26\ale NUCLEIC ACIDS 2° DNA Ceukanyotv) = 1964 @ RNA croKoryoth) > They alt as repositotlo egransmi tre of genenca messagé 2 => DNA war diswvered by fitechich Miescher. in 1269 Cows scientist) Funcrions Of Nucleic Acid penal tee + chemical wants oF leredlity 2 ACK gs @ renee bank of qoneric informat « maintaining the idenhty of an individual. « Protein synthesis 1s organised into gen — DNA a damental unit = gen ore me fun 04 gen conhol protein cynthuis ence Fomiing ener eae Metabolism = anabolism + catabolism vomponenia called « nucleo sid : inucieoride 4 Nitrggene bare 4 sugay sugay 4, Nihogen ev! base + Phosphat anucieosides + nucleotide = qucleic acid snucluhdn ane the monomen( units og nucleic aud, nuciere acid nine nnihogenow bases eiipimaiie shucure OF + auanine by Punins « adtnine (PUMAD 1b Pyidmidinn © Thymine = cytosine © Gyaul j RNA PNA — GA) CrT ANU Sugans_oF nucleicacicls = pense > 7° RNA 2 O- Ribose sugar SONA — D-Déoxy ribose sugar HORE on o-riose if fl tn OW Hore ot iW D- Didxyyi bose. “ oH| fe \ wlalee chargatt tale - Ewin chagadt equane yiw purine, The width of a Dounle helix ann. © Fuch tum of Helix fs 3-4 am(titel (migimum 10 pairs oF nucieio Hide) | Each paiy plctud ab a distane & | a4 angrimine-fach shand of @ DNA hay o . sagan} drawn hychophi Uc deoxy vibose phosphate >. watt singic bend back none KN e The @ pelynuldoide thant are e8 7° Sp” not dental but complementay 6S — > fe tw eachotnes \ A ° 7 > sThe 2 snands hetped togerner Ps by hydroden bends The tp a-T wet °. a} pau hat 2 hychoqm bonds < 1" 1 / Qee tam paid has 4 hyetrwgen bonds eo { S \ . @ec. ts shonger man 4-1 0 7 Bo a + The complementaty bp in ONAN mv Ov ‘ : prover charga((s yule, That is Sal the contant of N=T a GEC 07 ®o «The genehcal formahon resid on one of the @ stands Known as templet sand. or sense shand = RNA is polymer OF riburructeioe de held togerhes by phosphodienter linkage * Almough RNA hay similar cuith ONA, there ate some dif q) The sugay ia RNA ic ribose v (ena synod The opposite sand is anti-stnye snand i @) RNA contain the pyrannidine viaul in place oF thymine + similar tw ONA (3) RNA usually @ single snanded STRUCTURE OF RNA Home polyjnucotide. but at some times the dy sand may fold at some plaw w& = D-ribost — give double stranded. z (4) uc to single shancded shade on oth there isn. speuttic telarten Ole ssingle shand the conrant o¢ pnine & pyramid. Deans Rea appiied Aausau + RNG —> unsttible shuctune | Lat (s) AlKau can haydholype EWA becUnne OF in the 2" Paste pte BSNS) GNol aaiters id (not the prenerte hydroxy TP gays= organism that book the same dong, » | have tne same gene Type Of RNA > MRNA OF Mesange RNA = naNsFe) Mme genenca) informanon hom Me geno to ibuse tw syns protern, = The same qenotype qiver same Phenotype = Genotype prank inside the body > Herugencous nucicar RNA Cahnen’) as genene material =I CaN be determined by Polymnisy Server ay prewnsor fol MRNA ( chain reachon. CPCRD — > ERNA or MOnifeY RNA eg Blot 910Up | = Nany-e amino addy w mRNA _ caenotype 1s ature inherited from — > #FRNA oF Ribusomal RNA Parent to oft-spring -plovide snuchae mamework fo? @ phenotype : vibuome 4 ee, a = The charatteistic of an onganim 7 Small Nuclear Re “ us whith Me visible are ssmown as = Involved in the mRNA proening Phenotype — Small Grnuriealot RA v1 Sav RNA —~ The same Phenotype May ol May ' jongi | = ey wie 1 the pieuriing oF ern not be belonging tw some genohy pe. | ~ Exprasion of gener ay ! — Small vytoplagmic 01 S¢ RNA appearence 9 bcgna -lavolved in tne stlechon of — not, innwrited from porenh. motein. - detemined by observation Cdited) > Thansger mesenger RNA or EMRVA —_ connotied by genotype

