Mythology

A Captivating Guide to Greek

Mythology, Egyptian Mythology,
Norse Mythology, Celtic Mythology
and Roman Mythology
© Copyright 2017

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Table of Contents
FREE BONUS FROM CAPTIVATING HISTORY: HISTORY EBOOK
P 1:
G M
AC G A G ,G ,H
M
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1 — URANUS: BETRAYAL BY CRONUS
CHAPTER 2 — CRONUS: FEAR OF HIS CHILDREN
CHAPTER 3 — TITANS VS. OLYMPIAN GODS
CHAPTER 4 — OLYMPIAN RULE
CHAPTER 5 — ZEUS AND HIS LADIES
CHAPTER 6 — PROMETHEUS AND HERAKLES
CHAPTER 7 — AN UNHAPPY TALE OF THE UNDERWORLD
CHAPTER 8 — THE BEAUTY CONTEST THAT LED TO THE FALL OF TROY
CHAPTER 9 — POSEIDON, METIS AND ATHENA
CHAPTER 10 — KRAKEN AND OTHER MONSTERS
CHAPTER 11 — JASON, THE ARGONAUTS, AND MEDEA'S DRAGON
CHAPTER 12 — MENELAUS, AGAMEMNON, AND THE TROJAN WAR
CHAPTER 13 — SOLON, THE ATHENIAN LAW GIVER
CHAPTER 14 — 300 SPARTANS
CHAPTER 15 — SOCRATES, PLATO, AND ARISTOTLE
CHAPTER 16 — ALEXANDER THE GREAT
CONCLUSION
P 2:
E M
C S G ,G ,M M
INTRODUCTION
SECTION 1: FANTASTIC IMAGES
CHAPTER 1: CREATION
CHAPTER 2: FALL OF HUMANITY
CHAPTER 3: OSIRIS MYTH
CHAPTER 4: CHIEF GODS OF THE EGYPTIAN PANTHEON
CHAPTER 5: LESSER KNOWN PANTHEON
SECTION 2: FACTUAL HISTORY
CHAPTER 6: ANCIENT EGYPTIAN HISTORY
CONCLUSION
P 3:
N M
C S G ,S H
INTRODUCTION: SOURCES AND OVERVIEW
CHAPTER 1—NORSE CREATION STORY
CHAPTER 2—THE NINE REALMS
CHAPTER 3—GODS AND THE “GIANTS” OF JÖTUNHEIM
CHAPTER 4—MIDGARD AND THE HUMANS
CHAPTER 5—ELVES, DWARVES, TROLLS AND VALKYRIES
CHAPTER 6—ODIN, FRIGG, THOR, AND LOKI
CHAPTER 7—THE DEATH OF BALDR
CHAPTER 8—CONFLICT BETWEEN THE REALMS
CHAPTER 9—ENGLISH DAYS OF THE WEEK
CHAPTER 10—POPULAR CULTURE AND NORSE MYTHOLOGY
CONCLUSION
P 4: C M
AC G G ,S B
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1 — CELTIC ANIMISM
CHAPTER 2 — UNIVERSAL CELTIC GODS
CHAPTER 3 — LOCAL IRISH CELT GODS
CHAPTER 4 — LOCAL GALLIC CELT GODS
CHAPTER 5 — CELTIC SAGAS: THE CYCLES
CHAPTER 6 — CELTIC BELIEFS: ANIMAL AND HUMAN SACRIFICE
CHAPTER 7 — CELTIC BELIEFS: REINCARNATION
CHAPTER 8 — CELTIC BELIEFS: MATRIARCHY
CONCLUSION – WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
P 5:
R M
AC G R G ,G , M
C
INTRODUCTION
T S T C
CHAPTER 1 — THE TROJAN CONNECTION
W H A M T U
CHAPTER 2 — FOUNDING OF ROME
F S -W F G C
CHAPTER 3 — PURELY ROMAN GODS
CHAPTER 4 — BORROWINGS FROM ETRURIA
F R
CHAPTER 5 — INFLUENCE OF THE GREEK PANTHEON
F G
L G G
G C A R
CHAPTER 6 — CELTIC POTPOURRI
R C C
O B G
CHAPTER 7 — TRUTH BEHIND THE ROMAN GODS
CONCLUSION - WHAT WE’VE LEARNED
P N M
AF G U S ,G ,H ,
B V
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 Part 1:
Greek Mythology
A Captivating Guide to the Ancient
Gods, Goddesses, Heroes and
Monsters
Introduction

Any book on ancient mythology gives us a glimpse into the minds of

civilization’s pioneers. They were the brave adventurers who
explored the unknown territory of possibilities. For them, civilization
was yet a mysterious realm with countless directions to go.
The broad arc of this book takes us from the dim beginnings of
creation as seen in the Greek mythology. We move through the birth
of Titans, their overthrow by the Olympian gods, the gods’ dealings
with mortals like Paris of Troy, Jason and the Golden Fleece, the
Trojan War, and into historical times.
We won’t cover every possible version of every myth, but by the time
you’re finished with this book, you will have a good appreciation for
the nature of Greek mythology and the gods, monsters, and heroes
which populate it.
Chapter 1 — Uranus: Betrayal by Cronus

In the very beginning, Chaos (void) ruled the universe. It was the
great nothingness. Boring? Of course. Perhaps the sheer blandness
of all that empty nothingness forced Gaia (goddess of Earth) to
spring into existence from all that emptiness. Close behind, Chaos
gave birth to Tartarus (god of the underworld), Eros (god of fertility),
Erebus (god of darkness) and Nyx (goddess of night).
Gaia (mother Earth) was so full of fertility that she gave birth to two
other primordial gods without having to mate with anyone. Of course,
Chaos had no gender, and the universe was relatively empty. Her
two sons were named Uranus (god of heaven) and Pontus (god of
the ocean).
Feeling lonely, Gaia took her son, Uranus, as her mate. Each night,
her son would lay on top of her and mate with her. From these
repeated unions, she gave birth to several Titans and monsters.
These included Cronus (sometimes spelled Kronos), Oceanus,
Tethys, Rhea, Hyperion, Theia, Cruis, Themis, Coeus, Mnemosyne,
Iapetus, Phoebe, the Cyclopes, and the Hecatonchires.
To the Greeks, heaven was selfish. He had a unique relationship
with Earth and assumed that he was king of the gods. Was that
arrogance? Was it that the other gods didn’t care who called
themselves “king?” Perhaps so, because nothing is mentioned of
any conflict until Uranus started to abuse his children.
Uranus gave selfish love to his mate (his mother and wife). There
was passion, but there was also disgust for the children his wife
gave him. The youngest of these—the Hecatonchires and Cyclopes
—he ended up locking away in his uncle, Tartarus (underworld)—far
below the surface of Gaia.
For some reason, Uranus considered these youngest to be
particularly hideous. The Hecatonchires, for instance, were three
man-like giants, but each with a hundred hands, fifty heads, and
massive strength. The Cyclopes were three giants, each with one
eye in the centers of their foreheads.
Cousins, Nieces, and Nephews
Over the ages, the universe became more crowded with additional
gods and goddesses. The primordials Erebus and Nyx got together
and made Aether (God of Light) and Hemera (Goddess of Day). The
Titans had some fun, too. Oceanus took his sister, Tethys, and they
together created Amphrite, Dione, Metis, Pleione, Thetis and
hundreds of additional, second generation Titans.
Iapetus married one of his nieces—the Oceanid, Clymene—and they
together created Atlas, Prometheus, and several others.
Hyperion took his sister, Theia, and they created Helios (sun), Eos
(dawn) and Selene (moon).
Coeus married his sister, Phoebe (“shining”) and they created Leto
who later became the mother of Artemis and Apollo.
Gaia Fed Up with Abuse
Mother Earth became sickened by the abuses of Uranus. She didn’t
want any more children by that selfish, self-centered tyrant.
From her own body, she plucked a shard of flint and fashioned a
great sickle. But the only harvest she had in mind was to reap from
Uranus his testicles. This is an ironic concept. Everything else about
the earliest gods of the universe—the primordials—is devoid of
anything anthropomorphic (man-like). But here, Uranus has the very
human physical attribute of male testes.
Perhaps Gaia was a coward for not doing the deed herself, or
perhaps she felt that one of her sons would be more capable of
finishing the task. She ended up asking all her sons to take up the
great sickle. But even her sons were too cowardly to face up to the
Great God King Uranus—all except Cronus.
Cronus was the youngest of the first generation Titans. In other
words, he was only slightly older than the brothers imprisoned in
Tartarus. Perhaps being the youngest who remained free made him
struggle harder to keep up with his older siblings. And perhaps,
being only slightly older than his imprisoned brothers made him more
aware of his own vulnerabilities. Maybe these traits gave him
sufficient ambition to overcome any fear.
But Cronus was clever and shrewd. He wasn’t one to jump into a
task blindly. After all, he did want to survive the attack on his father—
heaven itself. So, Cronus hid and ambushed his father, completing
the castration and spilling the god’s blood onto the Earth (Gaia).
From the blood sprang the Giants, the Meliae, and the Furies
(Erinyes). Later, the Meliae would give birth to the earliest form of
humans.
Tired and disgusted from the task, Cronus tossed his father’s
genitals into the ocean (Pontus). Such potent energy remained in the
godly organ that the sea whipped up an extreme froth (sea foam,
aphros) and from it was born Aphrodite Ourania (goddess of spiritual
love).
Uranus groaned in agony at the betrayal and condemned all of those
of his children who were currently visible—the ones not in Tartarus—
calling his sons, “Titanes Theoi,” which means “straining gods.” From
this curse, we get the word “Titan.”
With Uranus made impotent, the Hecatonchires and Cyclopes were
freed from Tartarus. Gaia was relieved that her youngest sons were
finally liberated.
Cronus, feeling the ambitious pride swell within him, took advantage
of the situation and claimed the universe as his own. He now
became the new king of the gods.
But Cronus had not performed the task requested by his mother and
grandmother, Gaia, in order to free his younger brothers. Quite the
contrary, Cronus despised the Cyclopes and Hecatonchires as much
as his father and brother, Uranus, did. At the first opportunity, Cronus
put his six younger brothers back in Tartarus, greatly angering his
mother at the betrayal.
Despite his arrogance and cruelty, in some respects, Cronus’s rule
was viewed as a Golden Age. During his time as king of the gods,
the Meliae gave birth to the first humans. These men lived for
thousands of years but maintained a youthful appearance. This was
a time of tranquility and nobility of spirit, and the young, fragile race
of humans mingled with the gods.
With his scythe, Cronus became associated with the harvest and its
celebration. His rule was filled with abundance.
Chapter 2 — Cronus: Fear of His Children

When anyone does a crime, it’s only natural for them to suspect that
others may readily do the same crime against them. Perhaps within
this attitude of self-concern is born the seed of karma.
Cronus had betrayed his father and mutilated him. He had then
taken the crown from his deposed father. Because he and Uranus
also shared the same mother, they were also technically brothers. To
the Greeks, this was an abominable state of affairs. Men do not
marry their mothers. When Oedipus married his own mother, it was
out of ignorance; and when he discovered this fact, Jocasta, his
mother, killed herself and Oedipus blinded himself in his despair.
Perhaps, deep within the Greek psyche, Uranus had needed to be
punished for his unnatural behavior.
After his coup, Cronus married his older sister, Rhea. Together, they
had Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, Poseidon and then Zeus.
Never to be outdone by anyone, Cronus ended up hating his own
children more than Uranus had hated his. This wasn’t merely a
character flaw on his part. His parents had helped him come to that
attitude.
One day, before any of the children were born, both his mother
(Gaia) and father (Uranus) asked to speak with their king and
warned him that he would also be overthrown as king by his own
children.
So, as each child was born, Cronus figured that eating them would
solve the problem.
This must have concerned the other gods horribly, but especially the
children’s mother, Rhea. After five children had been swallowed
whole, Rhea vowed never again to let it happen. Gaia offered up a
rock with which to replace the next baby.
With the birth of her next child, Rhea cleverly offered up a swaddling
cloth with the boulder wrapped inside, instead of her last son, Zeus.
Cronus swallowed the cloth and rock and was satisfied that another
threat had been removed.
Zeus Grows Up
Rhea did not want her only remaining son to be discovered, so she
took him to Crete. There, she found a cave wherein Zeus could be
raised, and she enlisted the help of the goddess Amalthea to take
care of the chore. This allowed her to return to her husband so that
he would not suspect that anything was wrong.
Growing up in secrecy, Zeus learned to hate his father. And why not?
Cronus wanted Zeus dead and loved power more than his own
children.
There is an old wisdom that those who put themselves first shall
become last. The subtext of this wisdom tells us that self-concern is
the root of all evil. Self-concern is behind the love of money and all
the other deadly sins. Certainly, Cronus’s lust for power drove him to
murder his own children, even worse than what his father, Uranus
had done.
Years later, when Zeus had become an adult, he chose the Titaness
(Titanide), Metis as his wife. This lovely, older female was one of the
Oceanids and one of Zeus’s cousins. It had been said that Metis was
the wisest being who had ever lived, and Zeus admired her for it.
Metis told her husband about a potion that could force Cronus to
vomit up the divine children he had swallowed—Zeus’s siblings.
Zeus figured that, with their help, he may be able to do something
against his murderous father.
Because it had been years since Zeus’s birth, and years since Rhea
had borne any children, Cronus was no longer concerned about the
predicted threat to his reign. Even so, young Zeus decided to
camouflage himself as a cupbearer. Such a job would give him the
perfect opportunity to slip the emetic drug into Cronus’s wine.
Cronus, of course, liked the idea that others were eager to serve
him, so he accepted Zeus as a cupbearer. And on that first day of
Zeus’s new duty, the young god slipped the drug into the drink and
the king of gods had his fill of wine, laced with a potion that would
lead to his undoing.
Suddenly, Cronus retched forward, clutching his belly. The vomiting
had started. First, out came a huge stone wrapped in swaddling
cloth. Next, it was a full-grown god—Zeus’s slightly older brother,
Poseidon. Then came Hades, Hera, Demeter and finally Hestia—in
the reverse sequence in which they had been swallowed.
As Cronus lay on the ground, moaning in his drunk and drugged
stupor, Zeus and Metis escorted away each of the other gods as
they came forth.
Zeus and Metis certainly had something to celebrate. They had the
nucleus of a force against Cronus. But this was not enough. Most of
the other Titans would likely come to Cronus’s aid. After all, he was
their king.
Then, Zeus remembered that his grandmother, Gaia (Earth), still
wept because some of her own children had been locked up in
Tartarus since their birth—first by Uranus, and then by Cronus. The
six gods—three Hecatonchires and three Cyclopes—would greatly
improve his chances of beating his father.
While Cronus was still befuddled by the drink he had been given,
Zeus hurried down to the underworld of Tartarus. There, he killed the
fierce dragon which guarded the entrance. Then, he threw open the
door and bid his uncles to emerge.
“Come forth, my uncles. You are now free.”
Together, they found a safe place to live on Mount Olympus while
they plotted against Cronus. The Cyclopes were so thankful for
having been set free; they fashioned gifts for the gods who helped
them.
For Zeus, they created a lightning bolt that the young god could
throw at his enemies. This one gift, though, took all three Cyclopes
to complete. Arges gave the bolt its brightness; Brontes added the
roar of thunder, and Steropes added the fast-moving lightning itself.
For Hades, they created a helmet of invisibility which allowed the
God to come and go unseen.
For Poseidon, they fashioned a massive trident.
Each of these weapons would be put to good use in the war to
come.
Chapter 3 — Titans vs. Olympian Gods

War had come to the realm of the gods.

It seems certain that Cronus would have suspected something when
he woke up. His eager cupbearer never returned to resume his
duties. That was the very least of his revelations. He must have felt a
bit lighter around the middle, what with no longer carrying the fully
grown bodies of his undigested children. But he surely received word
that his trusty dragon guardian had been killed in Tartarus and that
his six younger brothers were now on the loose.
There are differing versions of this tale of war and a great many
differences between them. And the most complete version, “The
Titanomachy,” has been lost. No known copies remain.
Not every Titan participated. The Olympian gods were grateful for
that. Some lists include Rhea and Gaia amongst the supporters of
Cronus, but we have to wonder if their inclusion in such lists was
entirely real. Rhea may have stood by her husband, but may also
have secretly wished her abused children would win. After all, she is
the one who started the conflict by ensuring that Zeus was never
swallowed by her selfish husband. Gaia may have stood by her son
but may have done everything she could to support the Olympians
without arousing Cronus’s suspicions. After all, Cronus had betrayed
Gaia; and the Olympians had freed her six youngest sons from
Tartarus, something she had expected from Cronus.
The Titans chose Mount Othrys as their base of operations, about
110 kilometers south of Olympus, in Greece. Between them lay the
region of Thessaly.
Though “The Titanomachy,” the poem which describes the war, has
been lost, other ancient writers often referred to the poem. What we
do know from these other writers is that the war lasted ten years.
Perhaps “ten” was a standard length for “long wars,” because the
Trojan War was ten years long, and Odysseus’s voyage home was
also ten long years.
What was the nature of the battles? We can only guess. But imagine
Zeus with his lightning bolts zapping every Titan in sight. Imagine
Hades sneaking into the Titan camp at Mount Othrys and stealing all
their supplies without anyone knowing any better, or setting fire to
their tents. Imagine Poseidon poking all waterborne Titans with his
massive trident. And picture the three Hecatonchires hurtling small
mountains at the Titans like rapid-fire machine guns.
In many accounts, Prometheus sides with the Olympians. And,
because Metis was Zeus’s wife, she did, too. So, we know that at
least two Titans supported the young usurpers. Other accounts
include other Titans as helping the Olympian gods.
Ultimately, the Olympians won.
Because Atlas had led the Titans in battle, he was given the special
punishment of being forced to hold up the heavens (Uranus?) on his
shoulders. Quite often, in modern literature, Atlas is pictured holding
up the Earth, but this is a misconception. All of the other Titans who
participated in the war were locked up in Tartarus.
As a reward for their indispensable help in winning the war, Zeus let
the Hecatonchires—Briareos, Kottos, and Gyges—guard the gates
to Tartarus to ensure the Titans stayed locked up.
Amongst the Olympian gods, Zeus divided up the universe based on
each god’s individual attributes. For himself, he took the sky. This
should seem obvious because lightning always occurs there.
Hades was given the underworld to rule. This included not only the
incarcerated Titans but all dead humans who made their way to
Tartarus across the River Styx. Somehow, his helmet of invisibility
seems compatible with the notion of death and ghosts.
Poseidon was given reign over the oceans and seas. It seems a
strange combination, but Poseidon is also known for horses and
earthquakes.
Chapter 4 — Olympian Rule

The desire to overthrow seemed to be a family trait. Cronus had

snatched the crown from his father, and Zeus had done the same to
his father, Cronus. Not long after winning the war, someone warned
Zeus that a future son by Metis would overthrow Zeus as king of the
gods. Instead of waiting for his wife to have their first child, Zeus
picked up Metis and swallowed her whole. He was not aware that
she was already pregnant with their daughter. No doubt, he would
keep a watchful eye out for any eager cup-bearers, too.
Peace after the war with the Titans was rather short-lived. A number
of monsters attacked the Olympian gods. We’ll talk more about those
events in the coming chapter on “Kraken and Other Monsters.”
But once the monsters had ceased to be a threat, Zeus’s rule on
Olympus enjoyed eons of relative peace.
While Cronus had watched over a world of humans in its Golden
Age, Zeus now watched over humanity’s Silver Age.
Zeus took many goddesses as his consorts, eventually marrying
Hera, his older sister. But marriage didn’t slow him down. We will see
more on this in the next chapter, “Zeus and His Ladies.”
As a jealous god, Zeus liked that the mortal humans would worship
him, but eventually they refused. So, he destroyed them. The Silver
Age gave way to the Bronze Age, where the few survivors were
warriors, tough and sturdy. Zeus hated their destructive nature and
sent a great flood to wipe them out. Only two survived—Deucalion
and Pyrrah. Zeus commanded them to repopulate the world, and
they accomplished this by turning stones into humans—representing
the hardness of their lives. Thus began the Heroic Age—a race of
men of honor and gracious worship of the gods. When this age died
out, Zeus created the final batch of humans for the start of the Iron
Age—our current, brutal age.
Zeus’s Punishment of Evildoers
The king of gods would not stand for insolence, hubris or any other
affront to divine authority. How Zeus punished those who offended
him says a lot about his character.
Salmoneus and Sisyphus
Salmoneus and Sisyphus were brothers who wanted each other
dead. Salmoneus was the king of Elis, while Sisyphus was the king
of Ephyra (later called Corinth).
Sisyphus consulted an oracle to determine what he could do to rid
the world of his brother. He was told that he should marry his
brother’s daughter, Tyro, and that her children by him would kill
Salmoneus. When Tyro had a son, Sisyphus rejoiced. When Tyro
found out what the son would do to her father, she killed the infant.
Later, to spite her uncle and husband, she slept with Poseidon and
gave the god two more children—Pelias and Neleus.
For all his scheming, Zeus condemned Sisyphus to Tartarus, and to
rolling a large stone up a hill only to have it roll back down and hit
him. This would be his lot for the rest of eternity. His goal was forever
to balance the rock at the top of the hill.
Salmoneus earned Zeus’s wrath by ordering his subjects to call the
king by the name “Zeus.” The king magnified his crimes by having
his citizens build a bridge of brass over which he then drove his
chariot at full speed so as to simulate the sound of thunder. With
other special effects, he created the illusion of lightning. Zeus was
not amused. Eventually, Zeus gave the king and the town a taste of
real lightning, destroying everything of Elis.
Ixion
Ixion was king of a most ancient Thessalonian tribe called the
Lapiths. He married Dia, daughter of Deioneus. Ixion had pledged a
valuable gift to his father-in-law. When Ixion never delivered on his
promise, Deioneus took a few horses of Ixion’s.
Not wanting open confrontation, Ixion pretended all was well and
invited Deioneus to a banquet in Larissa, Thessaly. Upon the arrival
of his father-in-law, Ixion thrust him into a great fire, killing him.
As if murder isn’t insane enough, Ixion suffered great mental torment
at what he had done. And no one of his neighbors would help him
with any form of catharsis.
Zeus took pity on the man and invited him to Olympus. But Ixion
insulted his host by lusting after his wife, Hera. Zeus had had
enough. He created a cloud that looked like Hera and bade his guest
take the cloud as his lover. All manner of monsters were born from
their union.
The king of gods then expelled Ixion and scorched him with a
massive thunderbolt. Then, Zeus had Hermes tie the mad king to a
spinning wheel of fire, to be forever tortured by it.
Tantalus
Like Ixion, Tantalus had been invited up to Olympus. But Tantalus
attempted to steal some of the ambrosia (food of the gods) and
nectar (drink of the gods) so that he could bring them back to his
own people. He was also intent on stealing the secrets of the gods.
For these crimes, Tantalus was condemned to Tartarus—in the
greatest depths of the underworld. There, he was condemned to
stand in a pool of water, under a fruit tree. Every time he reached up
to pluck the fruit, the limb would draw back, out of reach. And every
time he bent over to drink, the water would recede from his lips.
From his name, we get the word “tantalize”—a form of emotional
torture—temptation without any hope of satisfaction.
Chapter 5 — Zeus and His Ladies

Zeus was a bawdy and lascivious character—a womanizer.

This philanderer had seven wives, not all at the same time, but he
had dozens of mistresses while married. He swallowed his first wife
whole to keep her from giving birth to a son who would one day
overthrow him.
Here they are—all 7 of his wives:
1. Metis [cousin]—mother of Athena. Murdered by swallowing.
2. Themis [aunt]—mother of Dike, the Horae and the Morai. She
built the Oracle at Delphi. Abandoned by Zeus.
3. Eurynome [elder Oceanid]—mother of the 3 “Charites”
(“graces”). Abandoned by Zeus.
4. Demeter [older sister]—mother of Persephone, the future
queen of the underworld. Abandoned by Zeus.
5. Mnemosyne [first generation Titanide]—mother of the 9 muses.
Abandoned by Zeus.
6. Leto [cousin, Titanide]—mother of Artemis and Apollo.
Abandoned by Zeus.
7. Hera [older sister]—mother of Ares (war), Hebe (cupbearer),
Eileithyia (childbirth), Eris (discord) and Hephaestus (fire and
metallurgy).
Zeus had more than a dozen divine consorts including 3 of his own
daughters and his own grandmother, Gaia. He also had an incredible
number of mortal lovers.
Sometimes, Zeus would change his form in order to seduce the
current woman of his desires.
The king of the gods turned himself into a swan for Leda. She was
already married, but that never bothered Zeus, so long as he was
the one doing the cheating. Leda, of course, was a good wife to her
husband and the children were thus partly those of Zeus and partly
those of her mortal husband. Accordingly, they were part divine and
part mortal. These included the lovely Helen (future wife of Menelaus
and lover of Paris of Troy), Clytemnestra, and the twins, Castor and
Pollux (immortalized as the constellation Gemini).
Another of Zeus’s conquests was the lovely Danaë, mother of
Perseus. We will take a closer look at that affair and its aftermath in
the chapter on monsters.
Zeus, Europa, Cadmus, and the Dragon
Of all the mortal women, Europa was perhaps the one who Zeus
loved the most. We can tell by the number of children she bore him
—6 in all. They were Minos (king of Minoan Crete), Rhadamanthus,
Sarpedon, Alagonia, Carnus, and Dodon. Her name was later given
to the continent—the far western end of the Eurasia landmass.
Europa was the daughter of King Agenor and Queen Telephassa of
Tyre. The hero, Cadmus was her brother.
One day, a white bull appeared amongst her father’s herd while
Europa and her handmaidens were picking flowers. They hugged the
side of the beautiful bull and Europa climbed onto his back.
Suddenly, the bull ran into the Mediterranean and swam all the way
to Crete. After the bull had walked to shore, he transformed into the
true form of Zeus, and he made love to her, making her queen of the
island. He gave her several gifts, including a necklace fashioned by
his son, Hephaestus. Later, Zeus displayed his love for Europa by
imprinting onto the sky the form of the bull by which they first had
met. This became the constellation of Taurus, the bull.
Back home in Tyre, Europa’s mother and father were distraught that
their daughter had been whisked away on a magical, white bull.
They sent their son, Cadmus to go find his sister.
As hard as he looked, Europa’s brother could not find her. Finally,
Cadmus consulted the Oracle at Delphi. They told him to give up his
quest because his sister was quite happy with Zeus. Imagine the
king of the gods as your protector. The Oracle did recommend that
Cadmus create his own city. They told him to find a black and white
cow, to follow it, and then to build his city where the cow would come
to rest. Only a few days later, Cadmus and his men had followed the
cow to its resting place and decided to build their city. The only
problem was, a fierce dragon stood nearby, ready to kill anyone who
came to the stream for water. When all of his men had been sent to
fetch water, but none returned, Cadmus found them all dead in front
of the dragon. He attacked the beast, knocking out its teeth.
Suddenly, several other soldiers appeared and began fighting
amongst themselves. When their anger was spent and most of them
were killed, the remaining few agreed to help Cadmus with his
project. And just as suddenly, the dragon lifted silently into the sky
and flew away.
Chapter 6 — Prometheus and Herakles

