science in which the principles of the analysis of be-
havior are applied systematically to improve socially significant behavior and experimentation
is used to identify the variable responsible for behavior change.
• College and Career Readiness (CCR): The standards needed to prepare students for the do-
mestic workforce demands whether their path includes college or training.
• Competitive Employment: Work performed on a full-time or part-time basis where individuals
are compensated at or above the minimum wage, comparable to the rate paid to other employees
without disabilities in similar positions, in inclusive settings (interactions with others without
disabilities), and with opportunities for advancement like other employees without disabilities.
• Independent Living: Living as self-sufficient as possible that maximizes an individual’s choice
preferences in where and how they live daily.
• Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA): A law that makes available a Free
Appropriate Public Education (FAPE) to eligible children with disabilities, which includes an
Individualized Education Program (IEP) designed to meet the unique needs of the student,
while providing educational benefit and prepares them for further education, employment, and
independent living.
• Postsecondary Education: Any education that follows secondary education, which includes
universities, colleges, trade schools, and vocational schools.
• Postsecondary Goals: Identify the student’s long-term goals for living, working, and learning
as an adult.
• Scientifically Based Research: Research that involves the application of rigorous, systematic,
and objective procedures to obtain reliable and valid knowledge relevant to education, activities,
and programs.
• Secondary Education: Stage of education following primary education, usually considered
middle and high school in the United States.
• Self-Determination: The ability to make choices, solve problems, set goals, evaluate options,
take initiative to reach one’s goals, and accept consequences of one’s actions.
• Self-Monitoring: A recording procedure that involves an individual observing their own behav-
ior and recording the occurrence or nonoccurrence of a target behavior.
• Social Skills: Skills used every day to interact and communicate with others which include ver-
bal, nonverbal, written, and visual. They are also referred to as “interpersonal” or “soft skills.”
Using Applied Behavior Analysis Methodology to Improve Transition 239
• Social Validity: A measure of the acceptability and appropriateness of the particular assessment
the intervention procedures selected, and the significance/importance of the changes and collat-
eral behaviors produced by the intervention, as determined by the learner (as appropriate), the
intervention team, caregivers, and other personnel involved in the day-to-day decisions about
the learners’ academic, social, psychological, and physical growth.
• Targeted Behaviors: The specific behavior selected for change.
• Transition Education: Supports, services, and curriculum provided to students that aid and
educate them in moving from public schooling to their adult lives, federally mandated for all
students with a disability starting at age 16.
Transition
Many times, educators have misconceptions of ABA, a scientific approach to study and reli-
ably intervene for socially significant behaviors while making considerations of the environmental
variables (Cooper et al., 2020). A few of the most common inaccuracies include ABA is only for
individuals with autism spectrum disorder, best suited for elementary aged and younger chil-
dren, and/or only used to reduce problem behaviors. On the contrary, ABA strategies have been
well established in research as beneficial for a variety of individuals with and without disabilities
from early childhood throughout their life. They can also go beyond addressing problem behaviors
to include skills acquisition (job, academic, social, communication, living, etc.) and strategies for
classroom instruction. For instance, ABA is useful for the teaching of specific skills to succeed in
college and in their future careers, which is an important part of transitioning into adult roles.
Transition is an inevitable part of life; as we grow from being a child to an adult, we must move
from home to school, school to work, and finally work to retirement, all creating major “transi-
tions” across the lifespan. However, in the adolescent realm of special education, the term transi-
tion takes on new meaning. Transition from school to work emerges from the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2004) and initially became part of the legislation in 1990 (IDEA,
1990). This capital “T” transition refers to the process as students transition from the role of be-
ing primarily a student/child living with parents/guardians to that of being an independent adult.
Specifically, transition education is the “movement of adolescents with disabilities from school into
their next environment as young adults in the community” (Halpern, 1994, p. 116) as a required
part of special education services. Transition from an adolescent to an independent adult can be
one of the biggest and most challenging transitions in one’s life, but it is especially challenging
for those with disabilities (Halpern, 1992). And, unfortunately, this transition is often not smooth
for individuals with disabilities resulting in lower adult outcomes as measured in postsecondary
education, gaining competitive employment, and independent living (Newman et al., 2010; Stodden
et al., 2020). For example, in 2018, the national employment rate for working age (21 to 64 years of
age) individuals without disabilities was 80% compared to 37.8% for individuals with disabilities,
with the latter having an annual median income 36% less than those without disabilities (Erickson
et al., 2020). Additionally, individuals with disabilities (across all disabilities) pursue college at
similar levels as those without disabilities; however, only 15.2% complete a 4-year degree as com-
pared to 35.2% of those without a disability. In an effort to remedy and improve these outcomes,
transition practices gained attention.
240 Chapter 13
Case Study
Preslie is an eighth-grade student with an emotional and behavioral disability. Ms. Haydar, her
English Language Arts teacher and special education case manager, has started discussions and conver-
sations with Preslie and her family about transition. Preslie’s transition plan, as mandated by federal
and then state mandates, is required to be in place by the time the student reaches ninth grade—mean-
ing, the plan needs to be written during Preslie’s eighth-grade year. In addition, Preslie’s middle and high
school have college and career readiness (CCR) initiatives to improve post-high school outcomes for all
students in employment and education. The CCR initiatives and transition plan must align and connect
and maximize the opportunities Preslie must practice important employment- and education-related
skills during the school day. Ms. Haydar, along with the high school counselor, Mr. Lorenzen, begin to
brainstorm appropriate ways to provide opportunities for Preslie to learn and practice these skills.
A common fallacy in special education rests in the idea that special education is an educational
setting (i.e., special education “classroom”) as opposed to an education service (i.e., more intensive
instruction; Ferri et al., 2011). However, the true purpose of special education entails specialized
services, programs, supports, and environments to meet the educational needs of students with dis-
abilities. IDEA defines special education as “specially designed instruction” specific to the unique
needs of the student with a disability and at no cost to parents (IDEA, 2004, § 300.39). IDEA entitles
“each eligible child with a disability to a free appropriate public education [FAPE] which emphasizes
special education and related services designed to meet the child’s unique needs and prepares the
child for further education, employment, and independent living” (U.S. Department of Education
Office of Special Education Programs, 2015, p. 1), thus, establishing the entire purpose of special
education squarely on the concept of transition (Williams-Diehm & Deardorff, 2021). Regarding
transition planning, IDEA (2004) defines it as “a results-oriented process…to facilitate the child’s
movement from school to postschool activities’’ (§34 CFR 300.43(a)(1), IDEA, 2004). Most simply
stated, transition services are a set of coordinated activities, courses, and experiences aligned with
students’ postsecondary goals to facilitate the successful movement from school to postschool activi-
ties; these activities include employment, training/education, and independent living (IDEA, 2004).
While these services must begin for all students with a disability on or before their 16th birthday,
they are encouraged to start even earlier when possible (Suk et al., 2020). Transition planning is a
right, and mandate, for all students with disabilities and becomes part of their FAPE. The resulting
services are critical in outlining future goals and preparing individuals with disabilities for postsec-
ondary successes (Williams-Diehm & Lynch, 2007).
As with the Individualized Education Program (IEP), transition planning must be addressed at
least annually for a secondary student (by age 16 per IDEA requirements) receiving special educa-
tion services under IDEA. Transition planning is most commonly addressed during regular IEP
meetings. The IEP team/transition planning team consists of educational staff members, parents/
guardians, student, and outside agency representatives (when applicable). As a group, the committee
uses current functioning levels based on age-appropriate assessments; the student’s strengths, prefer-
ences, and interests; and any special considerations to develop a program of instruction, supports,
and services for the student and will outline the needs and services to aid the student in not only
meeting their current academic demands but also equip them with the needed skills to pursue their
postschool goals for education/training, employment, and independent living. Often these activi-
ties and services focus on specific interventions aimed at improving behaviors and skills needed to
achieve their personal goals for after high school. When consideration is given to selecting specific
interventions, IDEA requires schools use programs, curricula, and practices based on scientifically
based research to the extent practicable. This use of effective practice is considered a “teaching meth-
od used to teach a specific skill that has been shown to be effective based on high-quality research”
(Rowe et al., 2019, p. 2). Within the realm of transition and special education, the National Technical
Assistance Center on Transition: The Collaborative (NTACT:C) has provided guidance on evidence-
based practices, research-based practices, and promising practices. Evidence-based practices dem-
onstrated a strong record of improving student outcomes through rigorous research. Research-based
practices demonstrate a record of improving outcomes through solid research designs. Promising
practices demonstrate improving outcomes but often lack rigorous research designs, thus needing
more research to demonstrate either evidence-based or research-based level (NTACT:C, 2021). To
date, NTACT:C has identified 23 current predictors (Mazzotti et al., 2016, 2021; Test et al., 2009):
1. Career awareness
2. Career technical education
3. Community experience
4. High school diploma status
5. Goal setting
6. Inclusion in general education
7. Interagency collaboration
8. Occupational courses
9. Paid employment/work experience
10. Parent expectations
11. Parent involvement
12. Program of study
13. Psychological empowerment
14. Self-care/independent living skills
15. Self-determination/self-adovacy
16. Self-realization
17. Social skills
18. Student supports
19. Technology skills
20. Transition program
21. Travel skills
22. Work study
23. Youth autonomy/decision-making skills
See Table 13-1 for a full list with predictor definitions. The 23 listed predictors have long been
paired with ABA practices to improve postschool outcomes. A listing of NTACT:C effective practices
(Table 13-2) is also provided.
College and Career Readiness Skills

U.S. Department of Education (n.d.) mandates each state address CCR standards in order to pre-
pare students for the domestic workforce demands whether their path includes college or training. A
loose definition of the standards includes content knowledge, learning skills, and techniques needed
for the career choices. Despite CCR standards being a federal initiative, each state is given the task of
defining their specific standards. The American Institutes for Research (2014) compiled a report on
each state’s guidelines to provide the most common themes among what is considered CCR standard.
The report detailed six overarching common actionable categories consisting of academic knowl-
edge; critical thinking and/or problem solving; social and emotional learning, collaboration, and/
or communication; grit/resilience/perseverance; citizenship and/or community involvement; and
miscellaneous skills (technology, lifelong learning, and responsibility to environment and family).
242 Chapter 13
Table 13-1. Evidence-Based Predicators

With Operational Definitions
Predicators Operational Definition Outcome Areas
Career awareness Career awareness is learning about opportunities, Education
education, and skills needed in various Employment
occupational pathways to choose a career that
matches one’s strengths and interests.
Occupational Occupational courses are individual courses that Education
courses support career awareness, allow or enable students Employment
to explore various career pathways, develop
occupation-specific skills through instruction and
experiences focused on their desired employment
goals.
Paid Work experience is any activity that places the Education
employment/ student in an authentic workplace and could Employment
work experiences include work sampling, job shadowing, internship,
Independent living
apprenticeships, and paid employment. Paid
employment can include existing standard jobs
in a company or organization or customized work
assignments negotiated with the employer, but
these activities always feature competitive pay (e.g.,
minimum wage) paid directly to the student by the
employer.
Vocational Vocational education is a sequence of courses Education
education that prepares students for a specific job or career Employment
at various levels from trade or craft positions to
technical, business, or professional careers.
Work study A work study program is a specified sequence of Employment
work skills instruction and experiences designed to
develop students’ work attitudes and general work
behaviors by providing students with mutually
supportive and integrated academic and vocational
instruction.
Community Community experiences are activities occurring Employment
experiences outside the school setting, supported with in-class
instruction, where students apply academic, social,
and/or general work behaviors and skills.
Exit exams Exit exams are standardized state tests, assessing Employment
requirements/ single content areas (e.g., algebra, English) or
high school multiple skill areas, with specified levels of
diploma status proficiency that students must pass to obtain a
high school diploma. Diploma status is achieved by
completing the requirements of the state awarding
the diploma, including the completion of necessary
core curriculum credits.
(continued)
Table 13-1 (continued). Evidence-Based Predicators

Inclusion Inclusion in general education requires students Education
in general with disabilities to have access to general education Employment
education curriculum and be engaged in regular education
Independent living
classes with peers without disabilities.
Program of study A program of study is an individualized set of Employment
courses, experiences, and curriculum designed
to develop students’ academic and functional
achievement to support the attainment of
students’ desired postschool goals.
Self- Self-determination is the ability to make choices, Education
determination/ solve problems, set goals, evaluate options, Employment
self-advocacy take initiative to reach one’s goals, and accept
consequences of one’s actions.
Self-care/ Self-care/independent living skills are skills Education
independent necessary for management of one’s personal self- Employment
living skills care and daily independent living, including the
Independent living
personal management skills needed to interact
with others, daily living skills, financial management
skills, and the self-management of health care/
wellness needs.
Social skills Social skills are behaviors and attitudes that Education
facilitate communication and cooperation (e.g., Employment
social conventions, social problem solving when
engaged in a social interaction, body language,
speaking, listening, responding, verbal, and written
communication).
Interagency Interagency collaboration is a clear, purposeful, Education
collaboration and carefully designed process that promotes Employment
cross-agency, cross-program, and cross-disciplinary
collaborative efforts leading to tangible transition
outcomes for youth.
Parental Parental involvement means parents/families/ Employment
involvement guardians are active and knowledgeable
participants in all aspects of transition planning
(e.g., decision making, providing support, attending
meetings, advocating for their child).
Student support Student support is a network of people (e.g., Education
family, friends, educators, adult service providers) Employment
who provide services and resources in multiple
Independent Living
environments to prepare students to obtain their
annual transition and postsecondary goals aligned
with their preferences, interests, and needs.
(continued)
244 Chapter 13
Table 13-1 (continued). Evidence-Based Predicators