faLlos arerting Epigenthy - ditt - obeity = physical aceivi ry ~ Tabac smoling — alcohol consumpnon = mental stress = €nviyonmenta) potlutanh.| OPeron, seapnt’ | An opevan is a tuncridnal_ unit A af DNA comprising Muster oF genes contrlied by a Single | pumdtory) 9 | ogee at eyo [e[s “Jv Le} ———— shuctural gene + Genene Fequidtory system with numenvus genes hansuiped fom a siNgle promotor. into a single RNA, ; « Mulnple snuctuyal geno oganised unde Sieneva) SMULIUTE of an operon = AN operyn comprise» 3 fundamental ONA coMbonank (1): Promo (2) Operar (3) Shultuta) gene Promotuy = Mucieioride sequent that pemit the hansaiption of a gene. - RNA Polymerase rewyanise the promotor and indua fdnsaipnon.” ~ Prombtoys signal whith gene are he used for MRNA synthenis. : Opera ~ tk 1s Me ONA sequenus in which Q reprnsuy attaches = Ir IS the region biw pyomotw ‘&p strulrural gene : ‘ ge snucrural gent) ‘pu These ave tne gene that call fey rrayme pwkein. LAC - operon = seen in cull elt is the fyst disuovered oprvon whith degyade me mink prt Callecl lactuse. sft i. an inducible open whoo opevalut iy inhibited by fepyenoy | in the absenu of lactuse. sin the absence of induces Cer ET) naw Reprensor MRNA, ecpress0T sos IN the pracnu OF induce | Poly mere € | Poled 0 o | 2 Y | a / een ER ‘a6 L i) operon v im. alae em. ansace- Inaucer Slane PDE Hai «The, operon tunisia of promorey, operiatey and 3 gener 5 tat z, lacy fac all — qalactusi dase slay 3 pe cane oa Ay, ayeartsocelylare i ina - + vatattridase mn brea Vallore inte qluvose ap qalecres® Lacruse galacto sideat 5 gluon + gaaace™ Ye+ tat opean ts regulated by % tequicnd gene . Lack + Blood, SUUVA oy HissuA sampler Mom hom the affected and unateected WE HAL Lad operon is acrivited Ihe \ edi 4 a w in repmsor ‘iy deactivated’ by inducer Family members are wed 9 a generic Map aene mapping i ——_—_— sit is possible tw cletermine which gene + gine cod protein is proent in each chromosome and techniqu elt is Q CooaMe uned te idenhey where it is tocetted uatthin tat specifi blw quvn vwxarion and” dictanner t comp some. gunn. The distana vlw vaio sity + Physical Gene Mapping inside a gene Can also be demmibed 4 cen ath available teciniquir ar trough gene. mapping a6 défeamine cine, ayolun pation eit is a critical step in identiting — oy a gene on chromosome generic disecn - physical gene Map aiso consis OF + Plauing seveal mojeul) ay mariers gemence Maney ara speuiFe location on the ac is tne “puntdannentdl etemeng Geral = Physical mapping, involves otval oF all genome mapping. Physical disrand beeween geno a Theye ate wo types of gene such a no-o4 bane pats mapping: CG) Generic Gu ~ provide high deqree of apr -aquivacy (O) Mhipical ai _ it provide nelevnde numbers pritive en’ “i Genet _ko Mapping phypital distance blu generic mark os Vintage analysis tv decemi- i woe - Tehnigunr ured ne the position biw 2 genes on the os : cmomosome y Radiation hybtid mapping _ Ik isa technique