Prometheus (forethought), son of Iapetus, had been one of the few

Titans to support Zeus in his fight against Cronus. Because his dull-
witted brother, Epimetheus (afterthought), had not been smart
enough to participate in either side, both Titans had been spared
being locked up in Tartarus. However, their brother, Atlas, had led
many a battle against the Olympians.
In one version of Greek myth, Zeus commanded Prometheus to
create humans. The Titan did this by molding clay and Athena blew
on the clay figures in order to bring them to life. In another version,
humans had already been created, but both of the free sons of
Iapetus were to give humans the traits that they would need in order
to survive. Epimetheus spent all the gifts on the other creatures of
nature and had none left over for humans. Quick thinking
Prometheus decided to give humans fire and other skills to help
them build civilization.
As bright as Prometheus was, he was no match for his cousin, Zeus.
Because of this, he had to rely more on cunning than social skills.
Yet, this wasn’t enough in the long run.
Prometheus loved his human pets far more than he did the gods of
Olympus. Because of this, he did everything in his power to protect
them.
One day, Zeus decided that the growing number of humans needed
to worship Zeus and the other Olympian gods in order to show their
proper respect. Zeus commanded men to sacrifice a part of every
animal in honor of the gods.
So that his dear humans would get to keep the best parts,
Prometheus proposed that Zeus choose which portion of each
creature should be included in the sacrifice to the gods. For this,
Prometheus made two piles: one of bones covered in glistening fat,
the other with the choicest cuts of meat wrapped in the creature’s
ugly stomach. Zeus chose the pile that glistened and was thus
tricked by Prometheus.
When Zeus discovered that he had been tricked, he snatched up fire
from man so that he would have to live in darkness and cold, eating
his meat raw.
However, Prometheus stole fire from Olympus and took it back to
mankind.
Zeus was outraged. Prometheus had tricked Zeus and now had
countermanded his actions regarding fire. The time had come to
teach Prometheus a lesson and to punish the puny humans for their
acceptance of fire from the wayward Titan.
Punishment of Humanity
Punishing the humans was the easy part. First, Zeus had his son,
Hephaestus—god of fire and metallurgy (Roman, Vulcan)—to create
a new kind of human of incredible beauty. Each of the Olympian
gods gave this mortal an abundance of gifts. Then, Zeus had
Hermes—messenger god and deity of thieves—give this beautiful
mortal a deceiving heart and a dishonest tongue. Thus was created
the first woman, named Pandora.
Zeus commanded this mortal to take a certain jar with her, but she
was forbidden ever to open the jar. Little did she know that the jar
contained every kind of sorrow, evil, pestilence and calamity. Only
one good thing resided in the jar at its very bottom—hope.
On that fateful day when Pandora had been completed, she was
sent with her jar down to the realm of men to stay with Epimetheus,
the dullard brother of Prometheus.
Prometheus had been wise enough to know that Zeus might attempt
to attack him through his simpleton brother. So, Prometheus had
cautioned his brother not to accept anything from Zeus. However,
Epimetheus fell in love with Pandora at first sight, so great was her
beauty. He decided not to accept her, but neither would he reject her.
In his own mind, by this he would be obeying both his brother and
his heart.
Because of the conflicting traits she had been given, Pandora’s heart
eventually rejected Zeus’s command. The temptation became too
great for her to know what was in the jar. Curiosity clawed at her
mind until she could no longer endure the pain.
Finally one day, when no one was looking, she borrowed a knife
from the kitchen and broke the seal. When she lifted the lid, the
swarm of suffering which poured out was so great; it threw her
backward onto the floor. Struggle as she might, she could not resist
the darkness flooding out from the jar. Finally, when the flow had
subsided, she noticed a warm glow remaining in the jar. Fearful that
the light might be something far worse, she slammed the lid shut,
locking inside the only positive gift within the jar.
Punishment of Prometheus
Zeus was being petulant and childish over being fooled by
Prometheus regarding the sacrifices. The king of gods was being
exceedingly nasty by taking fire away from humans—making their
lives more deadly. Such cruelty was not worthy of worship, much
less admiration. But Prometheus had gotten onto Zeus’s bad side,
and there was very little he could have done to redeem himself in the
eyes of someone so drunk with power.
A British Lord named Acton once said that power tends to corrupt
and absolute power corrupts absolutely. These seem to match the
personality of Zeus. The king of gods felt that he could do anything
and get away with it. He thought to punish Prometheus for his minor
offenses, and the burden of that punishment would be eternal and
severe.
The king of gods had two servants in his employ who could help him
with his evil desires. They were named Violence and Force. He
ordered them to grab hold of Prometheus and to take him to Kazbek
Mountain in the Caucasus. There, they were to chain him to a huge
rock. Zeus sent along his son, Hephaestus, with the son’s blacksmith
hammer to fasten the chain, made of an unbreakable substance
called adamantine, so that the Titan could never be able to escape.
Hephaestus voiced his regrets to his elder victim, but Force told the
god of fire and metallurgy not to waste his sentiments over someone
who had earned the wrath of the mighty father of the gods.
Zeus then ordered a great eagle to come feast on the liver of
Prometheus, causing the Titan excruciating pain during the day. At
night, because the Titan was an immortal, his liver would regenerate.
And the following day, the process would repeat itself.
Finally, Zeus came to gloat over the tortured Prometheus.
“One of my oracles,” said Zeus, “tells me that someone will one day
overthrow me. You can see ahead. Tell me who it is, and I will set
you free.”
Prometheus had shown nothing but compassion for humanity and a
desire for them to live long and prosper. After Zeus’s maniacal
punishment for such good deeds, Prometheus held only contempt
for this usurper.
Perhaps, thought Prometheus, that future threat to Zeus will one day
free me of this torture. I will not jeopardize another to save myself.
So, Prometheus protected the identity of the threat to Zeus.
Herakles and His Twelve Labors
Long after Perseus, Zeus made love with his granddaughter,
Alcmene, despite the fact that she was already married with two
other children. Her son by Zeus was named Herakles (which
ironically meant “from Hera”). The goddess Hera was not amused
and became a long time enemy of the young demigod. In time,
everyone came to know the young man as someone with god-like
strength.
When Herakles (Roman, Hercules) grew into manhood, he moved to
Thebes and ended up marrying, Megara, the daughter of King
Creon. The princess gave Herakles a son and a daughter and the
family was exceedingly happy. Their joy made Hera decidedly
unhappy. In a fit of rage, Hera reached into Herakles’s mind and
gave him a temporary madness. When Herakles awoke from his
insanity, he discovered that he had murdered his own son and
daughter.
In despair, he traveled a short distance to the West, to the Oracle at
Delphi. There, he wanted to find some way to absolve himself of
these crimes he had committed. Little did he know that the Oracle
was being directed by Hera, herself. In an act of malicious cruelty,
she ordered the Oracle to tell the demigod to become the servant of
his mother’s cousin, Eurystheus, King of Mycenae. Herakles was to
remain a servant for ten years and to do anything that the king
required of him.
When Herakles arrived at Mycenae, Eurystheus felt compelled to
give his cousin’s son ten impossible labors. After completing all ten,
Eurystheus declared that two of them had not been done to his
satisfaction, so he required two more. And because Herakles
needed to work for his relative for nearly two more years, he felt
obligated to do the two additional tasks. One of those tasks was to
retrieve the Golden Apples of the Hesperides Garden. They had
been Hera’s gift to her husband, Zeus, on their marriage.
The first problem facing Herakles was that he did not know the
location of the Garden. He searched far and wide for clues. On his
journeys, he came across Kazbek Mountain in the Caucasus, where
Prometheus had been chained.
Herakles had heard the story of Prometheus and wondered if this
accident of finding the Titan had been a gift from his father, Zeus.
Immortal Prometheus had suffered for thousands of years. He had
become hardened to the pain, but still liked the idea that it might one
day cease. While Herakles rested, the young demigod talked about
his labors and the burden placed upon him by the jealous Hera.
Prometheus could easily relate to the young demigod’s suffering.
When Herakles mentioned his current labor, Prometheus smiled and
told him to cheer up. “I know where they are. And I know the
difficulties you will face. I would be happy to tell you everything if you
would only slay the eagle for me and set me free.”
Herakles agreed to do these things, but only if his father was okay
with their agreement.
“Zeus!” Prometheus cried out. “I will tell you what you want to know. I
grow weary of my burden.”
“Speak, cousin,” said Zeus. “Who threatens my throne?”
“You know of the sea nymph, Thetis,” replied Prometheus. “Both you
and your brother, Poseidon, want her. But her son will rise up to be
greater than his father.”
Zeus pondered this revelation for a moment and called upon his
brother. “Poseidon? Did you hear this? I recommend we both give up
this nymph. Marry her off to a mortal so that ‘greater than the father’
won’t mean much.”
A moment later, Zeus was gone, but the Titan and demigod both
took Zeus’s acceptance of the information as his implied approval of
their pact.
When the eagle returned for its daily meal of Titan liver, Herakles
leapt from behind a nearby rock and struck the great bird with his
sword. Then, he broke the chains which had bound Prometheus for
longer than human history.
Once free, Prometheus kept his word. He told Herakles that the
Garden was at the far edge of the world, guarded by a hundred-
headed dragon named Ladon, and by nymphs of the West—the
Hesperides—daughters of Atlas.
Herakles knew where Atlas stood and immediately set out across the
Black Sea and across the length of the Mediterranean to the pillars
which soon were to bear his name. There, he found Atlas. Nearby,
he found the Garden and the Hesperides nymphs.
Slaying the dragon was relatively easy, especially after all the labors
he had already completed, but try as he might, he could not get past
the nymphs.
Then, Herakles realized that their father was nearby, holding up the
sky. “Perhaps,” he thought, “the Titan can do what I cannot.”
So, Herakles bargained with Atlas. “I’ll hold up the sky for awhile,
giving you chance to rest, if you will bring me the Golden Apples
protected by your daughters.”
Atlas agreed, but when he returned with the Apples, he told Herakles
that he would save the young demigod the trouble and would himself
deliver them to Eurystheus.
The young demigod feared that Eurystheus would be satisfied only if
Herakles returned with the Apples. After all, the king had rejected
two of his labors on similar grounds. His mind raced for a possible
solution. He also feared that Atlas would become too attached to his
newfound freedom and might never return, leaving Herakles forever
holding up the sky.
“Atlas,” he said, “that sounds agreeable. I thank you for your
kindness and your willingness to do so much more than I had
requested. Had I known the weight of the sky, I would have padded
my shoulder more completely with my cloak. Could you hold the sky
for a moment while I readjust my padding?”
Atlas thought this was a reasonable request and shouldered the sky
once more. Immediately, Herakles gathered up the Apples and fled,
leaving Atlas to suffer the rest of eternity with his burden.
When he had delivered the Apples to Eurystheus, the king was
outraged. At first, Herakles couldn’t believe the response, but then
Athena came and whispered in his ear. “He wants you to fail, my
brother. He is upset that you did the impossible. But now that it is
done, you really need to return the Apples, for they belong to our
father.”
So, Herakles took the Apples from Eurystheus and handed them
over to Athena so that she could return them to the Hesperides
Garden at the edge of the world.
Chapter 7 — An Unhappy Tale of the Underworld

We have to wonder if Hades was happy being given the underworld

to rule. Zeus took the sky and Poseidon took the seas. The land—
Gaia—was open to all gods and goddesses. Usually, the only ones
who came to the underworld were the dead and the criminal.
So, we can understand Hades’s desperation for companionship. The
target of his desires was Persephone, the goddess of spring, flowers
and vegetation.
Persephone was the daughter of Zeus and Demeter, goddess of the
harvest. Demeter was a very proper mother and would never have
allowed her daughter to visit the underworld—the dark, rough-and-
tumble prison of the universe.
One day, while Persephone, Artemis, Athena and the Oceanids were
gathering flowers from the field, Hades cracked open his
grandmother, the Earth, reached through the cleft and kidnapped his
niece. Because he had been wearing his helmet of invisibility, no one
saw him do it.
Demeter was so distraught that her daughter was missing, she
stopped nurturing the plants toward harvest. Finally, Helios looked
down upon his aunt and told her that her daughter had been taken
by Hades. In despair, Demeter lost hope and could not fulfill her
timely duties. Soon, people started to starve. Cries and prayers were
heard by all the gods asking that they would return order to nature.
The weeping and howling became so intense that Zeus demanded
that Hades return Persephone to her mother.
Hades agreed to return her, but before she left, he fed her
pomegranate seeds as a parting gesture. When Hermes, the
messenger god, arrived to escort Persephone back to the world
above, the spring goddess had already tasted food in the
underworld. By divine law, she was now obligated to return to Hades
for a third of each year. These became known as the winter months,
because Persephone was not around to care for the plants.
Chapter 8 — The Beauty Contest that Led to the
Fall of Troy

Zeus held such lust for Thetis that he would not let her get married
without every possible reward for what he felt for her. He knew he
would never be able to lay with her, because any child born of their
union would destroy his reign as king of the gods.
So, when the time came for Peleus and Thetis to be wed, Zeus
insisted that the ceremony be held on Mount Pelion, near the cave of
Chiron the wise centaur. In the garden, there would be plenty of
room for everyone. He hosted a banquet fit for gods and goddesses.
Everyone of note was invited—even the demigods—all except Eris.
After all, having the goddess of strife at a wedding could only mean
disaster.
Naturally, Eris was outraged that she had been excluded. She dug
through her memories in search of something through which to vent
her anger. Finally, she remembered the Golden Apples of
Hesperides. One of those was the Golden Apple of Discord. A
wicked smile crossed her face. The revenge which flashed across
her mind tasted more delicious than any treat at the divine banquet.
Across the face of the Golden Apple, she etched the word “Kallisti,”
which meant “For the fairest.”
Eris rushed back toward the garden where the party was being held.
She hefted the Golden Apple in one hand and threw it over the
garden wall.
No one remembered who originally found the Apple, but soon every
goddess was squabbling over its intended recipient.
“It’s mine.”
“No, it was meant for me.”
Amongst the guests, the consensus was that the three most
beautiful were Hera (goddess of family and fidelity), Athena
(goddess of wisdom and protection) and Aphrodite (goddess of
mortal love). Each one of these goddesses claimed the Golden
Apple as their own. It might seem surprising that Hera did not
recognize the Apple as one of the sets she had given her husband
on their marriage.
The quarrel became so heated that Athena, in all her wisdom, knew
that they needed someone to judge the matter. Her own ego, though,
had clouded her judgment, for she asked her father, Zeus, to decide
the conflict.
Zeus was no fool. He knew that if he chose one, the other two would
never let him forget it. And how could he choose between his wife or
two of his daughters? For once, Zeus showed greater wisdom than
Athena by choosing Paris of Troy to make the selection. Paris was a
demigod descended from the union of Zeus and Electra—through
Dardanus, Erichthonius, Tros, Ilus, Laomedon and Priam.
“Great Father Zeus,” said Paris, “do I have your permission to set
any condition for this decision?”
“Yes, my young Paris. The decision is entirely yours.”
With the wedding over, this side show which grew out of the wedding
celebration became the new big event. No doubt, Eris stood in the
shadows sniggering at the strife she had begun.
Hermes, the messenger god, escorted Hera, Athena and Aphrodite
to Mount Ida—southeast of Troy—to bathe in the spring, there.
When they were done and fully dressed, Hermes presented the
goddesses to Paris who had been herding his cattle nearby.
The Trojan prince took a break from his duties and had each of the
goddesses come before him, one by one. When done, Paris shook
his head in dismay. Each of them were beautiful beyond description,
and there was no judging between them.
“Please, my dear ladies,” said Paris to the goddesses standing
before him. “Each of you are more beautiful than any sentient being
could possibly fathom. This challenge I’ve been given requires
greater scrutiny and I feel that it is not my place to require what is
needed to fulfill my task.”
Aphrodite immediately understood what the young demigod meant
and stepped forward, shrugging off all that she wore. Paris was
immediately stunned by the perfection of her body, from head to toe.
Aphrodite moved with sexual energy that made the young man weak
with desire.
Next, Athena disrobed and displayed her strong, agile form. Though
she did not move with the same sensuous nature of her sister, her
beauty was beyond compare.
Finally, Hera removed her royal garments and stood naked for the
young man to see.
Again, in frustration, Paris buried his face in his hands. “Oh, such
torture! I have been given an impossible task. All of you are more
beautiful than I could hope for in my wildest dreams. I have failed.”
To help make up the young man’s mind, Hera approached Paris
where he sat and let him see up close what the queen goddess
looked like. While close enough to touch, she leaned over and
whispered into the young man’s ear, “Choose me, and I’ll make you
king of all Europe and Asia.
Athena did not like the advantage her stepmother had taken. And it
was easy to guess that she had bribed Paris with some enticement.
Likewise, Athena approached the young prince, letting him see up
close her own splendid beauty. She too leaned toward him and
whispered in his ear, “Select me, and I will give you the wisdom and
skill to be unstoppable in war.”
Finally, Aphrodite took her turn to visit the young prince up close—
near enough for him to become intoxicated by her perfume and to be
enthralled by the sweet sound of her soft voice as she whispered in
his ear, “Choose me, my darling Paris, and I will give you the most
beautiful, mortal woman in the entire world.”
“But,” said Paris, “I know who that is. My cousin, Helen of Sparta,
wife of King Menelaus. But how?”
Aphrodite winked at him and replied. “Leave that to me. In love, I am
master of all things.”
When all three goddesses had returned to their station of display,
Paris nodded, affirming that he had chosen.
“This has been a most difficult task, but I choose Aphrodite. And
please understand that Hera and Athena are more lovely than any
mortal.” Prince Paris handed the Golden Apple of Despair to
Aphrodite.
What Aphrodite had not told Paris was that great sorrow and death
were now in his future. Her selfishness had set the young demigod
on a path of destruction, and the Golden Apple of Despair had been
its instrument.
Before she had been married, Helen had drawn dozens of suitors
from all over Achaea (ancient Greece). So great was the desire of
the many young men, that her father Tyndareus feared that some
might not honor the betrothal, once the selection had been made.
The great King Odysseus recommended that each of the suitors
swear a promise to defend Helen’s marriage once Tyndareus had
made his selection.
Once he had their promises, Tyndareus chose Menelaus of Sparta.
And later, when Paris vacationed to Sparta, Helen immediately fell in
love with the gentle young prince from Troy. Thus, Aphrodite had
lived up to her pledge.
When Helen left with Paris, Menelaus reminded the other major
kings of their oaths. Virtually all of the Greek city-states gathered up
arms and sent ships against Troy. It has been said that Helen had
the face which launched a thousand ships into war.
Aphrodite knew nothing of war, so she was no help in Paris’s
defense of his homeland. He had made enemies of two, far more
powerful goddesses—Hera and Athena.
Thetis and Achilles
Nearly a year after the wedding at Mount Pelion, Thetis gave birth to
a young boy who would, by prophecy, become greater than his
father.
She feared for her son because he was merely a mortal demigod.
She endeavored to strip away his mortality and to leave him with
nothing but divine immortality. At night, she bathed him in fire. During
the day, she anointed him with the food of the gods, ambrosia.
And after such treatment was complete, she took him down to the
River Styx, in the underworld realm of Hades—one of Zeus’s older
brothers. There, she held her son by his heel and dipped him into the
magical Styx waters. Every part of young Achilles touched by those
waters was made immune to death.
Thetis, of course, missed a spot. After this, whenever anyone had a
deadly weakness it was frequently called their “Achilles heel.”
Chapter 9 — Poseidon, Metis and Athena

Athena’s Birth
Remember when Zeus was a young cupbearer, betraying his own
father and then snatching the crown after a ten-year war? He found
out that his son by Metis would overthrow him as king of the gods, so
he swallowed her whole.
There are a number of versions of the myth. In one, Hera became
very angry that Zeus had given birth to a goddess on his own, so she
turned around and gave birth to Hephaestus—god of fire and
metallurgy (a blacksmith to the gods and inventor).
In another version, Hephaestus, son of Zeus and Hera, comes to
Zeus’s rescue when he suffers from a severe headache.
Complaining of a pain that seemed only to get worse and worse,
Zeus asked his son for help with the headache. So, Hephaestus
picked up his hammer and whacked his father on the head.
Suddenly, out sprang Athena, full grown, fully clothed and wearing
armor and holding weapons at the ready. Ouch! But in this version,
Hera immediately loved Athena as if she were one of her own.
Medusa and Pegasus
Medusa was one of the Gorgon sisters—born of Phorcys (a sea god,
son of Pontus and Gaia) and Ceto (a sea goddess, daughter of
Pontus and Gaia). Medusa had beautiful, golden hair which attracted
the lustful gaze of Poseidon, the usurping god of the seas—taking
the place of the primordial, Pontus. But Medusa had long been vain
because of her beautiful hair.
Poseidon couldn’t seem to help himself. He found the nearest
shelter, dragged Medusa inside and made love to her. Athena was
not pleased to find her uncle getting nasty in one of his own temples.
She couldn’t very well chastise him. After all, he was close family.
But Medusa? Athena cursed the female by turning her beautiful hair
into snakes. Thereafter, anyone who looked upon her would
immediately turn to stone because of their own deathly fright.
The great hero, Perseus, had been challenged to cut off Medusa’s
head. We’ll learn more about this in the next chapter on monsters.
But when the young hero severed her head, out sprang from the
neck a beautiful winged horse—Pegasus—and a giant wielding a
golden sword—Chrysaor. Perseus made great use of Medusa’s
head as a weapon but ultimately gave the ugly artifact to Athena who
flattened the head and put it on her shield.
But note that one of the offspring of Poseidon and Medusa was a
flying horse.
Chapter 10 — Kraken and Other Monsters

The Kraken is a monster from Norse myth borrowed by Hollywood

filmmakers to make the story of Perseus and Andromeda even more
exciting. The name evokes more terror than does the original
monster of the Perseus myth. Kraken has been pictured by many
authors over the years to have been a giant squid. In the 1981
version of Clash of the Titans, the Kraken was a giant, humanoid
reptile with four arms. In the 2010 version, the Kraken became
bulkier and more snake-like.
In the original Greek myth, the creature was not the Norse Kraken,
but the Cetus—the name of which is the root for cetaceans, or
whales. But the word originally meant something of a large fish, a
shark, a whale or some other kind of sea monster.
Titan Revenge
After the war which defeated the Titans, for some strange reason,
both Gaia and Rhea were not happy.
Gaia should have been happy that her six younger sons had been
freed, but she did not like that all of the combative Titans had been
sent to the same prison. Perhaps we should not expect Gaia to be
entirely logical. With selfish and criminal intent coming from both
sides, someone was going to end up in Tartarus—the underworld.
Gaia was destined to be unhappy, no matter who won the war.
Rhea should have been happy that her children—the Olympian gods
—were free from the selfish gut of her husband, but perhaps she did
not like that her husband, Cronus, had been taken from her. Was
she suffering from something akin to Stockholm Syndrome—victim
sympathy for the perpetrator?
Regardless of their motives, each of the goddesses plotted to strike
back at the Olympian gods.
Typhon
Years after Cronus had mutilated his own father and made him
impotent, Gaia had taken other lovers. Tartarus, her underworld
brother was one of them. From all that darkness, their one child was
a monster named Typhon. He was one of Gaia’s last offspring and
he became the deadliest monster of all existence.
Typhon asked the monster, Echidna, to be his wife. She had the form
of half snake and half woman. The two of them had many monstrous
children.
Heartbroken that the Titans were locked up inside her final lover, she
coaxed her son, Typhon, to challenge Zeus and to take over his rule
of the universe.
Naturally, Zeus had become quite skilled in battle after his ten years
fighting the Titans. Yet, Typhon appeared and sounded so frightening
that the gods fled Olympus. The monster’s giant form consisted of a
sturdy trunk from which arose a hundred serpent heads. Powerful
flames leapt from his mouths, nostrils, and eyes. His frightful
screams were like a hundred volcanoes bellowing toward the
heavens.
The king of gods struck Typhon with a mighty lightning bolt, searing
off all of the monster’s snakeheads. In shock, Typhon crashed to the
ground and Zeus pounced on the creature, thrashing him repeatedly.
Finally, Zeus threw the ugly young god into Tartarus—the creature’s
father.
The Giants
This time, Rhea—mother of the Olympian gods—grew furious at
what had been done to Typhon, sympathizing with Gaia’s loss. She
begged Enceladus, one of the giants born of Uranus’s blood, to
avenge Typhon. Again, Zeus prevailed with his lightning bolts. He
dragged the giant into a burning cave underneath Mount Etna, Sicily,
and chained him there. Even unto today, people can sometimes hear
his groans as they witness smoke billowing out of the great volcanic
mountain. Every time Enceladus shifted to a more comfortable
position, the people above would feel the earth shake.
But as Zeus was defeating this one giant, Enceladus’s brothers
came to his rescue. Realizing that the stakes had just been raised,
the other Olympian gods came to Zeus’s aid. Apollo’s arrow struck
down Porphyrion, king of the giants. Super-hot missiles of metal
launched from the forge of Hephaestus killed the giant, Mimas.
Athena killed Asterius. Hecate’s torches killed Clytius. Poseidon
killed the giant, Ephialtes. Dionysus used his thyrsus to strike down
Eurytus. Artemis used her bow and arrow to take out Gration. Apollo
thrust his spear into Hopladamas. Hermes, while borrowing Hades’s
helmet of invisibility, killed Hippolytus. Poseidon broke off a piece of
Kos Island and hurled it at Polybotes, crushing the giant. And the
Morai (fates) used their bronze clubs to beat Thoas to death.
When all was done, all of the giants who had joined in the battle
were dead except Enceladus.
Additional Monsters
Greek myth is full of monsters and monstrous creatures, some far
uglier than others.
Arachne—she was a boastful woman who Athena turned into a
spider.
Centaur—half horse and half human.
Cerberus—3-headed dog who guarded the underworld.
Chimera—fire-breathing monster with both lion’s and goat’s heads
and serpent’s tail.
Dragon—a snake-like creature, sometimes shown with wings or
feathers, and sometimes spitting fire. In fact, the word “dragon”
comes from the Greek word for snake, “drakon.”
Hippocampi—head and body of a horse and tail of a fish.
Hydra of Lerna—child of Typhon and Echidna, this creature
possessed many serpentine heads. Ultimately, it was slain by
Herakles.
Gigantes—giants born of Uranus’s blood after Cronus cut off his
genitals. In later myths, they had the body of men and legs made of
serpents.
Greek Sphinx—body of lion and head of a woman.
Griffin—winged monster, head of eagle and body of lion.
Harpy—flying creatures with woman’s head and body, wings and
claws of a bird.
The Lamia—flying, child eating, monster with woman’s body, wings
and talons of a bird, and tail of a serpent.
Medusa—one of the Gorgon sisters with hair made of snakes. One
look at her would turn a man to stone. Ultimately killed by Perseus.
Merman—half men, half fish.
Minotaur—a great beast of the Cretan labyrinth, half man with the
head of a bull. Finally killed by Theseus.
Phoenix—a great bird which is born from the ashes of its previous
existence.
Python—a serpent-like monster, confined to the earth, that guarded
the Oracle at Delphi. Ultimately slain by Apollo.
Satyrs—man with goat’s ears, tail, legs and horns (assoc. w/Pan)
Scylla and Charybdis—Scylla had been a beautiful naiad who
Poseidon had claimed for himself. But the jealousy of Amphitrite
caused her to become a frightful monster with six long necks and six
ghastly heads. Charybdis was a great sea monster who could
swallow huge quantities of water, creating whirlpools powerful
enough to drag entire ships under water. These two monsters were
said to have been stationed at the narrow Strait of Messina—
between the boot tip of Italy and the triangular island of Sicily. In
ages past, when sea level was much lower, the strait may well have
been far more treacherous. As sailors would attempt to run that
gauntlet, they would be picked off by either Scylla or Charybdis,
depending on how close their ship came to either one. Today,
“between Scylla and Charybdis” has the meaning of deciding
between two evils.
Perseus and the Monsters
Perhaps more than any other single Greek hero, Perseus saw more
than his share of monsters. In fact, some of the monsters in his life
were selfish and self-serving humans, including his own mortal
grandfather. This brave hero was also the great grandfather of
Herakles—the demigod of great strength. Perseus was said to have
been the founder of Mycenae, at the heart of Mycenaean Greece—
the real land of Agamemnon, Menelaus, Helen of Troy, and
Odysseus.
Our tale begins before Perseus was born. His grandfather, Acrisius,
was king of Argos and distraught that he had not had a son. Like so
many Greeks had done, he consulted the Oracle at Delphi. The
news he received did not answer his quest for a son. Instead, it
foretold that his grandson by his daughter, Danaë, would one day
lead to the king’s death.
Acrisius was outraged and terrified. In the courtyard of his palace, he
built a bronze cylinder without a ceiling or a door. He had it
sumptuously furnished and then imprisoned his daughter within it.
We can only guess how she survived. Food must have been
delivered over the wall of that brass cylinder, perhaps only by
maidens selected by Acrisius. Likely, no male was ever allowed to
visit his daughter.
Zeus, however, became a golden shower of rain and descended
upon Danaë. Months later, she gave birth to a boy she named
Perseus.
When Acrisius heard that he had a grandson, he was not overjoyed.
Instead, he plotted how to be rid of both his daughter and the
dangerous young infant. The only way his daughter could have
become pregnant would be for one of the gods to have come to her.
And Zeus already had the reputation.
But if he killed his daughter, he would earn the wrath of all the gods.
He would also be breaking mortal law. Worse, killing the infant—son
of Zeus—he would earn the fury of the most dangerous of the gods.
Instead of murder, Acrisius placed mother and son in a wooden box
and placed it into the sea. “Let Poseidon decide their fate,” he said.
Days later, the box washed up on the shore of Serifos Island. There,
a fisherman named Dictys unlocked the box and set them free.
Dictys took responsibility for them both and raised the boy as if he
were his own son.
The brother of Dictys, Polydectes, was king of the island. By the time
Perseus had become a man, the king had fallen in love with Danaë.
But Perseus didn’t trust the king. Because of the young man’s
feelings, the king felt compelled to send Perseus away so that he
would have greater freedom to court the boy’s mother.
Polydectes invited many of his citizens to a large banquet. He
requested that they each bring a gift of a horse. Being poor, Perseus
had no horse. He asked the king to name another gift and Perseus
promised that he would not refuse. This was a most illogical and
naive thing for Perseus to do. If he could not bring a horse, how
could he bring anything else he did not possess? In effect, he had
refused to bring the requested horse.
The king took advantage of the young man’s reckless promise. “Very
well, my young man. Bring me the head of Medusa.”
But what if Polydectes had asked Perseus to bring to the king the
love and betrothal of Danaë, his mother? Honor required him to fulfill
his hasty pledge, no matter what the king had asked. Perhaps
Perseus learned a valuable lesson that day, but a costly lesson.
Medusa was the only mortal Gorgon. She had hair made of snakes
and her hideous appearance would turn any man immediately to
stone.
Athena had been the one who had made Medusa so deadly ugly—
punishment for her and Poseidon making love in Athena’s temple.
She heard the king’s challenge and came to Perseus with help.
“Seek out the Hesperides,” she told him. “They have been entrusted
with the one thing you will need to carry the Gorgon’s head.”
When Athena had left, Perseus couldn’t believe he had not asked for
better instructions. “Where are the Hesperides?” Then, he
remembered hearing of the Graeae who were sisters of the
Gorgons. Perseus knew where they lived, so he went to see them.
The Graeae were three old women who shared a single eye in order
to see. As they passed their eye between them, Perseus snatched it
and held it for ransom.
“Where are the Hesperides? How can I find them?”
When they had delivered him to the divine garden tended by the
Hesperides nymphs, Perseus returned their single eye to them.
The Hesperides gave Perseus a knapsack which would be the only
way safely to contain Medusa’s head. Zeus gave his son an
unbreakable, adamantine sword. His uncle Hades loaned him his
helmet of darkness so that Perseus would be invisible to the
Gorgons. Uncle Hermes loaned him winged sandals so that he could
fly. And aunt Athena gave him a polished shield. Armed with these
gifts, Perseus made his way to the cave where the Gorgons lived.
With his invisibility and winged sandals, Perseus was able to sneak
up on the sleeping Medusa. By using the polished shield, he did not
have to look directly at the dangerous visage of the monster. Upon
cutting off her head, out sprang from her neck her children by
Poseidon—Pegasus, a winged horse, and Chrysaor, a great sword
of gold.
Perseus thrust the vile head into the knapsack. The other two
Gorgons had heard the commotion, but could not see Perseus as he
escaped.
As he made his way back to Serifos Island, he came across a
catastrophe in the making in the land of Ethiopia.
Weeks before his arrival, Queen Cassiopeia had bragged openly
that her daughter, Andromeda, was as beautiful as any of the
Nereids. Poseidon received word of this prideful claim and sent a
massive tidal wave against Ethiopia, followed by the great sea
serpent, Cetus. This monster devoured both men and their
domesticated animals.
King Cepheus, fearful for his people, consulted the Oracle of
Ammon.
“Dear king, your land will continue to suffer so long as the beautiful
Andromeda is not exposed to the monster.”
With great reluctance, and over the protests of Queen Cassiopeia,
and Andromeda’s fiancé, Phineus, the king had his daughter chained
naked to a large rock by the sea.
Perseus arrived to see the king’s men retreating from the seaside
rock. One look at Andromeda, and Perseus was taken with her
incredible beauty.
“Why are they doing this?” Perseus asked.
“Save yourself,” said Andromeda. “A great beast comes to devour
me.”
The thought that a monster would dare harm this defenseless beauty
enraged the young man. He remembered the knapsack and
wondered if the look of Medusa could also turn monsters to stone.
He was willing to risk it.
Perseus climbed the rock and stood on top of it, above where
Andromeda had been chained, and faced the sea awaiting the
horrible Cetus. He didn’t have to wait long. The great serpent lurched
upward, out of the water and Perseus withdrew Medusa’s head,
immediately turning the monster to stone.
The king, queen and people were so grateful for the monster finally
to be dead, they were thrilled to have their hero marry princess
Andromeda—everyone except Phineus.
Upon returning to Serifos Island, Perseus discovered that his mother
was in hiding because the king had become violent in his attempts to
take her as his wife. Perseus found the king and told him, “Look, my
lord. I have returned with your present.”
The king took one gaze on Medusa’s head and died, being turned to
stone. Perseus then told Dictys, “Kind sir, you have been like a father
to me and so gentle with my mother. I declare you king of Serifos,
and because my mother is fond of you, I would be honored to call
you step-father.”
Perseus then returned to Argos, the kingdom of his birth. There, he
found that Proetus had overthrown his brother, Acrisius and had
driven him into exile. As much as Perseus despised his grandfather,
he did not think it right for someone to overthrow a rightful ruler out
of greed. Once again, the young demigod pulled Medusa’s head out
of the knapsack to let Proetus know what his grand nephew thought
of him.
Acrisius was restored as king of Argos. The king listened as Perseus
told him how all of this had happened.
“Liar!” said Acrisius. “How dare you lie to your king. You could not
have obtained Medusa’s head. That’s impossible.”
Perseus merely shook his head and opened his knapsack one last
time. Thus, he fulfilled the prophecy that Acrisius would die because
of his daughter’s son.
Afterward, Perseus returned the divine tools that had been on loan to
him. He also gave the knapsack to Athena, and the goddess
embossed the frightful head onto Zeus’s shield which she carried.
Thus, the goddess of defensive war now had a deadly defense in the
form of Medusa’s frightful face.
Chapter 11 — Jason, the Argonauts, and Medea's
Dragon