Transition A transition program prepares students to move Education
program from secondary settings (e.g., middle school/ Employment
high school) to adult life, utilizing comprehensive
transition planning and education that creates
individualized opportunities, services, and supports
to help students achieve their postschool goals in
education/training, employment, and independent
living.
The above evidence-based predictors and outcome areas were originally determined through a systematic review
of secondary transition correlational literature. Adapted from Test, D. W., Mazzotti, V. L., Mustian, A. L., Fowler, C.
H., Kortering, L., & Kohler, P. (2009). Evidence-based secondary transition predictors for improving postschool
outcomes for students with disabilities. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 32(3), 160-181. https://doi.
org/10.1177/0885728809346960. Rowe et al. (2015) then conducted a Delphi study to operationalize the definitions of
those predictors by surveying 22 experts in the field of transition education (pp. 118-123).
As with any other skill attainment, students need explicit instruction in learning, and ABA rooted
practices can facilitate this. While these standards include synoptic concepts and terminology that
contain a wide array of implications for implementation and practice, they are specific educational
practices that can be used to master the needed skills for careers. We can go beyond the overarching
use of these successful frameworks in addressing the college and readiness skills of individuals with
disabilities specifically geared toward preparing students to become their own change agent.
Our Framework
To best support students with disabilities in their postsecondary endeavors, we propose a frame-
work to best teach transition skills that can further be expanded to a broader literature base of CCR
using ABA strategies. Figure 13-1 shows the important skills within transition and CCR literature
and highlights ABA strategies used to teach those skills. The overlapping skill areas between transi-
tion and CCR are categorized as self-determination and social skills.
Applied Behavior Analysis Strategies

At the basis of instruction and the roots of special education lies the basic principle of ABA,
partly because it entails studying and managing behavior to bring about change. Because transition
planning is a complex process detailed in a student’s IEP, which entails specific instruction, services,
and supports, the instructional strategies of ABA also work seamlessly without the transition con-
tent. ABA has proven successful in changing targeted behaviors across educational settings, various
ages, and types of disability categories. From the individualization of the IEP, creation of goals and
objectives, functional behavior assessments to Behavior Intervention Plans, ABA practices are very
evident within the special education field. Going beyond special education, the presence of ABA can
also be found in the everyday practices of general education practices pertaining to behavior man-
agement techniques like shaping and positive reinforcement to fix interval timing of weekly quizzes.
While these practices may not have the glaring label highlighting them as ABA practices, they are
consistently used as socially acceptable and preferred within our current educational landscapes to
equip students with the needed skills to be successful.
Table 13-2. NTACT:C Effective Practices

Evidence-Based Research-Based Promising
Check and Connect Communicating Interagency At Work Vocational
Envision IT Curriculum Relationships and Collaborative Rehabilitation Program
Linkages for Exceptional Students Backward Chaining
Parent Training in
(CIRCLES)
Transition Beyond High School Model
Community-Based Instruction
Project SEARCH Computer Assisted
Direct Instruction of Main Idea Instruction
Self-Advocacy Strategy
Internships Constant Time Delay
Self-Determined
Learning Model of Mentoring Differential Reinforcement
Instruction (SDLMI) Multimodal Anxiety and Social Skills FEAT Curriculum
Self-Directed IEP Intervention (MASSI)
Forward Chaining
Take Charge Curriculum One-More-Than Strategy
Most to Least Prompting
Video Modeling Peer-Assisted Instruction and Support
Peer-Assisted Instruction/
Person Centered Planning Support plus Simultaneous
Response-Prompting Prompting
Self-Management Instruction Peer Networking
Self-Monitoring Instruction Intervention
Service Learning Post-School Achievement
Through Higher Learning
Simulated Instruction
Skills (PATHS) Curriculum
Structured Inquiry
Progressive Time Delay
Student Directed Transition Planning
Simultaneous Prompting
Lesson Package
Social Skills and Sports
Whose Future Is It? Plus, Rocket Reader
Program Curriculum
Curriculum
System of Least Prompts
Working at Gaining Employment Skills
(WAGES) Curriculum Take Action: Making Goals
Happen Curriculum
Total Task Chaining
Total Task Chaining plus
Prompting
Video Modeling plus
Constant Time Delay
Full table with operational definitions and student populations can be found at transitionta.org. Adapted from National
Technical Assistance Center on Transition: The Collaborative. (2022). Effective practices in secondary transition: Operational
Definitions. https://transitionta.org/wp-content/uploads/docs/Updated_EBP_Definitions_June_2022.pdf
246 Chapter 13
Figure 13-1. Transition and CCR across ABA strategies.
One of the key concepts associated with ABA is social validity, ensuring the behavior change ap-
plies to socially important behaviors. With that in mind, preparing students to meet their long-term
postsecondary goals is a much-needed behavior that has considerable social validity, especially since
the expectation is they will eventually be responsible for navigating that independently. As educators
and/or behavior specialists, we must equip our students/clients with the needed behaviors to be suc-
cessful in college/job training and chosen careers.
Preslie’s disability often impacts the way she interacts with peers in and outside of the classroom.
Ms. Haydar assesses Preslie’s transition skills and social-emotional skills using two formal assessments
that contain strong validity and reliability evidence: Transition Assessment and Goal Generator (Martin
et al., 2015) and Adaptive Behavior Evaluation Scale (McCarney & House, 2017). The Transition
Assessment and Goal Generator showed Preslie has a strength in identifying positive support systems
and disability awareness and weaknesses in interacting with others and goal setting and attainment.
The Adaptive Behavior Evaluation Scale showed Preslie has a strength in all the skills in the practical
construct (i.e., functional academics, health and safety, home living, community use) and a weakness
in the construct of social communication skills. Ms. Haydar and Mr. Lorenzen decide the best way to
provide instruction on both transition and CCR skills is through ABA research-based strategies.
Social Skills
Social skills are a key to positive transition outcomes and CCR because we must use them to
interact and communicate with others in everyday situations, particularly at work and higher educa-
tion settings. According to Rowe and colleagues, “Social skills are behaviors and attitudes that facili-
tate communication and cooperation (e.g., social conventions, social problem solving when engaged
in a social interaction, body language, speaking, listening, responding, verbal, and written commu-
nication)” (2015, p. 122). Deficits in social skills are a significant barrier to postsecondary access
and employment (Chiang et al., 2013). On average, 42% of all workers, more than 65 million, hold
jobs where social skills are reported as the most important aspect of the job, while only 19% of jobs
found social skills the least important aspect of the job (Pew Research Center, 2020). Individuals with
disabilities tend to need explicit instruction in understanding and exhibiting the appropriate social
skills, including understanding and monitoring their own and responding appropriately to social
and environmental cues.
Using Applied Behavior Analysis to Teach Social Skills

Within ABA, there are several strategies to facilitate social skill acquisition, including incidental
teaching, prompting, and modeling. Of course, using specific and general reinforcement through ver-
bal praise and other methods are always encouraged to teach new behaviors and motivate students to
continue using those behaviors (Cooper et al., 2020; Leach, 2010). Social skills are widely researched
and used across a multitude of settings, ages, and disabilities. Social skills instruction needs to be
intentional; however, it can be embedded into daily classroom routines and academic instruction or
set aside as its own curriculum and instructional time. Rowe et al. (2015) recommends integrating
social skills instruction across academic subject areas in both general and special education settings.
In the ABA world, this is a form of incidental teaching that uses natural contexts like classrooms
to promote skills in communication and social interactions (Hart & Risley, 1975; Leach, 2010). For
many academic core subjects, social skills are weaved into academic standards. For instance, com-
munication is a part of the Common Core State Standards as speaking and listening competencies.
Addressing these speaking and listening standards (like group discussions, public speaking, debates,
and analyzing) fits into daily classroom routines for core academic subject areas of literature, social
studies, and science. Other ways to embed social skills instruction into academic content is through
group discussions and projects.
Another way to facilitate social skills in the classroom is through prompting. Prompting social
and communication skills would encompass various levels of both verbal and nonverbal prompts.
For instance, a nonverbal prompt for students to engage in a conversation, answer a question, or ask
a question could be a predetermined cue like a shoulder tap, an encouraging nod, or a hand gesture.
Nonverbal prompts like those would benefit the student as a lesser level of prompting than a partial
or full verbal prompt in this case as that would not call too much attention to the student within the
classroom setting. Other visual aids can serve as prompts to remind students of the rules of conversa-
tion, a checklist for engagement, or rules to abide by during group projects or discussions.
Lastly, another way to incorporate social skills instruction into daily routines in the classroom is
through modeling. Providing examples through audio and audio-visual recordings or in-person sce-
narios can provide individuals with a model for engaging in conversations, communicating needs,
and engaging in classroom discussions. The level of modeling can vary from role-playing scenarios
with or without scripts; showing examples and nonexamples of the rules of conversation with class-
mates or through fictional characters in books, movies, and television shows; or the teacher can
model the appropriate way to respond in a naturalistic manner for the student to practice by repeat-
ing word for word. These easily incorporated strategies are helpful for individuals with and without
disabilities to help ensure successful transitions to postschool life in college, career, and independent
living.
More explicit instruction in social skills may be needed for students who have significant deficits
in social skills; for these students, scholars recommend social skill curriculums (Rowe et al., 2014),
such as the Program for the Education and Enrichment of Relational Skills, also referred to as PEERS
(Laugeson, 2014); Skills to Pay the Bills (U.S. Department of Labor Office of Disability Employment
Policy, n.d.); and Strategies for Teaching Based on Autism Research (STAR) Program (Arick et al.,
2015). While most curriculums may cost money, Skills to Pay the Bills is a free curriculum to teach
employability skills; communication; enthusiasm and attitude; teamwork and networking; problem
solving and critical thinking skills; and professionalism. Each of the six concepts relate to social
248 Chapter 13
skills in the workplace making it an ideal curriculum to use for transition-age youth. In addition,
many ABA strategies are incorporated in the lessons including modeling, video-modeling, provid-
ing examples/nonexamples, and also allowing for numerous opportunities to practice social skills in
natural environments (i.e., incidental teaching).
In adherence with the basic foundational dimensions of behavior, generalization is needed for
social skills. As with most behaviors, this is especially true for social skills; individuals need to be
able to demonstrate the appropriate use across a variety of contexts and situations. Social skills are
considered a behavioral cusp; they allow for consequences beyond the immediate change itself, and
they expose the individuals to new environments, reinforcers, contingencies, responses, and stimu-
lus control (Cooper et al., 2020). Teaching loosely can be a way to facilitate this generalization of
social skills; this can be accomplished by varying the noncritical aspects of the instructional process
randomly. A simple example of teaching loosely consists of having a student return a greeting from
others. This can be varied from different individuals initiating the greeting, with various forms of ap-
propriate greetings, and in various settings. The student will still receive the same reinforcement for
displaying the targeted behavior, but it might look different in each situation, leading the student to
produce the behavior in the future in their natural environment.
Self-Determination
Self-determination itself is not a behavior analytic term; however, self-determination is a name
of a skillset in which many of the skills that make it up represent specific behaviors. According
to Rowe et al. (2014), self-determination represents a set of skills including self-advocacy, self-
awareness, disability awareness, goal setting and attainment, choice making, and problem solving.
Transition literature dating back a few decades emphasizes the importance of self-determination
skills (Mithaug et al., 1987; Shogren et al., 2015a; Wehmeyer, 2006). In fact, individuals with higher
levels of self-determination are more likely to obtain and retain employment and attend postsecond-
ary education environments (Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003). The benefits of self-determination in-
struction improve life satisfaction for individuals with disabilities (Martin & Wiliams-Diehm, 2013).
Powers et al. (2012) found that providing instruction in self-determination increased graduation
rates, which then enabled students to attend postsecondary education settings. Encouraging and
allowing students to make decisions regarding their futures through student-focused planning has
increased self-determination (Kohler & Field, 2003; Warger & Burnette, 2000). To accomplish this,
we must move away from a system where teachers maintain full control of the decision-making
process and instead value students’ active participation and collaboration in these processes (Agran
& Brown, 2015).
Self-determination increased when practices were used to enhance students’ choices and de-
cision-making skills (Karvonen et al., 2004). Teaching students with disabilities the skills associ-
ated with self-determination has allowed them to become the change agents of their own behavior
(Agran & Brown, 2015). Self-advocacy is an aspect of self-determination that needs to be part of the
conversation when discussing the skills needed for postschool success. Self-advocacy is the action
of representing oneself and views. When students understand the importance of taking the lead role
in advocating for their best interests, they are becoming more autonomous in the process of self-
managing their own lives, which is a must in postsecondary and career settings (Daly-Cano et al.,
2015; Hart et al., 2018).
Self-determination, although not called by name, is also represented as the CCR skills of self-
advocacy, critical thinking and problem solving, and grit/resilience/perseverance. Within the ABA
realm, self-determination is represented through self-management, self-monitoring, goal setting, and
attainment skills. Self-management promotes an individual’s awareness of their own behavior and
the ability to monitor its change independently (Cooper et al., 2020), which is an important skill
for independence. In addition, goal setting and attainment is a known predictor of in-school and
out-of-school success (Roe et al., 2015). Educators can use ABA practices to instruct and promote
skills within the self-determination skillset (transition and CCR), specifically within self-manage-
ment and goal setting strategies.
Strategies related to self-determination were most effective when students received instruc-
tion pertaining to the specific skills needed to control their own behaviors (Wehmeyer, 2014). This
focus on the behaviors related to self-determination has led the concept of self-determination to
move beyond transition planning into the field of behavioral support (Agran & Brown, 2015). Self-
determination represents a potentially powerful intervention as it gives students opportunities to
manipulate the setting events, antecedents, and consequences present in their environment and, in
doing so, reduce their dependence on external change agents. Second, by giving students this advan-
tage, it changes their role and allows them to, in fact, be their own change agents (Agran & Brown,
2015 p. 406). By teaching an individual the skills associated with self-determination (e.g., make
choices, problem solve, set goals, evaluate options, attain goals, accept consequences), we are empow-
ering them to be responsible for their behavior. This is especially true in the self-determination skill
of self-management (Niesyn, 2009).
Self-Management
Self-management falls under the umbrella term of self-determination; it consists of a per-
son intentionally acting a certain way to change subsequent behaviors (Cooper et al., 2020). Self-
management involves deliberate actions influencing one’s behaviors in order to influence self-se-
lected outcomes (Browder & Shaprio, 1985). This includes an individual considering their personal
preferences, abilities, and judgment to make choices to manage one’s own affairs (Sandjojo et al.,
2018; Wehmeyer & Abery, 2013). Self-management can be an effective intervention for broad ap-
plication and is adaptable for differing goals, ability levels, and preferences for individuals with
an intellectual disability (Sandjojo et al., 2018). It allows individuals to live a more efficient daily
life, break bad habits, accomplish difficult tasks, and achieve personal lifestyle goals (Cooper et al.,
2020). Additionally, it impacts behaviors not accessible to external changes and promotes the gen-
eralization and maintenance of behaviors. Self-management is also beneficial across environments
and the end results can be rewarding for individuals (Cooper et al., 2020). Self-management’s
multitude of benefits across varying individuals with different needs allows for a wide array of
implementations for individuals with disabilities and for the promotion of generalization and
independence through shifting control of behavior from teacher to student (Hume et al., 2009;
Newman et al., 2000).
Self-Monitoring
In higher education settings, there is an increased need for students to assume more responsibil-
ity and self-advocacy. This is due to the changing legal responsibilities and protections, higher-level
academic demands, responsibility and accountability for one’s own learning, and a need for self-
initiated social interactions (Dente & Coles, 2012). Self-monitoring as an intervention is commonly
used to address social behaviors among various ages, settings, and disabilities (Ganz, 2008). Cooper
et al. (2020) define self-monitoring as a recording procedure that involves an individual observing
their own behavior and recording the occurrence or nonoccurrence of a target behavior. The term
can also be referred to as self-recording and self-observation and is often used with other interven-
tions like goal setting and feedback (Smith & Ward, 2006). When using self-monitoring, the final
goal includes behavior awareness, strategies on how to monitor and change the targeted behaviors,
and a full understanding of the need and benefits to changing the behavior (Cooper et al., 2020).
The overall benefits of self-monitoring include few training sessions, can be taught by individuals
without an ABA background, easily implemented, and conspicuous in a variety of settings, the latter
being especially true in our technology savvy world of smart phones and recording devices.
250 Chapter 13
It would be a dream come true for all adults to have a personal assistant available to help with
time management, organization, and task completion, but in reality, most will have to rely on them-
selves, so they must have the ability to plan and implement the needed skills. Self-monitoring pro-
vides individuals the ability to observe their own behavior with visual evidence of accomplishment
(or lack) of assignment/task completions, study/preparation time, class/work attendance, and time
management, which all can be conducted on a smartphone. Teaching a student this valuable skill
while still in a secondary setting can be a beneficial tool across many settings in life so they can rely
on themselves in the future for monitoring their own behaviors and being their own change agent.
Goal Setting and Attainment