used tw identity a gene location and distance ble gene ~ Genen enenc Maps are asect on, genene linkage mpormayion , 2) sequen mapping 3) tytogenetic Mapping- -tt Is q@ common approach used in genome sequencing rw acquire an enhie qunume sequuncing ~ The ‘maps were oveated by teeing the inhevitanu of several feature Me aly color, eye color eeDNA replication + Major fuTrton of replication fy lo prowde genet (npormari on required by the daughta al Gum we parent call when a cell repalt for diviton au the ai) Componenh must be double. . so, newly formed daughter ci identica) copy of PartNo] contain DNA © DNA replication is Me prow as more ONA. mawing DNA replication 2 th tukanyore, occurs in the Nucla + both euicaryurea Plup kayy org Participate i DNA replicaH on EneymmenoF ONA replisation «) Hellas = it is the unziping tyme _ te predks the Wydrogen bond sepayate. the double shandy of DNA = Thus form ONA replication Forls 2) Primase = mitializey enzyme = tb pyucuee RNA PHMeV (2) Topo summer ase - it iseeps The DNA fom supr toying _ when helicase unwinds ene One ie tate @ torsional sain aheat the chain. ~ toporsumerare break a> twist oo reconnect the DNA ahead oF replicanre”ay Polymeraae ff = builder encyme it can bud a Mew srand in me prmenu of 4 RNA primey = it copie each shand — continuo syninenis: in the leading stand and okatdlst hagmens in the lagging shand- a4 DNA &) Polymerase I _ replace? me primer with DIVA nuulie ticle (6) liga — itis The glum eniyme. = tr glue Me okaralsi Fragmenls wget. & 0% atti € S90 a » eo WP x0 cat arin ao ' sn gy * polymere? E at a pony statt > RNA replicarign point called ovegin of replication LDL ongin of teplication. + other Srigin of repliccrtion. heli case agantiping enyme comm and unwind the double shanded PNA fom a geplicaHion fow. wrt \ ‘ 6 epi at the rime, 556 (single strand banding. protein) pinds to the unwarsed stand. I+ qivy the shand separate + The envyme topuisumeiase Iseepl Map DNA fiom supeuiling unwind ne stand euhen helicase isktonal sain thee qenciau a tO) + Topoisomertnt breclit, Cwish Of een Tewnnect me NA san enayme Primane anea| aaa PNA prime (6-10 nutdeolrde) at Ha specific locarion = ONA polymeae D binds to tne Primer and begin ' genererte whole new complimentary shand by adding nadwidy to me mimer. + polymerase iM capHtise phospho dienter bond of the addecl omplimenteny shard + poly meyGse copier only fom 36! diveurion conrinunA. ‘syntneis ts seen in the \eading shand. @ discontinuvw syntinenis, is seen, IM tite tagging rand racymmenb in the +The new nucleotide lagging shane is Inown 9 oka Ki fagmenn.i] i > Polymevaue L£ enayme repleut RNA || Puen which are seen along wilh || dhe okazalsi Magmnent. | - Ugare jan the alsatale hagmenh enzyme together. | Protein _syntneris ~ The prow’ of prodecnun of protein MM te cells of living beings is called Protein synthens. ~ CONSISh OF 2 procrsey o hansoiption i @) Wanslanon ~ Tansaiption = A ona is used tv Make a moleule of mRNA - Tanslarion = aeneric wae on mena is read and wed w make protein Tanscnprion Couette) - TansFer oF Menene instructions in DNA, to mRNA - The Whole prow of Mansiiprion consis OF 3 steps Step 1: Initiation - begining o¢ banspripnon [ hy Polymmercur it - I ouuns when the enzyme Polymeyase binds to a region in DNA called promoter. - This