Jason, son of Aeson, came late in the sequence of Greek myth—

long after Perseus and at a time when Herakles had matured.
Before he was born, he was cheated out of his birthright by his uncle
Pelias—half-brother of Aeson. Pelias had killed all of the
competition, though he strangely had spared his half-brother—the
rightful king. He even had killed his own stepmother in Hera’s
temple, earning him the hate of the goddess from that day forward.
The evil uncle would have killed the infant Jason were it not for the
queen’s maidens clustering around the newborn and weeping as if
the baby had been stillborn.
Alcimede, Jason’s mother, sent her son to Chiron the centaur for his
upbringing.
Because Pelias was fearful that he would be overthrown, he went to
an oracle to find out his future. The seer told the king to beware of a
young man wearing one sandal.
Years went by. Because Pelias had been born of Tyro—the same
mother as Aeson—daughter of Salmoneus and the god Poseidon,
the king decided to hold games in honor of his grandfather, god of
the sea.
Jason had come of age and was sent home to Iolcos. On his way, he
came upon an old woman who needed help crossing the River
Anauros. While he held her on the crossing, he lost one of his
sandals in the mud and fast current. The old woman smiled and
thanked the young man for his help. Little did he know that the old
woman was the goddess Hera in disguise. Because of her, Jason
was assured of losing his sandal and fulfilling the prophecy.
When Jason showed up, Pelias saw the foot with the missing sandal
and was immediately frightened of the young man. He asked his
nephew, “If an oracle had announced to you that one of your fellow
citizens was destined to murder you, what would you do?”
Again, Hera helped Jason by giving him his answer: “I would send
them to fetch the Golden Fleece.”
Pelias was pleased, because the task seemed sufficiently
impossible. From all he had ever heard, the Golden Fleece was
guarded by a golden dragon and was in the property of the Kingdom
of Colchis. Pelias swore to the king of gods that his nephew could
have his birthright if he were to return carrying the Golden Fleece.
Jason continued to have incredible good luck. He encountered a
master craftsman named Argus who had completed a ship which
was perfect for the voyage. In honor of its builder, Jason named the
ship the Argo. For his quest, Jason then assembled the best
possible crew including numerous demigods, like Herakles.
When finally Jason had arrived in Colchis, King Aeetes gave the
young Greek prince many challenges to earn the Golden Fleece.
Naturally, each one was exceedingly difficult. But the king’s daughter,
Medea, had fallen in love with the handsome young Greek. She told
him how to solve each of the challenges. Unbeknownst to any of the
mortals, Hera had convinced Aphrodite to have her son Eros make
Medea fall in love with Jason.
First, Jason had to plow an entire field using oxen supplied by King
Aeetes. Medea let the prince know that the oxen were fire-breathing
and she gave him an ointment to protect his hands while he put the
yoke on them.
Second, King Aeetes told Jason to sow dragon’s teeth in the field.
Jason knew from his lessons by Chiron that deadly soldiers would
spring up from the field. Medea told him merely to pick up a stone
and to throw it into the crowd of the soldiers. Because they would not
know where the stone came from, they would merely attack one
another until they were all dead.
The third and final challenge involved putting the golden dragon to
sleep. Medea distilled a sleeping potion from special herbs and told
Jason to spray the potion onto the dragon. The young Greek prince
did as Medea had instructed and grabbed the Golden Fleece as the
dragon slept. Then, he and his men sailed away with the Fleece and
Medea.
When Jason returned, Pelias was naturally surprised. During the
celebration, Jason was saddened that his own father could not join in
on the festivities. Medea remedied this by withdrawing Aeson’s blood
and mixing it with special herbs. Replacing the blood, Aeson had
been revitalized.
When Pelias’s daughters saw the transformation, they begged
Medea to do the same for their father. The Colchean princess
claimed that her sorcery could turn Pelias into a young man again,
with skin as smooth as that of a baby. She demonstrated this by
chopping up an old ram and throwing the parts into a cauldron.
Suddenly, out leapt a young lamb. The daughters proceeded to slice
up their father and to throw his parts into the cauldron. But they did
not have the secret herbs Medea had used. To their dismay, their
father remained dead.
Outraged, Pelias’s son, Acastus, banished both Jason and Medea
for the murder committed by his own sisters. From there, Jason and
Medea settled in Corinth.
After Medea had given Jason some children, Jason decided that he
needed to increase his standing in Greek society. He became
engaged to the Corinth king’s daughter, Creusa. Medea was
outraged. Jason told the Colchean princess that he didn’t really love
her and that she was suffering from a spell given to her by Aphrodite.
To get back at Jason for his betrayal, Medea created a lovely
wedding gown for Creusa, but imbued it with a toxic chemical that
clung to the young woman’s body and burst into flames. When the
king tried to help her get it off, it stuck to him, as well, and he too
burned to death.
When Jason got home that evening, he found that Medea had left
her two dead sons for him to find. And she fled to Athens in a dragon
chariot.
In Athens, Medea married King Aegeus, after whom the Aegean Sea
was named, and bore him two children. After years of relative bliss,
the king’s first son, Theseus came to Athens to claim his birthright.
Medea felt threatened, because this would prevent her own son from
becoming king. She attempted to poison Theseus, but when the king
recognized his old sword carried by Theseus, he knocked the poison
from the young man’s hand and banished Medea.
She could be seen flying away on a golden dragon, returning to
Colchis.
Chapter 12 — Menelaus, Agamemnon, and the
Trojan War

Beautiful Helen had been married off to brave Menelaus, king of

Sparta. But because of Aphrodite’s bribe of Paris, Helen fell in love
with the Trojan prince when he visited their fair city.
When Paris returned to Troy, he was deliriously in love with the idea
that the most beautiful mortal in the world would be coming home
with him.
Because of an agreement amongst the dozens of Helen’s suitors to
protect the sanctity of Helen’s marriage to Menelaus, the Greek
kings had no recourse but to agree to the Spartan king’s demands
for war. This included his brother, Agamemnon, king of Mycenae,
and Odysseus, king of Ithaca.
Helen’s was the face that had launched a thousand ships. But
despite their overwhelming numbers, the Greeks could not
overpower the well-placed Trojans. Their city was highly defensible
on its lofty hill.
During the war, Paris killed Achilles, son of Thetis, the nymph who
Zeus had married off to mortal king Peleus. If Achilles had been
Zeus’s son, the young man would’ve overthrown Zeus as king of the
gods. As it was, Achilles had one vulnerable spot—his heel. Through
some wild accident of fate, Paris had let loose an arrow that found
no part of Achilles’s immortal body, but only his very vulnerable heel.
A number of gods and goddesses also sided with the Trojans:
• Aphrodite, of course. She was the one who made Helen fall in love
with Paris.
• Apollo.
• Ares.
• Artemis.
• Leto.
The gods and goddesses who sided with the Greeks were,
• Athena, naturally, because she lost the Golden Apple to Aphrodite.
• Hera, ditto.
• Hephaestus.
• Hermes.
• Poseidon.
• Thetis. This should be no surprise, because she had married a
Greek king and her son, Achilles, fought on the Greek side.
After ten frustrating years, the Greeks packed it in and left. But it was
a trick. Just around a nearby peninsula, the entire Greek fleet stood
ready to return. The Greeks had built a great wooden horse which
they left at the front gates of Troy.
Thinking it to be a gift of tribute for their loss, the Trojans wheeled
the great wooden statue into their city. All day they celebrated. And
that night, the Greek soldiers who had remained quietly within the
belly of the great wooden horse, crept out and opened the gates for
their waiting army. Soon, the entire city was in flames.
The Greeks had won. And Helen was returned to a forgiving
Menelaus.
Circe and Odysseus
After the great Trojan War, all of the warriors wanted nothing more
than to return home to their families. Odysseus, however, was blown
off course and was lost for ten long years, doubling his absence from
his lovely, patient wife, Penelope and his son, Telemachus, who he
had only known as an infant.
Odysseus and his men suffered many strange and dangerous
adventures—the land of the lotus eaters, a brutal Cyclops and the
seductive magic of Circe. They even had to run the gauntlet of Scylla
and Charybdis at the Strait of Messina.
Circe was the sister of King Aeetes of Colchis—keeper of the Golden
Fleece, before Jason’s theft. She was expert at magic and potions.
And she tricked Odysseus into staying with her.
But finally, the brave king found his way to what may have been the
islands of Malta where King Aeolus lived. The king’s command of the
wind allowed Odysseus, and what remained of his men, to return to
Ithaca.
When he returned, he discovered that more than a hundred suitors
had been camped out in his palace attempting to force Penelope into
marrying one of them. Using a disguise, Odysseus tricked the suitors
and then slaughtered every last one of them.
Finally, the last king of the Trojan War had returned home.
Chapter 13 — Solon, the Athenian Law Giver

Historical Figure
Solon (c.638–558 BC) was born to an aristocratic family of Athens,
though his parents were not considered wealthy. His brother,
Dropides, was an ancestor of Plato (c.428–348 BC), the great Greek
philosopher. According to Plutarch, Solon attempted to increase his
meager fortune by taking up commercial interests, which was
considered to be most non-aristocratic.
When he was in his mid to late 30s, war broke out between Athens
and Megara over possession of Salamis Island. Solon was selected
to lead the Athenian forces against Megara. Solon was able to
improve his soldiers’ morale with his inspirational poetry. And later,
when Megara contested their loss of the island to Athens, they took
their case to Sparta. Solon’s arguments to the Spartans decided it in
favor of Athens.
By about age 44, because of his successes in leadership, Solon was
given the position of chief magistrate or “archon.” He rewrote many
Athenian laws to make it easier for all men to better their station in
life through honest work. These are a few of the inspiring things
Solon wrote:
“Often the wicked prosper, while the righteous starve; Yet I would
never exchange my state for theirs, My virtue for their gold. For mine
endures, While riches change their owner every day.”
“Justice, though slow, is sure.”
“In great affairs you cannot please all parties.”
“To the mass of the people I gave the power they needed, Neither
degrading them, nor giving them too much rein: For those who
already possessed great power and wealth I saw to it that their
interests were not harmed. I stood guard with a broad shield before
both parties And prevented either from triumphing unjustly.”
One of Solon’s most controversial reforms involved the forgiveness
of debts and the unshackling of debt slaves.
Because many powerful people in Athens did not like these reforms,
Solon took a ten year vacation so no one could abuse him into
changing any of his reforms.
During his travels, he happened to visit Egypt and made his way to
the capital of that day, Saïs (formerly known as Zau).
Chapter 14 — 300 Spartans

The mighty Persian Empire under Xerxes I intended to complete the

work of his father, Darius the Great. The Greeks had defeated
Darius’s forces at Marathon and before the emperor could mount a
second invasion, he died, and his son took his place.
Ten years after Marathon, Xerxes I returned to Greece marching as
many as a million men from the North. Some modern scholars
suspect the number of Persians may have been as little as 100,000,
but still this was a formidable force against the far smaller Greek city
states. Thrace was already part of the Empire. Macedonia had been
forced to become a vassal state. And more than half of the Greek
city states had declared their neutrality in the war. The neutral states
included Thebes, Argos, Larissa, and Calydon. Opponents to
Persian rule included Athens, Sparta, Delphi, Ambracia, Megara,
Corinth, Olympia, and Eretria.
When Persian ambassadors came to Sparta to threaten the puny
city with annihilation (491 BC), King Cleomenes had them tossed to
their deaths down a deep well. Many of the Spartan elite considered
Cleomenes to be insane and had him deposed (490 BC). Instead,
they selected his younger brother, Leonidas to rule Sparta. Leonidas
had been brutally trained in the Agoge to learn pain endurance,
stealth, loyalty and other skills critical to being a Spartan citizen. All
first born royalty were exempt, so Leonidas was one of the few
Spartan kings to endure such toughness training.
Both Athens and Sparta suspected that Persia would be back for a
second attempt at conquest. Starting in 482 BC, Athens had built a
massive fleet of triremes but needed other city states to take care of
the land-based war to come. In 481 BC, Xerxes I sent requests for
submission to all Greek city-states except Athens and Sparta. He
knew that his father’s ambassadors had not survived their trips to
either city before.
Late 481 BC, several city-states met in Corinth to discuss their
opposition to Persian rule. From their Congress, a Greek
confederate alliance was born. In the spring of 481, the Congress
met again to discuss strategies against the approaching Persian
forces.
When they received word that the Persians had already crossed the
Hellespont from Asia into Europe, General Themistocles of Athens
commanded the navy to block Persian ships. King Leonidas was
sent to the narrow pass at Thermopylae to block the land-based
approach. He commanded a force of about 7,000 men. Blocking the
pass proved to be an effective strategy. The Persians were being
slaughtered because of their strategically weaker position.
On the second day of fighting, a Greek named Ephialtes, who lived
nearby, betrayed his countrymen by telling the Persians of a small,
mountain trail which bypassed Thermopylae. As soon as King
Leonidas discovered that his forces had been outflanked, he
dismissed the majority so that they could regroup with others farther
south. He stayed behind with 300 Spartans, plus 700 Thespians and
an additional 400 Thebans. There may even have been a few
hundred others, but their city of origin remains unknown.
Thermopylae was the only road by which the Persians could move
their massive army south into the heartland of Greece. Leonidas
knew that all he could do, now, would be to slow down the Persian
advance. But Ephialtes’ act was not the only betrayal. At their first
opportunity, the Thebans deserted their positions and surrendered to
the Persians.
Leonidas, his 300 Spartans and their 700 Thespians of Thespiae
stayed to the very end, giving their lives so that the remainder of
Greece could stay free.
At the same time, Themistocles and his navy suffered their own
defeats to the far superior, Persian forces. Days later, the Persians
had advanced as far south as the Saronic Gulf between Athens and
Salamis Island. There, the far faster Greek triremes soundly
defeated the Persians.
Fearing that he would become trapped in Greece, Xerxes I moved
his personal forces back to Asia, leaving one of his generals behind
to finish the job. But the Greeks proved to be too tough for the
remaining Persians. The following year, the Greeks had won their
freedom and had ended the multiple attempts of Persian conquest.
If it had not been for the inspirational sacrifice of King Leonidas and
his 300 Spartans and 700 Thespians, the defending Greek city-
states might not have had the heart to withstand the Persian
onslaught. Then we may never have had the wisdom of Socrates
(c.469–399 BC), Plato (c.428–348 BC), or Aristotle (c.384–322 BC).
Chapter 15 — Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle

During any era, there are those who can’t stand smarter people,
even when those smarter people are cordial and compassionate.
Who are these smarter ones? They are people who point out
obvious flaws in thinking. Plato considered Socrates to have been
the gadfly of Athens—biting at the rear end of society to make it
wake up and to provoke it into action. We don’t have any writings
directly from Socrates. We learn of him from others, especially from
one of his brightest students—Plato.
Socrates (c.469–399 BC), along with his student, Plato (c.428–348
BC), and Plato’s student, Aristotle (c.384–322 BC), established what
many consider to be the foundations of Western thinking.
Socrates’s father was thought to have been a stonemason or
sculptor; his mother a midwife. So, he was not part of the aristocracy.
During the Peloponnesian war, he was a common, non-professional
soldier and won acclaim from general and statesman, Alcibiades, for
bravery on the battlefield.
At about the age of 71, Socrates was condemned by many of the
elite of Athens and was forced to drink hemlock, a poison. The aged
philosopher preferred death to exile. When Socrates died, Plato was
about 29 years of age.
Plato was a member of one of the foremost families of Athens. One
of his ancestors, six generations earlier, had been a brother to Solon,
the great lawgiver. After traveling for some years, Plato returned to
Athens at about age 40 and established the Academy—one of the
first organized schools in the West.
One of Plato’s students at the Academy was an 18-year-old young
man named Aristotle. When Plato died at about age 80, Aristotle was
about 37 years of age.
At age 42, Aristotle had gained sufficient reputation that King Philip
of Macedon asked for the philosopher to move from Athens to come
teach his teenage son, Alexander.
Aristotle’s views on physical science shaped the thinking of scholars
throughout the Middle Ages—for more than 1,600 years after his
death.
Chapter 16 — Alexander the Great

Every great leader needs a great teacher. Alexander had Aristotle,

student of Plato, who was, in turn, student of Socrates. Aristotle
tutored the young prince for two years.
Five years after his lessons had ended with Aristotle, Alexander, age
20, was abruptly made king because his father, Philip II, had been
assassinated at age 46. The father had already started planning an
invasion of Persia. Alexander went on to finish the job.
Two years later, Alexander began his campaign of conquest,
sweeping south along the western end of Anatolia, then snaking
across what is now modern Turkey.
Another two years later, he pushed his army into the Levant and Nile
Delta, ending his campaign by establishing the new city of
Alexandria on the Mediterranean coast.
The following year (331 BC), he finished his conquest of Egypt, then
pushed eastward into what is today called Iraq.
In 330 BC, his forces drove into the Persian heartland, through
Persepolis, Pasagardae, and northward to the Caspian Sea and then
to the southern edge of the Hindu Kush mountain range. Over the
next four years, he conquered large sections of Central Asia,
including the entire Hindu Kush, into the southwestern Himalayas
and into western India. His forces finished by taking in all of the
Indus River valley and then returning along the Indian Ocean
coastline. By this time, his men were tired of war.
Alexander suffered multiple revolts, assassination attempts, and
other treasonous acts from within his own ranks and amongst those
he had conquered. The young warrior-emperor died at the young
age of 32 under suspicious circumstances. Many historians think he
was likely poisoned. The most likely substance was white hellebore
(Veratrum album), which can be a very slow and painful toxin.
Because of Alexander’s conquests, a large part of the world enjoyed
a prolonged period of trade with a common lingua franca—the Greek
language.
Nearly 50 years after Alexander’s death, the Roman Republic began
eliminating Greek ownership of the Italian peninsula. Despite the
political and military losses, Greek cultural influence continued for
several centuries more, across much of western and central Asia.
Conclusion

I hope this work has helped to give you a deeper understanding of

Greek myth—its gods, monsters and heroes.
The culture of our world has been greatly enriched by the myths,
legends and heroes of Greek mythology. If you have enjoyed this
particular manuscript, would you please consider leaving a review for
this individual book?
Click here to leave a review for this book on Amazon.
Thanks for your support. Let’s dive into Egyptian mythology!
 Part 2:
Egyptian Mythology
Captivating Stories of the Gods,
Goddesses, Monsters and Mortals
Introduction

Mention the name “Egypt” to most anyone with at least a high school
education and it conjures up pictures of the desert, the Nile, palm
trees, pyramids and the Sphinx. Today, Egypt is a third-world country
rich with petroleum (16% of the nation’s economy in 2011), tourism
(20%) and industry (20%). The country even makes a substantial
income (3%) from their Suez Canal which allows shipping to bypass
having to go around Africa for transporting goods between Europe
and the Far East.
For the first three thousand years of humanity’s shared history, Egypt
played a pivotal role in the affairs of man. Its Nile Valley and Delta
were one of the cradles of civilization where an organized and
settled society was born. The other cradles were found in,
• Mesopotamia—surrounding the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers
(modern Iraq),
• Indus Valley—surrounding the Indus River (modern Pakistan),
• China—surrounding the Yellow River,
• Central Andes (modern Peru), and
• Mesoamerica.
Of these six, Egypt and Mesopotamia compete for first place. Both of
these regions also vie for first as the birthplace of writing. The Andes
and Indus River regions came hundreds of years later. And the
earliest known inklings of civilization came more than a thousand
years later in China and Mesoamerica.
The following manuscript is broken into two sections:
1. Fantastic Images—Ancient Egyptian myths and legends as we
know them today.
2. Factual History—Covering pre-history through classical
antiquity.
Section 1: Fantastic Images
Chapter 1: Creation

Like most ancient cultures, Egyptians had their own stories of

creation—how everything began.
Egyptian mythology has several creation stories. These sometimes
seem to contradict each other, and at times merely complement one
another. We might view them as the same event seen through
different lenses. Indeed, they are the stories adopted by various
localities within Egypt.
Each story harkens back to a primordial time called Zep Tepi, or “first
occasion,” where life emerged out of the lifeless and endless void of
chaos. The Egyptians gave that original expanse the name Nu. Up
from the primitive waters surfaced a pyramid-like mound called a
benben. This same term was used to describe the capstone of a
pyramid or the pyramidal top of an obelisk. This imagery seems to
have paralleled the emergence of the rich, life-giving soil from the
flooding of the Nile each year.
The Egyptians also had a number of gods associated with the sun,
which they recognized as a vital force in the growth of life.
• Ra—the most important sun god, representing the sun toward
mid-day, when its fundamental light does the most good for
growing crops.
• Khepri—represented the sun as it rises; also a god of rebirth.
• Aten—the visible disc, rather than the light or warmth of the sun.
• Atum—represented the sun as it sets; also the god who
completes the world.
• Ptah—a creator god associated with the sun at night as it makes
its way through the underworld toward the next sunrise. He was
also the god of fertility, arts, and craftsmanship.
Other gods related to the sun include,
• Amun—one of the creator gods often linked to the sun.
• Bastet—a cat goddess frequently associated with the sun.
• Horus—a god associated with the sky (shaped like a falcon). His
left eye was thought to have been the moon, and his right eye the
sun.
• Khnum—sunset God.
• Nefertem—symbolized the initial sunlight of the cosmos and a god
of beauty and healing.
• Sekhmet—a goddess of war, frequently associated with the sun
and plagues, and thus associated with the deadly desert.
• Sopdu—a god of war and the summer sun’s scorching heat.
Another common theme describes creation as a cosmic egg that
hatched the universe and from which the sun emerged.
Khemenu (Hermopolis)
The remains of the city reside near the modern town called El
Ashmunein, near the ancient boundary between Upper and Lower
Egypt.
The creation myth found in this ancient city concentrated on the
chaotic void which existed before the more concrete, physical world
existed. Their story talks of a group of eight gods—the Ogdoad, four
pairs of male and female gods.
• Nu (male) and Naunet (female) symbolized the lifeless, primordial
water itself.
• Huh (male) and Hauhet (female) symbolized the unending nature
of that primordial water.
• Kuk (male) and Kauket (female) represented the dark gloom
inherent in the primordial water.
• Amun (male) and Amaunet (female) symbolized the concealed
and indecipherable nature of the primordial water.
These eight gods were aquatic in nature. Frogs were used to
represent the males and water snakes were used to represent the
females. By coming together, they unleashed an unsettling force
which produced the first benben. From this pyramidal mound, the
sun rose to shine on the physical world.
It’s interesting to note that the benben on top of the pyramid on the
back of a US dollar is shown as a glowing triangle with a single,
right-hand eye looking through it. Thus, the dollar’s connection to
Egyptian mythology seems quite strong—the benben, the glow that
could represent the sun emerging from it, and the right-hand eye like
that of Horus representing the sun.
Innu (Heliopolis)
The ruins of this city stand at the outskirts of Cairo northeast of the
urban center. The ancient city has also been spelled Annu, and in
the Hebrew Bible, On. The Greek name, Heliopolis, means “sun
city.”
Here, creation was said to have come from Atum—one of the sun
gods associated with Ra. Atum was the god of the setting sun.
According to the Atum myth, this god created himself, appearing out
of the chaos of the watery nothingness which surrounded all of
existence. Atum is pictured sitting on a benben mound in the midst of
the dark waters. In some versions, Atum was the benben itself. Atum
was also called Ra or Atum-Ra.
Atum’s first children were sneezed into existence (or masturbated
into being). These were Shu (god of air), and Tefnut (goddess of
moisture). These two children became curious about the primordial
waters of chaos and dove into the darkness to learn more about
them. Atum became so distraught at the loss of his first children, he
sent the fiery Eye of Ra (part of himself and a separate goddess) to
go find them. When Shu and Tefnut returned, Atum wept and his
tears became the first humans.
The supreme council of gods—the Ennead—consisted of nine
members:
• Atum-Ra and his two children,
Shu, and
 Tefnut, and their children,
Geb, and
Nut, and their children,
Osiris,
Isis,
Sett, and
Nephthys.
Inbu-Hedj (Memphis)
The ruins of this former capital are located near the modern Egyptian
town of Mit Rahina. The ancient capital has been known by many
names, including Djed-Sut (meaning: “everlasting places”), Ankh-
Tawy (meaning: “life of the two lands”), and Men-nefer (meaning:
“enduring and beautiful”). The most ancient name was Inbu-Hedj
(meaning: “the white walls”).
Here, the creator was Ptah, the god-patron of craftsmen. Ptah’s
attributes included the ability to see an end result and to gather the
resources necessary to manifest that vision. Unlike the other
creation myths, in this one, the world was brought into existence
through an intellectual exercise, similar to the Word of the Abrahamic
God.
To the Egyptians, the mind was in the heart. When Ptah spoke his
heart, things came into manifest existence. All he needed to do was
to speak the name of something and it would appear. Thus, all of the
gods and physical things were made from his spoken word.
Ptah was associated with Tatjenen, the god of the mound or earth—
symbolized by the benben.
Waset (Thebes)
Today, the ruins lie within the modern city of Luxor.
The religion of Waset proclaimed that Amun was a secret member of
the Ogdoad and an unseen energy behind all things. Amun was
deeper than the underworld and beyond the sky. Amun’s first
honking cry was said to have broken the tranquility of the primordial
waters and from the disruption were thrown the eight gods of the
Ogdoad and the nine gods of the Ennead.
Amun was a mystery even to the other gods. Every act of the lesser
gods was considered to have been a manifestation of some aspect
of Amun.
To its adherents, this religion considered Waset (Thebes) to have
been the location of the original benben of creation.
Other Elements of Creation
Maat was the goddess of order, truth, balance, law, harmony, justice
and morality. She was worshiped throughout all of Egypt for she kept
chaos and death at bay. In fact, she was said to have been there at
creation—no matter which creation myth you believed. At the
moment of creation, she was there holding back chaos, protecting
the newly formed order of physical reality. She was also responsible
for controlling both the seasons and the stars. It was only because of
her that the universe did not slip back into chaos.
In alignment with her responsibilities to the universe as a whole, she
also took on the job of weighing men’s souls in the underworld after
they had died. With the help of a feather, she weighed men’s hearts,
and if she found them too heavy with chaos, they would not proceed
to paradise.
The opposite of Maat was not a god or goddess, but a word
symbolizing the behavior of injustice, violence, or chaos. This word
in Egyptian was “Isfet.” This word could also be used to indicate an
action—to do evil.
Both Thoth (god of wisdom and learning) and Maat (goddess of
order) would escort Ra across the sky each day.
Neith was a goddess of war, hunting, wisdom, and weaving. After
Egypt’s conquest by Alexander the Great, the Greeks associated her
with their own goddess Athena. But to the ancient Egyptians, she
was also closely tied to creation. It was said that she gave birth not
only to Ra, but also to Apep (Apophis), who was chaos itself.
Chapter 2: Fall of Humanity

Whether humans came about as the tears of Atum-Ra or through

some other process, the earliest time was one of harmony. During
the first days, humans and gods lived amongst each other. Ra was
king of the gods, but he was also king of all humans, too.
As long as everyone followed Maat—the law of order—everything
remained harmonious.
Humans, however, were not satisfied with harmony and with Ra
ruling over them. They began to conspire how they could overthrow
Ra and take over as rulers of the universe.
Ra was not blind and he saw far more than individual men. He knew
that humans were plotting against him and he grew very angry at
their reckless selfishness.
A council of gods convened by Ra decided to be rid of humans. The
humans’ egocentric plans threatened the very fabric of order.
Sekhmet, the lion goddess, was chosen to do the dirty work.
Sekhmet rampaged across the world. Wherever she found a human,
whether man, woman or child, she would destroy them and then
wallow in their blood, drinking much of it up as she went.
For some unknown reason, Ra had a change of heart. Even as the
slaughter was underway, he mourned the genocide of his mortal
children that was rapidly approaching completion. Realizing that he
could not stop Sekhmet in her bloodlust, Ra commissioned seven
thousand jugs of beer and had them colored to look like blood. Then,
he had the beer poured over the land.
As expected, Sekhmet saw the blood-red liquid and wallowed in it,
drinking up enough of it to become stupid drunk, thus forgetting her
mission to destroy humanity.
A small portion of humanity had been spared.
Ra realized that humans, by their very nature, would eventually
attempt the same kind of insurrection. So, the king of gods had Shu,
god of the air, and eight other gods lift Nut, the sky goddess, further
up, out of reach. From there, Ra and the other gods would rule.
Realizing that the static sameness of djet would no longer work for
his human children, Ra set about to create a cyclic existence called
neheh. On a regular schedule, Ra would cross the sky, shining his
divine light upon the earth.
From that point forward, the Egyptian state would rule in his stead,
and order would be kept within the daily, monthly and yearly cycles.
Egyptian Concept of Time
Before the great falling out, the universe was held in a timeless state
of perfection or completion, called djet. In fact, this is why Atum—the
creator—was considered to have been the sun in its setting. Atum
completed, or perfected, each day, but also the entire universe at
creation. This is similar to the Hebrew concept of Shabbat or
Sabbath, which is the completion or perfection of the week, and a
time for individuals to attempt their own perfection in order to bring
them closer to God. It also mirrors the Hebrew concept that the
setting sun is the end of the day, rather than midnight.
After the rescue of the few remaining humans, Ra’s new mode of
operating the universe included a cyclic pattern, called neheh. This
was a repetitive sameness that promoted order and stability.
To the early Egyptians, history was a dangerous concept, equating to
chaos. Unique events were viewed as disruptions of the cyclic
sameness which represented safe and secure order.
If the annual flooding of the Nile did not reach its usual level of
abundance, this was considered to be the work of chaos—something
that was solved only by again imposing order. If the sun disappeared
during a solar eclipse, it was up to Sett to battle against Apophis
(Apep)—the great snake of chaos—who obviously was attempting to
devour the sun.
Thus, Egyptian society was fairly rigid in its structure. Their entire
philosophy demanded it. Survival required it. Individual freedom and
upward mobility were often seen as anathema to order and survival.
Chapter 3: Osiris Myth

