Control of Electric Machine (EPM431)

“Electrical Drive Systems”

Lecture No.2
9/10/2022
By:
Dr. Naema Mansour
Conventional variable speed electrical drive system
Multi-machine System for Speed Control
 The system consists of 3-electromechanical
machines:-
1) AC motor.
2) DC generator.
3) DC motor
 The AC motor drives a DC generator.
 The speed of the induction motor is fairly constant.
 The output of the DC generator is fed to the DC
motor.
 The output voltage of the DC generator is adjusted
by controlling its excitation current.
 Adjusting the field current of the generator
controls the terminal voltage of the DC motor.
 Hence, the speed of the DC motor is controlled
accordingly.
What Do we mean by Electrical Drive System study?
It is the study of the electric system involving controlling electric motors in both steady state and dynamic
operation. It is achieved through taking into account the characteristics of the mechanical loads and the
behavior of the power electronic converters.

In the past:
 3-machines ( Motor-generator-motor set ).
 Expensive .
The present:  Inefficient.
 Use of a single converter for speed control.  Complex.
 Sophisticated design and control.  Requires frequent maintenance .
 Has been a leading option for speed control in the first
 More precise applications.
half of the 20th century
 Comparaison AC and DC drive

Characteristics AC Drives DC Drives

 Supply  Run by AC supply.  Run by DC supply.

 Maintenance  Requires less maintenance.  Requires comparatively more and frequent

maintenance.

 Power & Control  Power and control circuits are quite  Power and control circuits are simple to design and
Circuitry complex in design. less expensive as compared to their counter-parts.

 Size in terms of  Power to Weight ratio is very large.  Power to Weight ratio is considerably small.
Power Rating
 Commutation  There is no commutation which makes AC  Because of commutation, they are more heavy and
Drives less bulky and inexpensive. costly.

 Speed Control  Sped control is achieved by changing the  Speed control is achieved by armature and field
voltage or frequency. control.
 Cost  In AC Drives, motors are less expensive  In DC Drives, motors are significantly expensive.
especially squirrel cage motors.
Overview of AC & DC
Before power semiconductor devices were introduced:
1) AC drives were used for fixed speed operation.
2) DC drives were used for variable speed operation.
After power semiconductor devices were introduced in 1950s:
1) Speed control with AC motors can be performed because
variable frequency supply can be generated using inverters.
2) Applications limited to medium performance application –
fans, blowers, compressor etc.
3) High performance application dominated by DC motors – traction, AC Vs. DC electric drives
elevator. market dynamics
After semiconductor devices advancement:
1) Vector control drives were introduces. Because of that AC motors
were begun to use in high performance application.  since the late 1980s with
the developments of power
2) Though control is complex and expensive AC motors became electronics and control
more favorable than DC motors. technologies of the AC
3) Day by day the development in the microprocessor and machine, the DC machine is
microcontroller technology, the cost of these components were getting out of date. But still
decreased. in many traditional
industries, the DC machine
is operating.
Although DC commutator machines are nowadays largely being
replaced by rotating field machines, they remain an interesting
study object.
DC machines were still the preferred drives for variable speed.
This changed completely with the introduction of power
electronics, which facilitated controlled drives using induction and
synchronous machines.
Nevertheless, DC machines are still used for low power
applications (automotive or electric vehicles). However, this may
not last as they are less reliable and generate higher maintenance
costs compared to permanent magnet synchronous machines with
low-cost power-electronic supplies.
Applications of Electrical Drives
Electric drives are used in several industrial applications
such as: Machine Tool:-
1) Electrical drives are extensively used in the huge  Any stationary power-
number of domestic (washing machine) as well as driven machine that is
industrial applications which includes motors, used to shape or form
transportation systems, factories ( textile mills, parts made of metal or
paper mill, cement mill, sugar mill, steel mill, other materials such as
machine tool, petrochemical industry). turning machines (lathes
2) Electric traction:- (electric traction means and boring mills), shapers
transportation of materials from one location to
another location). The different types of electric and planers, drilling
tractions mainly include electric trains, buses, machines, milling
trolleys, trams, and solar-powered vehicles inbuilt machines, grinding
with battery. machines, power saws,
3) Cranes and Hoist Motor. and presses.
4) Elevators (Lifts).
5) Robotic actuators.
DC Drives
DC motors have variable characteristics and are used extensively in variable-speed drives.
DC motors can provide a high starting torque and it is also possible to obtain speed control
over a wide range.
The methods of speed control are normally simpler and less expensive than those of AC
drives.
Both series and separately excited DC motors are normally used in variable-speed drives,
but series motors are traditionally employed for traction applications.
Due to commutators, DC motors are not suitable for very high speed applications and
require more maintenance than AC motors.