When discussing self-determination and incorporating teaching a student how to self-manage
and self-monitor their own behavior, they need to know what the targeted behavior is and what they
would like to accomplish. In order to manage and monitor one’s own behavior, there must be a goal
to work toward and a plan on how to accomplish the goal. A goal is “the object or aim of an action,
for example, to attain a specific standard of proficiency, usually within a specific time limit” (Locke
& Latham, 2002, p. 705). Goals allow students to be the causal agent in their own life (Shogren et al.,
2015b), which has proven to be effective for students with disabilities in the areas of academics and
transition planning (Williams-Diehm et al., 2019). Explicitly teaching students how to create ben-
eficial goals and breaking those goals up into smaller components aids in goal attainment, making
the behavior more process oriented than just an abstract overall concept. Creating a process to ac-
complish the goal allows for the means to take action in accomplishing the desired behavior (Martin
et al., 2014) and leads to postschool success, including postsecondary enrollment and employment.
Since we know the importance of goal setting and attainment, it is important we instruct students
how to navigate the process as independently as possible.
Teaching Self-Determination Skills Using

Several ABA strategies can be used to teach students the needed self-determination skills. For
example, teaching self-management often requires scaffolding and using reinforcement schedules,
visual aids, and prompting strategies. Self-advocacy can be taught through prompting, role playing,
student-led IEP meetings, and self-managing and monitoring their own behaviors.
Again, incidental teaching can be used for self-determination skills like choice making, problem
solving, and self-advocacy.
Goal setting is not an intuitive skill—many individuals need to be taught how to set realistic
goals and the action steps to accomplish them. Teachers can facilitate goal setting and attainment
through several free resources aimed at improving transition outcomes for students, such as Take
Action (German et al., 2000; Martin & Huber-Marshall, 1995; Martin et al., 2014) and SDLMI (Raley
et al., 2018; Shogren et al., 2015b; Shogren et al., 2019). These two resources facilitate behavior ana-
lytic goal writing and a systematic way to track progress to attain goals.
The ChoiceMaker Curriculum (Martin & Huber-Marshall, 1995) has a goal-setting strand called
Take Action. The full curriculum is free online on the Zarrow Center for Learning Enrichment’s
website (ZarrowCenter.ou.edu). The Take Action curriculum is a research-based intervention that
supports goal setting and attainment for students with disabilities (German et al., 2000; Martin et al.,
2014). The Take Action strand includes lesson plans, teacher and student resources, video model-
ing, and graphic organizers. The graphic organizers are great tools for teachers and students to use
when learning about goals, setting goals, breaking down goals into manageable parts, and tracking
progress toward goal attainment. Take Action can be incorporated into general education, special
education class, or during person-centered planning. Teachers wanting to implement Take Action
can plan on spending about 1 hour teaching students about goals and goal setting through the lesson
plans provided and about 30 minutes per week checking in on goal progress.
The SDLMI (Shogren et al., 2019) is a free online curriculum focused on goal setting and at-
tainment (https://selfdetermination.ku.edu/homepage/intervention/), and research has continually
supported its benefits to students with disabilities (Raley et al., 2018; Shogren et al., 2014). Using the
SDLMI, students learn how to set goals, make choices and decisions, create plans to work toward
goals, and track progress toward attaining goals. The curriculum includes a teacher manual, student
reproducibles, and graphic organizers. The authors of the curriculum suggest spending 15 minutes
two times a week using the SDLMI, making it easily incorporated into weekly classroom routines
within general or special education classroom through individual or whole class implementation.
Ms. Haydar decides to use the Skills to Pay the Bills curriculum to teach Preslie needed commu-
nication and social skills for 45 minutes one time a week. The skills and information learned through
Skills to Pay the Bills will help Preslie at future worksites and in the classroom during class projects,
discussions, and interacting with peers. She also makes an intentional effort to provide visual prompts
for Preslie to engage with peers. Preslie and Ms. Haydar decided on a “nose-tap” as a nonverbal cue to
respond to peers or initiate conversations with classmates. Together, they also decided to use a checklist
as a self-monitoring strategy to support Preslie in group discussions and projects. Lastly, Ms. Haydar
will intentionally be aware of incidental teaching opportunities for Preslie.
In addition, Mr. Lorenzen wants to help Preslie build some self-determination skills. As a guidance
counselor, Mr. Lorenzen provides weekly support to small groups of students to help selected members
increase their social and emotional skills, and he decides to put Preslie into one of those groups. During
the weekly 45-minute lesson, Mr. Lorenzen will provide instruction in goal setting and attainment using
the Take Action curriculum with all the students in the small group to work on personal, academic, and
future transition goals.
As a result of the collaboration between Preslie’s case manager and counselor, Preslie receives nu-
merous opportunities to practice and use social skills and self-determination skills during the week with
about 90 minutes a week in the specialized group settings (one time for 45 minutes with Skills to Pay
the Bills and one time for 45 minutes with Take Action). Preslie also utilizes visual aids and nonverbal
cues to engage with peers in other educational settings. Preslie benefits from the use of ABA strategies to
gain important transition and CCR skills, and she will be more likely to obtain positive post-high school
outcomes.
Social skills and self-determination skills are important skills for students to learn in school to
support future postschool ventures. Through the use of ABA strategies (e.g., prompting, visual aids,
incidental teaching), teachers can intentionally instruct these skills within their regular classroom
routines or through direct instructional time with minimal time commitments. We also strongly
encourage teachers to implement positive reinforcement systems to encourage learning and use of
appropriate social skills and self-determination skills.
Summary
ABA strategies and methodology have been used successfully for decades to facilitate skill ac-
quisition and change behavior. Contrary to popular belief, ABA strategies are not just for young chil-
dren and can help secondary students in planning for their future lives after high school. This chapter
connected two common theories for future planning of transition and CCR by illuminating key
skills needed for post-high school success. In using ABA strategies, students can learn and practice
research identified skills within transition and CCR areas like self-determination and social skills.
Both social and self-determination skills are linked to positive post-school outcomes in employment
and education, making them ideal skills to target for secondary-age students to learn while in high
school. Teachers should utilize ABA strategies to help students learn social and self-determination
skills, practice these skills, and encourage students to use them in a variety of environments.
252 Chapter 13
Chapter Review
1. What are the three key outcomes associated with transition?
2. What is Halpern’s definition of transition?
3. How does IDEA define special education?
4. What are some of the key components of self-determination?
5. What are CCR skills?
6. What two resources facilitate behavior analytic goal writing and a systematic way to track prog-
ress to attain goals?
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14
Acceptance and Commitment
Therapy for Teachers
and Students
A Prosocial Approach to
Classroom Management and
Social and Emotional Learning
Heather Eisel, PhD, BCBA-D, LBA; Tracy E. Sinclair, PhD, BCBA-D;
and Michael G. Gentile, PhD
INTRODUCTION
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), a contemporary cognitive behavioral
therapy, can be integrated into classroom instruction to promote social and emotional
competence (SEC) in teachers and students. Prosocial behavior is a fundamental component
of social and emotional learning (SEL) and includes identification of shared purpose
between individuals or groups, effective communication, cooperation, leadership, cultural
competence, and providing support or help to others. A Prosocial classroom model
mediates students’ academic and behavioral outcomes and is characterized by high-
quality teacher–student relationships, optimal classroom management, and an enriching
classroom climate. This chapter will provide educators a practical, hands-on approach to
building Prosocial classrooms using ACT and simple operant behavior principles.
Carr, R. N. (Ed.).
256 Chapter 14
Chapter Objectives
ȘȘ Define and explain the importance of SEL and SEC for students and teachers.
ȘȘ Identify behaviors within Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning
(CASEL)’s five core SEL competencies and give examples.
ȘȘ Define Prosocial as it relates to SEL and give examples of Prosocial behavior.
ȘȘ Analyze the six core processes of ACT and explain how they relate to the five core SEL
competencies.
ȘȘ Facilitate classroom activities using the ACT/Prosocial Matrices, DNA-v values and
strength spotting cards, and mindful listening exercise.
KEY TERMS
• Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT): An evidence-based behavior therapy compris-
ing of six core training processes aimed at helping individuals create a rich, full, and meaningful
life while accepting the pain or difficulty that goes with it. ACT is designed to help people better
contact their reinforcers.
• ACT/Prosocial Matrix: A tool or organizational map commonly used in ACT that promotes
the integration of individual and collective interests within and between groups or individuals.
• DNA-v: Youth model of ACT adapted for adolescents.
• Flexible Strength: Synonymous to psychological flexibility in DNA-v, the youth model of ACT,
flexible strength is the ability to use discoverer, noticer, and advisor (DNA) skills in a way that
promotes growth and builds vitality and valued action.
• Mindfulness/Present Moment Awareness: When individuals attend flexibly, fluidly, and vol-
untarily to the immediate internal and external environment.
• Prosocial: The act of getting along and cooperating with others.
• Psychological Flexibility: The ability to be in the present moment with full awareness and
openness to one’s experience and to take action guided by one’s values; the ability to “be present,
open up, and do what matters,” the ultimate goal of ACT.
• Self-Compassion: The practice of being kind and understanding to oneself when confronted
with personal failings or shortcomings; behaving to oneself as one would a close friend when
they experience difficulty, failure, or notice something they do not like about themself.
• Self-Management: The personal application of behavior change tactics that produces a desired
improvement in behavior.
• Social and Emotional Competence (SEC): The knowledge, skills, and attitudes that are asso-
ciated with positive youth and adult outcomes that are teachable; the competencies needed to
interact effectively with others and to make, maintain, and deepen relationships; an outcome of
SEL.
• Social and Emotional Learning (SEL): The process through which all young people and adults
acquire and apply the knowledge, skills, and attitudes to develop healthy identities; manage
emotions and achieve personal and collective goals; feel and show empathy for others; establish
and maintain supportive relationships; and make responsible and caring decisions.
• Values: Chosen immediate qualities of ongoing patterns of action that are verbally established
as reinforcers; verbal rules that act as motivating operations.
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy for Teachers and Students 257
“When educating the minds of our youth,

we must not forget to educate their hearts.”
—Dalai Lama
An important shift, or evolution, has happened in education that signals a new opportunity for
emotional prosperity for teachers and students. Ironically, this shift was initiated by a global pan-
demic. Inequitable conditions involving class, race, and disability that had been present before the
pandemic were exacerbated by school closures. Communities of color and communities with lower
income experienced barriers to distance learning and increases in COVID-19 infection and related
deaths (Cipriano et al., 2020; Coyne et al., 2020; Reich et al., 2020). English-language learners and
students with disabilities lost important support systems with the move to online instruction, and
teachers struggled to replace those systems in students’ homes (Reich et al., 2020). While educators
may not fully understand the aggregate impact of the pandemic for some time, states have prioritized
SEL to mitigate the damage the pandemic inflicted on our communities and educational system
(Yoder, 2020). Once thought of as an educational luxury and ancillary to academic instruction, SEL
has taken its rightful place as a crucial component to successful and maintained recovery from one
of the most destructive events to public education in modern history.
Social and Emotional Learning:

Educating the Whole Child
Districts have increasingly focused resources the past few decades on policies and instruction
to address nonacademic skills, such as college and career readiness, bullying prevention, substance
abuse prevention, responsible citizenship, and character development to meet the growing and di-
verse needs of students (Durlak, 2015; Elias et al., 1997, 2015). In 1994, a group of educators, youth
advocates, and researchers met at the Fetzer Institute in Michigan to discuss a plan to promote the
academic, social, and emotional competence of students. The Fetzer Group coined the term “social
and emotional learning” to describe a conceptual framework that encompassed a broad range of
behavioral, social, and emotional skills (Durlak, 2015). The group established the CASEL to promote
SEL in research and practice throughout K-12 schools across the United States. CASEL defines SEL
as:
The process through which all young people and adults acquire and apply the knowledge,
skills, and attitudes to develop healthy identities; manage emotions and achieve personal
and collective goals; feel and show empathy for others; establish and maintain supportive
relationships; and make responsible and caring decisions. (CASEL, 2021)
The CASEL SEL model comprises five core behavioral competencies that together foster SEC:
(a) self-awareness, (b) self-management, (c) responsible decision making, (d) relationship skills, and
(e) social awareness. Each core competence area is defined and subdivided into component skills. For
example, self-management is defined by CASEL as “the ability to manage one’s emotions, thoughts,
and behaviors effectively in different situations and to achieve goals and aspirations” (CASEL, 2021).
Self-management skills include identifying and using stress-management strategies, managing one’s
emotions, setting personal and collective goals, and planning and organizing. Self-management is an
evidence-based approach commonly used in ABA, where it is defined as “the personal application of
behavior change tactics that produces a desired improvement in behavior” (Cooper et al., 2020). See
Table 14-1 for a full description of the CASEL five core competencies.
258 Chapter 14
Table 14-1. The CASEL Five Core Competence Areas

Competence Definition Examples
Area
Self-Awareness The ability to understand one’s own • Identifying one’s emotions
emotions, thoughts, and values and how • Demonstrating honesty and
they influence behavior across contexts integrity
• Linking feelings, values, and
thoughts
• Examining prejudices and
biases
Self-Management The ability to manage one’s emotions, • Managing one’s emotions
thoughts, and behaviors effectively in • Identifying and using stress-
different situations and to achieve goals management strategies
and aspirations • Using planning and organi-
zational skills
Social Awareness The ability to understand the • Taking others’ perspectives
perspectives of and empathize with • Demonstrating empathy
others, including those from diverse and compassion
backgrounds, cultures, and contexts • Identifying diverse social
norms, including unjust
ones
Relationship Skills The ability to establish and maintain • Communicating effectively
healthy and supportive relationships and • Resolving conflicts
to effectively constructively
• Showing leadership in
groups
• Standing up for the rights of
others
Responsible The ability to make caring and • Identifying solutions for per-
Decision Making constructive choices about personal sonal and social problems
behavior and social interactions across • Learning to make a rea-
diverse situations soned judgment after
analyzing information, data,
and facts
• Recognizing one’s role to
promote personal, family,
and community well-being
Empirical Support for Social and Emotional Learning

Research has consistently shown improved academic and nonacademic outcomes in schools
that provide well-implemented and comprehensive SEL training. For example, a meta-analysis of 213
universal K-12 SEL programs conducted by Durlak et al. (2011) showed significant improvements
in student social and emotional skills, attitudes, and academic performance (an 11-percentile point
gain was seen in academic achievement). Other meta-analyses have reported beneficial outcomes in
antisocial behavior, substance abuse, and self-image (e.g., Sklad et al., 2012; Taylor et al., 2017). SEL
instruction may reduce significant problem behavior, such as bullying and aggression (Espelage et
al., 2016) and improve overall mental health outcomes (Cramer & Castro-Olivo, 2016). In addition,
short- and long-term research in CASEL’s Collaborating Districts Initiative showed district-wide
improvement in academic performance and attendance and significant decreases in suspensions
(Kendziora & Yoder, 2016).
Implementation of Social and Emotional Learning

Findings from research underscore the importance of using SAFE practices during the develop-
ment and implementation of any SEL program. SAFE protocols, described below, have produced
positive student outcomes in six areas: (a) social and emotional skills, (b) attitudes toward self and
others, (c) positive social behaviors, (d) conduct problems, (e) emotional distress, and (f) academic
performance.
S: Sequenced. Does the program use a connected and coordinated set of activities to achieve
their objectives relative to skill development?
A: Active. Does the program use active forms of learning to help youth learn new skills?
F: Focused. Does the program have at least one component devoted to developing personal
or social skills?
E: Explicit. Does the program target specific SEL skills rather than targeting skills or posi-
tive development in general terms? (Durlak et al., 2011)
Case Study
Year after year, Mr. Brown has noticed his students appear more stressed and tense than the pre-
vious year. He feels they have a harder time completing work and staying focused. They come to class
unmotivated and disorganized. He has seen data to support his observations, such as an increase in
student absences and an overall decline in grades. Looking back at his records from the previous school
year, he noticed he has already written twice as many disciplinary referrals. Mr. Brown is determined to
address these problems and set a goal to incorporate SEL into daily curriculum. To change his students’
behavior, he thought about what a socially and emotionally competent teacher might look like. He de-
cided to begin by modeling the desired behavior.
Mr. Brown was focused on trying to help his students, but he realized he was experiencing some of
the same problems they were. He was having trouble staying focused. His gradebook and desk looked
disorganized. He took longer to provide feedback and became increasingly more reactive to student
misbehavior. Mr. Brown needed to identify his values as a teacher and behave more in congruence
with them in the classroom. Only then could he communicate those values to his students by being
someone they wanted to emulate. Then, he could teach them how to move toward the values they set
for themselves.
260 Chapter 14
Figure 14-1. Hexaflex model. (Adapted

from Dixon, M. R., & Paliliunas, D. [2017].
AIM: A behavior analytic curriculum for
social-emotional development in children.
Shawnee Scientific Press.)
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy

ACT is rooted in the rich history of both behavior and cognitive therapy, in which the once-
separate siloed approaches have blended into contextual cognitive behavior therapy (Twohig, 2012).
ACT is an extensively researched, evidence-based approach to address a broad range of social con-
cerns. While there are clinical applications of ACT, the beauty of ACT is its adaptability for profes-
sionals with nonclinical training to use in nonclinical settings, such as classrooms. Educators can
use ACT both as a tool for self-instruction and with students to help them develop critical skills to
regulate thoughts and emotions. To understand ACT, several key features are necessary to review, the
first of which is the concept of psychological flexibility.
Psychological Flexibility
At its core, ACT is experientially rooted in psychological flexibility. Psychological flexibility is
the ability to connect with the present moment and inner experiences with openness (Hayes et al.,
2006). When one does this, recognition of thoughts transpire with acceptance and without defense,
acknowledging those thoughts exist and moving through those thoughts in the pursuit of personal
goals and values (Hayes et al., 2006). To achieve the goal of psychological flexibility within ACT, six
psychological processes of change are described: (a) acceptance, (b) defusion, (c) being present, (d)
self as context, (e) values, and (f) behavioral commitments. These processes are often described and
visualized in variations of the Hexaflex model shown in Figure 14-1. This model shows the intercon-
nectedness of how the components of psychological flexibility work together to support the philo-
sophical underpinnings of ACT.
Acceptance
This process is the action of embracing inner thoughts and experiences as they happen without
opinion or attitude (Twohig, 2012). Rather than avoiding inner thoughts, one acknowledges and
accepts the thought for what it is—a thought. Many individuals struggle with emotional regulation.
Learning the skill of acceptance can help both teachers and students articulate feelings and emotions.
The ability to label and describe inner thoughts and feelings supports behaviors consistent with SEL
core competencies.
Defusion
Cognitive defusion and fusion are exact opposites, in that being fused to one’s thoughts involves
taking inner thoughts literally and, as a result, allowing them to wield considerable power (Twohig,
2012). Defusion allows one to acknowledge inner thoughts as just words, which diminishes their
ability to exert power or influence over behavior. Application of fusion or defusion is situation-
dependent; applying this skill to oneself as a teacher or teaching this skill to students can mitigate
pervasive negative thought patterns.
Being Present
This process is as straightforward as it sounds—rather than focusing on the past or the future,
one is present in the here and now. The general definition of present moment awareness is “flexible,
fluid, and voluntary attention to internal and external events as they are occurring, without attach-
ment to evaluation or judgment” (Twohig, 2012, p. 503). For students who spend a considerable
amount of time worrying or ruminating over potential scenarios, learning the skill of present mo-
ment awareness can help them engage in active refocusing.
Self as Context
Perceptions of who we are as people are closely tied to self-evaluations, categorizations, and
beliefs about ourselves that develop from our learning histories (Twohig, 2012). We tend to hold
tightly to self-conceptualized images of who we are, even when presented with alternative evidence
and other opinions or beliefs. This may lead to conflict about ourselves—we must “protect” this
perception of who we “are.” Within ACT, the self is defined within the context. “...The self is the place
of awareness or perspective taking that allows internal or external events to be experienced from ‘I/
here/now’ without being defined by those events” (Twohig, 2012, p. 503). Essentially, who we are can
and may change contingent on the context of the situation, environment, and individuals involved.
This can be particularly powerful when working with students who engage in behaviors inappro-
priate for the classroom environment. Students often determine they are a “bad kid” because they
display “bad behavior”; separating self from the context of the behavior allows for educators to focus
on the behavior itself.
Values
Values are “elements of life that we care about that motivate us to engage in certain activities”
(Twohig, 2012, p. 503). These values are ultimately individually chosen; however, many may share
common values with others. In contrast to goals, values are not discrete, attainable actions, but rather
provide guidance or meaning for those actions. For example, a teacher may hold closely the value
of being a culturally responsive and sustaining educator. An associated goal may be to integrate in-
structional content within read-aloud books that amplifies diverse voices. The goal is closely aligned
and driven by the value, but it can be accomplished by a specific action. The value is an overarching
continuous process. Clarifying values for ourselves and students allows us to gain access to the rein-
forcing qualities of working through difficult or aversive tasks.
262 Chapter 14
Behavioral Commitments
This skills-based aspect of the ACT Hexaflex can be viewed as a culminating behavior that “gen-
erally involves enacting one’s values, while practicing acceptance, defusion, being present, and treat-
ing oneself as the context where inner experiences occur” (Twohig, 2012, p. 504). Within the larger
framework of approaches to support teachers and students, defining behavioral commitments allows
individuals to work in service of their values through goals supported by interventions rooted in
ACT-based principles.
Similarities Between Acceptance and

Commitment Therapy, the Hexaflex, and
Social and Emotional Learning Competencies
ACT and the five core SEL competencies analogously provide social-emotional supports for
individuals struggling to manage both inner (private) and outer (public) behavior. The broad adapt-
ability of both SEL- and ACT-based approaches allows educators to support all students in indi-
vidualized and meaningful ways. As we continue in the chapter, we will explore specific strategies
and tools that educators can incorporate into their personal practice to support social-emotional
wellness.
Mr. Brown focused on a personal goal of increasing psychological flexibility. He started defusing
from his negative thoughts by rephrasing them. For example, when upsetting thoughts, such as “I’m a
terrible teacher,” came up during lessons that were not going as planned, he would think or say, “I’m hav-
ing the thought that I’m a terrible teacher” or “I guess I’m buying the thought that I’m a terrible teacher.”
This allowed him to distance himself from his negative internal dialogue. He practiced acceptance by
writing down a positive attribute and negative attribute about himself and examining the situations, or
contexts, in which they were or were not “true.” He practiced being present by doing a focused breathing
exercise between classes. He built these brief activities into his daily schedule with reminders. He shared
his values by writing them down and posting them in the classroom. He set values-based action steps
and changed or modified them when he realized what was working and what was not.
Teacher Social and Emotional Competence

and the Prosocial Model
Jennings and Greenberg (2009) introduced a Prosocial classroom model, which places teacher
SEC and well-being as the mediating factor in student SEL outcomes. Teachers who are socially
and emotionally competent have supportive, strong relationships with students and positive class-
room climates. Conversely, teachers who are exhausted and stressed are at risk for a host of personal
and classroom management problems that could lead to a “burnout cascade” (Brasfield et al., 2019;
Jennings & Greenberg, 2009, p. 492). Thus, teachers must develop and maintain high levels of SEC in
order to model and promote that behavior in students.
Research supports the use of interventions that foster teacher SEC within the Prosocial class-
room framework. Jennings et al. (2017) examined the effects of an SEL program for teachers in mea-
sures of psychological and physical distress, emotion regulation, teaching efficacy, and mindfulness.
Within one school year, teachers showed improvements in classroom climate, emotion regulation,
mindfulness, sleep, and lower levels of psychological distress. Results from other studies indicated
increased levels of self-efficacy for behavior management (Domitrovich, 2016) and improved teach-
ing practices (Blewitt et al., 2020).
The preliminary framework developed by Jennings and Greenberg (2009) highlights an im-
portant instructional trend in modeling that can be applied to classrooms with powerful results.
Teacher behaviors do not just shape the context of the classroom environment; teacher behaviors
are the context. It is simply not enough to expect students to comply with the traditional aphorism
“Do as I say, not as I do.” When Jennings and Greenberg (2009) describe the socially and emotion-
ally competent teacher, they imply a theory of change rooted in the following transformation and
based on simple behavioral contingencies: student observes teacher behavior → student accesses
potent reinforcements → student emulates behavior of the teacher. This contingency framework can
be explicitly diagramed using contextual behavioral science (Zeetle et al., 2016). A Prosocial model
developed by Atkins et al. (2019), rooted in contextual behavioral science, can provide a sequenced
guide for teachers.
Over a few weeks of sticking to his plan, Mr. Brown noticed the daily exercises became easier, and
his behavior became more flexible in the classroom. His students noticed, too. They began asking ques-
tions and made the following comments: “Mr. B, how did you stay so calm when you spilled your coffee
on your laptop? You would’ve totally freaked out before”; “Why does your desk look clean now”; and
“Thanks for noticing that I wasn’t feeling well yesterday—I honestly didn’t think you cared that much.”
He shared with them some of the exercises he learned, but he knew that he would need the help of a
systematic, well-designed program to affect meaningful and lasting change. That is when Mr. Brown
found Prosocial. He collaborated with colleagues across different areas of expertise and implemented
group exercises he thought would be most beneficial.
Prosocial Schools and the Acceptance and