The myth of Osiris was perhaps the most popular of all the Egyptian
stories. Pieces of this story have been found throughout Egypt. One
of the most appealing aspects of the Osiris myth is the human-like
behavior of the gods within the story. Many of the other gods of the
Egyptian pantheon were rather emotionless and their stories far less
interesting. With the Osiris story, the gods display a broad range of
emotions that made them more real to mere mortals.
Egyptian hieroglyphics do not normally include vowels, so the exact
transliteration and pronunciation remains unknown. The name Osiris
is Latinized Greek for the original Egyptian name, transliterated into
Latin script as Wsjr. Various versions include: Asar, Asaru, Aser,
Ausar, Ausare, Auser, Ausir, Usir, Usire, Wesir and Yasar. Gods
sometimes had different names, as did all of the latter-day pharaohs.
So, we would need to know all of the names of a pharaoh or a god
before we could accumulate all of their background information.
Like all very old myths, there are many versions of each of the
stories in the block of myths which comprise the Osiris legend.
The key players are,
• Osiris—king of the gods and ruler of all Egypt.
• Isis—sister and wife of Osiris.
• Sett—brother of Osiris.
• Nephthys—sister and wife of Sett.
• Horus—son of Isis and Osiris, conceived after the death of the
father.
The name “Isis” is Greek for the Egyptian frequently transliterated as
Aset or Iset. The “t” ending is frequently taken as feminine. Sett is an
obvious exception to this rule, but it may indicate that the gender of
this god may have changed in the distant past, or it may indicate a
feminine or matriarchal side.
“Sett” is an alternate spelling used in this book to keep from
confusing the god’s name with the common English word of the
same spelling. “Set” is the most common transliteration of the
Egyptian. In Greek, he is called Seth. Other transliterations include
Setekh, Setesh, Sutekh and Suty.
“Horus” is an alternate spelling of the Greek “Horos.” Egyptian has
been transliterated as Her, Heru and Hor.
“Nephyths” is Greek for Egyptian—Nebet-het or Nebt-het.
In the Beginning
Long before Ra, the sun god, had grown old and had left Earth to
dwell solely in the sky, he had ruled the Earth and all of its
inhabitants. He was able to see enough of the future to realize that
any children by Nut would overthrow him as king. This is similar to
other myths whereby god-kings feared being overthrown by their
own children, including the gods of Greek mythology. With his great
power, Ra commanded that Nut should not be able to bear any child
on any day of the year.
This curse greatly distressed Nut. She knew that it could not be
reversed. She consulted Thoth (Greek for Tehuty or Djehuty), a god
of wisdom, education and writing. If anyone could solve her curse,
he could.
Thoth reasoned a way to get around Ra’s command. In the act of
superior cunning, he challenged Khonsu, the Moon-god, to a contest
of checkers. For each game that Thoth would win, Khonsu had to
give up a tiny portion of his light. Game after game, Thoth continued
to win, and Khonsu ultimately lost a significant percentage of his
light. Finally, Khonsu would play no longer. Thoth gathered up all the
light he had won and from it fashioned five additional days that would
belong to no year. Until then, a year had consisted of 360 days—the
number of degrees in a circle. These new days would become
festival days between one year and the next. Because of the losses,
Khonsu could no longer shine at constant brightness throughout the
month, but would have to grow dimmer toward the end of each
month, and could only grow in brightness after the end of each
month.
Finally, Nut was able to have children. On the first festival day, she
bore Osiris. Then, on each successive day, she gave birth to another
god—Horus the Elder, Sett, Isis, and Nephthys. Ra’s curse had been
fulfilled to the letter, but also had been defeated on a technicality.
When Osiris came of age, he married his sister. Likewise, Sett
married Nephthys.
Conflict in the Land
Osiris, through the wisdom of his wife, became king of all Egypt—a
land called in the early days, Kemet (from km, which means black,
like the dark, rich soil of the Nile flooding).
Humans had not yet discovered agriculture and frequently had
turned to cannibalism in order to survive. They were a violent,
warring lot, and this greatly distressed Isis. She discovered wild
wheat and barley which grew throughout the land. Osiris developed
methods of cultivating these as crops and taught humans the art of
agriculture. He also taught them how to bake bread from the wheat
and how to brew beer from the barley. He taught them the arts of
music and poetry.
With every good thing that Osiris and his wife did for the people of
the world, Sett became more and more envious. The more people
loved the god-king, and his wife, the more Sett wanted to destroy
them and to take the place of his brother on the throne.
Osiris had gone on a long trip to other nations to spread the
knowledge of civilization to other peoples. Isis ruled while he was
away. When the king returned, Sett was among the first to welcome
his brother back, but the younger, jealous God had conspired with 72
of his wicked friends to defeat Osiris.
Sett had obtained the exact dimensions of his older brother and had
commissioned the construction of an elaborate box to be made of
cedar and ebony, plus gold and ivory. In celebration of his brother’s
return, Sett threw the richest possible feast and invited his most loyal
friends. After Osiris had grown relaxed and happy with song, food,
and wine, Sett brought out the elegant chest he had commissioned.
He announced to the crowd that he would give this fine box to
whoever would fit inside the chest perfectly.
Several of the guests tried to fit within the finely made chest, but
some were too short, too tall, too fat or too thin. Finally, Osiris asked
if he could try out the box. As the king hunkered down into the box,
all of the guests gathered around in anticipation.
Osiris cried out that the fit was snug. “The chest is mine!”
Sett hissed with glee, “Yes, my brother. And it will be yours forever.”
With that, Sett slammed the lid down and as many guests as could
reach the box helped to nail the lid shut. They sealed every crack
with molten lead and tossed the chest into the Nile.
The Search for Osiris
The river carried the chest downstream, and it came to rest at the
base of a tamarisk tree. Soon, the tree grew around the chest, hiding
it from view. The mayor of the town saw that the tree had grown
more beautiful than any other and claimed it for himself, not realizing
that it contained the body of Osiris.
Isis looked far and wide for her husband’s body. Following all of the
clues, she came to the town where the tamarisk tree grew. Isis, in
disguise, went to work for the mayor’s wife. While there, she grew
fond of their children and offered to make one of them immortal.
While she was passing the child through flame to burn away the
mortal flesh, the mother attacked Isis, not understanding the great
honor the goddess had intended to bestow on her child. Thus, the
mayor’s child lost its chance at immortality.
Suddenly, Isis took off her disguise and revealed her true nature.
The mayor and his wife fell down in terror asking what they could do
for the goddess to win her pleasure. Isis asked only for the tree and
its contents. When she retrieved her husband’s body, she let the
mayor and his wife keep the tree, and it became the most prized
possession in the town because it had held the physical body of a
god.
Isis attempted to use her own magic and that of Thoth to restore her
husband’s form long enough to conceive a son. Before she could
finish, Sett discovered the body of Osiris and cut it into fourteen parts
and scattered them up and down the Nile Valley.
Again, Isis searched, this time for the various parts of her husband’s
body. After she had gathered them, she had Thoth help her make
her husband whole long enough to acquire his seed. She
immediately became pregnant with a son, whom she would come to
name Horus.
Horus Against Sett
For years, Isis protected her son from discovery by Sett and his evil
friends. When Horus came of age, he set out to challenge his uncle
for the throne of Egypt.
The conflict between Horus and Sett took many forms. In one
instance, both agreed to take the appearance of hippopotami and to
fight each other under water. Isis, fearing for her son, fashioned
several harpoons and took flight to throw them at Sett. When she
threw the first one, Horus cried out, “Mother, stop! You’ve hit your
own son!” After a few minutes of searching, she found Sett and
threw one harpoon after another. The first several either missed or
bounced off. Finally, a harpoon struck Sett squarely and wounded
him.
Sett cried out for mercy and Isis took pity on him. She helped him to
the shore and nursed his wounds.
When Horus heard what his mother had done, he grew so angry with
her that he cut off her head and hid it from her in the desert
mountains, west of the Nile Valley.
Realizing the mistake Horus had made, Ra, the sun god, came to
the aid of Isis and helped to restore her head. In addition, he
fashioned a crown of a cow’s head and horns to give her added
protection. Ra then punished Horus for what he had done to his
mother.
Despite the leniency shown him, Sett still wanted to overcome his
nephew. While Horus was recovering from the wounds Ra had given
him, Sett plucked out his eyes so that the young god was suddenly
blind.
Thoth, referring to the ancient texts, found a formula from which he
fashioned two replacements so that Horus could once again see.
In yet another story, Ra commanded the Ennead (council of gods) to
ferry to the Island-of-the-Middle-Ground and to judge between the
two opposing sides—Horus and Sett. Ra also commanded them to
tell Nemty (Anti or Antaeus), the ferryman, not to take on as a
passenger any woman with the likeness of Isis. So, Horus, Sett and
the members of the Ennead crossed over to the island and
attempted to negotiate a peace.
Isis, fearing that she and her son would lose to Sett, turned herself
into an old woman and tempted Nemty with a single, gold ring as
payment for passage to the island.
Once on the island, Isis turned herself into an pretty maiden so that
Sett would be attracted to her. Sett took a break from the meeting to
be with the beautiful maiden, and Isis told him that her husband had
died and that a stranger had claimed all her husband’s property. The
same stranger had threatened to beat her son and to throw him out.
She begged Sett to become her son’s protector.
Overcome with sympathy, Sett objected to the stranger’s attempt to
take their property, especially with the son of the former owner still
there. Sett said that the stranger should be beaten with a rod,
expelled, and the son be put in his father’s position.
At that moment, Isis turned herself into a bird and soared upward to
a light in an acacia tree. She called out to Sett, “Be ashamed! Your
own mouth has said it, and your own cleverness has judged you.
What more can you say now?”
Sett became humiliated and protested to Ra how Isis had deceived
him. Ra told Sett, “See you have judged yourself. What more do you
want then?”
Sett condemned Nemty and demanded that the ferryman be
punished because he had taken Isis to the island. So, Nemty was
summoned before the Ennead, and his toes were removed. And
Nemty gave up gold from that day forward.
In a final series of battles, Sett was ultimately defeated and the
members of his forces were scattered across the world.
Chapter 4: Chief Gods of the Egyptian Pantheon

Pantheon is a Greek term meaning “of all gods” in a polytheistic

religion.
The gods of ancient Egypt are a confused lot. Many gods shared
attributes. Some were originally local gods of a particular town or
region. Later, some gods were combined because of their
similarities. Some may merely have been alternate names for the
same gods.
We won’t explore every version of the tales told for these gods, but
we will gain a broader understanding of the nature of the Egyptian
pantheon.
Chief Gods and Goddesses
Amun—Was considered to be one of the most ancient gods—a
creator god. His name was later changed to Amun-Ra. This
effectively elevated him in the minds of all Egyptians by associating
him with the sun. Consorts were Mut and Amunet.
Anubis—Was one of the most ancient gods. He was in charge of
mummification and the underworld (replaced later by Osiris). Son of
Sett and Nephthys. He was said to weigh the heart of a person,
comparing it to Maat’s feather.
Apophis (Apep)—Was the god of chaos and an opponent of Maat
(truth and order) and light. He appears in Egyptian art as giant
snake. He is also Ra’s worst enemy.
Aten—Was the god representing the disk of the sun rather than the
light emanating from it. This was the physical aspect of Ra. The first
known mention of Aten was in the 12th Dynasty, Story of Sinuhe.
This god gained prominence in 18th Dynasty under Akhenaten.
Atum—Was considered by some Egyptians to have been the first
god—a creator deity and source of the entire universe. He
represents the setting sun—the completion or perfection of the day.
Bastet—Was a goddess of warfare in Lower Egypt and the Nile
Delta, before unification. She was worshipped as early as 2nd
Dynasty. She is usually drawn as a cat-headed woman.
Eye of Ra—Was the female counterpart of Ra.
Geb—Was a member of the Ennead, and god of the Earth. He was
also considered to be the father of snakes. His earliest known
mention was during the 3rd Dynasty.
Hapi—Was the god of annual flooding of the Nile. He was also lord
of fish and of birds of the marshes. He was sometimes referred to as
“father of the gods.”
Hathor—Was a popular goddess representing the sky, the art of
dance, joy, love, beauty, motherhood, mining, foreign lands, music
and fertility. She was one of the oldest deities. She also went by the
name Mehet-Weret (great flood).
Horus—Was a god of the sky, war, hunting and kingship. He was
worshipped from the late prehistoric period of Egypt until the days of
Roman Egypt. He was the son of Osiris and Isis in most versions. In
other versions, he was either Hathor’s son or husband.
Isis (Aset)—Was the goddess of wisdom, health and marriage. She
was also the patroness of nature and of the art of magic. She was
considered to be a friend of slaves, sinners, artisans and all the
downtrodden of the world. She was a daughter of Geb (earth) and
Nut (sky).
Maat—Stood for the ancient Egyptian concepts of truth, balance,
order, harmony, law, morality, and justice. She was also responsible
for regulating the stars, seasons, and the actions of both mortals and
deities. At the moment of creation, she was the one who established
order amidst the chaos and who maintains that order from moment
to moment. In the underworld (Duat), she was in charge of weighing
the souls (sometimes referred to as weighing the heart).
Mut—Was queen of all the goddesses and the lady of heaven. She
was considered to be the World-Mother and primordial waters of the
cosmos.
Neith—Was an early goddess of war, hunting, weaving and wisdom.
She was also the patron deity of Saïs (Zau), as early as the 1st
Dynasty. In the conflict between Seth and Horus, one version has
Neith, as the most ancient of all goddesses, asked to decide who
should rule. Neith selected Horus and added that she would “cause
the sky to crash to the earth” if she didn’t get her way.
Nephthys—Was the goddess of death, lamentation, nighttime,
service and rivers. She was also the sister and wife of Sett.
Nut—Was goddess of the sky and heavens in the Ennead and
member, with Nu, of the Ogdoad. She was a daughter of Shu and
Tefnut, and one of the oldest deities.
Osiris (Auser)—Was the god of the afterlife, death (underworld),
life, and resurrection.
Ptah—Was considered by some to have been the first being before
all other creation. He was a master artisan who fashioned the
universe from thought.
Ra—Was god of the Noon sun. He was ruler of the sky, earth and
the underworld. Later, he was merged with Horus to become, Ra-
Horakhty (“Ra who is Horus of the Two Horizons”). During the New
Kingdom, he was merged with Amun to form Amun-Ra.
Sekhmet—Was goddess of fire, war, healing and dance. Her hot
breath formed the desert.
Serket—Was goddess of scorpions, fertility, nature, animals,
medicine, magic, and any healing from venomous stings and bites.
She was worshipped as early as pre-dynastic times.
Sett—Was the god of storms, desert, chaos and war. He was brother
to Osiris, Isis and Nephthys.
Shu—Was the god of wind and air. He was a primordial god of the
Ennead.
Sobek—Was the god of the Nile, fertility, crocodiles, army and
military.
Tefnut—Was the goddess of rain, air, moisture, weather, dew,
fertility and water. She was a member of Ennead, and sister and
consort of Shu. She was also the mother of Geb and Nut, and
daughter of Ra-Atum.
Thoth—Was the god of knowledge, writing and science. He was
also responsible for all arbitration of godly disputes. He controlled
the arts of magic, and assisted in the judgment of the dead.
Wadjet—Was a local goddess of Dep (Buto), worshipped as early as
pre-dynastic times. She was patron and protector of all Lower Egypt.
Upon unification, she became protector and patron of all Egypt. She
was also protector of kings and women in childbirth.
Chapter 5: Lesser Known Pantheon

These are gods and goddesses of Egypt who were not as widely
known as some of the others. They were important at one time or in
a restricted locality.
Other Gods and Goddesses
Aker—Was a 1st Dynasty god of earth and death.
Ammit—Was not a god to be worshipped. He was the devourer or
soul-eater who lived near the scales of justice in Duat (underworld).
No one ever wanted to talk about him or ever to meet him.
Amunet—Was a primordial goddess—the hidden one, consort of
Amun. She was subordinate to Amun’s other consort, Mut.
Andjety—Was one of the earliest known gods, associated with city
of Andjet.
Anhur—Was a god of war and a sky bearer.
Anput—Was a goddess of funerals and mummification.
Anti—Was a very early god of ferrymen and gained the title of
Nemty. He figures prominently in the Contentions story of the Osiris
Myth.
Anuket—Was a goddess of the Nile River.
Apsis—Was a liaison between humans and an all-powerful god.
Originally, that all-powerful god was Ptah, but later Osiris and
ultimately Atum.
Aqen (Aken)—Was a rarely mentioned god of the underworld.
Ash—Was a god of oases and vineyards of the western Nile Delta.
This might have been another name for Sett.
Babi—Was a god of baboons from as early as pre-dynastic times.
He was an underworld deity.
Ba-Pef—Was a minor underworld god. His name means quite
simply, “that soul.”
Bat—Was a cow goddess. Her name was translated as meaning
“her soul.”
Bata—Was a ram god in early Egypt. Later in the New Kingdom, he
became known as a bull god.
Bes—Was a god of newborn babies, family and pregnant women,
worshipped from at least pre-dynastic times.
Buchis—Was the deification of the Ka (power or life-force) of Montu,
the war god. Each year a bull would be selected and mummified to
symbolize Buchis. The Bucheum was a special cemetery for
mummified bulls.
Dedun—Was a Nubian god of incense, prosperity and wealth.
Though not traditionally worshipped in Egypt, he was revered during
the Middle Kingdom when Egypt ruled over Kush.
Hatmehit—Was a fish goddess of life and protection. She was
revered in the city of Mendes and thought there to have been the
wife of Osiris and mother of Horus. Later in Egyptian history, she
was merged with Isis.
Hedetet—Was a minor scorpion goddess. In later periods of
Egyptian history, she became merged with Isis.
Heh—Was the deification of infinity or eternity in the Ogdoad. He
was the god of millions of years.
Heka—Was the deification of magic. His name means “action of the
Ka.” Heka was created at the beginning of time by the creator Atum.
Hemen—Was a falcon god often associated with Horus.
Hemsut—Was a goddess of fate, destiny and protection. She was
associated with Ka (the power or life-force of an individual). She was
frequently associated with the goddess Neith.
Heqet—Was a goddess of fertility, frequently identified with Hathor,
in the form of a frog. She was worshipped starting in early dynastic
times. She was also associated with final stages of childbirth.
Hesat—Was a cow goddess who provided humanity with milk. The
white liquid was also called the beer of Hesat. She was closely
associated with Isis in Ptolemaic times.
Hu—Was the deification of the first word—the word of creation. Atum
supposedly exclaimed this word upon ejaculating or sneezing
creation into existence.
Iah—Was a lunar deity. By the time of the New Kingdom, he had
become less prominent.
Kebechet—Was the deification of the embalming liquid, which was
sometimes called the “cooling water”. She was a daughter of Anubis
and Anput.
Kek—Was the deification of primordial darkness. The female form
was known as Keket. Together, they were night and day, raiser up of
the light (Kek), and raiser up of the night (Keket). They were
members of the Ogdoad.
Khensit—Was the goddess of the placenta seen during childbirth.
She was also known as the patron goddess of the 20th nome of
Lower Egypt.
Khenti-kheti—Was a crocodile god who later was seen as a falcon
god. His name means “foremost retreater.”
Khepri—Was a god of rebirth, sunrise and the scarab. This was
Ra's aspect in the morning.
Khnum—Was a god of creation and the waters. Originally, he was a
god of the source of the Nile River. He was known as the Divine
Potter and the Lord of Created Things. He was also known as the
god of rebirth, creation and the evening sun, though this was also a
function of Atum.
Khonsu—Was a god of the moon. His name means “traveler.”
Maahes—Was a god of war, weather and protection. He was a son
of Ptah and a feline goddess. In Lower Egypt, this was Bast; in
Upper Egypt, this was Sekhmet. He was also the god of knives,
lotuses and of devouring captives. He was first mentioned during the
New Kingdom, and was possibly of foreign origin.
Mafdet—Was a goddess of protection against snakes and
scorpions. She was worshipped from as early as the 1st Dynasty.
She was also the deification of legal justice.
Mehen—Was a snake god called the “coiled one.” This god would
coil around Ra during his journey through the night.
Menhit—Was a goddess of war. Her name means “she who
massacres.” After the unification of Lower and Upper Egypt, she
became merely another aspect of Sekhmet.
Meret—Was a goddess of rejoicing, singing and dancing.
Meretseger—Was a goddess of tomb builders and protector of royal
tombs. She was a cobra goddess, and was associated with Valley of
the Kings. Her name means “she who loves silence.”
Meskhenet—Was a goddess of childbirth. She was one of the
earliest goddesses in the Egyptian pantheon.
Min—Was a god of fertility. He was worshipped from pre-dynastic
times. His name means “Maker of gods and men.”
Mnevis—Was an aspect of Atum-Ra. The meaning of his name is
unknown. He was thought to have been a living bull.
Montu—Was a god of warfare, the sun and valor. His name
originally meant “nomad.” In the beginning, he was pictured as the
blistering sun. Because the desert, without rain, is so destructive to
life, this god came to be associated with the destructiveness of war.
These associations may tie into the fact that the Sahara had once
been green for nearly three millennia, prior to the start of Egyptian
history. As the climate cooled, the nomads of that era were forced to
flee the growing desert and to settle in the wetter regions at the
periphery of the Sahara.
Nefertem—Was a god of healing and beauty. He represented the
first sunlight and the smell of the blue lotus flower. Small statuettes
of him were carried by Egyptian citizens as good-luck charms.
Nehebkau—Was the god responsible for binding two aspects of the
soul upon death—Ba and Ka. His name means the one who “brings
together Ka.” He is also seen to have power over snake and
scorpion bites.
Nekhbet—Was a pre-dynastic local goddess and patroness of
Nekheb city.
Neper—Was a god of grain. His female counterpart, Nepit, was the
goddess of grain.
Nu—Was a male god, counterpart to feminine Nut in the Ogdoad. He
was the deification of the primordial, watery abyss. His counterpart,
Nut, was the sky goddess of the Ennead.
Pakhet—Was a lioness-shaped goddess of war.
Petbe—Was a god of revenge. He was possibly an import from
another culture.
Qetesh—Was a fertility goddess of sacred ecstasy and sexual
pleasure, imported from Canaan. She was popular during the New
Kingdom.
Renenutet—Was a goddess of nourishment and the harvest.
Renpet—She was known as Mistress of Eternity, and the deification
of fertility, youth and spring.
Resheph—Was a god of the plague. He was an import from
Canaan. Later, he was seen as a god of horses and chariots.
Sah—Was the deification of the constellation of Orion, sometimes
associated with Osiris. He was the consort of Sopdet (see also
Sopdu).
Satet—Was a goddess Nile River floods.
Seker—Was a falcon god of the necropolis at Memphis.
Serapis—Was a 3rd century BC, Greek creation (Osiris + Apis).
Seshat—Was a goddess of writing and wisdom. Also, she was a
goddess of architecture, astronomy, astrology, building,
mathematics, and surveying.
Shai—Was the deification of fate.
Shezmu—Was a god worshipped from the early Old Kingdom. He
was lord of perfume, precious oils, ointments and wine. At times, he
was vindictive and bloodthirsty. As such, he was also the lord of
blood, the great slaughterer of the gods, and “he who dismembers
bodies.”
Sia—Was the deification of perception. He was connected with the
art of writing.
Sopdet—Was the deification of Sothis, the Egyptian name for the
star Sirius.
Sopdu—Was a god of sky and of eastern border regions. He was
connected with the god Sah (Orion) and goddess Sopdet (Sirius).
Horus was sometimes said to have been the son of Osiris-Sah and
Isis-Sopdet.
Taweret—Was a goddess of childbirth and fertility. She was pictured
as a hippopotamus. She was not a popular goddess until the Middle
Kingdom.
Tenenet—Was a goddess of childbirth and beer. She was
worshipped from the New Kingdom through to the Ptolemaic periods.
Wepwawet—Was a god of war, victory, guardian of the deceased,
“opener of the ways”, hunting and a protector of the pharaoh and of
the Egyptian army. His cult center was in Asyut (later called
Lycopolis or “wolf” city).
Section 2: Factual History
Chapter 6: Ancient Egyptian History

Ancient Egyptian history covers nearly 3,000 years, from the earliest
writing of the first dynasty to Alexander the Great’s conquest of
Egypt in 332 BC. This covers 31 dynasties. Naturally, that’s too much
for one book to cover in any reasonable detail. Here we will look at
an overview of Egyptian history.
One of the earliest kings of Egypt has been named Scorpion II by
historians. Scant evidence speaks of a time of prosperity where
Upper and Lower Egypt were two separate kingdoms which lived in
relative harmony. The dates of his rule remain uncertain as does the
exact place of his burial. But scholars now think that Narmer or
Menes succeeded Scorpion II and conquered Lower Egypt, thus
unifying the two countries as one.
Some four or five hundred years later, Djoser started the 3rd
Dynasty. Under his rule, his chief architect, Imhotep, created what
has been called the first pyramid of Egypt—a step pyramid made up
of six mastabas or stone boxes stacked one upon the other.
Some people, including 2016 presidential hopeful Ben Carson, had
claimed that Imhotep was Joseph, son of Jacob in the Bible’s first
book, Genesis. Though both Imhotep and Joseph had been
commoners raised up by their merit, and both men were instrumental
in helping their nation through a 7-year famine, the two men did not
appear to live at the same time. Both were second in command
under the pharaoh. Both seemed to have lived to 110 years of age.
Imhotep was thought to have lived c. 2650–2600 BC, while Joseph,
by the traditional, biblical timeline (Ussher), was sold into slavery in
Egypt in 1750 BC.
During the reign of Sneferu (2613–2589 BC), the Red Pyramid, Bent
Pyramid and Meidum Pyramid were thought to have been built.
Sneferu started the 4th Dynasty.
Khufu (2589–2566 BC) succeeded Sneferu and supposedly built the
Great Pyramid at Giza. At the very least, the prosperity of his reign
made it possible to spruce up the Giza plateau and to add finishing
touches to some otherwise very ancient structures..
Eight years after Khufu died, Khafre (2588–2532 BC) reigned as
king. He supposedly built the second largest pyramid at Giza. Some
scholars name him as the creator of the Great Sphinx.
Next, came Menkaure (2532–2503 BC) who supposedly built the
smallest of the three main pyramids of Giza.
Toward the end of the 6th Dynasty, Neferkare Pepi II (2278–2184
BC) ruled for perhaps longer than any other ruler in history—94
years. Sometimes he is called merely “Pepi II.”
The First Intermediate Period (2181–2060 BC) was a period of great
unrest, covering the 7th through the 11th Dynasties.
The Middle Kingdom Period (2060–1802 BC) included the latter part
of the 11th Dynasty and all of the 12th. A rare female pharaoh,
Sobekkare Sobekneferu (1807–1802 BC) ruled for five years at the
end of the 12th Dynasty.
The Second Intermediate Period (1802–1550 BC) was yet another
period of unrest which included the conquest of Egypt by foreigners
called Hyksos. This period included the 13th through the 17th
Dynasties.
Several times during the 13th and 14th Dynasties, kings came to
power for which we have no name or incomplete names. The
records have been lost. For some kings, their exact dates of rule and
sequence remains unknown.
The New Kingdom Period (1550–1077 BC) covered the 18th through
the 20th Dynasties.
During the 18th Dynasty, Maatkare Hatshepsut (1479–1458 BC)
became the second female pharaoh to rule Egypt. Her successor,
Menkheperre Thutmose III (1458–1425 BC) was Hatshepsut’s
nephew and step-son. Thutmose III was famous for expanding
Egypt’s territory to its greatest extent into the Levant and Nubia. Late
in his life, he ordered that all temples and monuments should have
the name and image of his step-mother obliterated.
About 75 years after Thutmose III, Amenhotep IV (1352–1334 BC)
ruled. He changed his name to Akhenaten and ordered that all of
Egypt rule with one god, Aten. During his reign, he suppressed the
worship of Ra. When Akhenaten died, his successor Tutankhaten
changed his name to Tutankhamun and restored the worship of Ra
or Amun-Ra. This short-lived pharaoh was also known as “King Tut”
and also the “Boy King.”
The second ruler of the 19th Dynasty, Menmaatre Seti I (1290–1279
BC) is famous for regaining a great deal of the territory that had been
lost under Akhenaten. After Seti I’s death, Ramesses II (1279–1213
BC), also called “Ramesses the Great,” expanded Egypt’s territory
until his loss at the famous Battle of Kadesh (1275 BC). The
stalemate there resulted in history’s first peace treaty, signed in 1258
BC.
During the 20th Dynasty, Egypt’s power began to wane. Nearly every
pharaoh of that dynasty was named Ramesses—from Ramesses III
to Ramesses XI, but none of them came close to greatness of
Ramesses II.
The Third Intermediate Period (1077–732 BC) saw the collapse of
the Egyptian Empire and an era of relative unrest. Effectively Egypt
was split with Libyan pharaohs ruling Lower Egypt and only
nominally having control of the entire land, while Theban High
Priests effectively ruled Upper Egypt during the 21st and 22nd
Dynasties.
The 25th Dynasty (~752–656 BC) saw Nubians, who had already
taken over Upper Egypt, conquer Lower Egypt.
The Late Period (664–332 BC) included the restoration of Egyptian
self-rule, followed by Persian rule.
During the 26th Dynasty, King Necho II (610–595 BC) ruled the
country. Necho II is famous for an expedition of Phoenicians he had
sent to sail from the Red Sea, around the tip of Africa and through
the Mediterranean to the Nile Delta. This beat Vasco de Gama’s
voyage of discovery by roughly 2,100 years, going in the opposite
direction.
The 27th Dynasty saw the invasion of the Persians. Cambyses II
ruled Egypt from 525–521 BC. Smerdis (Bardiya) a son of Cyrus the
Great ruled concurrently from 522–521 BC. Darius I (the Great) ruled
Egypt from 521–486 BC, followed by his son, Xerxes I the Great
(486–465 BC).
The 28th Dynasty (404–398 BC), 29th Dynasty (398–380 BC) and
30th Dynasty (380–343 BC) saw a brief return to Egyptian self-rule.
This was the last such rule by Egyptian pharaohs.
The 31st Dynasty (343–332 BC) is also called the Second Persian
Period.
After the Persians came Alexander the Great and the power that was
once Egypt’s was lost forever.
Conclusion

Egypt has had a colorful history. From the deepest reaches of pre-
dynastic prehistory through all of antiquity, Egypt has arguably seen
more history and culture than any other patch of land on Earth.
In this part, we have seen the gods of ancient Egypt and some of the
ancient heroes who made Egypt great.
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Click here to leave a review for this book on Amazon.
 Part 3:
Norse Mythology
Captivating Stories of the Gods,
Sagas and Heroes
Introduction: Sources and Overview

I want to thank you and commend you for reading the book, “Norse
Mythology:
Captivating Stories of the Gods, Sagas and Heroes”.
This book gives an overview of Norse mythology, telling some of the
stories of the gods, giants and other creatures of that lost era before
history began.
Though the world came to know of the Norse and their legends
through Roman interaction about the time of Christ, most of what we
came to know was handed down from folk tales gathered by native
writers like Snorri Sturluson (c. 1179–1241). This was from a time
when the Norse had already been converted to Christianity. Some of
what Sturluson wrote was clearly influenced by Christian beliefs of
the time. As with all sources, we have to assume at least a little bit of
bias was involved. The age of belief in the Norse gods had ended.
We can only guess how much of those old beliefs were left out
because they may have been incompatible with the new beliefs of
Christendom. Sturluson gathered the tales in a work now known as
the Prose Edda.
Several anonymous writers of the pre-Christian era created poems
which have collected in what is now called the Poetic Edda. These
pre-date Sturluson’s work and thus are far more likely to give us
insights into the thinking and attitudes of the early Norse people.
Danish scholar Saxo Grammaticus gave us a Latin language version
of Danish history, Gesta Danorum, written in the twelfth century. But
even earlier, we have more matter-of-fact writing of Roman historian
Tacitus in the first century, discussing the tribes of the region they
called Germania.
As with most stories, it’s best to start at the beginning. And as with
any story of gods, we start with the Norse version of creation.
Chapter 1—Norse Creation Story