Rating of motor
 Rating or size of motor can be selected in accordance to specific industrial applications. Beside the
rated voltage and rated frequency, the size of the motor depends also upon:
1) Temperature rise , which also depend on the duty cycle of the load
a) Continuous load.
b) Intermittent load.
c) Variable load.
2) Maximum torque required of the motor.
DC Drives
DC Drive: It is further classified into two types:

1) Non-regenerative DC drives:
Non-regenerative DC drives are the most conventional type. In their most basic
form, they are able to control motor speed and torque in one direction.

2) Regenerative DC drives:
 Regenerative adjustable speed drives, also known as four-quadrant drives, are
capable of controlling not only the speed and direction of motor rotation but also
the direction of motor torque.
 Steps of drive system study

1) The basic structure and the operation principle of the electric machine, which
converts electrical energy to mechanical energy as a motor, is described.
2) The steady-state equivalent circuits of the machine is introduced to
understand the steady-state characteristics and control of the machines.
3) Several examples to control the machine with regard to a motor are discussed
with its control features.
4) The power converters, which convert the electrical energy to another form of
the electrical energy based on power semiconductors, are explained.
Structure and modeling of dc machine
DC machine has a field winding for the excitation flux and armature winding to
generate torque through the interaction with the flux.
As shown in the figure, the machine can be classified according to the connection of
the field winding and the armature winding as:-
1) Shunt.
2) Series.
3) Compound.

Classification of DC machine according to the

connection of a field winding and an armature winding.
With the development of power electronics technology, separately
excited DC machine is widely used in conjunction with the control of
both the field current and the armature current. By the control of both
currents, the various torque–speed curves can be implemented, and it
has been applied to various applications.
 Basic Characteristics of DC Motors
DC motors
Separately excited DC motor Series DC motor
 In a shunt-field motor, the field excitation  In a series-type motor, the field excitation
is independent of the armature circuit circuit is connected in series with the
(field and armature windings connected to armature circuit (both field and armature
two different sources. So, field and windings connected in series). Both these
armature windings remain separated). That windings carry the same current.
is, 𝑰𝒂 ≠ 𝑰𝒇  That is, the armature and the field
 The field excitation can be controlled currents are the same 𝑰𝒂 = 𝑰𝒇 .
independently.
[1]- Separately Excited DC Motor
The field and the armature windings
are excited by separate DC sources.
When a separately excited motor is
excited by a field current of 𝒊𝒇 and an
armature current of 𝒊𝒂 flows in the
armature circuit.
The motor develops a back
electromotive force 𝑒𝑚𝑓and a torque to
balance the load torque at a particular The equivalent circuit for a separately excited DC motor
speed.
 𝒆𝒈 , 𝑬𝒈 Instantaneous and the average back 𝑒𝑚𝑓 of a
The field current 𝒊𝒇 of a separately DC motor, respectively.
excited motor is independent of the
armature current 𝒊𝒂 and any change in  𝒊𝒂 , 𝑰𝒂 Instantaneous and the average armature motor
the armature current has no effect on current, respectively.
the field current.  𝒊𝒇 , 𝑰𝒇 Instantaneous and the average field motor
current, respectively.
The field current is normally much less  𝑹𝒂 , 𝑹𝒇 Armature and field circuit resistances of a DC
than the armature current. motor, respectively.
The following differential equations are used to describe the dynamic
performance of the machine under different operating conditions:
 The instantaneous field voltage 𝒗𝒇 is determined by:-
𝒅𝒊𝒇
𝒗𝒇 = 𝑹𝒇 𝒊𝒇 + 𝑳𝒇
𝒅𝒕
 The instantaneous armature voltage 𝒗𝒂 is determined by:-
𝒅𝒊𝒂  𝜔 → Motor angular speed, or rotor angular
𝒗𝒂 = 𝑹𝒂 𝒊𝒂 + 𝑳𝒂 + 𝒆𝒈
𝒅𝒕 frequency, rad/s.
 Although, the armature and field circuits are electrically isolated,  𝜙 → The flux per pole.
they are bonded magnetically.  𝐵 → Viscous friction constant, N.m/rad/s.
 𝐾𝑣 → Voltage constant, V/A/(rad/s);
 𝒆𝒈 → the motor back 𝑒𝑚𝑓 ( or speed voltage), is expressed as:-  𝐾𝑡 → Torque constant, which equals voltage
𝒆𝒈 = 𝑲𝝋 𝝋 𝝎 𝒆𝒈 = 𝑲𝒗 𝒊𝒇 𝝎 constant, 𝐾𝑣 ;
 𝐿𝑎 → Armature circuit inductance, H;
 The flux per pole (𝝋) can be linearly related to the current in the  𝐿𝑓 → Field circuit inductance, H;
field winding 𝒊𝒇 the nonlinear effects of field saturation are ignored  𝑅𝑎 → Armature circuit resistance, Ω.
(or if the machine operates only in the linear region).  𝑅𝑓 → Field circuit resistance, Ω.
 The torque developed by the motor is given by:-  𝑇𝐿 → Active Load torque, N. m.
𝑻𝒅 = 𝑲𝒕 𝒊𝒇 𝒊𝒂  𝑇𝑑 → the net electromagnetic torque produced
on the shaft
The torque developed by the motor w.r.t. the load torque is given by:  𝐽 → Inertia of a motor.
𝒅𝝎  𝑒𝑔 →The induced 𝑒𝑚𝑓 due to the rotation of
𝑻𝒅 = 𝒋 + 𝑩𝝎 + 𝑻𝑳
𝒅𝒕
the armature conductors in the magnetic field .
 𝑽𝒇 = 𝑹𝒇 𝑰𝒇
The relationship between the field current
𝐼𝑓 and the back emf 𝐸𝑔 is nonlinear due to
magnetic saturation.