Commitment Therapy/Prosocial Matrix
Atkins and colleagues (2019) developed a program called Prosocial based on the work of Nobel
Prize winning economist, Elinor Ostrom. Rooted in evolutionary science and contextual behavioral
science, Prosocial provides a framework and explicit step-by-step process for managing collabora-
tive, socially equitable, and effective groups of all types. The Prosocial process has been adapted and
used in businesses, governments, schools, and families to help individuals and groups within these
organizations identify shared purpose, set goals, resolve conflict, and work harmoniously with each
other. While Jennings and Greenberg’s Prosocial Classroom Model presented a strong rationale and
framework for the supported development of teacher SEL, the Atkins et al. (2019) model provides
a hands-on, evidence-based guide for educators. The Prosocial process comprises eight core design
principles (CDPs), adaptable and beneficial to any classroom: (1) shared identity and purpose, (2)
equitable distribution of contribution and benefits, (3) fair and inclusive decision making, (4) moni-
toring of agreed behaviors, (5) graduated responding to helpful and unhelpful behavior, (6) fast and
fair conflict resolution, (7) authority to self-govern (according to the first six principles), and (8) col-
laborative relations with other groups. CDP 1 defines the group or classroom and its purpose, which
creates a sense of belonging, caring, and buy-in. CDPs 2 through 6 aim to “balance self-interest with
collective interest, seeking to suppress selfish individualism while encouraging creativity, individual
engagement, and cooperation” (Atkins et al., 2019, p. 36). CDP 7 permits the classroom to govern
itself. Finally, CDP 8 involves cooperation in congruence with Prosocial’s eight CDPs at other levels
of organization, such as with other classrooms, schools, and districts.
264 Chapter 14
A powerful tool used in the Prosocial process is the ACT/Prosocial Matrix. The matrix was
originally developed by Polk et al. (2016) to efficiently train psychological flexibility using six steps:
1. Setting up point of view
2. Understanding the effectiveness of away moves
3. Hooks and the problem with control efforts
4. Verbal Aikido
5. Training self-compassion
6. Harnessing the power of perspective taking
We shift our focus now to an adapted version of the original Matrix used within the Prosocial
context, the ACT/Prosocial Matrix (see Figure 14-2 for the individual tool and Figure 14-3 for the
collective/group tool). The ACT/Prosocial Matrix can be used to comprehensively facilitate SEL in
the classroom by incorporating all five SEL competencies or skill sets into one classroom activity.
The ACT/Prosocial Matrices are flexible and adaptable tools that can be used in multiple dif-
ferent ways with different types of groups. Table 14-2 is a suggested progression of instructional
steps for the collective matrix for teachers who are new to ACT and Prosocial. As always, when in-
corporating individual or collective matrices into classroom instruction, pay close attention to how
the group responds to questions in the four quadrants and adapt the tool to fit your group’s needs.
The matrix can be displayed on PowerPoint (Microsoft), a Smartboard (Smartboard Inc.), paper, or
drawn on a whiteboard.
An ACT-based approach developed specifically for adolescents is the DNA-v model, described
next. There are freely available resources for educators to implement this model in classrooms, much
like the Prosocial Matrix.
DNA-v
Hayes and Ciarrochi (2015) developed an ACT-based model called DNA-v to build psycho-
logical flexibility, referred to as flexible strength, in youth. As with other ACT-based models, it is
firmly grounded in contextual behavioral science and operant behavior principles. DNA-v uses met-
aphors for the skill sets present in ACT’s psychological flexibility. The “D” represents the Discoverer,
or functional behaviors related to “exploring and testing the world” (Hayes & Ciarrochi, 2015,
p. 17). Discoverer skills include taking steps toward an important goal, meeting new people to make
friends, and allowing a student to try out new behaviors and learn from consequences. Discoverer
skills instruction teaches self-awareness (self-confidence and self-efficacy), self-management (self-
motivation), and responsible decision making (reflecting) skills in the SEL competencies. The “N”
in DNA-v represents the Noticer, or behaviors related to mindfulness, identification of emotions,
and awareness of the surrounding environment. Noticer skills develop SEL competencies in self-
awareness (identifying emotions) and self-management (impulse control, stress management, and
self-discipline). The “A” represents the Advisor, or behaviors related to cognition and language. The
advisor is our inner dialogue that problem solves, criticizes, judges, predicts, and worries. Advisor
skills foster skill acquisition in SEL competency areas of responsible decision making (identifying
problems, analyzing situations, and solving problems).
Figure 14-2. The ACT/Prosocial Matrix personal/individual tool. (Adapted from the Prosocial Matrix developed by Atkins,
P. W., Wilson, D. S., & Hayes, S. C. [2019]. Prosocial: Using evolutionary science to build productive, equitable, and collaborative
groups. New Harbinger Publications.)
Figure 14-3. The ACT/Prosocial Matrix collective/group tool. (Adapted from the Prosocial Matrix developed by Atkins, P.
W., Wilson, D. S., & Hayes, S. C. [2019]. Prosocial: Using evolutionary science to build productive, equitable, and collaborative
groups. New Harbinger Publications.)
266 Chapter 14
Table 14-2. Scripted Step-by-Step Guide for the

Collective Acceptance and Commitment Therapy/Prosocial Matrix
Steps Description
Step 1: Introduce the matrix Say: “This is a noticing tool called the matrix. It can help us look
at things in ways to help us become more flexible in our thinking
and feeling and act in ways that move us toward what’s important
to us, even when it’s challenging. We can make better choices
using this tool.”
Step 2: Explain the layout Point to the bisecting lines and say: “The vertical line represents
of the matrix our internal (inside) and external (outside) experiences. Internal
experiences are things like feelings, thoughts, and memories.
External experiences are things we can experience in the outside
world with our five senses. The horizontal line represents our
behavior and which direction it goes. We move toward people
and things that are important to us, the things we want more
of. We move away from the inner experiences we don’t like, the
things we want less of.”
Point to the upper and lower quadrants and say: “Answers to the
questions in the top two quadrants refer to our inner thoughts
and feelings. Answers to the questions in the bottom two
quadrants refer to our outer actions.”
Step 3: Start with Say: “What matters most to us about being part of this class? This
quadrant #1 can include things like needs, ways in which we want to behave,
goals, values, and people.”
Model: Write two to three items yourself for this quadrant and
elaborate on them. Next, ask the students again and write student
responses as they volunteer.
Step 4: Move to Say: “If we were living in line with what matters in #1, what would
quadrant #2 we be doing in this situation? This is where we write outer actions
(behavior) that others could see us doing. This can include things
like completing homework, showing up to class on time, or
helping classmates.”
Step 5: Move to Say: “What thoughts and feelings might show up to get in the
quadrant #3 way of us moving toward the things we wrote in #1 and #2? This
can include things like fear, sadness, anger, feelings of resentment,
worry about being judged by others, or not caring.”
(continued)
Table 14-2 (continued). Scripted Step-by-Step Guide for the

Collective Acceptance and Commitment Therapy/Prosocial Matrix
Steps Description
Step 6: Move to Say: “If there was a camera on the wall, what would it see us
quadrant #4 doing when we get stuck by our thoughts and feelings in #3?
Like quadrant #2, these are observable outer actions. These are
behaviors we do to move away from the hard stuff in #3. This can
include things like not showing up for class, not participating,
misbehaving in class by arguing, or speaking to someone
unkindly.”
Step 7: Move to section #5 Say: “The things we wrote in #3 and #4, the left side, are not ‘bad.’
under quadrant #4 They are things we do when we experience uncomfortable or
difficult stuff. But the actions or behaviors we do in #4, even
if they work now, may not work well for us in the future if we
want to live a life we value and are proud of. We must be kind to
ourselves about this. Let’s think of strategies as a group, ones we
can do now, that might be more in alignment with what we came
up with in #1.”
Model: Write one or two items yourself for this quadrant and
Step 8: Wrap-up/closure Say: “Thanks so much to all of you for showing bravery and
vulnerability. These are difficult things to talk about. We can have
check-ins periodically to make sure we are staying focused on our
shared purpose as a class and working toward what matters to us
as a group.”
268 Chapter 14
At the end of the year, the changes Mr. Brown noticed in himself and his students convinced him the
time he spent on SEL paid off. Ironically, he had initially worried he couldn’t squeeze in time for even
very short SEL activities; now, he felt he could no longer teach without them. He made the decision to
transform his room into a Prosocial classroom. He incorporated activities into daily instruction from
the adolescent model of ACT, DNA-v (Ciarrochi & Hayes, 2020; Hayes & Ciarrochi, 2015; https://dnav.
international/). He continued his defusion exercises, which kept him from getting too “stuck in his head”
at work. When he made decisions in the classroom, he connected them to his values. His students’ grades
and behavior improved dramatically. He felt less burned out.
Summary
This chapter emphasized the growing need for behavioral, social, and emotional supports for
teachers and students in a time of great uncertainty. Students do not show up to the classroom as
empty vessels ready to be filled with new knowledge and insight. They carry with them their own
personal learning histories, which include a diverse range of painful and joyful events that shape how
they respond to the classroom environment. Similarly, teachers are not empty vessels any more than
students; they have simply had more time to collect experiences that either expand or narrow their
behavioral repertoires as educators. Because our education system has consistently undervalued the
roles that SEL and character development play for both teachers and students, the nation is cur-
rently experiencing an educational crisis. Underappreciated, undertrained, and underpaid teachers
are burned out. Students often lack self-management skills necessary to live independent lives they
value. We sincerely hope the suggestions presented in this chapter provide a strong foundation on
which teachers can build higher levels of vitality and emotional wellness for themselves and for their
students.
Resources
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy

• DNA-v: https://dnav.international/
• Connect (DNA-v for young children): https://www.connect-pshe.org/
• Accent-Identify-Move (AIM): https://www.acceptidentifymove.com/
• PEAK Relational Training: https://www.peak2aba.com/
Prosocial
• Prosocial World: https://www.prosocial.world/
• Prosocial Schools: https://www.prosocialschools.org/
Association for Contextual Behavioral Science

• ACBS: https://contextualscience.org/acbs
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy/

RFT Training and Workshops
• New England Center for Obsessive Compulsive Disorder and Anxiety (Evelyn Gould, Ph.D.,
BCBA-D): https://www.newenglandocd.org/training-and-consultation
• Praxis: https://www.praxiscet.com/
• Connections: https://connections-behavior.com/
• SixFlex: https://www.sixflextraining.com/
• Steven C. Hayes, PhD: https://stevenchayes.com/
• Louise Hayes (cofounder of DNA-v): https://www.louisehayes.com.au/
• Siri Ming, BCBA-D: http://siriming.com/
Chapter Review
1. What is the purpose of SEL, and how did it begin?
2. List the five core SEL competencies developed by the CASEL and give examples of each.
3. Why have schools recently prioritized SEL?
4. How has SEL evolved from being student centered to teacher centered? Why is teacher SEL
important?
5. Describe the research base supporting well-implemented, systemic SEL programs. According
to this research, what socially important behaviors may be influenced by well-implemented
SEL programs?
6. What are ACT and Prosocial? How can teachers use them to provide SEL in the classroom?
7. Using examples from the CASEL five SEL behavioral competencies, list some examples of
Prosocial behavior.
8. What are the Prosocial eight CPDs? How can they be used to support a Prosocial climate in
the classroom?
9. What is self-management?
10. Define values. How can identifying personal values help students and teachers enhance their
own SEC?
References
Atkins, P. W., Wilson, D. S., & Hayes, S. C. (2019). Prosocial: Using evolutionary science to build productive, equitable, and
collaborative groups. New Harbinger Publications.
Blewitt, C., O’Connor, A., Morris, H., Mousa, A., Bergmeier, H., Nolan, A., Jackson, K., Barrett, H., & Skouteris, H. (2020).
Do curriculum-based social and emotional learning programs in early childhood education and care strengthen
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Brasfield, M. W., Lancaster, C., & Xu, Y. J. (2019). Wellness as a mitigating factor for teacher burnout. Journal of Education,
199(3), 166-178. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022057419864525
Ciarrochi, J. V., & Hayes, L. L. (2020). Your life your way. New Harbinger Publications.
Cipriano, C., Rappolt-Schlichtmann, G., & Brackett, M. A. (2020). Supporting school community wellness with social and
emotional learning (SEL) during and after a pandemic. Edna Bennet Pierce Prevention Research Center, Pennsylvania
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Collaborative for Academic Social and Emotional Learning. (2021, August). What is the CASEL framework? https://casel.
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Coyne, L. W., Gould, E. R., Grimaldi, M., Wilson, K. G., Baffuto, G., & Biglan, A. (2020). First things first: Parent psycho-
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Domitrovich, C. E., Bradshaw, C. P., Berg, J. K., Pas, E. T., Becker, K. D., Musci, R., ... & Ialongo, N. (2016). How do school-
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Durlak, J. A. (Ed.). (2015). Handbook of social and emotional learning: Research and practice. Guilford Publications.
Durlak, J. A., Weissberg, R. P., Dymnicki, A. B., Taylor, R. D., & Schellinger, K. B. (2011). The impact of enhancing stu-
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character development. Corwin Press.
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social and emotional learning: Guidelines for educators. Ascd.
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Hayes, L., & Ciarrochi, J. (2015). The thriving adolescent: Using acceptance and commitment therapy and positive psychology
to help young people manage emotions, achieve goals, and build positive relationships. Context Press.
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John Wiley & Sons.
15
Application Scenarios
Scenario 1
A’dron is a 10th-grade student at Lincoln High School. He is a 16-year-old biracial male with an
IQ score of 83 and no known diagnosis. He does not have an Individualized Education Program or
functional behavior assessment and has never received additional support services through the school.
He did move often throughout elementary school because his father was in the military, but he
has been in the same school for the past 4 years.
He is on the basketball team but struggles to maintain eligibility each week due to grades that
fluctuate between high Ds to low Bs. He claims that he loves his history teacher (who is also his
basketball coach), his girlfriend, and even the principal at Lincoln. He has many friends and is often
noted as being the class clown, though many of his teachers note he is “unmotivated” to do “real
academics” and is “somewhat disruptive” during class with his jokes and wisecracks. Not only is he
on the verge of losing his position on the basketball team but also on needing to repeat a few of his
classes next year. The principal has talked to him already about this possibility, and A’dron noted he
would “drop out before he repeated these damn classes” (both of his siblings dropped out before 11th
grade). The principal is working hard to decrease the chance of either of those occurring.
A’dron has a history of missing class or arriving late, especially to his first class of the day and the
first class after lunch (they have an open campus where he often hits up Taco Tico for a few tacos and
then hangs out in the parking lot with his friends). These also happen to be his least preferred classes
(Introduction to Spanish and Pre-Algebra).
His principal is trying to get a handle on what behavior might be contributing to the low grades
(knowledge issue, motivation issue, etc.). Figure 15-1 shows data submitted by the teachers when
asked for a week of data on his homework submissions and attendance. Of note, his Financial Literacy
class (a basic math class teaching how to budget money, interview for a job, and use basic computer
software) is taught by his Pre-Algebra teacher.
Carr, R. N. (Ed.).
272 Chapter 15
Week of Tardy/Absent Homework Notes