Like most cultures, the rugged folk of the North have their own myth
of creation. For them, it started with Ymir, ancestor of all the giants of
Jötunheim. Later, Odin and his two brothers, Vili and Vé, defeated
Ymir and formed the world from the giant’s carcass— hair for the
trees, bones for the hills, blood for the ocean, skull for the heavens,
brains for the clouds and eyebrows for the land of humans called
Midgard (Middle Earth or Middle Land).
None of the stories are clear about the origins of the three Aesir
gods—Odin and his brothers. In some respects, these three are
similar to the Greek gods, the brothers Zeus, Poseidon and Hades,
who defeated the Titans and replaced them as rulers of the universe.
The universe became a giant tree called Yggdrasil which grew out of
a well called Urd. Within the tree’s branches and roots resided the
Nine Realms.
The name itself comes from Yggr—“The Terrible One”—a name
frequently given to Odin. For the well, the name “Urd” meant
“destiny.”
Norse researcher, Daniel McCoy, describes the two places—
Yggdrasil and Urd—as extensions of the Norsemen’s concepts of
time. The Well of Urd he depicts as a “reservoir of completed or
ongoing actions that nourish the tree and influence its growth.
Yggdrasil, in turn, corresponds to the present tense, that which is
being actualized here and now.”
Like many primitive cultures, time is seen as repeating cycles
instead of unbounded and linear. The waters of the past seep into
the tree, affecting its form. Eventually, this water gathers on the
leaves, like the dew, and runs back into the well, thus creating a new
present. Those who gain control over this flow are said to possess
great magic, because they display “a greater degree of control over
destiny.”
In Norse philosophy, the power of free will and fate interact, and give
birth to reality. Those who were created participate in the creation. To
the Christian biblical literalist, such a viewpoint may seem strange
and perhaps even blasphemous. But to researcher Rod Martin, Jr.,
the notion of Christians being participants in creation is not so
unusual. Christ told his followers, for instance, that each of them
could do the miracles he did and even greater. Reading again the
Bible’s Genesis 1:26 with this knowledge in mind, the notion that
God created His children to look like him takes on a new meaning—
not as gods, but as “baby gods.” In other words, the children of God
are not yet mature, but fully capable of creating once they learn well
their lessons.
Gods of Different Types
First came the giants—wild, uncivilized, and powerful. We will see
more of them in chapter 3.
The Vanir are another set of gods in Norse mythology. They are
frequently associated with the indigenous folks of the northlands—
the first people to fill the void left by the melting glaciers. Those
original folk were later overcome by invading Indo-Europeans.
The Aesir gods are sometimes associated with the conquering
invaders who overwhelmed and took in the original inhabitants as
their subjects.
Other “Creatures”
Land spirits are powerful beings associated with localized areas of
land. From all that was written about them, it’s hard to draw a clear-
cut line between them and the gods. In fact, the line separating land
spirits from elves, giants and dwarves is equally as blurred.
The land spirits jealously guard the realms they oversee. They easily
take offense when someone mistreats the land, and they dish out
curses just as easily as blessings.
Elves are also powerful beings, frequently called “luminous.” Freyr, a
Vanir god, and honorary Aesir, also seemed to be associated with
the elves of Alfheim, possibly even their ruler, for he lived there,
instead of in Asgard or Vanaheim. Yet, in some writings the
distinction between elves and gods seems clearer and more
pronounced.
Dwarves, unlike the common word used in our language, were not
short people. At least nothing in the writings of the Norsemen
suggests any deficit in height. There was the suggestion of invisibility
and perfectly black in appearance. Were they “invisible” because
they were black and not easily seen at night? They called the
underground of Svartalfheim their home—a place full of mining and
forges. Many of the fine artifacts of civilization, used by both gods
and men, were forged by these beings. These artifacts included
Mjölnir (Thor’s hammer), Skíðblaðnir (Skidbladnir: Freyr’s ship with
perpetual fair winds), Gungnir (Odin’s spear), Gleipnir (the chain
which bound evil Fenrir when everything else had failed), and many
others. Dwarves don’t merely like the darkness; if exposed to the
sun’s rays, they immediately turn to stone.
On occasion, dwarves have been labeled “black elves,” so the line
between dwarves and elves remains somewhat unclear, as well.
Because of their skill with metals, it’s easy to compare the Norse
dwarves with the Cyclopes of Greek myth who fashioned great
weapons for Zeus, Poseidon, and others. We cannot help but
wonder if the Greeks and Norsemen were talking about the same
group of people—blacksmiths who learned an ancient art that was
lost and then learned again by the humans at a far later age.
The Norns were three females, each with more power over the path
of destiny than any other individual in the universe. They made their
home in the Well of Urd, below Yggdrasil. In some versions of myth,
they controlled destiny by carving runic symbols into the trunk of the
great tree. In other versions, they wove a great tapestry with each
strand controlling the life of another. One of these females was
named Urd (like the well itself), which comes from the word which
means “what once was” in Old Norse. Another was called Verdandi
(“what is coming into being”). And the last was called Skuld (“what
shall be”). Unlike the Greek fates, the destiny woven by the Norns
was much more malleable. It left room for brave individuals to
change their own destiny.
Valkyries are the choosers of the fallen. They are female spiritual
aides to Odin, who carry dead heroes to Valhalla—a sort of heaven
for brave warriors. In more modern times, such as with Wagner’s
music—Ride of the Valkyries—these divine females have been
made to look noble. But they have a darker side. They also choose
who will be slain. In fact, they have been portrayed on numerous
occasions as downright bloodthirsty. They are extensions of Odin,
doing his bidding as if they were appendages of his.
Disir are female spirits who acted as guardians of specific
individuals, groups, or places. The Valkyries were sometimes called
Odin’s Disir. And like the Valkyries, the Disir could be warlike in
nature.
Ask and Embla were the first humans. When two tree trunks washed
ashore onto the land which the gods had only recently raised from
the ancient waters, Odin and his brothers gave them önd (breath or
spirit), óðr (inspiration or ecstasy), and something called lá which
has not to this day been translated. The two humans were given
Midgard to rule. The man’s name comes from Old Norse, askr (“ash
tree”) and the wife’s name meant “water pot.” Symbolically, these two
names paralleled the functioning of Yggdrasil and Urd—the Great
Tree and the Water Well of creation. This imagery emphasizes the
fact that one cannot long exist without the other—Yggdrasil and Urd,
man and woman.
Sleipnir was an eight-legged horse belonging to Odin. Upon Sleipnir,
the chief god made his numerous trips up and down Yggdrasil to visit
the Nine Realms, always searching for more knowledge. Sleipnir
came into being after Loki had shape shifted into a mare and later
became pregnant by a giant’s stallion.
Hugin and Munin were two helping spirits in the form of ravens. Their
names meant “thought” and “desire,” respectively. As you might have
guessed, these two high-flying eyes were helpers of Odin, keeping
him informed about events far and wide. Like the Valkyries, Hugin
and Munin were semi-autonomous, but also extensions of Odin
himself.
Berserkers (berserkir) and Ulvhethnar (úlfheðnar) were two forms of
warrior shamans, each with their own totem animal. Berserkers
(“bear shirts”) naturally chose the bear as their symbol. Ulvhethnar
(“wolf hide”), on the other hand, chose the wolf as their icon. Both
would go into battle, fearlessly not wearing armor or clothes—only
an animal mask and pelts—and madly attacking the enemy with wild
abandon. In fact, this is where we get the English word berserk. In
the age of Vikings, Berserkers and Ulvhethnar would inevitably
frighten their enemies by their insane actions. It was commonly
believed that these warrior shamans would remain unharmed by
both iron and fire. Certainly, a warrior’s glee for battle would make
many a defender timid, even if only for a few seconds. In battle, a
few seconds is all that is needed to win in a one-on-one struggle.
The End
Unlike the Greek’s and their mythology, the Norse had the end of
times already figured out. Their “twilight of the gods” was called
Ragnarök—a time when most of the gods would die, and the worlds
would suffer greatly all manner of cataclysms. But because of their
view of time and nature as cyclic, this big ending would also be a
new beginning.
Geography
The realms were loosely divided into two key types—innangard and
utangard. Innangard—“inside the fence”—was considered to include
all lands which were law-abiding, orderly and civilized. Utangard
—“outside the fence”—on the other hand, referred to realms which
were rough, wild, ancient and chaotic.
Only Asgard and Midgard had names which contained the -gard
suffix, and thus referred to fortified places of order, protected from
the chaos. Asgard was the realm of the Aesir, while Midgard was the
realm of humanity. We will see more of these two places and the
other seven worlds in the next chapter.
Chapter 2—The Nine Realms

Odin (sometimes called Woden) would frequently take his stallion,

Sleipnir, for a ride up and down Yggdrasil, visiting the Nine Realms.
Besides Asgard, world of the Aesir gods, the other eight are,
• Midgard—the home of mankind. This was the middle world or
“middle earth” amidst the Nine Realms.
• Vanaheim—the territory of Vanir gods. This was a place of
wilderness, lawlessness and chaos, though perhaps not as much
as some other realms. After the Aesir-Vanir war, these two bands
of gods developed a far closer relationship. They not only
exchanged hostages to strengthen their mutual bond, but there
were indications that the Vanir goddess Freya was actually Frigg,
Odin’s wife.
• Jotunheim—land of the giants, a third group of powerful gods.
These were frequently seen as enemies of humanity and the
other gods, though there were exceptions. Loki, for instance, was
an adopted brother of Thor, but frequently annoyed everyone with
his tricks, pranks, and betrayals.
• Niflheim—primitive ice world.
• Muspelheim—primeval realm of fire.
• Alfheim—the realm of elves.
• Svartalfheim—the land of dwarves.
• Hel—the dominion of the goddess of the same name and realm of
the dead, also called Helheim.
Each of these worlds, outside of the human’s Midgard, had their
manifestation in the tangible world of humankind. For instance, the
invisible (to humans, at least) world of Jotunheim intersected with
human wilderness. Hel connected to every graveyard.
The number nine held special significance to pre-Christian Germanic
peoples—a group which included the Norsemen of Denmark,
Sweden, Norway, and later Iceland. For instance, Odin hung from a
tree for nine nights in a daring act of self-sacrifice as part of his quest
for more knowledge. Heimdall, guardian of the Aesir, was born of
nine mothers. And sacrificial feasts lasted for nine days.
Rudolf Simek, a philologist, suggested that this love of the number
nine came from the fact that the lunar calendar was based on 27
days which is a multiple of nine. This, of course, was referring not to
the synodic period (29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes and 3 seconds),
but to the sidereal month—the amount of time for the Moon to return
to its same position against the background stars (27 days, 7 hours,
43 minutes and 12 seconds). Our modern use of the synodic month
refers to the Moon returning to its same phase—from one New Moon
to the next.
In the next chapter, we take a closer look at the giants and other
gods.
Chapter 3—Gods and the “Giants” of Jötunheim

Like the Greeks and their Titans, the Norse have a special name for
their primordial gods; today referred to as “giants,” the more
appropriate term might be “devourers.” And like the Greeks and their
Olympian gods, a younger group (Aesir gods) overthrew the older,
coarser giants.
First, we will look at the Vanir gods—more refined than the giants,
but not as sophisticated as the Aesir.
Vanir Gods and Goddesses
These gods normally lived in Vanaheim or called it their place of
origin.
Njörd—He was the father of Freyr and Freya. Njörd’s wife was one
of the giants named Skadi. His responsibilities included the sea and
fertility.
Freyr (also Frey)—An honorary member of the Aesir, originally of the
Vanir. He was the god of sexual and agricultural fertility. He was
frequently accompanied by his great boar, Gullinborsti (“Golden
Bristled”). Though originally from Vanaheim, and a member of
Asgard, his home was in Alfheim—land of the elves. A great deal of
speculation has surrounded Freyr on this point of fact. Was he their
king? An ally? The original texts never clarify this issue.
Understandably, Freyr has slept with a great many goddesses and
female giants. In fact, he had even slept with his own sister, Freya.
Incest was taboo amongst the Germanic peoples, but apparently not
amongst the Vanir.
Freya (also Freyja)—Like her brother, Freyr, she was an honorary
member of the Aesir. Her husband’s name was Odr. Because of the
similarity in husband and wife names, a strong case has been made
that Odr is none other than Odin, and that Freya is merely another
name of Frigg, Odin’s wife. Loki had accused her of having slept with
all the gods, including her brother, and even some of the elves. She
is a goddess of fertility, love, beauty and elegant property. If she had
lived today, she might even be called the “party girl” of the gods. She
wielded great power—the seidr—manipulating the prosperity, health
and desires of others. Amongst her many powers is the ability to
shape shift into the form of a falcon.
Nanna—In some versions, she was the wife of the Aesir god, Baldr;
in others, she spurned Baldr and married the human named Hoder.
In the text of Gesta Danorum, Nanna was merely the mortal
daughter of King Gevar. In Snorri Sturluson’s writings, she was the
daughter of Nepr, one of Odin’s sons. So, this would make her
Odin’s granddaughter, and Baldr’s niece. In such case, she would be
pure Aesir, and not Vanir. And as Baldr’s wife and niece, incest
would also be a part of the behavior in Asgard. Like so many myths
of the ancient past, conflicting versions make it difficult to keep the
gods and goddesses straight.
Hoenir—Originally, he was an Aesir god, but after the truce of the
Aesir-Vanir war, he was given to the Vanir as a hostage. The few
stories about him seem to portray him as a bumbling idiot. When the
Vanir consulted him, Hoenir would always get his answers from the
giant, Mímir, a source of great wisdom. When Mímir was unavailable,
Hoenir would merely mumble some ambiguous reply. In the Prose
Edda, Hoenir is ironically mentioned as the source of humanity’s
ability to reason. In another work, the Gylfaginning, humanity’s
sources of reason are Vili and Vé, Odin’s two brothers. Could Hoenir
merely have been another name for one of Odin’s brothers?
According to still another source, the Völuspá, Hoenir would be one
of the few gods to survive Ragnarök—the end of their current world
and the beginning of the next.
Aesir Gods and Asynjur Goddesses
Aesir is more properly the male term for the gods of Asgard, and
Asynjur is the female term. For our own convenience, we will refer to
both as Aesir. The following gods called Asgard “home”:
Odin—He was king of the gods, a position held in other pantheons
by the likes of Zeus and Jupiter.
Frigg—She was the wife of Odin. As we’ve already seen, she may
well be from Vanaheim, originally known by the name Freya.
Thor—He was one of the sons of Odin. This was the god of thunder
and storms, and a fierce warrior who carried a hammer called
Mjölnir, fashioned for him by the dwarves.
Loki—An adopted giant of Jötnar, son of Odin. He was a trickster,
frequently causing trouble in Asgard and elsewhere.
Heimdall—This god could see and hear with such clarity, Odin set
him to guard the entrance to Asgard—where the great rainbow
bridge, called the Bifrost, connected the home of the gods with the
rest of the universe. He was said to have had nine mothers. He
required far less rest than even a bird, so he rarely needed to leave
his post. He could see for hundreds of kilometers during light and
dark. And he could hear the grass grow. Asgard’s enemies had little
chance to slip past this god unnoticed.
Ullr—Was the son of the goddess Sif. He excelled in hunting,
skating, skiing, and archery. According to Saxo Grammaticus, a
Danish historian of the Middle Ages, Ullr took leadership over the
gods during a period when Odin had been in exile. His name made
its appearance in a number of solemn oaths, such as swearing by
the “ring of Ullr,” or the time when Odin swore the blessings of “Ullr
and all the gods” to the person who might rescue him from between
two fires.
Sif—Goddess of grain and wife of Thor. She was also the mother of
Ullr, but it seemed the father was someone other than Thor, perhaps
before Thor and Sif became husband and wife.
Bragi—This god was the official poet and minstrel of the Asgard
court.
Idun—She was the wife of Bragi. This goddess dispensed a magical
fruit which gave the gods their long life.
Baldr—A son of Odin and Frigg. In some versions, he was
considered to be radiant and beloved by all the Aesir gods.
Hödr—His name meant simply, “warrior,” and there was not much
mentioned about him except as the one who had killed Baldr.
Forseti—His name meant “chairman.” He was not mentioned very
much in the old texts. One of the poems of the Poetic Edda
mentioned that he settled disputes. Sturluson, in the Prose Edda,
told us that Forseti was the son of Baldr and Nanna, a claim that at
least one scholar disputes.
Vili and Vé —The two brothers of Odin, who helped slay the giant,
Ymir, and to form the world with the giant’s body. When Odin was on
his many travels searching for wisdom, Frigg (Freya?) would grow
lonely. One or the other of the brothers would keep her company,
even at night.
Tyr—In the literature, he was a minor god and little was said about
him. But there are so many strong references to him that it seems
likely that the Viking Age believers had merely forgotten Tyr in favor
of Odin. For instance, only Tyr was brave enough to risk his own
hand in the mouth of Fenrir in order to bind him with a magic cord.
The Jötnar Giants and Cohorts
Jötnar is the plural form of jötunn—the giants of Jötunheim. The
giants were frequently enemies of the humans and the Aesir gods.
Though they are frequently referred to as giants in the literature, the
original meaning of these creatures was “devourers.”
Fenrir—A giant wolf and son of Loki and giantess Angrboda. He was
the brother of Hel and Jormungand.
Hel—She was the goddess of Helheim—the underworld where the
dead were kept. She was the daughter of Loki and Angrboda and
thus the sister of Fenrir and Jormungand. Her name meant “hidden.”
Jormungand—A giant serpent and son of Loki and giantess
Angrboda. Accordingly, he was the brother of Fenrir and Hel. He
circled the earth in the oceans of Midgard. In fact, he is frequently
called the Midgard Serpent. His name means “great beast.” He and
Thor were destined to slay each other in Ragnarök.
Skadi—A giantess who loved the mountains where the snow never
melts. She was considered to have been a great huntress with bow
and snowshoes. She had been married to the Vanir god, Njörd, with
whom she produced two children—Freyr and Freya. And if Freya
was another name for Frigg, then Skadi was the grandmother of
Baldr.
Surt—His name meant “black” in Old Norse. He was a fire giant who
spent a great deal of time in Muspelheim—the realm of fire. His
favorite weapon was a burning sword.
Nidhogg—One of the preeminent serpents beneath the Yggdrasil
world-tree. There, he and his fellow dragons would eat at the roots of
the tree, causing great damage. This threatened all Nine Realms.
His name meant “he who strikes with malice.” Though he did not live
in Jötunheim, he is certainly associated with their efforts to pull the
cosmos back into chaos.
Skoll and Hati—Two wolves which forever chased the Sun and the
Moon in order to devour them.
Aegir and Ran—These two were husband and wife, respectively.
They lived in a great hall underneath the ocean. In fact, Aegir’s
name meant “ocean” while his wife’s name meant “robber.” Aegir
was usually shown as a congenial host. His wife however, was
frequently seen drowning luckless sailors and pulling them down to
her underwater world. The couple had nine daughters. Of all the
giants, these two seemed to have the friendliest relationship with the
Aesir gods, quite often inviting them to feast with them.
Garm—A great wolf who fought the god Tyr during Ragnarök. There
is some evidence that Garm is merely another name for Fenrir.
In the next chapter, we return from the realm of the gods to the place
we call home.
Chapter 4—Midgard and the Humans

This was the realm of tangible reality, not that the realms of the gods
and giants were not real. They were real to the Norsemen, but in a
different way, perhaps in the same way that gravity and time are real,
yet invisible.

End of the Glaciation

For thousands of years, the ice had been melting. Sea levels had
been steadily rising throughout this period. In fact, from the depths of
the last glacial period of the current Ice Age (~18,000 BC), sea level
had risen 110 meters (360 feet). Except for a brief, 1,300-year cold
period, called the Younger Dryas (~10,900–9620 BC), the warmer
climate began to make the environment of the northern lands more
and more hospitable.
From about 9000–6000 BC, the Maglemosian culture settled in
southern part of what is now called Scandinavia. During this period
of time, oceans rose roughly 40–50 meters (131–164 feet) from the
melting ice. Early in this period, Great Britain was connected to
continental Europe, and what is today Denmark was connected to
southern Sweden. For several thousand years a freshwater lake
(Ancylus Lake), somewhat larger than today’s Baltic Sea, stood
behind that land bridge. The combination of post-glacial rebound
lifting the land and sea levels rising changed the coastlines
markedly. A vast area southwest of Scandinavia stood above water
in what is now the southern portion of the North Sea. That prehistoric
area is now called Doggerland by today’s scientists, and was about
the same size as the British Isles.
By about 8000 BC, the entire coastline of Norway had been freed of
ice. Stone age settlements filtered in, taking advantage of fishing,
sealing and hunting opportunities.
The 3000-year period of the Maglemosian people saw them dwelling
in wetland and forest environments. Their hunting and fishing tools
were made of flint, bone, and wood. Homes were constructed of bark
and their domestic tools were made from bone, flint, and horn.
The Land Evolved into Greater Fertility
Gradually, over this period, tundra turned to grassland and then
became dotted with trees. Life found the warmer land and filled it. As
more of the ice melted and sea levels rose, the Maglemosian culture
gradually disappeared, replaced by the Kongemose culture (6000–
5200 BC).
For the Kongemose, their economy was founded upon hunting wild
boar, roe deer, and red deer. Also, they added fishing from coastal
areas.
To the north of the Kongemose people lived the Nøstvet and Lihult
people. Existing in open settlements, the Nøstvet people (6200–
3200 BC) used stone age axes made from rocks like quartzite,
quartz, and flint. For sustenance, they hunted marine mammals and
seafowl, as well as gathering and fishing. Over time, their
settlements grew in size, indicating that their populations were
growing and more easily supported by a sedentary standard of living.
Petroglyphs of this and other cultures dotted the land of prehistoric
Sweden as early as 5000 BC, showing drawings of reindeer, bears,
elk and seals.
In the southern part of Scandinavia, the Kongemose were replaced
with the Ertebølle culture (5300–3950 BC). These newcomers were
a hunter-gatherer culture which also used fishing and pottery
making.
Still later, the Funnelbeaker culture (4300–2800 BC) gradually
replaced the Ertebølle in southern Scandinavia, and also their
northern neighbors, the Nøstvet and Lihult cultures, bringing farming
and animal husbandry to the region.
According to the Kurgan hypothesis, this group called by modern
scientists, “Funnelbeaker,” was considered to have been a non-Indo-
European culture. This was what Marija Gimbutas called “Old
Europe”—the peoples later overtaken by the Indo-Europeans of
Central and West Asia. The Funnelbeaker group gave way to the
intrusion of what has been called the Corded Ware culture—an
extension of the Yamna (or Yamnaya) culture.
The Corded Ware culture (2900–2350 BC) brought Indo-European
language to the area. They covered a much larger area, including
most of habitable Scandinavia, Germany, parts of Russia and the
northern parts of Eastern Europe. This new culture greatly influenced
the language of the region, but did not entirely replace it.
Belgian scholar, Edgar Polomé (1920–2000), former professor of
comparative religions and languages at the University of Texas,
assessed the influence of Corded Ware on the indigenous peoples
of Europe in the 3rd millennium BC. According to him, roughly thirty
percent of the non-Indo-European basis found in the modern
German language comes from the language of the Funnelbeaker
culture, native to the southern portion of Scandinavia.
From about 1500 BC—the Nordic Bronze Age in Denmark—the
peoples of the area buried their dead alongside worldly artifacts, in
burial mounds. Numerous bronze artifacts from this period attest to
the social stratification into classes. Artifacts included many religious
items and even musical instruments.
Nordic Iron Age
From the 4th to the 1st century BC—what we might also call the Pre-
Roman Iron Age—the climate took a turn for the worse in southern
Scandinavia (including Denmark). It became wetter and cooler,
greatly limiting agriculture. Cold can be a killer, and it forced people
to migrate southward into Germania, creating problems at the
Roman frontier.
This was the beginning of the Norse Iron Age, because people of the
region began to remove iron from the ore found in peat-bogs.
During the period from the 1st century to the fifth century AD, the
Roman empire maintained relations with the Danish isles and
Jutland. The Romans even suggested that the Danes could become
a “client state” of the empire, but this proposed relationship, of
course, never materialized. Even so, there was some evidence that
some members of the Danish warrior elite had joined the Roman
military.
Viking Period (800–1100 AD)
The Vikings were not only fierce warriors, but they were fearless
explorers and relentless merchants. Their travels took them to
England and Ireland (creating settlements 793–820 AD), deep into
what is today Russia (854 AD) and the Caspian Sea (creating a
large settlement 880 AD), through the Black Sea (settlement at
Miklagard, 839 AD), through Old Byzantium, to Spain (844 AD), to
Italy (860 AD), conquering Normandy (911 AD), all across Northern
Europe, to Iceland (874 AD), Greenland (982 AD) and Vinland, North
America (1000 AD).
Over the next thousand years, the borders of the Scandinavian
countries fluctuated greatly. The Norse became Christians gradually
and sometimes painfully.

The Normans
The Normans (Norse men) were conquerors from Norway, Denmark,
and Iceland. In the 10th century, they subjugated the land in
northwest France called Normandy. Then, they conquered parts of
Italy in the early 11th century. They also captured Sicily and Malta
from the Saracens. Because of their fierce fighting reputation,
Norman mercenaries fought throughout the Mediterranean. They
took England in 1066 with the Norman invasion of William the
Conqueror. So, the nobility and language of England was forever
changed and influenced by the Vikings.

Heroes Go to Valhalla
In the dim, prehistoric times before Ragnarök, the Valkyries, as
extensions of Odin’s will, took only the strongest and most heroic
warriors fallen in battle, to Valhalla. There, the warriors would hone
their skills and prepare themselves for the coming of Ragnarök. In
this, Odin was being selfish, for he wanted to thwart prophecy by
preparing an overwhelming human army of the very best to hold off
the giants and their forces of chaos in those final days.
Chapter 5—Elves, Dwarves, Trolls and Valkyries

Luminous Elves
The elves were considered to be luminous beings, close to nature.
They were said to have been “more beautiful than the sun.” They
were forever being associated with the Vanir and Aesir gods in the
poetry of Old English and Old Norse.
Like so much of Norse mythology, the defining separation between
gods, dwarves, elves and land spirits was unclear. Perhaps such
logical details were unimportant to the Vikings and their forebears.
There may well have been a great deal of overlap between the
groups. But elves seemed to have a far stronger link to the Vanir
gods. For instance, Freyr lived in Alfheim and may well have been
their lord. There was even one piece of Old Norse poetry which over
and over again referred to the Vanir as elves.
Yet, there were other sources which made clearer distinctions
between Vanir and elves, making them seem entirely separate.
Elves could cause illness and could as easily heal. They had the
ability to mate with humans and their children possessed great
intuition and magic.
Dark Dwarves
Norse mythology brought us a far different image of dwarves than
we have seen in the literature of others. They were not short. But
they were pitch-black in color. Like the stories of Tolkien, the Norse
dwarves lived underground and loved to mine metals and other
precious things from the ground. Svartalfheim was their home. This
other world was focused only on the labyrinth of caves and mines
underground. Did anything ever happen above ground there?
As in other myths, Norse dwarves were skilled smiths in the various
metals and excellent craftspeople. Besides Thor’s hammer, Freyr’s
ship, Odin’s spear and ring, and Sif’s long, golden hair, the dwarves
created many other wondrous tools and artifacts. They fashioned the
lightweight chain, Gleipnir, with which the gods were finally able to
bind Fenrir the wolf. They also created a magnificent necklace
named Brisingamen which Freya wore on occasion.
Dwarves were extremely intelligent and used powerful magic.
Despite their power, they remained vulnerable to the sun’s rays. If
exposed to sunlight, they immediately turned to stone.
The dwarves were also extremely strong. Four of them—Austri,
Vestri, Nordri and Sudri—were said to hold up the four corners of the
sky.
Supernatural Trolls
Originally, in Norse mythology, trolls may have been merely a
derogatory term for the Jötnar—the giants of Jötunheim. They were
often pictured as living in caves, mountains or detached rocks. Later,
in the old stories of Scandinavia, trolls took on a different image—
always living far from humans. They were thought to have been
dangerous, dimwitted, and ugly. Peculiar landmarks were sometimes
explained as that of troll turned to stone by being exposed to the
sunlight, much as the dwarves were transformed by strong light.
One old Scandinavian belief told that trolls were frightened away by
lightning. This may merely have been an echoing of the tales where
Thor fought against the Jötnar with his lightning hammer.
When the region became Christianized, trolls were said to have
become frightened by the church bells, sometimes destroying entire
churches by throwing huge stones at them.
Valkyries—Choosers of the Fallen
The Valkyries were, in some ways, like angels on the battlefield,
helping the selfless heroes who had died there to find their way to
Valhalla—the hall of the fallen heroes. But in the original Norse tales,
these noble maidens seemed more like sinister witches. They not
only chose who amongst the fallen would go to Valhalla, but they
frequently chose who was to die. Quite often, they would use cruel
magic to ensure their wishes were met.
Before the Battle of Clontarf, for instance, twelve Valkyries sat, like
the Norns, weaving at their looms the destiny of the warriors who
were about to fight. Instead of thread, they used intestines. For
weights, they used detached heads. For beaters, they used arrows
and swords. Throughout their ritualistic weaving, they would sing
their objectives with menacing glee.
To the Anglo-Saxons, their version of Valkyries (Old English,
wœcyrie) were viewed as female spirits of bloodshed and massacre.
The Valkyries’ primary task was to bring worthy warriors to Valhalla
so that their training could continue. Since the warriors were already
dead, their practice could be deadly in every normal sense, but the
warriors would be completely healed before the next day’s practice.
Today, Valhalla is frequently pictured in Asgard, but there seems to
be nothing in the literature to suggest this. Norse researcher, Daniel
McCoy found clues in the Eddas and old place names that
suggested Valhalla was always a part of Helheim—perhaps a special
place there, separate from the other dead.
When the final battle was to come at Ragnarök, these human dead
would fight on the side of Odin against the giants.
In the next chapter, we will focus on the four main characters of
Norse mythology—Odin, Frigg, Thor, and Loki.
Chapter 6—Odin, Frigg, Thor, and Loki

Odin Visits Jötunheim

As king of the gods, Odin was obligated to know more than anyone
else about the events of the Nine Realms. Because of this, he took
frequent trips up and down Yggdrasil to gain more knowledge. One
source of great wisdom was said to be Mímir’s well. Drinking of its
waters would give anyone superior knowledge. Mímir’s well was
located in Jötunheim, under the second root of Yggdrasil.
Because the giants were enemies of the Aesir, Mímir would not
willingly give up the water without some compensation. Odin
ultimately traded one of his eyes for a sip of the powerful water. And
this is how the king of the gods came to be blind on one side.
From this, it remains curious that Mímir would choose to visit
Vanaheim, on occasion, and assist Hoenir in his decisions.
Frigg, Mother of the Gods
Late in the history of Norse mythology, Freya and Frigg were
separate goddesses, but even then, they shared a great many traits
in common.
The name Freya meant merely “lady,” which is a title instead of a
proper name. As a word, it is similar to German Frau, which is very
much like the English word “Mrs.” Frigg, on the other hand, comes
from the word meaning “beloved.”
Both of them were experts as a völva—a practitioner of the magic
known to them as seidr. With that magic, they could read and alter
the web of destiny. Both Freya and Frigg possessed falcon feathers
with which to transform into a bird. Such a skill would prove quite
handy when the need arose for escape or reconnaissance.
Freya’s husband was named Odr, and Frigg’s husband was named
Odin. In Old Norse, Óðr has the meaning of “ecstasy, furor,
inspiration.” Óðinn is simply the same word with a masculine ending.
The Prose Edda mentions Odr only briefly, saying that he was
frequently away on long trips. It says that Freya was often found to
be shedding tears of red gold because her husband was away.
Many of the Norse tales describing Odin talk of his long trips away
from Asgard, journeying throughout the Nine Realms in order to gain
more wisdom. So, even Freya’s husband looks like Frigg’s husband
in many ways.
Both Freya and Frigg were accused of being unfaithful to their
husbands. Frigg supposedly slept with a slave. While Odin was
exiled from Asgard, his two brothers, Vili and Ve were left in charge.
They did more than preside over the realm; in addition, they each
frequently lay with Frigg until Odin could return home. In the Poetic
Edda, for instance, Loki accused Freya of having lain with all of the
elves and gods, which would have included Freyr, her own brother.
Because these two share so much in common, it seems highly likely
that they were originally the same goddess who was named Frigg
and sometimes called “lady” (“Freya”).
Thor, God of Thunder and Lightning
His name was Þórr, in Old Norse. According to Vladimir Orel, in his
handbook on Germanic etymology, in Proto-Germanic, the name
was estimated to have come from Þunraz (“thunder”).
Thor was the epitome of the courageous warrior. Every Viking
warrior wanted to be like him. Besides his magical hammer, Mjölnir
(“lightning”), Thor owned an unnamed belt which gave him double
his normal strength. This thunder god could be seen frequently riding
across the sky in his chariot drawn by goats.
Though Thor’s father was Odin, his mother was a giantess who went
by the names Jord, Hlöðyn, and Fjörgyn. So the modern retellings of
Thor where he calls Frigg his mother are not entirely accurate; Frigg
was to him only a stepmother.
In Midgard (Earth), humans often called upon Thor and his hammer
to consecrate weddings and homes. The hammer was seen not only
as an instrument of slaying evil, but of offering blessings. In a very
real sense, these two functions were really one; both were actions of
purification.
No one could blame Thor for being upset, then, when one day he
woke up to find that Mjölnir was missing. How anyone could have
gotten by Heimdall in order to carry out the theft was never
explained.
In order to get the gods’ primary instrument of protection back, Freya
lent her falcon feathers to Thor and Loki so that the hammer could
be found. Loki, already skilled at changing his shape, took the
feathers and flew directly to the likeliest suspects in Jötunheim.
Upon Loki’s arrival there, he returned to his more human-like god
form and confronted the chief giant, Thrym (“noisy”), about the
missing hammer. Thrym bragged that indeed he had taken the prize
and had buried it deep in the ground. His ransom demand was that
Freya marry him.
After Loki had flown back to Asgard, his report alarmed all of the
gods, in particular Freya. Accordingly, the gods gathered to discuss
their options. Heimdall suggested that Thor go to Jötunheim
disguised as Freya. By pretending to go through with the wedding,
Thor could reclaim Mjölnir and slay the thieves and their cohorts.
Thor feared that by dressing up as a woman he would become the
laughing stock of all Nine Realms. To him, such a thing was not only
dishonorable, but unmanly. Everyone in Asgard would mock him.
Ironically logical, for a change, Loki made the point that if they did
not retrieve the hammer, Asgard could very well be ruled by giants.
How much mocking would Thor receive under those circumstances?
Grudgingly, Thor agreed to Heimdall’s plan.
No expense was spared in preparing Thor’s wedding dress. And
Loki was dressed as the thunder god’s maid-servant.
When the pair arrived in Jötunheim, Thrym boasted to his fellow
giants that the gods had finally come to their senses and rewarded
the chief giant with the honor he was due.
At the pre-wedding feast, Thor forgot his role and ate far too much
for a dainty bride. He consumed not only an entire ox, but also eight
salmon, and all of the petite delights which had been prepared for
the other women. Not only that, he drank several barrels of mead.
Thrym was understandably suspicious. Never before had he seen a
fair goddess with such an appetite. Cunning Loki replied, “The fair
goddess has been so lovesick for you, that she hasn’t been able to
eat for a week.”
Nodding in acceptance, Thrym was suddenly overcome with desire
to kiss his bride-to-be. Pulling back Thor’s veil, Thrym was
confronted by Thor’s threatening eyes.
“Never,” said Thrym, “have I seen a maiden with such frightfully
piercing eyes!”
Again, Loki’s quick wit helped him devise a proper response. He told
the giant that Freya had also been incapable of sleeping, because of
her intense longing for him.
Now, Thrym was in a hurry to get to the ceremony. As with all
weddings, Thor’s hammer was needed to bless the marital ritual.
Thrym immediately called forth the hammer. Moments later, Mjölnir
lay in Thor’s lap and the thunder god grabbed its short handle. First,
he exterminated Thrym and then all of the wedding guests.
After he returned to Asgard, Thor felt gratified to change back into
his normal attire.