Magnetization characteristic curve of

What is a simple definition for "moment of separately excited DC motor.
inertia," often described as inertia in a motor ?
 In the steady state, the rotating
 Inertia describes the tendency of a body to
speed of a DC machine is
resist changes in rotational speed for a 𝒅𝝎
given torque. constant as = 𝟎, and the
𝒅𝒕
 Inertia is the resistance of any physical armature and field current are
𝒅𝒊𝒂
object to any change in its speed. As inertia also constant as = 0, and
𝒅𝒕
increases, so too does the resistance to 𝒅𝒊𝒇
acceleration/deceleration. = 𝟎.
𝒅𝒕
Under steady-state conditions, the time derivatives in these equations  The following equation
are zero and the steady-state average quantities are:- describes the dynamics of the
𝑽𝒇 = 𝑹𝒇 𝑰𝒇 𝑬𝒈 = 𝑲𝒗 𝝎𝑰𝒇 load.
𝑽𝒂 = 𝑹𝒂 𝑰𝒂 + 𝑬𝒈 𝑽𝒂 = 𝑹𝒂 𝑰𝒂 + 𝑲𝒗 𝝎𝑰𝒇 𝑻𝒅 = 𝑲𝒕 𝑰𝒇 𝑰𝒂
𝑻𝒅 = 𝑩𝝎 + 𝑻𝑳
𝑽𝒂 − 𝑹𝒂 𝑰𝒂  In the absence of the friction,
𝝎=
𝑲𝒗 𝑰𝒇 the damping coefficient 𝐵 will
be zero; the armature current
 This equation implies that:- must cause a respective amount
1) An increase in the armature voltage will cause the motor to gain of developed torque 𝑻𝒅 =
speed if 𝐼𝑓 is constant. 𝑲𝒕 𝑰𝒇 𝑰𝒂 , that is, to match the
2) Lowering the terminal voltage will have the opposite impact on the active load torque 𝑻𝑳 . Any
shaft speed. deviation between the two
𝑽𝒂 = 𝑹𝒂 𝑰𝒂 + 𝑲𝒗 𝝎𝑰𝒇 torques will cause the shaft to
either accelerate or decelerate
𝑽𝒂 − 𝑲𝒗 𝝎𝑰𝒇 to a different speed until the
𝑰𝒂 = two match again.
𝑹𝒂
 An increase in the terminal voltage causes an increase in the armature
current (at least transiently, depending on the nature of the load  The developed power is:-
torque). 𝑃𝑑 = 𝑇𝑑 𝜔
The speed of a DC motor (𝝎) is defined by:
𝑽𝒂 − 𝑹𝒂 𝑰𝒂
𝝎=
𝑲𝒗 𝑰𝒇
Hence the speed can be varied by changing:
1) The terminal voltage of the armature, 𝑽𝒂 .
2) The external resistance in armature circuit, 𝑹𝒂 .
3) The flux per pole, 𝝋 (𝑰𝒇 ).
Terminal voltage and external resistance involve a change that affects the armature circuit, while flux involves
a change in the magnetic field. Therefore, speed control of DC motor can be classified into:
1) Armature Control Methods.
2) Field Control Methods.