Signals DONA %© UNBind tam - sd enzyme can read base ih one 4 the DNA snands ~The enzyme ts ready © make Stand of mRNA wilh a LOM lime, kavy sequenu of barn. step 2: Elonganion ~ Addition of nucieiotide to the omy mRNA shand step 3: terMinaton - Ending of transcription. - The MENA syntnenis: is completed and it is detached fom DNA Ao detached mRNA PROCESSING OF mRNA ne ~The new mRNA go through mere Procasing berore it teave nucitiow ~ Atte) developing ca much mma menA they get ready cot, Manslation G) slang AYAI Tmo a) Siting poespliung eThe mRNA conta WANTON by exons elntowny, mar do Aut code eyer ane me pereny requis = exons, me Mat code tor ave region Pann y amo” | premanne mRNA Ribonude prorcins ave small protans in WE AMC that contain RNA whith spliay the pre MRNA Ribonucienprateins yoo en Aine prow 04) Mating changu in some nuctwtides of MRNA Polyacenylahon «lt ig the prow oF adding a tail fo the MRNA (thea tab are snond) ads the tail wonsisty of a Shing of adenine rtsidic, tk siqnals Me tnd of hanscaiphon + pulyadenyiarun involve! in exporting mena hom rhe nucieuu). And also it protece the mRNA from ennymer that might reals daw Tanlahon (eibesome) eH the prude an whith aa menn alunig. with CRNA Gb ribosome (wort foyer to predute precy +3 sieps involved y intahion oi is the stage oF mbusorne men > seal subunit Ls aiqt subann Ribesome fhe sealer with men at whith subunit binds 2) Elongahon move) ~ — > Thcribusome y aud “resid forming lining Mme amin @ pworein polypeptide. “ sh poly peprid 3) rermination > when te mbusume reacher a. stop wdon which feTMINGL the protein synmuis cind relent Of Yihoyema meNn lange suburi stop wden mO-L mo ‘Spolyptpndei 1 wnsnucrion of ReCOMbMaNt own Gene_expyussior ott is the process by which the info enoded in a gene fs twhed to ? O cry function. | Veuvy fragment oF rath + There ave two major step in gene oe ae oa int camonion on nara agent oF moleutley @) sanilaton «In Dansaipo coded in the i phon, the ies i 2. hansport ey rewmbinant ONA base sequenu of ona is -panscribed moleuiy into a mRNA sin hanslation, the mena code ate ‘ ; ; ‘ host canvying nansiate of aminoauid \ Pesci d into a sequtnu oF ams reombinant : , . NA Mt ts useful for identi¢ying — the o moleuiar signature ot aiseane AA iplicaion of O + The facoys Induenving qene expresien 3. multiplicahi inclu diy — Temp Sgn C3 y -dyugy oF chemicals LG @D Recombinant RNA technology om " a 4-Numnow at division muting elk is the rechniqut usecl w change in a clone the phenotype oF aN oiganism when O guneticcutly alstered vector fs innedy eteps in, cetuombinant” oN ee into the genome of an organism elt Tie abs wheal el esas (0 \solahion of qenenc material = it is the initial step of rewombinatia DNA technology. =e involve the isolation of denired DNA in me pure fom «The prowm inwiver te indwduction of @ foreign DNA into qunome which contain our gene oF inte. + The gene which jnnyduted in me R-ONA technugy is reombinant gms (2) cutting the gtr at me revognition cite. sik is Used fr producing arhiatal NA — the rmmuthon enryme detemnine me (hough @ cjmbinahon oy different location at which the denited gene genenc matenal fom diferent suuvur. inserted into the vector gtnome. alt is also called genenc enginegy ng -The gene Copies by PCR I rr rr — a ® (2) amplieying = le