Loki the Trickster

Loki was the Norse god of mischief. He also performed many heroic
tasks, but only as a result of repairing the mischief he had already
caused. He was sometimes associated with fire. In regard to these
characteristics, he can be compared to the Greek god, Prometheus,
for that Titan gave humanity fire and was forever provoking Zeus
with pranks and tricks. And like Prometheus, Loki was ultimately
bound up and forced to endure repeated suffering. This was to keep
him from committing any more mischief. Prometheus had been
bound up and forced to endure an eagle eating his liver by day, only
to have the liver regenerate overnight, and to have the same torture
repeated every day thereafter.
What had Loki done that was so bad? Here are a few examples.
Thor’s wife, Sif, had long and flowing golden hair. One day, when
Loki was feeling particularly bored, he cut off Sif’s hair. Naturally, this
enraged her husband, Thor.
The storm god threatened to kill the trickster, but wily Loki convinced
him to spare his life if he could find an even finer head of hair for Sif.
Loki suggested that he might be able to convince the dwarves of
Svartalfheim to fashion a far more beautiful head of hair for Thor’s
wife.
Deep within the caverns of Svartalfheim, Loki talked to the dwarf
Ivaldi whose sons fashioned for Sif a new head of hair more fine
than the one she’d had. But they also created two other marvels.
One was the finest ship in existence, created from thin slats of wood.
This ship would always encounter favorable winds. Not only that, it
could be folded up and tucked away in the owner’s pocket. This ship
was given the name Skidbladnir. The third gift was the deadliest of
spears, called Gungnir.
Loki, overcome with mischievous delight, decided to stay a bit longer
and to see if he could wrest more fun from this trip. He decided to
ridicule two other dwarves, Brokkr and Sindri, telling them that they
would never be able to forge three gifts as fine as those created by
the sons of Ivaldi. Loki was so certain of their incompetence that he
wagered his own head. Sindri and Bokkr took up Loki’s challenge.
As always, Loki never played fairly. He shape-shifted into a fly and
bit Sindri’s hand. The assault was not enough to keep the dwarf from
finishing a truly fine creation. Out from the fires, Sindri pulled a
magical, golden-haired boar. He called his creation Gullinbursti
(“golden bristled”). This boar shone brightly in the dark, excellent for
leading its master at night. In addition, the boar could run through air,
water, or land far better than any horse.
Next, Sindri placed another slab of gold on the fire. Brokker pumped
the bellows to increase the fire’s temperature. Suddenly, the fly bit
Brokkr’s neck, but this did not stop him from working the bellows.
From the fire, Sindri pulled out a magical ring he called Draupnir.
Every ninth night, Draupnir would give birth to eight golden rings of
equal weight. Over time, this one ring could make any man or god
extremely wealthy.
For the last gift, Sindri placed iron on his fire. He cautioned his co-
worker that they both must be very careful for one mistake could
prove costlier than all the gold they had used on the previous two
gifts.
Desperate to foul the dwarves’ work, Loki, as the fly, bit Brokkr on
the eyelid. Blood flowed from the bite and prevented the dwarf from
seeing what he was doing. But the two dwarves were such experts
at what they did, that Loki’s stings proved to be only an annoyance.
This last gift was to be Thor’s hammer. They called it Mjölnir
(“lightning”). This hammer would never miss its target. More than
that, it would fly back into the owner’s hand after each throw. The
only flaw was that the handle was too short.
As the two dwarves prepared for their trip to Asgard to claim their
wages, Loki arrived at the great hall before them. There he delivered
the three gifts he had acquired. He gave to Thor the golden hair for
his wife. To Freyr, he gave the ship and the golden boar.
When the dwarves arrived, Loki presented Thor with the hammer,
and gave the spear and ring to Odin.
The gods were so pleased with their gifts that they had to agree that
Loki owed the dwarves his head. To Loki’s dismay, the dwarves
approached the prankster with their knives ready. The former fly,
ever so cunning, reminded them that he had promised his head, but
not his neck. As the two dwarves prepared to return home to their
forge, they happily sewed Loki’s mouth shut so his cunning tongue
could bother them no more.
How Loki ever got his head back was not clear, but this story was not
the end of him.
The following account takes on the turning point in Norse mythology.
This is where Loki goes too far and incites another to kill the beloved
son of Odin and Frigg—Baldr.
Chapter 7—The Death of Baldr

There are two main versions of this story—one from medieval

Icelander Snorri Sturluson, and the other from Saxo Grammaticus, in
his Gesta Danorum (“history of the Danes”).
Baldr’s Death by Sturluson
Snorri Sturluson pictured Baldr as a generous, beloved, joyful,
charming, courageous and innocent victim. It seems that Baldr
gladdened the hearts of any and all who might spend time with him.
The story of his death began with Baldr’s dreams. Those visions
from sleep foretold of his own demise. Young Baldr told his parents
about his dreams.
Immediately, Odin took his faithful steed, Sleipnir, and rode to the
underworld to confer with one of the dead—a seeress who had been
quite skilled and wise about such things in life. In one of his many
disguises, Odin arrived at the underworld puzzled to find
preparations for a great feast underway. When he found the seeress,
he asked her about the festivity. She told him that an exalted guest
of honor was soon to arrive—the great god Baldr. Quite happily, she
told how Baldr was to be killed. But suddenly, she stopped. The
traveler who had awoken her seemed distraught. And just as
suddenly, she realized that she had been telling Odin himself about
his son.
Naturally, Baldr’s mother, Frigg, became worried by Baldr’s dreams
and the preparations being made in the underworld. To protect her
son, she combed the world for any potential threat and received from
them each an oath that they would never hurt her son.
The other gods, ever in the mood for some rowdy sport, took
advantage of Baldr’s new situation. Each of them took turns throwing
rocks, sticks and other objects at Baldr only to laugh as those
objects bounced harmlessly off of their fellow god.
Loki saw this as an opportunity to have some evil fun. With his talent
for shape shifting, he disguised himself and went to Frigg to inquire
about what she had done to protect her son. “Did all things swear
oaths to spare Baldr from harm?” he asked.
“Oh, yes,” Frigg replied, “everything except the mistletoe. But the
mistletoe is so small and innocent a thing that I felt it superfluous to
ask it for an oath. What harm could it do to my son?”
Upon learning of this vulnerability, Loki found some mistletoe and
returned it to where his adopted brothers were enjoying their latest
pastime. The trickster found the blind god, Hodr, and stated, “You
must feel quite left out, having to sit back here away from the
merriment, not being given a chance to show Baldr the honor of
proving his invincibility.”
Hodr nodded in agreement. “Yes, but there is a good reason for
that.”
Loki held out his spear made of mistletoe. “Here. I will point your
hand in the direction where Baldr stands, and you throw this branch
at him.”
So Hodr hurled the mistletoe spear, piercing Baldr and killing him
instantly.
All of the gods stood in shock. They knew from what the seeress had
told Odin, that this event would be the first sign that Ragnarök was
on its way.
When Frigg’s grief had subsided enough for her to speak, she asked
for a volunteer to go to the underworld to offer a ransom to Hel for
Baldr’s release.
One of Odin’s lesser-known sons, Hermod, agreed to take on the
task. The god king offered Sleipnir to take Hermod on his journey,
and away they went, carrying the hopes of all the gods for Baldr’s
rescue.
Baldr’s funeral became a lavish affair. They outfitted Baldr’s ship,
Hringhorni, as a funeral pyre fit for royalty. But even the funeral did
not go as planned. Baldr’s ship became stuck and all of the gods
working together could not dislodge it. They called for the giantess
Hyrrokkin to help them. When she arrived, she gave the ship such a
powerful shove that the land quivered.
As Baldr’s dead body was lain to rest on the ship, his wife, Nanna
immediately died of grief, and she, too, was placed on the ship next
to her husband. When the flames had been lit, Thor used his great
hammer to consecrate them.
All manner of gods, elves, dwarves, giants, Valkyries and others
were assembled to see Baldr’s ship as it disappeared in the
distance.
Far from Asgard, Hermod spent nine nights riding through
increasingly darker and deeper canyons to ransom that part of Baldr
which had been condemned to Hel. When he found himself at the
Gjöll (“roaring”) river, the giantess Móðguðr confronted him to
determine his purpose. It was her responsibility to let only those who
were authorized to cross the bridge into Helheim.
When Hermod arrived in Hel’s realm, he found Baldr placed in the
seat of honor at the banquet Hel had thrown for him. The next
morning, Hermod pleaded with Hel to release his brother. He told of
all the sorrow experienced by the gods and other living things now
that Baldr was no longer with them.
“If this is so,” replied Hel, “then let everyone in the universe weep for
him. When that happens, I will send him back to you. But if anyone
refuses, he will remain here with me.”
Upon Hermod’s return to Asgard, messengers were sent to all the
worlds to carry the news he had brought from Hel. Every creature did
weep for Baldr except for the giantess Tokk (“thanks”). Unbeknownst
to all, she was actually Loki in disguise. Tokk replied to the
messengers, “Let Hel hold what she has!”
Later, Hodr was killed by a being named Vali, who it seems may
have been created for this one purpose.
Baldr’s Death by Saxo Grammaticus
The other version of the tale of Baldr’s death is not as rich with
details. And some of the details which were used are decidedly
different.
For one thing, Hodr was not blind. And his name, which means
“warrior,” was more in keeping with his personality.
Both Baldr and Hodr were each great military leaders. They
assembled their armies against one another all for the love of the
beautiful Nanna.
Before the fight, Baldr had eaten an extraordinary and unique food
which gave him invincibility. Hodr had found out about this. He knew
he needed something which would level the field of battle. For this,
he traveled for several days to the underworld and finally found a
weapon with the right magical qualities to overcome Baldr’s
defenses.
During the battle, Hodr wounded Baldr, and Odin’s son died several
days later of his wounds. Despite the win, Hodr was later killed by an
avenger named “Bous.”
Similarities and Differences in the Tales
Both tales contain enough similarities to help us realize that there
may have been a common and real event behind both of these
stories.
And there were some striking differences. Both Baldr and Hodr have
conspicuously different characters. Instead of the mild, likable fellow
in Sturluson’s version, Baldr is a brutal warrior who will stop at
nothing to win in battle. The same thing can be said of Hodr. In this
tale, he is no longer the blind victim of Loki’s cruel entertainment, but
an equally cunning warrior.
It is quite likely that both stories leave out critical details. Ultimately,
we may never know the truth behind the myth.
In the next chapter, we look at some of the conflicts which make the
mythical stories so much more interesting. A story without conflict,
after all, is not much of a story.
Chapter 8—Conflict Between the Realms

It seems funny sometimes that we humans crave conflict. If a story is

devoid of quarrels or fighting, it proves boring to most audiences.
What would Roman conquest have been like if every tribe
encountered merely said, “Sure, we would love to serve Rome. How
much tribute do you want?” History would not have been as
interesting to most people. If a motion picture were to be made
without any conflict, it would certainly lose money, because people
would tell their friends how awful it was. A good story requires that
some good individual or group struggles against the bad. It has
always been this way.
Life on the edge of the wilderness was not easy. Acquiring sufficient
food was sometimes more than a little difficult. If one tribe ran out,
through mismanagement or natural disaster, they might want to steal
from another tribe nearby. Those who made a habit of stealing
learned to enjoy conquest and power over others. These became the
chieftains and later kings and emperors. A few of them were
relatively benign and enriched humanity with their wisdom. Most
were petty thugs who only took and never gave.
The idea of stealing from others has been with us for as long as
humans have been self-concerned—pretty much forever. Odin and
his three brothers attacked Ymir and built a new world from his giant
carcass. The other devourers (“giants”) did not like these intruders
and their selfishness.
The Vanir gods were peaceful agrarians, for the most part. They
were each responsible for one or another aspect of fertility. The Aesir
gods were considerably more warlike.
Rampant Selfishness
Freya, a Vanir goddess, was a skilled magician who could alter the
course of destiny. She was an accomplished practitioner in the art of
seidr. Like the human practitioners of Old Northern Europe, she went
from town to town, earning her keep with her talents. When, finally,
she reached Asgard, using the name Heidr (“bright”), she became a
favorite amongst the Aesir gods. Like some new drug, the gods
found themselves greedily lusting after more and more of her
services. This witch’s magic, however, was corrupting their morals.
They were losing control by giving into their basest desires. They
were turning away from honor, obedience and kin loyalty in order to
have more of her powerful work.
Rather than take responsibility for their own shortcomings, the Aesir
gods ended up blaming Freya. They called her “Gullveig” (“gold
greed”) and sought to murder her for tempting them so thoroughly.
Thrice they burned her alive, and thrice she rose from her own ashes
like the phoenix of Greek mythology.
The Aesir treachery made the Vanir gods fear and hate them. Not
long afterward, these bad feelings erupted into war. Each side in this
Aesir-Vanir war used the talents they had in abundance. The Aesir
used brute force and weapons of every kind. The Vanir, on the other
hand, used magic of every imaginable sort. Both sides suffered, and
each side alternately gained the upper hand, eventually losing it to
their enemy.
With such an evenly matched conflict, and no end in sight, both
sides became tired of the perpetual assaults and counter-assaults.
Eventually, they called a truce.
The ancient Norse culture and that of the other Germanic peoples
proscribed that each side should pay tribute to the other. The
customary tribute included hostages to live amongst the other’s tribe.
Freya, her brother Freyr and their father, Njörd, of the Vanir went to
the Aesir. Hoenir and Mímir went to the Vanir.
In some tales, Mímir is a giant who lived under the great world-tree,
Yggdrasil, jealously guarding his well of knowledge. But here, Mímir
is Aesir and a valuable part of the trade. As in the other stories,
Mímir possesses great wisdom.
Hoenir also seemed to have great wisdom, but only when Mímir was
around. When the Vanir discovered that Hoenir was an idiot, they felt
betrayed. Ironically, though, they cut off Mímir’s head and sent it
back to Asgard. Why they killed the source of wisdom, instead of the
pretender, Hoenir, remains a mystery.
In Asgard, Odin used his own magic to preserve Mímir’s head. From
then on, he frequently consulted the bodiless head for advice.
Despite this breakdown in civility, gross misunderstanding, and
misguided reaction, both sides were still weary of war. Instead of
resuming hostilities, each god came together to spit in a sacred
cauldron. Together, their spittle formed an entirely new creature
called Kvasir—the wisest being of all time. Through this new being,
their mutual pledge of harmony was kept.
Binding Fenrir
One of the sons of Loki was the fearsome wolf Fenrir. All three of his
children by the giantess Angrboda were huge and threatening. And
each one of them was ultimately banished to a location where they
could do little harm. Hel was sent to the underworld to guard the
dead. They tossed Jomungand into the oceans of Midgard. At first,
however, the gods felt it best to keep the young wolf pup nearby so
they could keep a watchful eye on it. To their surprise, however,
Fenrir grew in size at a frightening pace. Very soon, they all had
changed their mind. Allowing the wolf to roam free in Asgard would
likely have led to devastation.
The gods of Asgard attempted to bind Fenrir with one chain after
another. With each attempt, they received the wolf’s permission with
the lie that these were merely tests of the wolf’s strength. To keep up
the ruse, the gods would clap and cheer each time Fenrir easily
broke free.
In desperation, the gods dispatched a messenger to the realm of the
dwarves. As the foremost craftsmen, they should be able to produce
a chain capable of keeping the great wolf bound. These ingenious
dwarves of Svartalfheim forged a chain the strength of which even
Fenrir could not overcome.
They crafted the chain from several ingredients: the beard of a
woman, the roots of stones, the breath of a fish, the sound of a cat’s
footsteps, and the spittle of a bird. Because these are things which
do not exist, struggling against them would prove futile. This clever
creation of theirs they called Gleipnir (“open”).
When Fenrir saw Gleipnir, he grew suspicious. This chain was not
like the others in any way. It was strangely supple and light and the
wolf suspected some kind of deception. At the gods’ insistence,
Fenrir assented on the condition that one of the gods or goddesses
put their hand in his mouth as a show of good faith.
At first, no one dared do this. This grave risk was dangerous in two
ways. First, it meant the certain loss of a hand. The intention was to
bind Fenrir. If it worked, Fenrir would retaliate by chomping off the
hand of the luckless god who might agree to do such a thing.
Second, anyone who pledged on their honor that the intention with
the chain was one merely of testing Fenrir’s strength would be seen
as a liar and oath-breaker. Both of these were reasons for great
shame and marks of incompetence. Who would follow a god into
battle who could not properly wield a broadsword? And who would
follow a god whose oath could not be trusted?
The god Tyr saw the moral ambiguity of this predicament. He
realized that if no one met this challenge, then they would all be
guilty of cowardice and of allowing a wild beast to wreck havoc on
their world. His was a brave self-sacrifice when he stepped forward
and assured Fenrir that their intentions were honorable. He placed
his hand in Fenrir’s mouth, and promptly, the other gods bound the
creature. When Fenrir could not break free, he bit down and severed
Tyr’s hand.
Binding Loki
After Loki had orchestrated Baldr’s death and prevented his release
from Helheim, he grew bolder in his disdain for his adopted brethren.
He had never been liked much for all the harm he had done in the
past. More often, his actions had been burdensome rather than
helpful. When Loki began insulting the other gods at every occasion,
his welcome was worn exceedingly thin. Finally, all the Aesir gods
agreed to capture him, but Loki discovered their plans.
He escaped and traveled far from Asgard. At a distant mountain, he
built a house with a door on each wall so he could see the approach
from each direction. During the day, he swam in the stream as a
salmon and found a remote spot under a waterfall. At night, he would
weave a net for fishing so he would have something to eat.
Odin saw where Loki had gone, but before the gods could get there,
Loki threw his net in the fire and returned to the stream as a salmon.
Even so, the prankster god had left too many clues. The other gods
deduced that Loki had changed himself into a fish and fashioned
their own net. A number of times they cast their net into the stream,
but Loki barely escaped. Then, Loki, feeling crowded by the gods,
took one desperate leap downstream so he might escape to the sea.
But Thor, with his quick reflexes, snatched the fish in mid-air.
From there, the gods took Loki in his human-like form to a cave.
There, they brought two of Loki’s minor sons and forced one into the
form of a wolf which promptly attacked the other son, drawing out his
entrails onto the floor of the cave. From the entrails, the gods
fashioned chains which were turned to iron. Giantess Skadi placed a
venomous snake on the rock above Loki’s head. From there it
dripped poison onto the trickster god’s face. But Sigyn, Loki’s faithful
wife, took a seat by his side holding a bowl to catch the venom
before it could strike her husband. Yet, when the bowl became full,
Sigyn had to leave in order to empty it. Each time venom struck
Loki’s face, he would thrash violently and this would cause
earthquakes in Midgard.
Ragnarök—A Time of Doom and New Beginnings
A great deal of ill will had developed between the Aesir gods and
Loki’s family. His daughter, Hel, had refused to release Baldr from
her realm in the underworld. Both of his sons, Jormungand and
Fenrir had made nuisances of themselves, threatening the stability of
the Nine Realms.
But when Ragnarök arrived, both Loki and Fenrir broke free of their
bounds, and Jormungand broke free from the oceans of Midgard.
Surt was a fire giant from Muspelheim and he led the way against
the Aesir and Vanir gods. Behind him were thousands of giants and
other creatures of chaos.
Nidhogg, one of the great serpents which had gnawed at the roots of
Yggdrasil, flew out from under the great World-Tree to come to the
giants’ aid.
Heimdall saw the approaching army of giants and sounded the
alarm. Up from Valhalla, the army of dead heroes swarmed to
Asgard’s aid.
Wielding his burning sword, Surt cut through the sky and mountains
with ease. He ended up fighting Freyr and, in the end, they killed
each other.
Jormungand, the great Midgard Serpent, and one of Loki’s sons,
battled with Thor and they killed each other.
Fenrir devoured Odin, king of the Norse gods.
Next, the story of Ragnarök told that Tyr was killed by a great wolf
named Garm. But because Tyr had tricked Fenrir into being bound, it
seems that Garm may have been another name for Fenrir. The great
wolf killed Tyr, and then was himself killed by Vidar, one of Odin’s
sons.
Two other wolves—Skoll and Hati—who had chased Sol and Mani
(sun and moon) in vain for eons, now had their hopes renewed for
devouring the heavenly bodies. At Ragnarök, these two caught their
victims and the sky grew dark.
Heimdall and Loki battled and slew one another.
Afterward, the world sank into utter darkness and silence. Then,
gradually the land and light returned as Baldr returned from Helheim.
A new man and woman, Lif and Lifthrasir—both humans—took their
first breaths in a newly green world. And ultimately, the gods
returned and continued their joyful merrymaking.
The following chapters brings us back to the present, relating how
Norse mythology has influenced our culture. First, we look at the
days of the week.
Chapter 9—English Days of the Week

In the English language, the days of the week remain a complicated

mishmash of Norse, Roman and English names.
Sunday, of course, refers to the sun.
Monday is easy enough to parse. It celebrates the Moon. So, it is our
Moon day.
Tuesday is where we turn to Norse traditions. This is Tiw’s day. Tiw
is the Old English version of Tyr, the god who had sacrificed his hand
in order to trick Fenrir into being bound by the magic cord, Gleipnir.
Wednesday is more difficult to parse. This is Odin’s day, based on
one of his many alternate names—Woden. So, this is Woden’s day,
in the middle of the week—hump day—the high point.
Thursday, of course, is easy. This is Thor’s day—for the god of
thunder, lightening and storms.
Friday is Freya’s day or Frigg’s day.
Saturday is the Roman contribution to the lot. This is Saturn’s day—
Roman god of the harvest, equivalent to the Greek Cronus. It’s
interesting to note that in Spanish, the day is called sabado, or
Sabbath.
In the last chapter, we see how popular culture has been enriched
with Norse mythology.
Chapter 10—Popular Culture and Norse
Mythology

In the mid-to-late 1800s, German composer Richard Wagner created

Der Ring des Nibelungen, a four-opera cycle which celebrated Norse
mythology. The Ring cycle included:
• Das Rheingold (The Rhinegold)
• Die Walküre (The Valkyrie)
• Sigfried
• Götterdämmerung (Twilight of the Gods)
In 1954, science fiction writer, Poul Anderson wrote The Broken
Sword, a story which featured a great many Norse gods, trolls and
elves.
J.R.R. Tolkien’s works of fantasy, The Hobbit, The Lord of the Rings
(1955) and The Silmarillion (1977), were heavily influenced by Norse
mythology, including magical runes, dwarves, elves, and trolls.
In 1962, comic book readers were treated to a new hero called Thor.
Stan Lee, Larry Lieber and Jack Kirby’s recreation of the ancient
Norse god became a mainstay of comic book fans for decades.
Later, their version of the god of thunder found his way into the
movies with Thor (2011), The Avengers (2012), Thor: The Dark
World (2013) and Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015). A new addition to
this series is already in the works, called, Thor: Ragnarok (2017).
In the late 60s, science fiction writer, John Dalmas created a future
Norse mythology with his story, “The Yngling.” Several books have
followed in that same universe.
The Stargate television series frequently featured a race of aliens
called the Asgard, one of whom was named Thor. A small faction of
the Asgard were called the Vanir.
Even the Harry Potter books of J. K. Rowling included references to
Norse mythology, like the Death Eater Thorfinn Rowle, and werewolf
Fenrir Greyback.
In 2014, a science fiction anthology by Carl Martin called, Entropy’s
Children, included a tale of historical science fiction about Odin who
had been known as a young boy by the name of Olen Efel-Tosk. The
story took place in the prehistoric era after the melting of most of the
ice from Northern Europe.
Television’s Game of Thrones also has Norse influences in its
fictional world.
There are hundreds of other examples, too many to include in this
small book. But it remains clear that the Norse gods are here to stay.
Their influence has not died.
Conclusion