September Missed (X) or % earned
19-25
M Tu W TH F M Tu W Th F
Hour 1 T T A 71 X X X
Intro to
Spanish
Hour 2: A 79 86 X
English II
Hour 3: 86 82 89 90 Most of his work in
Financial this class is group
Literacy work.
Hour 4: 77 88
History
Lunch
Hour 5: T A T T A 83 X X 84
Pre-Algebra
Hour 6: A A 0 One assignment
Science II per week is
submitted (on
Fridays) for a
possible 200
points. Submission
includes all five lab
reports from the
week.
Hour 7: A 100 0 100 100 100 Grade is based on
Basketball/ attendance.
Gym
T = A’dron was more than 1 minute late for class. A = A’dron missed all of the class. X = Homework was assigned but
not turned in completed. # = Grade A’dron received on the assignment. If left blank, no work was assigned on that day.
Figure 15-1. A’dron’s attendance and homework data.

Application Scenarios 273
If you were A’dron’s principal and teacher, how might you go about this? Consider work from
each chapter as you start to make a plan for how to best help A’dron. See Figure 15-1 related to the
data collected during this time as well. I’ll help you get started with a few questions to consider:
• What other questions can we ask about his academics?
• What behavior(s) should you prioritize and define?
• Who are the important stakeholders, and what role should A’dron have in this process?
• How might planning for transition help A’dron?
• How do cultural considerations play a role?
Scenario 2
JJ is a third-grade, male, Asian-American student at Purcell Elementary School. He has a diag-
nosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorder (level 2), and post-trau-
matic stress disorder. He lives with his mom and maternal grandmother during the week and his
father on the weekends. Both parents are invested and want to see JJ be more successful. He does not
have any siblings.
JJ’s behavior file is starting to get thick in the discipline office. His special education coordinator,
teacher, and parent have already discussed how there is currently very little work being completed in
the classroom. His current day consists mostly of activities he wants to do (watch the iPad [Apple],
read a few specific books, and go to recess) and teachers attempting to not upset him. Currently, the
school is suggesting JJ should only attend school for half a day each day; this would significantly
impact his family since no one is available to watch him at home, and someone would have to quit
their job. All stakeholders are open to consideration of multiple options but also want to be sure they
have made valiant efforts before resorting to this. Two weeks ago, they assigned a one-on-one staffer
for his first 2 hours at school (to help with the transition from home), and his teacher started a token
economy with him immediately for task completion and staying in his seat.
His last academic testing placed him at first grade in reading, but third grade in math. He has an
IQ score of 65 and is currently receiving instruction in a resource room with five other students. His
teacher is well trained in autism spectrum disorder and many other intellectual disorders, and she
is often given the “hard kids” in her classroom. Due to this, there are times more than just JJ is hav-
ing a difficult day and requiring more supports than typical in a day (extra staffing sent to the room,
students have eloped, rooms have been cleared).
JJ’s teacher had one class in behavior principles in college and digs out her old textbook. She
determines that the behaviors causing the most issues in the classroom are his screaming (not actual
words just loud, disruptive noises that can last up to 30 seconds per scream and be heard in the class-
rooms next door), elopement (running out of the classroom and down the halls into the cafeteria,
other classrooms, or even outside toward the road), and being mean to his peers (calls them names,
threatens them, says he hopes they die in a car wreck on the way home, etc). She attempts to take
data over the course of a few days for what is going on at different times of day in an attempt to find
patterns. Figures 15-2 through 15-5 provide the information she gathered during indirect and direct
assessment. She also asked the parents to start a parent log; each morning they were to write down
how the morning went. Finally, she made changes to her classroom organization and rules to ensure
her expectations were understood. She even had a peer come take data on her own behavior of giving
behavior-specific praise to him across 2 days.
274 Chapter 15
3/14 3/15 3/16 3/17 3/18 3/21 3/22 3/23 3/24

Screaming 32 28 14 29 16 45 23 18 30
Elopement 2 1 1 2 1 4 2 3 1
Rude 16 8 13 2 12 21 3 9 6
comments
Figure 15-2. Frequency data for each target behavior for whole school day.
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

BSP Week 1 IIIIIIIIII IIII I IIII IIIIIII
BSP Week 2 IIIIIIII II IIIIII IIIII
Figure 15-3. Frequency of behavior-specific praise toward JJ during 1-hour period (data is taken the first hour after his
one-on-one staff leaves).
• Based on the teacher’s preliminary data, what patterns do you see, if any?
• Where might you start?
• Consider the scenario from each of the chapters. What more information would be helpful?
• What concepts from each chapter are useful in helping JJ?
Application Scenarios 275
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Weekend

3/14 3/15 3/16 3/17 3/18 3/19 to 3/20
JJ went JJ woke up JJ was very Please give I think he JJ listened to
to school irritated. difficult to JJ an extra knows his me most of
excited to see Dressed him get to school snack when numbers the weekend.
you today in his favorite this morning. he gets to from 1 to It was a
after the clothes and He was school, if 5! Yay us! pretty good
weekend. that seemed crying and possible. I (grandma) 2 days. I took
(mom) to calm him saying how didn’t have him back to
down. Hope tired he was. time to feed his mom’s
he doesn’t I hope it is him. (mom) house Sunday
rage today. not a terrible at 8 p.m., our
(grandma) day for you. agreed upon
(mom) time via court
documents.
(dad)
3/21 3/22 3/23 3/24 3/25 3/26 to 3/27
Today is Today was JJ was great Whew, it JJ was yelling JJ had a few
definitely better. He did today. We was a hell of at me this toileting
a Monday! have some were even a morning. morning as I accidents this
He did not screams this early to Maybe he was dressing weekend.
want to go to morning, school by has insomnia? him, and he Overall, he
school today, but I finally 5 minutes! I should refused to ate well, and
and I basically figured out (grandma) consider eat. Ran out I told him he
had to pick he just really giving him of the house. has to start
him up and didn’t want to melatonin. Or Thankfully he listening in
carry him be touched do you know just ran to the school. He
to the car! so he partially of any herbs car. (mom) didn’t run
(mom) dressed I could try? from me at all
himself this Essential oils? this weekend.
morning. (grandma) (dad)
Took longer
than usual,
but it was
good to see
him do a
few things
himself.
(mom)
Figure 15-4. Parent log.
276 Chapter 15
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Weekend

3/14 3/15 3/16 3/17 3/18 3/19 to 3/20
Teacher Sent to office. Sent to office N/A
spoke to him Had to be but returned
in the hallway sent home. to class 15
two times. minutes later.
3/21 3/22 3/23 3/24 3/25 3/26 to 3/27
Sent to office. Sent on walk N/A
Returned 5 in morning
minutes later. to calm
down. Sent
to principals
after lunch.
Returned to
class calmer.
Figure 15-5. Discipline referral data.
Glossary
Abstinence Only: Abstinence is the expected standard of behavior for teens.