ts the pluced) OF amplification oF single cory OF DNA into millidMs oF Copies (4) ugaiion _ The joining of wr fraqment oF with ONA @ me velroY with the help of a ligase (emyme) (6) inseron of fewombinant DNA inte Vector. = also called hansfermation clone © ali division rnutiing = When the rewmbinant ONA is inserted into host, ut goo multiplied and expyeased : Applications edeteut Mme prencence of HIV e gene Mmevapy « to piodue “M wtton + produuion rumutin Coren! <> Frugonend in. s OWA Fee - Ranicrion enwme > heips wm wt oNA seqmenh (in) — Polymeraise enayme > hep tw synthenis recombinant DNA + Thy help bind me vec) to DNA fragment: DNA Repall ann damage cary happen in Furman et clue te several reasons wthe consequenu ONA damage includes ~ bare 10st _ pyamidine dime (thymine at cytosine) single shand breakage ~ double shand bpyeaisage Typer_ of ONA Damage (1) simple mutation (sudden inevetalrle. chang _ These ave ine switching oF aM hase for anotiey; base = Transition of one pyyamidine substituted by anurney pysamidine ancl purine with another purine @) Deaminahon = Ie 1s the process of vemoval oF amino quoup (8) Missing base» / pepuTination = ceavage oF glycosidic bond bie” quyine and suqay cause? lose of purine pase OF DONA 1 @) Chemical modification of bare = chemiCal modivicariun of any 4! bests oF ONA Can Cause mutation . UsUdlluy Meryl groups ave added to various basen. ) formation oF pypamidine dimes (thymine dimers)Wis the process in which @ covalent bond ig formed blu adjasent base love of base pairing. Paiving. Ww lead G) stand break - phospho diester bone wreak in one Shand of DNA Urlix Caused by Chemicals Wke peroxide , radiatton, enzyme ile BNAare DNA - Repaiving mechanism ede rs Me proud in which huw 4@ reponse altoanon, cell GIVO @ corrective DNA damage and Tyo (0 Divect__Repaiy = The pamage U fepaivtl hy rhe enzyme Prorvlyaut. Drowluase is alway) pyment tn ali organism? fom rhe barreria fe animals = tr is G Light cependend emume. the energy tom the alinped Vight. tr 1s uiecl bo cleawe Cc bond et Maymine dimen. (@®) Exudlon Repair © Base excision ® Nucleotide exusion p Base excision vepair ty done by: ine emyme N- alycosylare whith recognir the abnovmal ware and breair glycsiclic dom. + © The enyme env MULleaM Cleary tne bacis une of ONA- The DNA fulymeiare binds exONUcle are auivity remover the cleaved Back bone, OWA polymercde IHplan pautbune region. me nama) ONA Ligue seal Me reqién. @) Mismatch base par sSomermy .wrong, base are inwperated during ONA RePlicanan such a @-7 01 ‘A-c' pans are formed . Then rhe sands ave 9920 with memuyl qwup. Thus the excision og wrong pains ust) lar @ Recombinanon Repary] Reta Repal ain Thymint dime the ONA Fepliahon deemot tare Plaa Mupaly. A Aap Oppusia two Mu vhymine dime (leer tn rhe nwwly synmays daughte snand. 