I hope this manuscript was able to help you to appreciate and enjoy
the rich stories of Norse mythology.
If you have enjoyed this part, would you please consider leaving a
review for this individual book on Amazon?
Click here to leave a review for this book.
 Part 4: Celtic Mythology
A Captivating Guide to the Gods,
Sagas and Beliefs
Introduction
The Celts were a people who lived throughout central Europe from
about the 500s BC to the AD 700s. The exact origins of their culture
and of their extent at any one time is unknown. There is some
evidence they existed in Eastern Europe, the Balkans, and even in
central Anatolia (modern-day Turkey). We also have evidence they
inhabited Ireland and western Iberia.
Besides being called Celts by modern scholars, the peoples were
called many other names. Those living in what is modern France,
and who spilled over into western Germany and northern Italy, were
called Gauls and their language and beliefs called “Gallic.” The Irish
Celts were called Gaels, and their culture called “Gaelic.” The people
were also called Milesians.
Very little is known directly from the Celts themselves. Almost
everything we know about them comes from their enemies, and
those people had little motivation to portray the Celts in a favorable
light. Did the Celts believe in human sacrifice? Quite simply, we don't
know. Julius Caesar said they did. Cicero, Suetonius, and Lucan
also suggested this was true. But too often an enemy will say bad
things about their foe to justify anything they may wish to do to them.
They will demonize a people so their troops will be galvanized to win
against them no matter what it takes.
The Roman emperors Tiberius and Claudius outlawed the practice of
human sacrifice, so there may be some validity to the claims. Yet,
those emperors could merely have been reacting to rumors instead
of hard evidence. We simply do not know for certain.
We know the Celts had many strange practices — strange to us, that
is. For instance, they would proudly display the heads of their
enemies after chopping them off. They had religious leaders, called
Druids, who supposedly had magical powers.
We also know when the Celts of Gaul were conquered, they retained
some of their culture, but it became heavily mixed with the social
customs and beliefs of the Romans. So, deciphering what were pure
Celtic beliefs remains a difficult task.
The Celts had numerous gods which the writers of other cultures
frequently associated with their own pantheons. But we also know
the Celts revered nature and may very well have started as animists.
According to the Cambridge dictionary, animism means, “the belief
that all natural things, such as plants, animals, rocks, and thunder,
have spirits and can influence human events.”
We will explore the various aspects of Celtic gods, sagas and
beliefs, gaining a general overall picture of their culture. We’ll
attempt to bring some of their stories to life so all the details are
more than merely a bunch of dry facts. We will enter their world and
recreate it in as much detail as possible, from the little bit we know
for certain, combined with ancillary facts from the various sciences.
Meteorologically, for example, we know, for instance, the Celtic
culture first made itself known to us about the middle of a relatively
cool period between the Minoan Warm Period, circa 1000 BC, and
the Roman Warm Period, circa AD 1. That cool period was
somewhat warmer than our current Modern Warm Period, despite
what you may have heard from the popular press and some political
organizations. This means there was a relatively moderate level of
prosperity for almost everyone, including the Celts. There were two
very brief periods when the climate cooled down to the level of our
modern warmth, according to the Greenland ice core temperature
proxies. These may have stimulated migration, especially if the
relative prosperity had allowed their core culture to expand beyond
the home environment’s ability to support their growing numbers.
At their greatest extent, about 275 BC, the climate was already well
above the warmth of the Medieval Warm Period and well on its way
to the heady prosperity of the Roman Warm Period. Still, it was
nothing like the earlier Minoan Warm Period. From that relative high
point, global climate has experienced a strong cooling trend ever
since, down to today. So, it was within the “foothills of warmth” that
the Celts expanded across all of Europe.
At the Celt’s greatest extent, the Romans had not yet expanded
beyond the Italian peninsula. Rome’s Punic Wars were not to start
for another decade or so. The Celts possessed what is today
northern Italy and most of France. And it is in this region that we are
able to gain many of our most significant insights into the world of
the Celts.
What’s Ahead in the Manuscript
In the first chapter, we tackle the Celtic love of nature and their
relationship with the trees, lakes, mountains and other elements of
the natural world. We’ll gain an understanding why Celtic culture has
become so popular in our modern world. More people are returning
to nature and a more natural way of doing things, so this makes a
knowledge of all things Celtic even more attractive.
In the second chapter, we’ll look at the universal gods of Celtic
religion. Though these may have come after their period of animism
(simple, yet spiritual reverence for the elements of nature), these
gods and goddesses were common enough across all Celtic cultures
to give us a cohesive ingredient that unifies our understanding of
their society.
Next, in chapter three, we will look at local Irish gods and, perhaps,
gain a greater appreciation for Ireland and its culture. We’ll peer into
the fascinating and frequently dangerous world of Gaelic rivalries.
We will learn how several waves of invasions had beset the Emerald
Isle with wars, death, and renewal. We will learn of the early gods of
darkness and light and how they sometimes negotiated an uneasy
peace.
In chapter four, we explore the nature of the Gallic gods that ruled
over the enemies of Julius Caesar. We will even relive a semi-
historical event which led one Roman tribune to gain a healthy
respect for one of the Celtic goddesses — a female divinity whose
name meant “battle crow.”
In chapter five, we learn of the conniving female ruler Medb, who
chose many husbands to serve on the throne of Connacht with her.
And then we explore the Celtic sagas, starting with The Mythological
Cycle of Celtic legend. Then, we touch on The Ulster Cycle, followed
by The Fenian Cycle, ending with The Cycles of the Kings, also
known as the Historical Cycle.
In chapter six, we peer into the dark realm of animal and human
sacrifice. Though we don’t know much about this and its validity,
we’ll expand on what is known to see if we can make sense of the
legends.
Chapter seven covers the Celtic belief in reincarnation — a belief
that many who have not studied history seem to think belongs only in
Eastern philosophy. But no, even Julius Caesar marveled at their
strong belief in the immortal soul and its ability to return to this world
in another human form.
Chapter eight enters the mysterious world of Celtic matriarchy — the
controversial topic of female rule.
With each chapter, we take a fanciful glimpse into the very personal
world of the Celts. Each narrative attempt to help us understand the
Celtic viewpoint and why their beliefs held such powerful relevance
in their society.
Thanks for your interest in Celtic mythology and their gods, sagas
and beliefs. Now, let us start that exploration.
Chapter 1 — Celtic Animism
Bradán made his way down to the stream, carrying a spear in one
hand and clutching the brush with the other to keep himself from
slipping. Behind him, Mochán and Cadeyrn followed. At a level area
next to the stream, Bradán stopped and squatted, bowing his head.
With eyes closed, he reached into his pouch and withdrew a wand.
The younger men joined their middle-aged leader, also squatting and
bowing their heads in reverence. The bright summer sun warmed
their shoulders as they prayed.
“Sruth suthain,” he said softly, extending the wand toward the
stream. The words meant “stream eternal.”
“Sruth suthain,” the other two repeated.
“Blessed be thy sacred waters,” continued Bradán, “for they sanctify
the land. Please bless our efforts to take from your bounty so that we
may find sustenance for life.”
They did not have a Druid with them to make their actions holy, so
they did the next best thing — performing the ritual as best they
could to keep a balance with nature.
Bradán kept his head bowed in silence for nearly a minute longer.
Several times, Mochán, the youngest of the three at 13 seasons,
peeked up at their leader to see if he was done. To him, Bradán
looked old, though he was only 35. The other man was a visitor from
the continent and only 21.
Éiru was rich with forests and streams. Some of the ancient tales
spoke of a time when the seas were far lower and the island had
been part of the continent. During those times, a great ice wall had
been rapidly receding from the land, making way for the coming of
man.
The earliest inhabitants were kindred of the Euskara to the south, on
the continental peninsula. They had heard these things, but only
dimly understood what they meant. They had also heard of a time
when their Druids could perform magic, communing with the trees—
the oak, ash, apple, hazel, alder, elder and yew. They could also
connect to the mountains, lakes, and streams in a way that had
become forgotten.
At times, Bradán felt awkward performing the prayers before a hunt.
He knew it was the right thing to do, but he almost always feared he
might be doing it all wrong. Many times in the past, while watching
the Druids perform these rites, he had sensed their own lack of faith
as they mechanically performed by rote the prayers their society
required of them.
Finally, he opened his eyes, saw Mochán glancing at him. The older
man smiled back at the young one.
“Your nephew tells me we’re not far,” said Cadeyrn.
Bradán nodded. “Less than a day.”
“And it’s near a sacred hill?”
Again, Bradán nodded. “Cnoc na Teamhrach, what some call ‘the Hill
of Tara.’ But now let us descend into silence, otherwise our prayer is
for naught.”
At that, Bradán rose and entered the stream slowly, moving one foot
and then the next, inching toward the rocks where a fish might be
sunning itself. He spotted one and raised his spear, gauging the
water for its diffraction.
Suddenly, he lunged forward, driving the sharp, wooden stick into the
fish, bringing it up, flailing on its pointed end.
Mochán shrieked with delight. Bradán had speared his favorite kind
of fish.
Bradán threw him a glare that quickly subdued the youngster’s
enthusiasm. The leader moved the fish closer and, with his other
hand, grasped the dying creature, forcing it more securely down the
shaft. Then he held it aloft and said, “It is done. Sruth noíbaid íasco.”
The words meant, “the stream sanctifies the fish.” He nodded his
head for another brief prayer and then turned back to the other two.
“Let us in all humility prepare this fish to feed our bodies. May we
thank both the stream and the fish for their contribution.”
“Yes!” said Mochán with renewed excitement. “Firewood?”
Bradán smiled and nodded.
Cadeyrn chuckled at the boy’s strong emotion. “Reminds me of my
sister’s boy, back in Gaul.”
“Yes, and they also live at Avara Cathair?”
“The very same town. And are there any towns on Éiru?”
“None like yours. All of our settlements are crude by comparison —
thatch, mud, and rough stones.”
“But your hill is sacred.”
“Yes,” said Bradán and took a deep breath. “Our Druids say it is the
most sacred hill on the entire island. Our greatest kings are
sanctified there. The spirit of the hill is strong.”
“I look forward to being there,” replied Cadeyrn.
Moments later, the two men heard Mochán return with a loud
“Whoop!”
He had returned with an arm full of dry twigs and branches, but had
slipped and sat squarely on his back end with a startled look in his
eyes.
Both men roared with laughter at the comical sight.
Characters and Name Meanings
Cadeyrn (male name meaning “battle king.” Ancient Celtic)
Bradán (male name meaning “salmon.” Ancient Irish)
Mochán (male name meaning “little early one.” Ancient Irish)