Abstinence-Plus: Stresses abstinence but also includes information on contraception and condoms.
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT): An evidence-based behavior therapy comprising
of six core training processes aimed at helping individuals create a rich, full, and meaningful life
while accepting the pain or difficulty that goes with it. ACT is designed to help people better con-
tact their reinforcers.
Acquisition Stage: The initial stage of learning. When attempting the skill independently, the stu-
dent is not accurate or fluent in the skill.
ACT/Prosocial Matrix: A tool or organizational map commonly used in ACT that promotes the
integration of individual and collective interests within and between groups or individuals.
Adaptation Stage: The final stage of learning. The stage in which a student is accurate and fluent in
the skill but lacks the ability to modify or adapt the skill to fit different situations.
Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence (ABC) Data: Data collected on the antecedents and conse-
quences that occasion a behavior of interest.
Antecedents: Environmental stimuli that precede a behavior of interest.
Antecedent Techniques: A proactive approach of manipulating an environment prior to and inde-
pendent of the occurrence of target behaviors.
Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA): The science in which the principles of the analysis of behavior
are applied systematically to improve socially significant behavior and experimentation is used to
identify the variable responsible for behavior change.
Attention Function: Refers to the purpose of a behavior when it is primarily reinforced and main-
tained by social stimuli.
Automatic Reinforcement: Refers to the purpose of a behavior when the behavior itself provides its
own reinforcement without the need for another person.
Carr, R. N. (Ed.).
278 Glossary
Aversive Stimulus: An event or stimulus that is intended to function as a punisher to decrease the
future probability of behavior when delivered or presented consequently for that behavior. For
example, a fine for speeding.
Backward Chaining: A process for teaching chained skills where instruction begins by teaching the
last step in the sequence, then proceeding to teach the second-to-last step once the last step is
mastered, and so on.
Behavior-Specific Praise (BSP): A consequent technique where an affirmation is paired with a stu-
dent’s specific behavior that may function as a reinforcer and increase the likelihood of that stu-
dent demonstrating the same behavior in future occurrences.
Bias: A liking or prejudice for or against someone or something (Harry et al., 1999).
Chained Skill: A skill that consists of multiple observable steps or observable responses that need to
occur in a specific sequence.
Collaboration: The “voluntary, interpersonal interactions comprising of two or more professionals
engaging in communication modalities for the purposes of shared decision making and problem
solving toward a common goal” (Kelly & Tincani, 2013, p. 129).
College and Career Readiness (CCR): The standards needed to prepare students for the domestic
workforce demands whether their path includes college or training.
Competitive Employment: Work performed on a full-time or part-time basis where individuals
are compensated at or above the minimum wage, comparable to the rate paid to other employees
without disabilities in similar positions, in inclusive settings (interactions with others without
disabilities), and with opportunities for advancement like other employees without disabilities.
Comprehensive Sexuality Education (CSE): Provides medically accurate age-appropriate infor-
mation about abstinence, as well as safer sex practices including contraception and condoms
as effective ways to reduce unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections (STIs).
Comprehensive programs also usually include information about healthy relationships, commu-
nication skills, and human development, among other topics.
Conditioned Reinforcers: Stimuli that have been paired with other reinforcers and become rein-
forcers themselves over time; also called secondary or learned reinforcers.
Conjoint Behavioral Consultation: “A dynamic framework for educational efforts which endorses
collegial, interdependent, and coequal styles of interaction between at least two partners work-
ing jointly together to achieve common goals in a decision-making process that is influenced by
cultural and systemic factors” (Welch & Sheridan, 1995, p. 11).
Consequences: Stimulus changes that come after a behavior of interest.
Consequent Techniques: Events following behaviors which may increase behaviors (i.e., positive/
negative reinforcement) or decrease behaviors (i.e., positive/negative punishment).
Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcement is provided for every instance of the target/replace-
ment behavior.
Controlling Prompt: The least intrusive prompt that the learner will consistently respond to.
Cost-Benefit Ratio (or Risk-Benefit Analysis): A process of evaluating the risks/harmful side ef-
fects of an intervention vs. the benefits/positive side effects of an intervention before conducting
a behavior analytic based assessment and/or before implementing a behavior-based intervention.
For example, one should consider the risks/harmful side effects of using time-out procedure for
severe aggression and the potential benefits that may result from the intervention.
Criterion-Referenced Assessment: Used to develop goals for an individual and to measure a stu-
dent’s progress, or lack thereof, on a specific goal. This form of assessment tends to have less
reliability and validity as they are not standardized and are often locally developed. This form of
assessment looks at an individual’s ability to master a specific skill or concept (Miller et al., 2012).
Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM): Initially designed to assess the learning growth of stu-
dents with disabilities. CBMs are standardized and have been proven to be reliable and valid. This
Glossary 279
form of measurement requires multiple “probes” to be used to best assess the student’s overall
growth of the concept. CBMs are an alternative to other assessment measures. The materials and
content used with CBMs are similar to what the students use and see everyday. The main under-
lying principle of CBM is that the measure being used to assess understanding aligns with the
curriculum being used to educate the student (Hosp et al., 2016).
Data-Based Decision Making: Choosing instructional and behavioral strategies and supports based
on data related to a student’s progress.
Dependent Group Contingencies: Group contract where behavior of one or a few students deter-
mines if whole group earns reinforcers; called hero procedure.
Deprivation: An item is unavailable and thus often becomes more desirable; its value increases.
Differential Reinforcement: Where one response is reinforced while withholding reinforcement for
another response class, provides reinforcement contingent on the individual displaying the re-
placement (i.e., ideal) behavior, and does not provide reinforcement when the problem behavior
is present (Cooper et al., 2020).
Direct Instruction: Evidence-based teaching method where interactions are highly structured, fast
past and build on mastery through prompting, errorless correction, and explicit instruction.
Discriminative Stimuli (SD): Stimuli that signal the availability of reinforcement given a particular
behavior.
Discrete Skill: A skill that consists of a single observable step or single observable response.
DNA-v: Youth model of ACT adapted for adolescents.
Duration Recording: Direct observation data collection method by identifying the amount of time
the behavior lasts from start to finish.
Escape Function: Refers to the purpose of a behavior when it is primarily reinforced and maintained
by the delay, avoidance, or escape of a stimulus. Often a stimulus the individual finds aversive.
Event Recording (also known as Frequency Recording): Direct observation data collection meth-
od by identifying the number of times a behavior occurred by counting the occurrences.
Evidence-Based Classroom Management: Use of classroom practices to support student behavior
shown to be effective through high-quality research.
Exclusionary Time-Out: A procedure for implementing time-out where, contingent on the occur-
rence of the behavior (i.e., typically an inappropriate or harmful behavior), the student is either
instructed, guided, or physically removed from the reinforcing/current environment until a pre-
determined criterion is met. For example, removing a student from recess for 3 minutes (prede-
termined criteria) is contingent upon that student hitting their peer.
Explicit Bias: The mental processes involving both awareness and volition (Elek & Miller, 2021).
Extinction: Withholding reinforcement for a specific behavior that previously received that
reinforcement.
Family–School Partnership: The student’s core family members and school leaders and teachers
work together to support the needs of the child.
Flexible Strength: Synonymous to psychological flexibility in DNA-v, the youth model of ACT, flex-
ible strength is the ability to use discoverer, noticer, and advisor (DNA) skills in a way that pro-
motes growth and builds vitality and valued action.
Fluency Stage: The second stage of learning. The student accurately completes target skills but lacks
fluency (speed of response).
Forward Chaining: A process for teaching chained skills where instruction begins by teaching the
first step in the sequence, then proceeding to teach the second step once the first step is mastered,
and so on.
Frustrational Range: Takes place during the acquisition stage. When attempting the skill indepen-
dently, the student struggles to perform the target skill and becomes frustrated with the task at
hand.
280 Glossary
Functional Behavior Assessment (FBA): An assessment of the environmental variables that influ-
ence behavior in order determine the purpose of the behavior.
Functional Equivalent Replacement Behavior (FERB): The selection of a replacement behavior
that serves the same function as the challenging behavior targeted for reduction. For example,
teaching a child to say “excuse me please” as a replacement behavior to get someone’s attention
instead of hitting.
Functional Hypothesis: An informed explanation about the purpose of a behavior (i.e. function).
Functionally Equivalent: A set of two or more behaviors which serve the same purpose or func-
tion. When two or more behaviors, whether topographically similar or not, produce the same
consequence, they are functionally equivalent. For example, saying “excuse me” to get someone’s
attention and tapping someone on the shoulder to get their attention are functionally equivalent
because both behaviors serve the same function/purpose.
Generalization Stage: The third stage of learning. The student has acquired accuracy and fluency in
target skills but struggles applying the skill to similar situations.
Group Contingencies: A consequent intervention to increase the likelihood of prosocial classroom
behaviors among a group of students taking place in the future.
Hard Skills: A linear progression of behavioral consultation phases to be used in collaborative in-
teractions: (a) problem identification, (b) problem analysis, (c) plan implementation, and (d) plan
evaluation (Kratochwill & Bergan, 1990).
Implicit Bias: The mental processes that lack either full awareness or full volition (Elek & Miller,
2021).
Incidental Teaching: Teaching method where interactions are based on students interests and mo-
tivations and teacher contrives the environment resulting in increased learning opportunities.
Independent Group Contingencies: Group contract but reinforce individual students contingent
on their behavior.
Independent Level: Takes place during the generalization stage. The student can independently
complete the given task.
Independent Living: Living as self-sufficient as possible that maximizes an individual’s choice pref-
erences in where and how they live daily.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA): A law that makes available a Free Appropriate
Public Education (FAPE) to eligible children with disabilities, which includes an Individualized
Education Program (IEP) designed to meet the unique needs of the student, while providing edu-
cational benefit and prepares them for further education, employment, and independent living.
Instructional Range: Takes place during the fluency stage.
Instructional Tactics: Teaching methods precisely selected to achieve specific instructional goals
where individual approaches are uniquely suitable for certain levels of the instructional hierarchy.
Interdependent Group Contingencies: Group contract where all students have to pass the contract
for any student to earn the reinforcer; all for one and one for all.
Interval Recording: Direct observation data collection method by estimating the amount of inter-
vals the behavior occurred vs. did not occur, often shown as a percentage.
Intervention Integrity: The extent to which an intervention is carried out as intended without sub-
tractions or additions.
Latency Recording: Direct observation data collection method by identifying the amount of time
from a prompt to when the behavior either starts or stops.
LGBTQIA+: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, questioning, intersex, asexual, and other non-
hetereosexual orientations.
Matching Law: The principle that the occurrences of the behavior will be allocated in proportion to
each schedule of reinforcement in effect (Cooper et al., 2020).
Glossary 281
Microculture: Within any culture, a number of microcultures arise which share common character-
istics of the larger culture (Hallahan et al., 2019). “Cultural identity is learned as part of our ethnic
group, but it is also developed as part of our religion, socioeconomic status, geographic region,
place of residence (urban or rural), and gender, to name just a few microcultures” (Bryant et al.,
2020, p. 105).
Mindfulness/Present Moment Awareness: When individuals attend flexibly, fluidly, and voluntarily
to the immediate internal and external environment.
Momentary Time Sampling: Direct observation data collection method by conducting observation
only at prescribed moments in time.
Motivating Operations (MOs): Stimulus events that temporarily alter the value of a stimulus as a
reinforcer and the frequency of a behavior reinforced by that stimulus.
Multi-Tiered System of Supports: An umbrella term for organizing school resources to provide
empirically supported prevention and intervention programs proportional to student needs
Natural Environmental Training: Learning strategies that occur in natural settings that are child
directed and often embedded into play or other activities that increase motivation to respond and
generalize.
Negative Punishment: The removal of a reinforcing stimulus or activity contingent upon the occur-
rence of a behavior (i.e., inappropriate, harmful, and/or maladaptive behaviors) which decreases
the future probability of occurrence of that behavior. For example, taking away video game privi-
leges contingent upon Jimmy yelling at his sister (contrast with Positive Punishment).
Negative Reinforcement: The removal or reduction of a stimulus immediately following a behavior
that increases the future occurrence of that behavior and others like it in the future (Cooper et
al., 2020).
Noncontingent Reinforcement: Where reinforcement is provided on a schedule, with no contin-
gency in place, rather it is provided on an interval schedule.
Nonexclusionary Time-Out: A procedure for implementing time-out where, contingent upon the
occurrence of a behavior (i.e., inappropriate or harmful behavior), access to a reinforcing activ-
ity is removed (or the person is removed from the reinforcing activity) until a predetermined
criterion is met while the person remains in the same environment/setting. For example, asking
a student to sit on the bench at the playground during recess for 3 minutes contingent upon the
student pushing one of their peers (contrast with Exclusionary Time-Out).
Norm-Referenced Assessment: Standardized assessments where the scores are based on compari-
sons of the testing population. Norm-referenced assessments typically have detailed instructions
and testing protocols that must be followed to ensure a valid score (Miller et al., 2012).
Observational Assessment: Includes the direct observation of the student and the behavior under
review. By observing a student in a natural setting, under common conditions, the observer can
notate underlying functions of behavior and begin to evolve the environment to best fit the stu-
dent’s needs. Direct observational assessments provide information that was directly seen by the
observer. This information is valuable as it was not collected from other’s accounts of the behav-
ior and the environment it occurred in. Indirect observational assessments provide information
from others who have interacted with the student. This information is gathered from interviews
or questionnaires from caregivers, parents, and educators (Cooper et al., 2020; Hadaway & Brue,
2016).
Operational Definition: A precise description of the behavior in terms of what an observer would
see or hear. Assumptions of internal states are avoided.
Overcorrection: A procedure where contingent upon the occurrence of a behavior (i.e., inappropri-
ate or harmful behaviors), the learner is requested or instructed to engage in an effortful activity
for a predetermined amount of time or a predetermined number of times. For example, contin-
gent upon the student throwing paper on the floor, the student is requested and/or instructed
to walk to the trash can and back a set number of times or for a certain amount of time. Forms
of overcorrection are restitutional overcorrection and positive practice overcorrection (see also
Positive Practice Overcorrection and Restitutional Overcorrection).
282 Glossary
Partial Interval Recording: Direct observation data collection method by identifying how many in-
tervals the behavior occurred at any point during an observational period of time. Partial interval
recording will overestimate how often a behavior occurs.
Percentile Rank: Based on a norm group for the population taking the assessment. Scores go up to
99 and go as low as 1. If a student were to receive a percentile rank of 36, then that would translate
to the student performing higher on the assessment than 36% of test takers. When considering a
percentile rank, it is important to note that for the majority of assessments 50% is considered to
be an average ranking (Miller et al., 2012).
Performance Deficits: Deficits occur when the environment does not support the skill or behavior
sufficiently enough to maintain it (Duhon et al., 2004).
Permanent Product Recording: Direct observation data collection method by reviewing an artifact
the student created to document a behavior.
Personalized System of Instruction: Teaching method that breaks down content into small self-
paced units based on fluency.
Physiological Stress Response: Neurobiological impacts of elicited emotions stemming from trau-
ma and trauma triggers.
Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports: Tiered system of support used by schools that in-
cludes prevention methods from universal to targeted to individualized supports.
Positive Practice Overcorrection: A form of overcorrection, where contingent on the occurrence
of a behavior (i.e., inappropriate and harmful), the learner is requested and/or instructed to re-
peat an appropriate (sometimes behavior incompatible with the challenging behavior) form of
the behavior until a predetermined criterion is met, which may entail an adaptive or educational
component. For example, contingent upon the student biting their hand, instructing the student
to clap their hands repeatedly for a set number of times (e.g., 10; see also Overcorrection and
Restitutional Overcorrection).
Positive Punishment: The addition/introduction of an aversive stimulus or event, contingent upon
the occurrence of a behavior (i.e., inappropriate, harmful, and/or maladaptive behavior), which
decreases the future probability of occurrence of that behavior. For example, a supervisor sends
an email reprimanding the work team after someone arrives late, and the team stops being tardy
to work in the future (contrast with Negative Punishment).
Positive Reinforcement: Stimuli delivered immediately after a behavior and increases the future oc-
currence of that specific behavior (Cooper et al., 2020).
Postsecondary Education: Any education that follows secondary education, which includes univer-
sities, colleges, trade schools, and vocational schools.
Postsecondary Goals: Identify the student’s long-term goals for living, working, and learning as an
adult.
Precision Teaching: Academic student progress is determined by fluency and data is used to ad-
vance a student to new levels.
Precorrection: An antecedent intervention based on reteaching and antecedent prompting to pro-
mote positive teacher–student relationships and appropriate classroom behavior.
Preference Assessment: Assessments to evaluate the student’s preferences for reinforcement; formal
(presentation of options and data collection for items selected most often) or informal (conversa-
tion, surveys).
Progress Monitoring: Systematic collection of data on students’ academic performance or class-
room behavior to drive decision making.
Project Follow Through: Government-funded educational research in 1960s evaluating effective
education strategies.
Prosocial: The act of getting along and cooperating with others.
Glossary 283
Psychological Flexibility: The ability to be in the present moment with full awareness and openness
to one’s experience and to take action guided by one’s values; the ability to “be present, open up,
and do what matters,” the ultimate goal of ACT.
Punisher: A stimulus change that decreases the future occurrence of behavior that immediately pre-
cedes it. For example, instructing Jimmy to sit on the bench during recess when he hits his peer
results in the “hitting” behavior decreasing (see also Aversive Stimulus).
Punishment: A basic principle of behavior that describes the functional relationship between a re-
sponse and its consequence, where behavior is immediately (or with some delay) followed by the
addition of an aversive stimulus or the removal of a reinforcing stimulus which decreases the
future probability of occurrence of that behavior (see also Negative Punishment and Positive
Punishment).
Punishment Trap: An event that immediately suppresses the undesirable behavior of the misbehav-
er, therefore, increasing the likelihood that the implementer will respond similarly in the future
(i.e., reinforcement). For example, if instructing Jimmy to sit on the bench during recess when he
hits his peer results in the hitting behavior decreasing, this decrease in behavior may then rein-
force the teacher’s behavior of “benching” Jimmy in the future.
Rate: A ratio of count per unit of time.
Reinforcement: Stimuli provided after an appropriate (i.e., desirable, replacement) behavior with its
delivery intended to increase the occurrence of that behavior in the future (Cooper et al., 2020).
Replacement Behavior: A behavior selected, taught, and reinforced by an interventionist to replace
a problematic behavior. Replacement behaviors that serve the same function as the problem be-
havior are preferred.
Reprimand: The use of disapproval contingent upon the occurrence of challenging (problem) be-
havior. Reprimands are mostly implemented to decrease the future frequency or probability of
the challenging behavior. For example, saying “no” is contingent upon Jimmy stomping on ants
in the playground.
Response Cost: The removal of a positive reinforcer that the student already has access to is con-
tingent upon the occurrence of a behavior (i.e., inappropriate, harmful, and/or maladaptive be-
haviors), which results in decreasing the future probability of occurrence of that behavior. This
is a form of negative punishment. For example, taking away the video game controller from a
student’s hands is contingent upon the student spitting on his friend.
Response to Intervention: An educational model that uses specific interventions to target known
deficiencies in academic or behavioral performance based on systematic and universal screenings.
Restitutional Overcorrection: A form of overcorrection where contingent on the occurrence of
a behavior (i.e., inappropriate, harmful, and/or maladaptive behaviors), the learner is requested
and/or instructed to repair the damage by returning the environment to its original context AND
to improve the environment to leave it much better than its previous state. For example, contin-
gent upon a learner tearing up a piece of paper and throwing it on the floor, the learner is then
required to pick up the pieces and throw them in the trash in addition to any other trash that is on
the floor (see also Overcorrection and Positive Practice Overcorrection).
Restraint: There are three basic or common types of restraints: personal restraint, protective equip-
ment restraint, and self-restraint. When using physical restraint, the implementer most common-
ly physically restricts and/or blocks challenging behaviors (i.e., inappropriate, harmful, and/or
maladaptive behaviors) by holding the body parts which produce challenging behavior under
the guidelines specified by evidence-based and socially validated crisis management or safety
care procedure. For example, contingent upon repetitive and severe aggression of self-injurious
behavior, the implementer may temporarily restrict access to the person’s arms or legs to mini-
mize injury or harm to the person or others. When using protective equipment restraints, the
implementer may use evidence-based and tested safety equipment (e.g., padded helmets, arm
splints, boxing gloves, padded hand mitts, safety belts, and safety straps), which are specifically
284 Glossary
designed for use during a crisis or emergency to protect individuals from causing serious injury
either to themselves or others. For example, contingent upon repetitive hand-to-head hitting, the
implementer may place a helmet on the individual’s head for safety until a pre-established criteria
is met. Self-restraint is a procedure commonly used by learners who engage in self-injurious be-
havior where the learner either on their own, or when prompted by the instructor/implementer,
engages in behaviors to restrict the occurrence of self-injury or harm to themselves. For example,
sitting on their own hands, placing their arms between folded legs, and wrapping their arms in
tight clothing instead of engaging in self-injurious behavior. Whenever restraint is considered, see
Cost-Benefit Ratio.
Satiation: When a reinforcer is no longer effective for the individual.
Schedules of Reinforcement: Guide the contingencies, or environmental arrangements, which de-
termine when reinforcement is provided as a consequence of a behavior (Cooper et al., 2020).
School-Wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (SWPBIS): Intervention frame-
work that focuses on the whole school across various tiers or levels of need.
Scientifically Based Research: Research that involves the application of rigorous, systematic, and
objective procedures to obtain reliable and valid knowledge relevant to education, activities, and
programs.
Seclusion: The removal of an individual from a reinforcing environment and isolating them from
other individuals to disrupt and intervene on the challenging behavior that places the individual
and others at risk of harm. For example, if an individual engages in severe aggression toward their
peers in the classroom that is unsafe to manage, the individual may be placed in seclusion until a
predetermined criteria is met (see Cost-Benefit Ratio).
Secondary Education: Stage of education following primary education, usually considered middle
and high school in the United States.
Self-Compassion: The practice of being kind and understanding to oneself when confronted with
personal failings or shortcomings; behaving to oneself as one would a close friend when they ex-
perience difficulty, failure, or notice something they do not like about themself.
Self-Determination: The ability to make choices, solve problems, set goals, evaluate options, take
initiative to reach one’s goals, and accept consequences of one’s actions.
Self-Management: The personal application of behavior change tactics that produces a desired im-
provement in behavior.
Self-Monitoring: A recording procedure that involves an individual observing their own behavior
and recording the occurrence or nonoccurrence of a target behavior.
Skill-by-Treatment Interaction: A dynamic relationship between student skill level and instruc-
tional tactics where appropriate alignment of skill and tactics accelerate learning and misalign-
ment impedes learning. Conceptualized by Haring and Eaton (1978).
Skill Deficit: When an individual lacks the skill or behavior in their repertoire (Duhon et al., 2004).
Social and Emotional Competence (SEC): The knowledge, skills, and attitudes that are associated
with positive youth and adult outcomes that are teachable; the competencies needed to interact
effectively with others and to make, maintain, and deepen relationships; an outcome of SEL.
Social and Emotional Learning (SEL): The process through which all young people and adults
acquire and apply the knowledge, skills, and attitudes to develop healthy identities; manage emo-
tions and achieve personal and collective goals; feel and show empathy for others; establish and
maintain supportive relationships; and make responsible and caring decisions.
Social Skills: Skills used every day to interact and communicate with others which include verbal,
nonverbal, written, and visual. They are also referred to as “interpersonal” or “soft skills.”
Social Validity: A measure of the acceptability and appropriateness of the particular assessment
the intervention procedures selected, and the significance/importance of the changes and col-
lateral behaviors produced by the intervention, as determined by the learner (as appropriate), the
Glossary 285
intervention team, caregivers, and other personnel involved in the day-to-day decisions about the
learners’ academic, social, psychological, and physical growth.
Soft Skills: The behavioral artistry work of collaboration can be conceptualized as the essential soft
skills called upon during collaborative interactions, which includes active listening, questioning,
negotiation, leadership, and navigating change (Callahan et al., 2019; Sarno et al., 2018).
Standard Score: A number, the mean, and standard deviation that represents how a student per-
formed on an assessment. The score is not based on the scores of others in the testers population
like a norm-referenced assessment. Standard scores allow for a comparison between assessments,
as the comparison scale remains the same with each administering of the assessment. In most
cases, assessments that use a standard score have a classification system to further explain the
meaning of the score. For example, if a student was administered the Bracken School Readiness
Assessment, Third Edition, and they received a standard score of 92, it would be determined that
the student scored within the average range. The Bracken School Readiness Assessment, Third
Edition classification system states that a standard score between 85 to 115 is considered within
the average range (Fraenkel et al., 2012).
Student Buy-In: Allowing student’s input into their academic or behavioral programming and thus
increasing their investment into the plan.
T-score: Viewed as the level in which a student performed on an assessment. A T-score is relative
to a z-score except the mean is equal to fifty and the standard deviation is equal to 10. A T-score
states the student’s score in terms of standard deviations relative to the mean of 50. For example,
if a student’s T-score for a given assessment was 70, then it would be stated that the student scored
two standard deviations above the mean (Pierangelo & Giuliani, 2015).
Task Analysis: When a chained skill is segmented into single observable steps or observable re-
sponses in order to teach those specific steps or responses.
Targeted Behaviors: The specific behavior selected for change.
Teaching Machines: Educational tool that allows for individualized academic progress based on
mastery criteria.
Token Economies: An intervention where correct behavior is marked by targets and shows progress
toward final goal where tokens can be exchanged for bigger reward.
Total Task Chaining: A process for teaching chained skills where instruction occurs on all the steps
in the sequence at the same time.
Transition Education: Supports, services, and curriculum provided to students that aid and educate
them in moving from public schooling to their adult lives, federally mandated for all students with
a disability starting at age 16.
Treatment Integrity: A measure of the degree to which the treatment is implemented as prescribed
by the intervention plan.
Unconditioned Reinforcers: Natural reinforcers, also called primary or unlearned reinforcers.
Universal Screening: A diagnostic assessment given to all students for the primary purpose of iden-
tifying individuals that would benefit from (or qualify for) targeted, strategic intervention.
Values: Chosen immediate qualities of ongoing patterns of action that are verbally established as
reinforcers; verbal rules that act as motivating operations.
Whole Interval Recording: Direct observation data collection method by identifying how many full
intervals the behavior occurred during an observational period of time. Whole interval recording
will underestimate how often a behavior occurs.
z-score: Used to state a student’s level of performance on an assessment. The z-score is used to deter-
mine how many standard deviations a student scored above or below the mean. Z-scores have a
mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. For example, if a student’s z-score for a given assessment
was -2, then it would be stated that the student scored two standard deviations below the mean
(McLeod, 2019).
Financial Disclosures
Dr. Christopher Bloh reported no financial or proprietary interest in the materials presented herein.
Dr. Kathryn Burke reported no financial or proprietary interest in the materials presented herein.
Dr. R. Nicolle Carr reported no financial or proprietary interest in the materials presented herein.
Dr. Mary Crnobori reported no financial or proprietary interest in the materials presented herein.
Dr. Malarie E. Deardorff reported no financial or proprietary interest in the materials presented
herein.
Mia Dianda reported no financial or proprietary interest in the materials presented herein.
Dr. Art Dowdy reported no financial or proprietary interest in the materials presented herein.
Dr. Heather Eisel reported no financial or proprietary interest in the materials presented herein.
Dr. Michael G. Gentile reported no financial or proprietary interest in the materials presented herein.
Manish Goyal reported no financial or proprietary interest in the materials presented herein.
The contents of Sarah Heiniger’s chapter were developed under a grant from the U.S. Department of
Education, #H325D210042.
Andrew Heuer reported no financial or proprietary interest in the materials presented herein.
The contents of Dr. Brittany L. Hott’s chapter were developed under a grant from the U.S. Department
of Education, #H325D210042.
The contents of Jasmine Justus’s chapter were developed under a grant from the U.S. Department of
Education, #H325D210042.
Dr. Emily M. Kuntz reported no financial or proprietary interest in the materials presented herein.
Dr. Mindy E. Lingo reported no financial or proprietary interest in the materials presented herein.
Dr. Corey Peltier reported no financial or proprietary interest in the materials presented herein.
Dr. Joshua M. Pulos reported no financial or proprietary interest in the materials presented herein.
Dr. Kathleen M. Randolph reported no financial or proprietary interest in the materials presented
herein.
Dr. Benjamin S. Riden reported no financial or proprietary interest in the materials presented herein.
Jana M. Sarno reported no financial or proprietary interest in the materials presented herein.
- 287 -
288 Financial Disclosures
Dr. Lesley A. Shawler reported no financial or proprietary interest in the materials presented herein.
Dr. James Sinclair reported no financial or proprietary interest in the materials presented herein.
Dr. Tracy E. Sinclair reported no financial or proprietary interest in the materials presented herein.
Dr. B. Scott Singleton reported no financial or proprietary interest in the materials presented herein.
Dr. Sara M. Snyder reported no financial or proprietary interest in the materials presented herein.
Dr. Andrea L. Suk reported no financial or proprietary interest in the materials presented herein.
Dr. Amanda M. VanDerHeyden reported no financial or proprietary interest in the materials pre-
sented herein.
Fanee Webster reported no financial or proprietary interest in the materials presented herein.
Leslie S. Williams reported no financial or proprietary interest in the materials presented herein.
Dr. Kendra Williams-Diehm reported no financial or proprietary interest in the materials presented
herein.