Armature resistance control

 In armature resistance control a variable
resistance is added to the armature circuit. Field
is directly connected across the supply so flux is
not changed due to variation of series resistance.
This method is used in printing press, cranes,
hoists where speeds lower than rated is used for a
short period only.
Armature Voltage Control
 This method of speed control needs a variable
source of voltage separated from the source
supplying the field current. This method avoids
disadvantages of poor speed regulation and low
efficiency of armature-resistance control methods.
Motor speed:-
The speed of a separately excited DC motor can be found from:-
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑅𝑎 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐸𝑔 = 𝑅𝑎 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐾𝑣 𝜔𝐼𝑓

𝑉𝑎 − 𝑅𝑎 𝐼𝑎 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑅𝑎 𝐼𝑎
𝜔= =
𝐾𝑣 𝐼𝑓 𝐾𝑣 𝑉𝑓 Τ𝑅𝑓
From the above equation, a wide-range speed control strategy for a DC
motor with adjustable field can be developed based on adjusting,
1) The armature voltage 𝑉𝑎 , known as armature voltage control.
2) The field current 𝐼𝑓 , known as field control.

Methods of speed control:-

1) Armature voltage control [𝝎 ∝ 𝑽𝒂 at 𝑰𝒇 = 𝑰𝒇𝒓 ] .
2) Field control [𝝎 ∝ 𝟏/𝑰𝒇 at 𝑽𝒂 = 𝑽𝒂𝒓 and 𝑷𝒅 = 𝑷𝒓 ].
 Separately excited DC motor speed control

Armature Control Field Control

For 𝝎 < 𝝎𝒓 For 𝝎 > 𝝎𝒓

𝝎 ∝ 𝑽𝒂 𝝎∝
𝟏
for
𝑰𝒇
For
𝑰𝒂 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕 𝑽𝒂 = 𝑽𝒓
𝑰𝒇 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒕 𝑰𝒇𝒓 𝑰𝒂 = 𝑰𝒓

Note that with a constant load torque:

Note that with a constant load torque:
 The armature current stays constant during the armature field
 The armature current stays constant during
control region.
the armature voltage control region .
 This implies that the motor torque decrease in a hyperbolic
 This implies that the input power rises
during field weakening, provided a constant power at rated
linearly during armature voltage control .
value (that rated quantities are not exceeded).
 Operating at power higher than the rated power, which is not a recommended practice. Therefore, higher speeds
are only achievable if the load torque is reduced, while the armature current is maintained at rated.
The speed, which corresponds to the rated armature
voltage, rated field current, and rated armature
current, is known as the rated (or base) speed.
The question is how and when the two control
methods will be used?
In practice, for a speed less than the base
speed, the armature current and field currents
are maintained constant to meet the torque
demand, and the armature voltage 𝑽𝒂 is varied
to control the speed.
For speed higher than the base speed, the
armature voltage is maintained at the rated
value and the field current is varied to control
the speed. However, the power developed by
the motor (𝑷 = 𝑻 ∗ 𝝎) remains constant.
The figure shows the characteristics of torque,
power, armature current, and field current
against the speed.
Characteristics of separately excited motors.
Conclusions
Consider a DC motor driving a load of constant torque.
𝑻𝑳 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
 If the friction is neglected, that is,
𝑩 = 𝟎. 𝟎
The torque developed by the motor and the load torque must be equal in steady state.
𝑻𝒅 = 𝑻𝑳 = 𝑲𝒕 𝑰𝒇 𝑰𝒂
With a constant load torque, lowering the field current leads to an increase in the armature
current.
𝑻𝑳 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕 𝑰𝒇 ↓ 𝑰𝒂 ↑ 𝑷𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 𝑰𝒂 𝟐 𝑹𝒂 ↑