2 The gap Vs vepcnived bythe © - Pecombinanon mechanism. + RECA protein Fetviwe @ porhen of COMPlmentMYy Shang fom otter Side PF Me yeplica tion. fork 4o nll ne gap6) 05 Repair mechani, Ni s sometimes replicarion mechn ery is N Lanai unab qed OND ce Tha able wo vepaiy the damag Ee caie _ iM geaeenin the penton. y amily of ONA ald w 2nd position synmois the ONA directly avioss Me " san amino grup 1 damaad portion seen in me ih painon ° BiosuntMonys OF nudeorde A Te | wad he in i ie san o 1s seen in Mme o ere ocuns Mhrough 7 pathuscuy andr ah pate (O De novo synmeis ‘i (2) sawage parnuscy 6 De novo synmus nA, cM 2 hymine . synmens of Pyrarmiclines such a Thumine ° san ov és preaenk el vv in 74 ep am position (cl 4 ‘ ares organ scorn Digs Aspaitat. == Phosphate wr se cavbondiox\de , Sibts an Ate clependant reachon o Hee Ny, Cur PCG where cunnibutd + 2 ATP Is uriliud at the same time by aspartate. ATP and PRPP CPhospho ribosal pyro phophit > by tunbondioxide and Ns by an activate. ¢Ps 1 auutamine. ee ASE spanscendam Soy pamoy) Pyramidines were synmursed a tk cps + Aspentate pynimidiny which are inwperaited OST into nucieu clon steps canhamoy! —_dihydyooratene Ane ore aspaviat. ae Dihydro orotatetepid s Purine synthenls Na anne? Dihyaroorotau owian DihyehooroteLte dehychogenase st moleatic of wan iy ovseduttd to NADIE NT CNAD isan enexguy com) step 6 spun, ae 4 membered Neterecyay { Orotete + Ribose 5 phosphate ying (ninrogeneouw) Peep '? «THE position 1,3. 7.4 fychogen ——— ovolteliinfoe Monophosphati oroleete phos Phoriho su BRP prpent Mga Lat position, 2,451 6,2 cetben 1 suepé pryment ie usualy rund in pwn ororidine monuphosphak <2 7 puriney usually omP canboxylat. and RNA aye Adenine and Cucinine uridine monophosphate oe Adenine (6 -aminopuune) step + Bolas S NAL * —~ ump — ATP ADP rigine diphosphate y Kinane cupP) 4 4 step % Pe. th i upp. uicine niphosphat ° At the “6! position” an amino Kinane cure) group 1s prenent. step 4 Quanine (2 amino- 6 oxy Purine) UTP > cytidine niphosphate 4 ‘ cap synineny corp) i x | tH | | Nile aN «At ine 204 pusion an amino grup | Ws prevent and at 6! poion an OLY GUN croup is prevent.epuring synimerts occurs 19 3 way: (1) pe novo syntens Q) Phosphorylation of purines () phosphorylation of purines nucleondle ~ among thee ‘Oe nove synmun’ 1s me most important one and it ours in the liver [ume > Het Hews mmonophasphecte ] Ribose 5 phusphate | UU steps. etme shunt) {nosine Monophusphate (Parent nuctotrd) amp) —_— 2 AMP NP if 4 ‘ADP aor \ fe L tp d ADP on. a aoP » Ribose 6 phusphate ts the stating wy Material for the synmons oF punine o Rihvie S phosphate 1s cfs dinved hom tHexose monu phospho parmwey sin HIMP pathway, after Il step , the purine nuclevtitide Gear a the lnosine monophosphate 1s formed ts called Ppovent purine oiuleotide. > further pum IMP an AMP ep MP are formed . «hom the gormed AM) > BOADP ATP ane amino riansFevase WY «fom amp — 9P as ATP are formec . The deoxy ribonucleotide formed pom Yiho nu clever. stom ADP —> AAnP is formed and mom MP — el app 15 formed po carbondioxide Asparas un SD lytine L N | 4 muthepyl TS ‘ rrrahydro formy) ey folic aud thane =“ NZ foie aid calutamine (rTPA) Rinose 3 Phosphate are AvP’ PRep synthenis PREP (Phosphovibosy}} puro phosphars) qhuramine PROP 5 phosphovibosylami ne syntnarase | AP ADP ay cinamide vitosal 5 phosphat. formu) wransperase Formyl alysinamide whosal 5 phusphate syninatase formyl! qlytinamidine § phosphaw syntnarae 5 aminomidarole Yihosyl % phosphate cunoxylane5 Aminoimidarole carboxylate vb osyl 5 phasphate sunthraeae | 5 aminommidarole succinyl carboxamide Yibosyl 8 phosphate Adeno sucuinete | Wyune 5 5 aminoimiddrwle carboxamide sibosy) 5 phosphatk formu! wasn] formaminuimicdrole carb oxiamide nbosyl Phosphaw cydanudyol are oe Inosine Mono phosphate