Carr, N. (2023) - Applied Behavior Analysis in Schools - Realistic Implementation of Evidence-Based Interventions by Teachers

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Series Editor

Dee Berlinghoff, PhD

R. Nicolle Carr, PhD, BCBA-D, LBA-OK

Instructors: Applied Behavior Analysis in Schools: Realistic Implementation of Evidence-Based Interventions

Library of Congress Control Number: 2023938558

Chapter 1 Big Picture: Behavior Analysis Is More

Chapter 2 Taking on the Elephant in the Room: Classroom Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Chapter 3 Culturally Responsive Collaboration:

Chapter 5 Assessment of Behavior: Preference, Language, Academics,

Chapter 6 Why Are They Doing That?

Chapter 7 Using Reinforcement Strategies to Promote

Chapter 8 You Want Me to Do What?

Chapter 9 When Reinforcement “Does Not Work”:

Chapter 10 Methods to Decrease Behavior:

Chapter 11 Academic Skills Are Behaviors, Too!

Chapter 12 Including the Excluded: Puberty, Development, and

Chapter 13 Using Applied Behavior Analysis Methodology to

Chapter 14 Acceptance and Commitment Therapy for Teachers and Students:

Chapter 15 Application Scenarios. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

Instructors: Applied Behavior Analysis in Schools: Realistic Implementation of Evidence-Based Interventions

Joshua M. Pulos, PhD, BCBA Sara M. Snyder, PhD, BCBA-D (Chapter 8)

Lesley A. Shawler, PhD, BCBA Fanee Webster, MEd (Chapter 11)

Tracy E. Sinclair, PhD, BCBA-D Kendra Williams-Diehm, PhD, BCBA

The Unavoidable First Chapter

Misconception 1: Applied Behavior Analysis Is Only for

Misconception 2: Applied Behavior Analysis Uses Bribes

Misconception 3: Applied Behavior Analysis

Applied Behavior Analysis in Education

Precision teaching was developed by Og Lindsley, a student of B. F. Skinner, and focuses on

Application of Behavior Analysis in Education

Naturalistic Teaching Strategies

Foundation of the Science

Table 1-1. Seven Dimensions of

Nonexample: The skill is taught at

Nonexample: The data show an

Nonexample: The teacher or aide

Table 1-1 (continued). Seven Dimensions of

Nonexample: If the behavior was

Table 1-1 (continued). Seven Dimensions of

Nonexample: Target behavior—The

What Can Lead to a Positive Outcome

Behavior Analyst Perspective

What Can Lead to a Positive Outcome

Why Does Classroom Management Matter?

Classroom Management Using

Applied Behavior Analysis

Unpacking Tier 2 Interventions

White Paper Comments

Table 2-1. Considerations to Implementing

Daily Behavior Report Card

Table 2-2. Daily Behavior Report Card Example

Math Reading Art

Good Behavior Game

Table 2-3. Check-In/Check-Out Example Form

Just Scratching the Surface

Table 2-4. Procedures for the Implementation of

Figure 2-1. Components of Good

Putting It All Together

Finding Your Tools

Resources to Learn More About

Joshua M. Pulos, PhD, BCBA

Laying the Foundation

Figure 3-2. Collaborative