To avoid excessive losses in the armature circuit, the rated current in the field circuit is
selected typically around the upper edge of the saturation curve of the field magnetic circuit;
under normal operating conditions, the field current is maintained at or about the rated
current.
Speed control from standstill to the base speed is done by increasing the terminal voltage
while the field current is maintained at rated.
Increasing the speed beyond the base speed is done by weakening the field, only if the
armature current does not exceed its rated value in steady state.
The aim of the preceding strategy is to ensure that speed control is achieved while safe
operating limits of the machine (for both armature current and terminal voltage) are observed,
and excessive armature losses are avoided.
 Care must be exercised during field weakening; sufficiently low field currents will
correspond to excessively high speed that may pose dangerous mechanical stress on the
machine’s shaft.
 In an extreme case of a lost field, the machine will rapidly accelerate and will break
apart if protective measures are not deployed quickly.
 Advantages of Armature Controlled DC Shunt Motor
1) Very fine speed control over whole range in both directions.
2) Uniform acceleration is obtained.
3) Good speed regulation.
4) It has regenerative braking capacity.

 Disadvantages of Armature Controlled DC Shunt Motor

1) Costly arrangement is needed, floor space required is more
2) Low efficiency at light loads
3) Drive produced more noise.
 A DC machine is characterized by two subsystems, namely, the
armature circuit and the mechanical load.
 The equation describes the dynamics of the armature circuit is:-
𝒅𝒊𝒂
𝒗𝒂 = 𝑹𝒂 𝒊𝒂 + 𝑳𝒂 + 𝒆𝒈
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒊𝒂
𝒗𝒂 = 𝑹𝒂 𝒊𝒂 + 𝑳𝒂 𝒅𝒕
+ 𝒌𝒗 𝒊 𝒇 𝝎 𝒌 = 𝒌𝒗 𝒊𝒇
𝒗𝒂 𝒔 = 𝑹𝒂 𝒊𝒂 𝒔 + 𝒔𝑳𝒂 𝒊𝒂 𝒔 + 𝒌𝝎(𝒔)
𝒗𝒂 𝒔 − 𝒌𝝎(𝒔) = 𝑹𝒂 𝒊𝒂 𝒔 + 𝒔𝑳𝒂 𝒊𝒂 𝒔

𝒗𝒂 (𝒔) − 𝒌𝝎(𝒔) = 𝑹𝒂 + 𝒔𝑳𝒂 𝒊𝒂 (𝒔)

The equation describes the dynamics of the load is:-

𝒅𝝎
𝑻𝒅 = 𝒋 + 𝑩𝝎 + 𝑻𝑳
𝒅𝒕
𝑻𝒅 𝒔 = 𝒔𝒋𝝎 𝒔 + 𝑩𝝎 𝒔 + 𝑻𝑳 (𝒔)
𝑻𝒅 𝒔 − 𝑻𝑳 (𝒔) = 𝒔𝒋 + 𝑩 𝝎 𝒔
𝑻𝒅 = 𝑲𝒕 𝒊𝒇 𝒊𝒂
𝑻𝒅 (𝒔) = 𝒌𝒊𝒂 (𝒔)

 The transfer function of the system output (𝝎) in terms of the adjustable input 𝒗𝒂 and disturbance 𝑻𝑳 is as
follows:
𝒌 𝑹𝒂 + 𝒔𝑳𝒂
𝝎 𝒔 = 𝒗 𝒔 − 𝑻 (𝒔)
𝑹𝒂 + 𝒔𝑳𝒂 𝒔𝒋 + 𝑩 + 𝒌𝟐 𝒂 𝑹𝒂 + 𝒔𝑳𝒂 𝒔𝒋 + 𝑩 + 𝒌𝟐 𝑳