Reverence for the Spirits

Celtic culture held the natural world in high regard. After all, nature
was powerful, mysterious, and vitally important for their survival. Like
so many other cultures of the ancient and primitive worlds, they
attempted to understand the forces of nature and to control or
perhaps appease them.
These people remained confident that they could gain a rapport with
the spirits of nature. This way, they could increase the chances of
their own survival.
Through rituals and offerings, the humans could acquire the proper
balance with nature so selfishness — the spirit of ego — would not
pollute their future with disaster. Every supernatural force needed to
be appeased. This required proper humility, which is the opposite of
egoism. Each Celtic citizen knew that spirit was interwoven with the
material world, much as the spirit of man is interwoven with his
mortal body.
For the Celts, a separate spirit possessed every rocky outcrop,
marsh, bog, spring, river, tree, and mountain.
Unlike the polytheistic religions of the Etruscans, Greeks and
Romans, Celtic culture was rural and animistic. Those other cultures
were urban with anthropomorphic gods and goddesses, as well as
other physical, god-like monsters. To the Celts, the spirit was non-
physical, but it had its own affinities for the physical aspects of the
material world.
Certain locations were considered sacred and imbued with powerful
spirits. Such locations were considered to be sanctuaries, safe from
the more brutal realities of the physical realm.
From time to time, Celtic people would make offerings to the spirits
of a place, depositing their foodstuffs, weapons, jewelry, or other
valuables in specially designated pits or bodies of water. Each
donation connected the person to the land in a way that made the
person and the spirit responsible for each other.
Water spirits were considered powerful for their ability to connect this
world with the realm of spirit — the “other world” of the dead, and
those waiting to be reborn into this world. Water was a giver of life.
Natural springs from which rivers were born were revered by
healers.
The Celts also deeply respected the wind, rain, and thunder.
From the animal kingdom, Celts deeply respected and admired
animals for their traits and skills. Dogs were good in the hunt, snakes
could shed their skin and thus be reborn, and beavers were experts
building with wood.
Hunting spirits were viewed by the Celts not so much as helpers in a
successful hunt, but arbiters who kept a balance between man and
the animal kingdom. In some respects, this is exactly what the Greek
goddesses Diana and Artemis did in their culture. A Celtic hunter
would never go hunting without the permission of the appropriate
spirit.
Chapter 2 — Universal Celtic Gods
Boudicca wiped her upper lip with the back of her hand. Exertion and
the hot, summer day had her sweating profusely. She lightly touched
the gold torc wrapped around her neck — a symbol of royal authority
amongst her people. The rigid neck ring was intricately decorated
with symbols representing the spirits. On the front of her torc, where
the two ends met, one end was embossed with the tiny image of
three women — the máthair or matronae. The other end had
embossed a tiny image of Epona, the horse goddess, and goddess
of fertility.
As a middle-aged woman of noble birth, she might not otherwise
have been leading a hundred thousand of her own people, the Iceni,
along with the Trinovantes and others.
But here she was, fighting to restore the birthright of her two
daughters who had been cheated by the patriarchal Romans and
their laws that said women could not inherit.
She had already killed thousands of them at Camulodunum, at a
place that would one day be called Colchester. Now, she and her
men were heading toward the relatively new settlement of Londinium
— what would one day become known as London. Now, they had
happened upon a patrol of Roman soldiers.
She looked back as she heard the others approach. The old man
was Haerviu — a little too old to live up to his name of “battle
worthy.” It was doubtful that he would survive the coming fight.
Lugubelenus was a brash young man who had already made several
advances against one of her daughters, and fancied himself to be a
leader, apparently trying to live up to his own name.
Teutorigos was the last to arrive. His name meant “ruler of the
people,” and he had great potential for that, but lacked any interest in
such things.
“By Epona,” she whispered loudly. “You’re all late. The Romans are
starting to leave.”
“Perhaps we should let them,” replied Teutorigos quietly. “Do we
really want to fight with them, here?”
“They keep offending the gods,” said Haerviu. “building their roads
and monstrous structures in the middle of sacred places. Besides,
they are thieves who cheated the two princesses out of their
inheritance.”
“Yes, well, the gods should be able to take care of such assaults on
their own.” Lugubelenus, glanced at Boudicca and lifted his chin a
bit.
“This is not the time for discussion,” replied Boudicca. “Yes, they
keep doing those things, but this is about them not honoring their
commitment to my late husband and to our tradition that allows
women — my daughters, damn it! — to receive their inheritance.”
“May Cernunnos guide us,” said Haerviu. “We don’t do these things
for our own selfish needs, but for the greater good of the natural
world, of which we are a part.”
“Well said, Haerviu,” replied Boudicca. “May the three mothers
protect us in what we are about to do.”
“But when do we attack?” asked Teutorigos.
Boudicca flashed him a wily grin. “Now!”
Characters and Name Meanings
Boudicca (female name meaning “victory” in ancient Celtic). She was
a Celtic queen of Britain.
Haerviu (male name meaning “battle worthy.” A Breton form of
Harvey).
Lugubelenus (male name possibly meaning “leader.” Ancient Celtic,
possibly an older form of the Welsh name Llywelyn).
Teutorigos (a male name meaning, “ruler of the people.” Ancient
Celtic, older form of Tudor).
The Most Widely Known Celtic Gods and
Goddess
Over time, and with increased associations with the Etruscans,
Phoenicians, Ancient Greeks, and later Romans, the Celts grew to
“materialize” their spirits into more anthropomorphic gods and
goddesses.
Not all the gods and goddesses mentioned here were known
throughout the Celtic world. Those mentioned in this chapter were at
least considered “supra-regional” — worshipped across more than
one region. This meant that they were more popular. And since a
lack of evidence never proves they were unknown in other regions,
we may one day discover evidence that some or all of these were
even more widely known.
Across most of the Celtic world, the Matres and Matronae were
worshipped throughout the period of the Roman Empire. Almost
always, they were depicted on altars and votive offerings as a group
of three goddesses — the “mother” goddesses. These divine beings
were similar in some respects to the dísir and the Valkyries of Norse
mythology, and the Fates of Greek mythology. Dea Matrona means
“divine mother goddess” and this name was sometimes used in
place of Matres and Matronae. Dea Matrona was also the source
name for the river Marne in Gaul.
Toutatis (also Teutates) was considered to have been a tribal
protector for the Celts of Gaul and Britain. In Roman Britain, finger
rings with the initials “TOT” were common, and were thought to refer
to the god Toutatis. Some scholars think the Romans associated
Toutatis with their own god, Mercury. In fact, Julius Caesar said
Mercury was the Celts’ most esteemed god and that images of him
were to be found throughout the Celtic territory. To the Celtic
“Mercury” were attributed the functions of “inventor of all the arts,”
protector of merchants and travelers, and the preeminent god for
everything concerning commercial gain. Toutatis could have been
one aspect of a triune god named Lugus.
Caesar also mentioned the Celts of Gaul paid homage to Apollo
because he rid them of disease. They honored Mars, who ruled over
all the things of war. They revered Jupiter, who oversaw the
heavens. And they honored Minerva, who remained patroness of
handicrafts. Julius Caesar also mentioned that the Celtic Gauls all
claimed to be descended from Dīs Pater, which was a Roman god of
the underworld. Likely what he meant was the Gauls claimed to be
from a god who resembled Dīs Pater in some way — perhaps a
subterranean god associated with prosperity and fertility.
Alaunus was a god of healing and prophecy, which were two traits
of Apollo (both as a Greek and Roman god).
Alisanos may have been a mountain god, or may have been related
to the alder tree.
Andarta was a warrior goddess with evidence of her worship in
Bern, Switzerland and in southern France.
Anextiomarus (female form, Anextiomara) has been associated
with the Roman god Apollo, with dedications found throughout
France and Switzerland.
Artio was a bear goddess. Her worship was centered around Bern,
Switzerland.
Aveta was a mother goddess worshipped across a region which
included parts of France, Germany and Switzerland.
Belenus was a sun god, associated with horses, and thought to ride
across the sky in a horse-drawn chariot, pulling the sun along with it.
His consort was thought to be the Celtic goddess Belisama,
frequently associated with Minerva.
Borvo was a god involved in healing, minerals and bubbling spring
water. Whenever associated with a Roman god, Borvo was always
paired with Apollo.
The Celtic goddess Brigantia was associated with Roman Victoria
and remains a cognate with Irish Brigit.
Camulus was another Celtic god associated with Mars. In one stone
carving, he is portrayed with a wreath of oak. In another location, he
was shown with a ram head wearing horns. His name may have
been the basis of Camelot — the legendary city of King Arthur fame.
Cathubodua was a Celtic goddess and possible cognate of the Irish
Babd Catha. Her name meant “battle crow.” Several goddesses
share the same root, which means either “victory” or “fighting.”
Because of this, she would be comparable to goddesses in other
cultures—Victoria (Roman), Nike (Greek) and Sigyn (Norse).
Cernunnos was a horned god of life, fertility, wealth, animals, and
the realm of the underworld. He is shown with stag antlers,
sometimes carrying a coin purse. Most of the time he is seen seated
cross-legged. He is also shown wearing torcs or holding them in his
hands.
Cicolluis was the “Great-Breasted” god of strength, associated with
Mars. This god has sometimes been associated with Cichol
Gricenchos of Irish Celtic myth.
Cissonius is yet another Celtic god associated with Mercury. In fact,
he is second only to Visucius in such associations. In attempting to
understand his name, linguists have interpreted it as meaning
“carriage-driver” or “courageous.” From this, they suspect that he
was a patron of trade and the protector of those who traveled. Thus,
the association with Mercury seems to be a good fit. There is also a
minor note of a goddess named Cissonia, but the relationship to this
god is unknown.
Condatis — a name which means “waters meet” — is a Celtic god
related to rivers, especially where they come together. He is
associated with Roman god Mars, likely through his divine healing
powers.
Damona is a Celtic goddess. According to one scholar, her name
means “divine cow” — from Celtic “damos” which means “cow.” In
two different regions, she is seen with a divine consort — Apollo
Borvo in one, and Apollo Moritasgus in another.
Epona was a goddess of fertility, plus a protector of horses, ponies,
donkeys, and mules. She was one of the most widely worshipped
Celtic deities. Some scholars feel she may have been associated
with the dead, leading them to the “otherworld” on a pony. Evidence
of her worship has been found in Britain, throughout Gaul, modern
Germany, and the Roman provinces of the River Danube. One
inscription in Germany was made by someone from the region of
ancient Syria.
Erecura (also spelled Aerecura) a Celtic goddess associated with
the Roman goddess of the underworld, Proserpina (also known in
Greek as Persophone). Evidence of her worship has been found in
modern Belgium, southeastern France, southwestern Germany,
eastern Austria, northeastern Italy, and central Romania. Along with
her symbols of the underworld, she is frequently seen with a
cornucopia or an apple basket — symbols of fertility. Though the
Celts revered this goddess across a broad territory, scholars doubt
the name was Celtic in origin. One researcher suggested the name
was Illyrian in origin.
Esus (also spelled Hesus and Aisus) is a Celtic god. He was
depicted cutting branches from a willow tree with his blade. One
intellectual suggests that his name derives from the Indo-European
root for “well-being, passion and energy.” The willow tree may
represent the “Tree of Life.” He could have been one part of a triune
god, Lugus.
Grannus was a Celtic god of spas — healing mineral and thermal
springs. He was also associated with the sun, and thus frequently
associated with Apollo as Apollo Grannus. His worship was also
frequently associated with the Celtic god Sirona and sometimes the
Roman god Mars. Perhaps the most famous center for worshipping
Grannus can be found near the modern city of Aachen, Germany,
that country’s westernmost municipality. In ancient times, the hot
springs there was called Aquae Granni. Roman Emperor Caracalla
(AD 188–217) was said to have visited there with votive offerings
and prayers to be healed.
Ialonus Contrebis (or Ialonus and Gontrebis) was either a Celtic
god or two gods. The first part — Ialonus — seems to come from a
root meaning “clearing.”
Lenus was the Celtic god of healing, frequently associated with the
Roman god Mars. He was particularly important to the Treveri tribe in
what is now western Germany. Unlike most syncretized names
combining Celtic with Roman divinity, most inscriptions show “Lenus
Mars” rather than “Mars Lenus.” Quite often, he is pictured wearing a
Greek Corinthian helmet.
Litavis (also Litauis) was a Celtic goddess sometimes associated
with the Gallo-Roman syncretized god, Mars Cicolluis, suggesting
that she may have been his consort. Some scholars consider her to
be an earth goddess with a name derived from language roots
meaning “to spread out flat.”
Loucetios was a Celtic god whose name meant “lightning.” He was
invariably associated with Mars as Mars Loucetios, and frequently
associated with the goddess Gallic Nemetona or the Roman
goddess Victoria. He was known throughout the Rhine River Valley
region, from Austria and Switzerland, through German, France,
Liechtenstein and the Netherlands. Inscriptions to this god have also
been found in Angers, western France, and in Bath, England.
Lugus is a Celtic god whose name remains a cognate with the Irish
god Lugh. Though his name is rarely mentioned directly, his
importance is implied by the proliferation of place names which seem
to pay homage to him. His name seems to come from the Proto-
Indo-European roots “to break” and “to swear an oath.” A three-
headed image found in Paris and Reims was thought to represent
Lugus and also to be associated with the Roman god Mercury.
Linguists suggest his name was the basis for the following location
names:
Lugdunum (modern Lyon, France)
Loudun and Montluçon in France
Loudoun, Scotland
Dinlleu, Wales
Leiden, Netherlands
Lugones, Asturias, Spain
Legnica, Silesia
Lothian, Scotland
Luton, England
One scholar suggests Lugus was a triune god, as represented by the
three-headed image, representing Esus, Toutatis, and Taranis.
Maponos was a Celtic god with a name that meant “great son.” He
was equated with the Roman god Apollo.
Mogons was a Celtic god frequently adopted by common Roman
soldiers in Roman Britain and Gaul. Linguists suggest that its
meaning derives from roots for “effective” or “powerful,” and nothing
at all to do with the glorification of self.
Nantosuelta was a Celtic nature goddess of fire, earth, and fertility.
She was thought to have been part of the Irish Tuatha Dé Danann,
combined with Sucellus and subsequently with Dagda. Some
evidence suggests that hers was the name assumed by The
Morrígan after a joining of new alliances or a transformation. Her
name literally means, “sun-drenched valley” or “of winding stream.”
Ogmios was the Celtic god of persuasiveness. His name remains a
cognate with the Irish god Ogma. He is described as an older
version of Heracles, the Greek demigod of great strength. Like
Heracles, Ogmios wore a lion skin and carried a club and bow. This
Celtic god is made unique, though, by the chains that pierce his
tongue, from his smiling mouth, back to the ears of his happy
followers.
Ritona (also Pritona) was a Celtic goddess of “water crossings” or
“fords.” Her temples seemed to have more extras than do many of
the other gods — like courtyards which could easily have been used
for the placement of ritual offerings or the preparation of religious
banquets. Another such temple even had a theater, supposedly for
religious performances.
Rosmerta was a Celtic goddess of abundance and fertility. Quite
often, her image was found alongside the Roman god Mercury as if
she were his consort. She was worshipped from central France to
western Germany.
Segomo was a Celtic war god whose name meant “mighty one” or
“victor.” Naturally, he was associated with the Roman god, Mars, but
also with Hercules.
Sirona was a Celtic goddess venerated throughout Gaul, but also
worshipped as far east as the Danube River. She has been
associated with the Roman goddess, Diana.
Sucellus was a Celtic god frequently depicted with Nantosuelta. He
is usually seen carrying a large hammer or mallet, which could easily
have been a beer barrel on a long pole.
Suleviae was a group of Celtic goddesses whose name meant
“those who govern well.” This group was sometimes associated with
the Matres. In fact, one inscription starts out, “To the Sulevi
mothers...”
Taranis was a Celtic god of thunder. One curious coincidence ties
Taranis with the Greek cyclops Brontes (whose name meant
“thunder”), because both were associated with a wheel. Some
scholars suggest that Taranis was not so much a god of thunder as
he was actually thunder itself. His worship spanned a broad territory
including Gaul, Britain, parts of former Yugoslavia, and modern
Germany. Lucan, the Roman poet, called Taranis a “savage god”
who required human sacrifice. Taranis also remains a cognate with
the Irish god Tuirenn. Taranis could also have been part of a triune
god, Lugus. Because of his association with thunder or identity as
thunder, he was also associated with the Roman god Jupiter, the
Greek god Zeus, and the Norse god Thor.
The name, Virotutis, was a Celtic byname given the Roman god
Apollo. It meant, “benefactor of humanity.” Apollo Virotutis was
worshipped just south of Switzerland and in western France.
Visucius was a Celtic god whose name meant “knowledgeable” or
“of the ravens.” He was usually associated with the Roman god,
Mercury, and was worshipped from western Germany to northern
Spain.
Celtic and Gallo-Roman Religions
The Romans were no fools when they conquered a people. They
knew that those whom they conquered were emotionally attached to
their gods and their beliefs. So, the Romans encouraged their new
subjects to continue to worship their old gods, while suggesting that
the divine Roman names were merely alternatives of the Celtic
divine names.
Such an attitude was both political and pragmatic. The Celts got to
keep something that did not cost anything to the Roman Republic
and later Roman Empire, and Rome acquired subjects who were at
least nominally satisfied that they could keep something of their past.
Chapter 3 — Local Irish Celt Gods
Sunlight glistened on the River Erne. From their home on a small
island near the head of the river’s estuary, Lady Delgnat looked
down at her husband’s boat as it moved to the main shore. He would
be gone for days. Partholón was such a responsible king. He loved
his people and frequently traveled amongst their farms and dwellings
to ensure they were in good health.
Already she felt lonely. But her mind had been on a solution for
weeks. Ever since the royal household had acquired that handsome
young servant, Topa, she had been dreaming of the time when her
husband would leave.
When she was certain her husband was well on his way, she called
for the young servant to perform certain chores in her presence.
When he had worked up a sweat from his labors, she called him to
come close. She felt a tightness in her back and needed his strong
hands to massage the kinks out of her muscles. But soon, she had
him doing things only a husband should do.
All the while, Delgnat’s faithful dog, head cocked to one side, looked
on with a curious expression on its face.
The queen held up her finger to her mouth and looked into the dog’s
eyes. “Quiet, my little Saimer. You mustn’t speak of these things.”
Topa felt he had to do as his master’s wife had commanded him. Yet
he feared for what the master might do.
“Don’t worry about him,” she said. “He will never find out. When he
returns, I will be the loving wife, soothing his tired body — the way
you are soothing mine.”
“Yes, my lady. Can I do anything else for you?”
“Most certainly, my wonderful young Topa. You can hold me through
the night.”
“But how will we know when your husband returns?”
“I have the guard ready to alert me the moment they spot his boat
approaching our island. You have nothing to worry about.”
So, Delgnat and Topa enjoyed each other’s company for several
weeks. She knew he had never spent more than five weeks away at
any one time, but the length of each trip varied. And when the time of
her husband’s return approached, with each new day, she grew
more apprehensive.
To remove the tension from her growing worry, she thought of her
husband’s ale and how it helped to remove anxieties and inhibitions.
“Topa, my darling,” she said as they lay in bed after a particularly
energetic morning shared with her, “I think we need a bit more to add
to our bliss.”
“What would that be, my darling?”
“My husband’s ale would be nice.”
“But how?”
“I know all about it,” she replied. “He uses a special, golden tube to
suck out the glorious nectar.”
“Lovely! Show me this tube.”
Delgnat rose from the bed and crossed the room to a dark cabinet.
Within it was the massive jug of her husband’s ale. She found the
tube and affixed it, then took a deep swig, closing her eyes as she
swallowed.
“Here, you try,” she said.
Topa took the end of the golden tube and sucked on it until he had
the fluid squirting into his mouth. “Oh, my! That is good.”
The adulterous couple was careful not to drink too much each day,
but the ale helped Delgnat relax so she could enjoy her remaining
time with her servant.
On the third day, as they were laying in each other’s arms, they
heard a loud banging on the royal bedroom door.
“Quickly! Get dressed,” she told Topa. Then she pointed to the far
corner of the room, where a visitor would not be able to see. “Stand
over there.”
She put on her robe and quickly strode to the door. When Topa was
conveniently hidden, she opened the door enough to see who it was.
Sure enough, it was one of the guards.
“My lady, King Partholón is on his way home. The boat is but 15
minutes away.”
“Thank you, Galvyn.” She waved toward the far end of the hall in
dismissal, and closed the door.
Lady Delgnat turned back to Topa and rushed toward him. “Hold me
one more time. Kiss me.”
The servant complied.
And then Delgnat stepped back, straightening her robe. “Strip the
bed of its sheets. They are to be cleaned. Now, move along. From
this moment forth, you are once again a servant of this household.”
“Yes, my lady.” And Topa did as she instructed.
Another 30 minutes passed before Delgnat heard her husband’s
footsteps. She opened the door to greet him.
“Welcome home, husband.” She kissed him on the cheek and he let
out a ragged sigh.
“I’m tired, woman. It was a good trip, but I am glad to be home. Go
see to my meal. I’m hungry, but I also need to rest.”
She left for the kitchen to supervise the preparation of his meal.
In the meantime, he took off his travel clothes and donned
something clean. He would bathe later. He noticed in passing the
bed sheets had been removed and thought little of it. Cleaning them
was a normal enough event.
Then, he noticed the dark cabinet’s door was ajar. He had always
closed that door, to keep everything neat and orderly. But had he
forgotten? Had he been careless the last time he had partaken of his
ale? Or had the dog somehow knocked it open?
He shrugged and padded barefoot across the floor to open the
cabinet. A little ale would be so nice after such a long ride home.
He sat cross-legged in front of the cabinet and found the golden tube
which made it possible to extract the ale. His wife’s dog came close
and lay down next to him to watch. As he started to draw the liquid
into his mouth, he tasted something else from the tube.
For a moment, he sat there thinking about the aroma that came with
the smell of ale. There it was — it tasted like Delgnat’s lips. But there
was something else there, too. There was another aroma that was
less familiar, but not entirely strange.
Two people had been drinking from his ale.
Partholón’s eyes went wide! “In my bedroom? My ale?”
He glanced again at the naked bed and in his mind, he could see a
picture of his wife in the arms of another.
Again, he placed the golden tube in his mouth, but this time he did
not suck. He merely let the fragrances waft into his nose to be sorted
and cataloged. And then a face emerged — that of young Topa. He
had smelled the servant’s breath before when being served at the
dinner table.
For a long moment, he sat there feeling numb.
Slowly, he got up, found his boots and put them on. Then he went
out into the hall and asked the first guard for the location of Topa the
servant.
Down near the river, where the clothes were washed, Topa was
talking with the laundry maid. The young man looked up as
Partholón approached.
“Good day, my lord,” said Topa. His face was stiff, his lips tight
around a forced smile.
“Not good,” replied Partholón. “You’ve been spending time in my
bed.” The accusation was a bold move, he knew, but it exacted a
reaction which told him the truth.
Instead of a curious, puzzled look, Topa’s eyes went wide, his face
lost all its color and he started to shake.
Partholón’s face went from stern to that of a sardonic smile. In one
quick motion, Partholón reached out with his strong hands and
crushed the young man’s throat. Then he strode quickly to a nearby
guard at the dock and drew his sword. The king then turned back to
Topa, who was now goggle-eyed and struggling to breathe.
Immediately, the king began hacking at the young servant, driving
him down to the ground in a bloody pile of disheveled bones.
Then, the king strode back toward his home, climbing the stairs
toward his bedroom. The dog came to greet him and felt the king’s
boot full force. One quick swing of the sword split the dog’s skull and
the animal toppled over dead. At the sight of it, the king threw down
the sword and clenched both of his fists.
Moments later, Lady Delgnat returned to inform her husband the
meal would be ready shortly.
Instead, she saw the dog and grew deathly quiet.
“Yes, your damn dog. Be glad it isn’t you laying there.”
“Why?” Her voice quaked, but grew in strength. “Why did you need
to kill my dog? What did it do to you?”
“Oh, it’s not what it did, but what its master did. The bed sheets? The
ale? The taste of your lips and Topa’s breath?”
Delgnat’s eyes went wide. “What did you do?”
“You won’t be enjoying his arms anymore.”
“You monster!” She started to hit him, but he grabbed her wrists. “Did
you kill him, too?”
“You have no remorse for your betrayal?” he asked.
“Betrayal?” She jerked away from him, took two steps back and
glared at him, rubbing her wrists where he had held her tight.
“Betrayal? It’s all your fault. You were the one who left us alone. It
was like leaving honey before a woman. It was like leaving milk
before a cat, or edged tools before a craftsman. It was like leaving
meat before a hungry child. And you would expect them not to take
advantage?”
Partholón merely shook his head and left to find other
accommodations for the night.
From that day forth, the island where Partholón lived was called Inis
Saimera, after Dalgnat’s dog. For the king, the life had been taken
from his rule.
Characters and Name Meanings
Delgnat (Partholón’s cheating wife; unknown meaning)
Galvyn (male name meaning “sparrow;” Irish Celtic)
Partholón (leader of the second group to land in Ireland; unknown
meaning)
Saimer (Lady Delgnat’s dog; unknown meaning)
Topa (name of Partholón and Delgnat’s servant; unknown meaning)
Ancient Ireland, the Celtic Gods and Other Myths
As we’ve seen, history knows little of the Gallic Celts, except through
the writings of the Greeks and the Romans. Foreign prejudices have
likely colored those histories, distorting some things and very
possibly leaving out other details that could help us understand the
Celts more completely.
A similar influence has colored our understanding of Ancient Ireland
and its Celtic roots. That influence was the Christianization of
Ireland, starting with Palladius (Patrick the Elder) and others in the
early 5th century AD. Christianity’s hold on Ireland was essentially
complete by late in the 5th century, with the arrival of Pātricius (Saint
Patrick).
Christians had, by the 5th century, become highly political and
egoistic. Any writings that didn’t agree with their interpretation of
biblical sources were treated with disdain, if not outright contempt.
So, we learn about the early myths of Celtic gods and beliefs from
Christian writers, who might add a note that they had recorded these
details, but not because they believed in them.
One source claimed to give us the history of Ireland from the very
beginning of sentient contact with that land. The book is called Lebor
Gabála Érenn. The name translates as, “The Book of the Taking of
Ireland.” It contains a collection of prose and poetry, including
narratives about the long history. The earliest known version comes
to us from the 11th century — six centuries after the Christianization
of Ireland.
The stories describe six different, main incursions (conquests,
settlements) by beings who were either gods or legendary mortals,
though a seventh group is frequently discussed (the Fomorians).
The People of Cessair
According to Celtic lore, before the biblical Flood, Cessair, a
daughter of a supposed son of Noah named Bith, and his wife
Birren, set out on a quest to find a new home. Noah had told Bith
and his family to escape the coming Flood by traveling to the far
West. So, Bith and his extended family took three ships to Ireland, at
the western edge of the world. Two of the ships sank before reaching
landfall. Amongst the survivors, there were 50 women and three
men. The men were Bith, Fintán mac Bóchra, and Ladra. Cessair
was amongst the surviving women. So, the women chose primary
husbands, and then shared their husbands with the remaining
women equally. Cessair chose Fintán, Alba chose Ladra, and
Bairrfhind chose Bith.
Not long afterward, both Bith and Ladra died. That left Fintán to
service 50 women. He could not take the pressure, so he fled,
leaving the women all to themselves. When the flood finally came,
Fintán was the only one to survive by changing himself into a
salmon. Later, he became an eagle, and still later a hawk. He lived
for 5,500 years, finally turning back into a man who then told the
story of Ireland’s long history.
The Fomorians
Though the book does not discuss the arrival of the Fomorians,
numerous sources discuss a second group — Muintir Partholóin —
fighting the Fomorians and vanquishing them.
The Fomorians are described as a hideous and hostile group of
monsters or gods who represented all the harmful aspects of nature.
The next to last group of inhabitants — Tuatha Dé Danann — would
sometimes intermarry with the Fomorians. They even had children
with them. This complex relationship between the monstrous and the
sublime has been compared to the relationships between the Norse
jötnar and the Vanir (rustic gods) and even Aesir (refined gods).
The earliest named ruler of the Fomorians was named Cichol or
Cíocal Gricenchos. His people had arrived in Ireland 111 years after
the flood with 600 women and 200 men. The Fomorians were a
crude folk and lived for 200 years on fish and birds that they found in
the wild.
The Muintir Partholóin
The 9th-century tome, Historia Brittonum, describes the people of
Partholón (the name of their leader) as the first inhabitants of Ireland
— not the second or third.
But the book, Lebor Gabála Érenn, says that Partholón’s followers
brought with them many elements of civilization, including the plow,
domesticated animals, skills for house building, and the techniques
for brewing. After 10 years of coexistence, Partholón defeated Cichol
and his Fomoian people at the Battle of Mag Itha.
While Partholón was visiting his lands, his wife, Delgnat, seduced a
servant named Topa. However, when Partholón returned, he learned
of the affair and killed Topa and his wife’s dog. His wife remained
defiant, blaming her own sins on her husband’s absence.
The king lived for another 20 years after his defeat of the Fomorians.
Partholón’s people lived in Ireland for 270 years after the king’s
death. At that time, 5,000 men and 4,000 women succumbed to a
plague. Only one man survived — one of Partholón’s nephews
named Tuan, son of Starn. Like Fintán of the Cessair, Tuan went
through several animal transformations returning to human form as a
chieftain’s son named Cairell. And like Fintán, Cairell (Tuan) could
remember the history of Ireland, including his past life amongst the
people of Partholón.
The Muintir Nemid
Another of Partholón’s brothers, named Tait, was the great-
grandfather of Nemed, who was the next great immigrant to Ireland.
It was said that 44 ships sailed from the Caspian Sea to Ireland
(which is impossible, because the Caspian is a landlocked lake or
inland sea with no outlets to the oceans of the world). In fact, the
Caspian is 28 meters below sea level. If there was a connection,
water would be flowing into the Caspian Sea, making it almost
impossible to sail out, so long as the water continued to flow in an
attempt to reach equilibrium with the greater ocean sea level
beyond.
The myth tells us that only one ship arrived in Ireland, with Nemed,
his immediate family, and several others on board. During his time,
four lakes were said to have burst from the ground — Loch
Munremair in Luigne, Loch Annind, Loch Cál in Uí Nialláin, and Loch
Dairbrech in Mide. Nemed’s tribe cleared 12 plains, changing the
face of Ireland forever: Leccmag and Mag Moda in Munster; Mag
Tochair in Tír Eogain; Mag Macha in Airgíalla; Mag Selmne in Dál
nAraidi; Mag Cera, Mag Eba, Mag Cuile Tolaid and Mag Luirg in
Connacht; Mag Muirthemne in Brega; Mag Seired in Tethbae; and
Mag Bernsa in Leinster.
Nemed’s people also built two forts — Ráth Chindeich in Uí Nialláin
and Ráth Chimbaith in Semne. Incredibly, the four sons of Matan
Munremar—Boc, Ruibne, Roboc and Rotan—built Ráth Chindeich in
a single day. And for some reason, Nemed killed the boys before the
following dawn.
The mysterious Fomorians plagued Nemed and his people. The king
fought four battles with them and won each of them.
Ironically, though, Nemed and 3,000 of his people died only nine
years after their arrival. How so many people were born and matured
in nine years is never explained, but the remaining Muintir Nemid
struggled without their leader and were continually oppressed by the
Fomorians — the dark gods of pestilence and suffering.
Then, one day, 60,000 of the Muintir Nemid rose up and attacked the
Fomorians. Although they won their battle, one of the Fomorians
attacked with a tidal wave that killed all but one boat load of Nemed’s
people. The survivors spread out to other parts of the world, leaving
Ireland empty of men for another 200 years.
Fir Bolg
The Muintir Nemid who escaped to Greece became known as the Fir
Bolg. The name meant “men of bags”, which remains rather
enigmatic in origin. Some scholars have attempted to interpret the
meaning even more, linking “bag” to belly, bellows, sack or even
men “full” and “distended” with the fury of battle.
After moving to Ireland, they were ultimately displaced by the Tuatha
Dé Danann. Scholars R. A. Stewart Macalister and John Rhys
suggested that the Fir Bolg were really the Fomorians who
represented the gods of the dark side of nature, while the Tuath Dé
were the gods of “growth and civilization.”
The Tuatha Dé Danann
These gods of order brought a civilizing force to Ireland, paving the
way for the final inhabitants, the Gaelic Celts — the Milesians.
Their full name meant “the people or tribes of the goddess Danu.”
Their earlier name, Tuath Dé, simply meant “tribe of the gods.”
The Fir Bolg were like the rustic Vanir of Norse mythology, and the
Tuatha Dé Danann were like the more refined Aesir of the same
pantheon. As before, the Fomorians were like the jötnar — the
monstrous giants of Nordic myth, which include the evil Loki and his
wolf son, Fenrir.
The Tuath Dé dwelt in the Otherworld — the realm of spirit. Each of
their members was depicted as heroes, queens, or kings of the
distant past, shrouded in mystery beyond the edge of history.
According to Lebor Gabála Érenn, the Tuatha Dé Danann were
descendants of Nemed’s people. They came to Ireland riding in dark
clouds, and landing in the mountains of Ireland. Darkness covered
the face of the sun for three days. The Tuath Dé burned their ships
so there would be no thought of backing out of their decision to bring
order to Ireland.
They fought the Fir Bolg and then the Fomorians. Later, they fought
against the final wave of invaders — the Milesians.
The Milesians
The Milesians were Goidelic Celts from the Iberian Peninsula.
What’s interesting is that one genetic study found the present day
Irish have genetic ties to the Basques of northern Spain. Though the
Basques were not Celtic, they may have intermarried with the Iberian
Celts.
When the Milesians arrived in Ireland, they were confronted by the
Tuath Dé. War ensued and many were killed. Finally, both sides
agreed to divide Ireland. The Tuatha Dé Danann would take the
world below — the Otherworld of spirit — while the Milesians would
take the world above — the physical world.
Other Irish Celtic Gods
Unless otherwise stated, the following gods and goddesses were
members of the Tuatha Dé Danann.
Eochaid mac Eirc was the last High King of Ireland of the Fir Bolg.
He was the first to establish a system of justice, bringing relative
peace to the land. Throughout his ten-year rule, it never rained, but
instead, there was a soft mist of dew that watered the crops. After
each growing season, the harvests were bountiful.
When the Tuatha Dé Danann arrived, their king, Nuada Airgetlám,
asked for half of Ireland so they could share the land equally.
Naturally, the king of the Fir Bolg refused. So, a battle ensued.
During the fierce fighting, Eochaid was struck with a fearsome thirst
and he looked for water with which to quench it. But the Druids of the
Tuath Dé used their magic to mask all sources of drinking water.
While Eochaid frantically searched for water, the goddess Morrigan
found him and killed him.
Nuada Airgetlám had been king of the Tuath Dé for seven years
before arriving in Ireland. During battle, though, he lost one of his
hands. According to tradition, he could no longer be king, because
his body was no longer complete. The Tuatha Dé Danann won the
war against the Fir Bolg, and gave them one fourth of Ireland,
instead of the original suggestion of half. The new king of the Fir
Bolg chose Connacht as their kingdom.
But the new rulers of Ireland needed a new king. To promote peace
in the land, they selected a young god named Bres who was half-
Fomorian and half-Tuath Dé. They chose him because of his great
intellect and beauty.
Bres had been the son of Fomorian Prince Elatha and Tuath Dé
goddess Ériu. He had grown up quickly, becoming a mature young
man in only seven years. Not only was he made the king, but he also
married the daughter of The Dagda — the goddess Brighid.
Despite his great intellect, Bres did not possess great wisdom. He
favored the people of his father, a Fomorian. He ordered that the
Tuatha Dé Danann work as Fomorian slaves and to pay tribute to his
father’s people. Naturally, his mother and wife did not like this, and
the remainder of the Tuath Dé despised him for this.
Among the injustices, Bres forced Ogma to fetch firewood, the
Dagda was made to dig ditches around their forts., Bres also forgot
his manners when his subjects came calling upon their king.
Whenever the Tuath Dé visited his house, they expected their knives
to be greased and their breaths to end up stinking of ale when
leaving, but none of this happened.
During his seven years of rule, Nuada worked on getting his hand
back. At first, his natural hand was replaced with one of silver.
Afterward, a new hand of flesh and blood was grown, making the
former king whole again. Happily, the Tuath Dé restored Nuada as
king and forced Bres into exile. Nuada ruled successfully for another
20 years.
Bres begged his father to help him reclaim the throne, but Prince
Elatha refused, telling his son, “You have no right to get it by injustice
when you could not keep it by justice.”
Lugh was a young and hard working god who joined the court of
King Nuada. Lugh was so industrious and intelligent, Nuada realized
the young god would make a far better king. So, Nuada stepped
down and gave the throne to Lugh, who was half-brother to The
Dagda.
Seeking help from a Fomorian named Balor of the Evil Eye, Bres
tried to take back the throne by force, leading to all-out war in the
land. During the fighting, Nuada was slain and decapitated by Balor.
But Lugh found and killed the Fomorian of the Evil Eye. Late in the
war, Lugh found Bres on the battlefield unprotected, and the former
High King begged for his life. Lugh promised to spare the young god
if he would teach the Tuatha Dé Danann all he knew about
agriculture.
Lugh ruled Ireland as High King for a long and prosperous 40 years.
During his reign, he had several wives — Buí, Nás, Buach and
others. Buach committed adultery with Cermait, one of The Dagda’s
sons. In a jealous rage, Lugh killed Cermait. In return, Cermait’s
three sons —Mac Gréine, Mac Cecht and Mac Cuill — killed their
king by taking him down to Loch Lugborta and drowning him. The
Dagda restored his son, Cermait, with his magic staff.
The Dagda was a father figure amongst the local Irish gods,
comparable to Nordic Odin and to the pan-Celtic god, Sucellus. He
was not only a chieftain, but also a Druid. He was a god of
agriculture and fertility, as well as strength and manliness. He was
also associated with wisdom and magic. He exercised control over
weather, crops, the seasons, and even time itself. Accordingly, he
was said to hold the power over life and death in his hands.
The Dagda was a giant man who usually wore a cloak with a hood.
With him, he carried a magic staff called the lorg mór. One end of his
staff could instantly kill; the other could restore life.
He also carried a magic cauldron which could never be emptied, plus
a magic harp with which he could control the emotions of men.
Linguists have suggested his name comes from proto-Celtic roots
which mean, “the good god.” His common name was Eochaid
Ollathair.
After the death of King Lugh, The Dagda took the throne and ruled
for 80 long years, making him the longest ruling High King of the
Tuath Dé.
Ériu, Banba and Fódla were a triumvirate of Irish goddesses whose
names were given to the island. The names Banba and Fódla are
usually only used in poetry to refer to the land, and Ériu’s name is
considered the matron goddess of Ireland — Éire, which is the Irish
name for their land. Together, the three are considered the
goddesses of Irish sovereignty. As we’ve already seen, Ériu was the
mother of Bres — the very unpopular High King of Ireland.
Sionnan and Boann gave their names to the rivers Shannon and
Boyne. The stories of these two goddesses are also the tales of the
rivers themselves and how they were formed. The River Shannon is
the longest river in Ireland, dividing the country between East and
West, with little more than a couple of dozen crossing points.
In the stories of both goddesses, the women went to a well which
they were told to avoid. In the well, they each found the Salmon of
Wisdom. After catching and eating the fish, they each became the
wisest person of all. In each case, the well burst forth a flood of
water which swept the goddess out to sea, ending each of their lives,
but spreading the life-affirming magic of water across the land.
The Irish believe water is the source of life. It dissolves the divine
power and then transfers that power to the land.
Boann was The Dagda’s lover and she bore him a daughter named
Brighid.
The goddess Brighid has been linked to three Cloughtie wells or
springs — sacred places of pilgrimage. She became the wife of
Bres.
The Morrígan is a group of three divine sisters — Macha, Babd
Catha and Nemain — and was associated with the River Unius. The
name “Morrígan” meant “great queen.” The three together were
sometimes known as “the three Morrigna.” In the Ulster Cycle,
Morrígan was seen as merely an individual.
Donn is an Irish god of the dead. In modern Irish tradition, the notion
of “going to the House of Donn” merely means “to die.” The name
itself means “the dark one.”
When the Milesians were invading Ireland, Donn was amongst them.
As they neared the southwest coast, Donn spotted the goddess Ériu
just before his own death—drowning from a shipwreck. His body was
buried on a rocky island which became known as Tech Duinn
(“house of Donn”).
Ogma was one of the brothers of The Dagda. His name may have
been an alteration of the Gallic god Ogmios.
Ler was a god of the sea. He and Bobd Dearg became rivals for the
Tuath Dé throne, after the Milesians had won their battle against the
gods. In order to appease Ler, Bobd gave him one of his daughters.
She bore him four children. When the wife died unexpectedly, Bobd
offered another of his daughters as a second wife, so the children
would not be without a mother. But Ler’s second wife, Aoife,
despised the children and turned them into swans for 900 years.
Chapter 4 — Local Gallic Celt Gods
South of the tiny Republic of Rome, the Celts had invaded, and three
Roman legions had been sent to keep the invaders at bay. The year
was 349 BC, by our modern reckoning. They carried the standard of
Roman consul Lucius Furius Camillus, a relative of the great Marcus
Furius Camillus, “Second Founder of Rome.” Forty-one years had
passed since Brennus had sacked Rome. Camillus was anxious for
some payback against these new Celtic invaders.
The last several years had seen a great cooling. The summers were
not as warm and the harvests had not been as plentiful, but still,
these were times of relative prosperity. The Celts were growing in
number and the future of Rome and its allies looked bleak.
As the forces gathered to face each other, a giant Celt, named Turi,
stepped away from his fellow countrymen. An awkward, old
translator struggling to keep up with the giant Celt.
“Tell them,” said Turi, “I want to fight one Roman — their best.”
The old man walked several paces ahead of where the giant stood
and shouted out his message in the Roman language of Latin.
The news of the challenge quickly spread throughout the Roman
legions. One young man of 21, a military tribune named Marcus
Valerius, liked the idea of putting down this Gallic Celt, no matter
how large he was.
Valerius strode quickly to the tent of Consul Camillus, saluting to the
guard as he approached.
“Valerius,” said Camillus, “what’s this about?”
“Consul, the enemy have sent out a champion. I would like to meet
their champion in battle.”
“Yes, I’ve heard. Supposedly he is a giant of a man, a full head taller
than you.”
Valerius chuckled. “So I hear. And that will only make him slower.”
“Don’t lose,” Camillus said sternly, glaring at the young tribune.
Valerius merely smiled and said, “Of course, sir. I intend to set the
tone for the coming battle. My win will make the Celts shake in their
boots.”
“Good,” said Camillus. “Make it so.”
Valerius saluted his consul and strode from the tent to the field which
separated the two armies. In the distance, beyond the giant, he
could see the Celtic enemy staring at him. Behind him, a host of
Roman soldiers gathered to witness the coming fight.
Turi laughed at the approaching Valerius. The old translator started
to turn back to the Celtic line, but was stopped by the giant. “Tell him
my name and what it means.” Then, Turi let go of the old man.
The translator took a step forward and said, “Behold the great Turi
whose name means ‘bear.’ Prepare to die at his hands.”
At that, the old man turned and ran for the relative safety of the tree
line where the other Celts stood.
When Valerius had approached to within ten paces of Turi, the giant
nodded, never taking his eyes off the young Roman soldier. Valerius
also nodded and started to circle the giant, sword in one hand, shield
in the other.
When the two were only five paces apart, something extraordinary
happened. A large raven landed on Valerius’ helmet and clawed at
the giant.
Both men were immediately startled, but Valerius felt a sudden thrill
the gods had sent him this winged helper.
Turi lunged at Valerius, but immediately found the bird pecking at his
face. Every time the two men got close, the bird chose to attack the
Celt. And each time, the Celt grew more and more agitated that this
bird was siding with this urban city dweller.
From amongst the Celtic line, someone yelled, “Cathubodua fights
for him!” This was followed by a quiet roar amongst the Celts, for
they knew that the battle crow goddess was working against them on
this day.
The noise from his fellows distracted Turi and he glanced toward
them, leaving open his side for a split second. Valerius struck and
the giant became infuriated at his own momentary lapse.
Turi lunged at the Roman, only to find the raven flapping its wings, its
talons lifting up to strike at his face, and its sharp beak aiming at the
Celt’s eyes. The giant backed away and rubbed his face, almost
stumbling on the uneven ground.
The bird settled once again on Valerius’s helmet and the Roman
started to circle once more.
This time, Turi lunged in desperation, feinted a thrust, jumped to the
side and swung his sword, barely missing Valerius.
The Roman laughed. Turi shook his head, stunned by the Roman’s
confidence. Valerius rushed Turi, stopped, stepped to the side and
struck the giant’s flank, wounding him.
Infuriated, Turi came straight at the Roman and found the raven in
his face, blinding him to the Roman’s location. A moment later, the
bird had returned to the helmet and Valerius had struck yet another
blow on the Celt’s other side.
By now, Turi had become frantic — even a little insane — that he
was losing in such a manner. The goddess was against him and he
felt his own life hanging in the balance. He fought down his own
terror and struck out once more at the Roman, only to be assaulted
yet again by the raven.
Suddenly, Turi stepped back, tripping over a rock and fell with a
profound thud to the ground. Valerius lunged forward, striking deep
into the giant’s abdomen. At that, the raven took flight — its job was
done.
Valerius struck again across the man’s neck, then hacked at each of
the giant’s arms. To make certain that the win was final, Valerius
began to despoil the corpse, cutting off first an ear, gouging an eye,
cutting off a hand.
This enraged the other Celts. They left their line and ran headlong
toward Valerius. The Roman troops ran to assist their victor and an
all-out battle ensued.
When the fighting was finally over, an exhausted Valerius looked up
at the sky, hoping to catch a glimpse of the raven who had helped
him that day. Not finding the bird, he looked across the field and
spotted one of his men. “Quintus,” he said, “this day, I owe my life to
that raven.”
So, from then on, he was known as Marcus Valerius Corvus — the
Roman soldier who’d had the Celtic goddess, Cathubodua, on his
side.
Characters
Brennan (unknown meaning) chieftain of the Senones, a Celtic tribe.
He beat the Romans at the Battle of Allia (July 18, 390 BC), and
conquered the city of Rome in 387 BC, holding most of the city for
several months.
Cathubodua (goddess name meaning “battle crow,” from a root word
meaning “victory”).
Lucius Furius Camillus (unknown meaning) of the Roman Patrician
gens Furia; a relative of Marcus Furius Camillus (c.446–365 BC).
Marcus Valerius Corvus (c.370–c.270 BC) of the Roman Patrician
gens Valeria. He was Roman consul on six separate occasions, and
was named dictator twice.
Turi (male name meaning, “bear;” Gallic Celt).
Celtic Gods of Gaul
These are some of the dozens of local Celtic gods of ancient Gaul
and the surrounding areas.
Bodua (Roman Victoria; Irish Badb). Like the more broadly
worshipped Cathubodua (“battle crow”), her name suggests a strong
connection to “fighting” and “victory.”
Gobannos (Roman Vulcan; Irish Goibniu). His name suggests that
he is the patron of metal smiths of all kinds.
Nemetona (Roman Victoria). Her name means “she of the sacred
grove.” She was worshipped in northeastern Gaul. In Bath, Britain,
she was associated with Gallo-Roman Loucetius Mars. One
inscription suggests that Nemetona was associated with the Roman
goddess Victoria.
Nodens (Roman Mars, Mercury, Neptune and Silvanus; Irish Nuada)
was worshipped in Britain, and possibly Gaul, as a god of the sea,
hunting, dogs, and healing.
Poeninus was a mountain god frequently associated with Jupiter —
the chief Roman god and divine ruler over the sky. Poeninus was
also associated with the Swiss Alps crossing now known as Great St
Bernard Pass.
Sequana (Roman-Etruscan Minerva) is associated with the spring
source of the River Seine and with water’s natural healing powers. A
large pot at her temple was discovered to be filled with miniature
replicas of body parts, made out of silver and bronze. These were
the body parts of the parishioners they wanted to be healed by her.
Chapter 5 — Celtic Sagas: The Cycles
The day had ended and both Queen Medb and her new husband
and king, Ailill, were in bed together.
She was somewhat older than he, as she had been a teenage queen
to Eochaid Dála when she had taken her older sister’s young
grandson, Ailill, to raise in her household. When Ailill became a
teenager, she took him as her lover. He was a strong and handsome
young man. And the three things she liked most about him were that
he was without fear, meanness, and jealousy.
With her assistance and encouragement, he had become the chief
bodyguard. Her -husband ordered Ailill expelled from the kingdom,
but Medb had refused to obey. When Eochaid Dála had challenged
Ailill to mortal combat, the king lost, paying with his life. That had left
Medb free to marry her sister’s grandson.
Now, they were husband and wife. And Ailill, being born of royalty,
liked to brag about his inherited wealth. As they lay on their pillow,
Ailill said, “In truth, woman, she is a well-off woman who is the wife
of a nobleman.”
“She is indeed,” said Medb, “Why do you think so?”
He gave her a wry smile and replied, “I think so, because you are
better off today than when I married you.”
Medb’s head rocked back, her mouth open, but mute, and her brow
wrinkled with disagreement. “I was well-off before marrying you.
Remember, I shared a throne with three men before you. Conchobar
mac Nessa, king of Ulster, Tinni mac Conri—”
“To whom you were never officially married.”
Medb nodded and held her finger to Ailill’s lips. “—with whom I
shared the throne of Connacht, and then Eochaid Dála, my protector
after my first husband killed Tinni.”
Ailill chuckled and said, “It was wealth that we had not heard of and
did not know of, but you were a woman of property and foes from
lands next to you were carrying off spoils and booty from you.”
Shaking her head, Medb replied, “Not so was I, but my father was in
the high-kingship of Ireland, namely Eochaid Feidlech, mac Find
meic Findomain meic Findeoin—”
This time, Ailill held his finger to her lips. “Please, I know the lineage.
I share some of it.”
“And he,” Medb continued, holding his finger, then lifting it back to
her lips to kiss it, “my father had six daughters: Derbriu, Ethne and
Ele, Clothru, Mugain and Medb. I was the noblest and worthiest of
them. I was the most generous of them in bounty and the bestowal
of gifts. I was best of them in battle and fight and combat. I had
fifteen hundred royal mercenaries of the sons of strangers exiled
from their own land and as many of the sons of native freemen within
the province. And there were ten men for each mercenary of these,
and nine men for every mercenary and eight men for every
mercenary, and seven for every mercenary, and six for every
mercenary, and five for every mercenary, and four for every
mercenary and three for every mercenary and two for every
mercenary and one mercenary for every mercenary. I had these as
my standing household, and for that reason my father gave me one
of the provinces of Ireland, namely, the province of Crúachu.
amMedb Chrúachna.”
“Yes,” said Ailill, “I know where we live — Ráth Crúachain, fort and
capital of all Connacht.”
Medb continued, “Messengers came from Find mac Rosa Rúaid, the
King of Leinster, to sue for me, and from Cairbre Nia Fer mac Rosa,
the King of Tara, and they came from Conchobor mac Fachtna, the
King of Ulster, and they came from Eochu Bec. But I consented not,
for I demanded a strange bride-gift such as no woman before me
had asked of a man of the men of Ireland, to wit, a husband without
meanness, without jealousy and without fear.”
Ailill looked back at her with admiration, for he knew he alone was
such a man.
“If my husband should be mean, it would not be fitting for us to be
together, for I am generous in largesse and the bestowal of gifts and
it would be a reproach for my husband that I should be better than
he in generosity, but it would be no reproach if we were equally
generous provided that both of us were generous. If my husband
were timorous, neither would it be fitting for us to be together, for
singlehanded I am victorious in battles and contests and combats,
and it would be a reproach to my husband that his wife should be
more courageous than he, but it is no reproach if they are equally
courageous provided that both are courageous. If the man with
whom I should be were jealous, neither would it be fitting, for I was
never without one lover quickly following in the shadow of another.”
Medb reached over and kissed her young husband on the lips. “Now
such a husband have I got, even you, Ailill mac Rosa Rúaid of
Leinster. You are not niggardly, you are not jealous, you are not
inactive. I gave you a contract and a bride-price as befits a woman,
namely, the raiment of twelve men, a chariot worth thrice-
sevencumala, the breadth of your face in red gold, the weight of your
left arm in white bronze. Whoever brings shame and annoyance and
confusion on you, you have no claim for compensation of for honor-
price for it except what claim I have, for you are a man dependent on
a woman’s marriage-portion.”
“Not so was I” said Ailill, “but I had two brothers, one of them
reigning over Tara, the other over Leinster, namely, Find over
Leinster and Cairbre over Tara. I left the rule to them because of
their seniority but they were no better in bounty and the bestowal of
gifts than I. And I heard of no province in Ireland dependent on a
woman except this province alone, so I came and assumed the
kingship here in virtue of my mother’s rights, for Máta Muirisc the
daughter of Mága was my mother. And what better queen could I
have than you, for you are the daughter of the high-king of Ireland.”
“Nevertheless” said Medb, “my property is greater than yours.”
“I marvel at that,” said Ailill, “for there is none who has greater
possessions and riches and wealth than I, and I know that there is
not.”
Medb shook her head in disbelief. How could her wonderful new
husband be so obstinate? “Sir!” she said sternly, “we shall have to do
a counting to verify what you say.”
“Until the morrow, my love,” replied Ailill, and kissed his wife
passionately.
Before the sun had risen, Medb was up and dressed. Ailill gazed at
her sleepily. “Come here, woman.”
“No,” she replied. “We have work to do.”
She had all their valuable possessions brought forth to be examined
and counted. A scribe was brought in to document the accounting.
Then all the sheep were brought to the castle to be counted and
assessed for overall value.
From the grazing fields and horse paddocks, all the steeds and
mares were brought fourth and counted, then all their great herds of
swine, and cattle.
So far, everything had been evenly paired. Both Medb and Ailill were
perfectly matched in riches, except in cattle.
“But look,” said Medb to her husband, “the fertile bull Finnbhennach
used to be mine. He was born into my herd.”
“And yet,” replied Ailill, “Finnbhennach refused to be owned by a
woman. I wonder why.” He winked at her.
“Oh!” she threw up her hands and slapped her sides in frustration.
Ailill shook his head and smiled a kind, loving smile for his wife. He
put his arms around her shoulders and pulled her close. “I’ll tell you
what, my love. We will solve this problem. And in our position of
power, such solutions shall be easy.”
She looked up at him and cocked her brow with a questioning look.
“What did you have in mind?”
“Let us call the famed Herald Mac Roth. He should know the land
well enough to find a comparable bull. Perhaps—”
“Yes, perhaps,” she continued, “we can hire the stud to create a herd
to make mine larger and more valuable.”
“And nothing would give me greater pleasure, my love.”
“Thank you, thank you, my kind dear,” she replied, running from him
back to the castle to send for the herald.
When Mac Roth had been summoned, he listened to Medb’s pleas
for help.
“I know indeed,” said Mac Roth, “where there is a bull even better
and more excellent than he, in the province of Ulster in the cantred
of Cúailnge in the house of Dáire mac Fiachna. Donn Cúailnge is his
name.”
“Go there, Mac Roth, and ask of Dáire for me a year’s loan of Donn
Cúailnge. At the year’s end, he will get the fee for the bull’s loan,
namely, fifty heifers, and Donn Cúailnge himself returned. And take
another offer with you, Mac Roth: if the people of that land and
country object to giving that precious possession, Donn Cúailnge, let
Dáire himself come with his bull and he shall have the extent of his
own lands in the level plain of Mag Aí and a chariot worth
thriceseven cumala, and he shall have my own intimate friendship.”
Mac Roth’s eyes went wide at this last detail, but he said nothing.
Would the queen sleep with Dáire to sweeten the deal?
So, Mac Roth and his entourage traveled over land to the Kingdom
of Ulaidh and to the house of Dáire mac Fiachna. A total of nine
messengers were welcomed into the cattle baron’s home.
Dáire treated his guests like royalty. After all, Mac Roth was the most
highly esteemed herald on the island. Anyone would be honored to
have this messenger as a guest.
When the lord of the house had heard the complete message, he
was as delighted as any man could ever be. “By the truth of my
conscience, even if the Ulstermen object, this precious possession,
Donn Cúailnge, will now be taken to Ailill and Medb in the land of
Connacht.”
Mac Roth and the other messengers were incredibly pleased to hear
of Dáire’s favorable answer.
To rejoice in his own good fortune, Dáire bade his guests stay for a
feast to celebrate.
But well into the celebration, the other messengers began to talk
amongst themselves about details that had not been discussed with
Dáire — that were, in fact, not true. Some of them talked about the
generosity of the various lords and landowners. And finally, one of
them said, “I should like to see a gush of blood and gore from the
mouth from which that talk comes, for if the bull were not given
willingly, he would be given perforce.”
In other words, the messenger implied that if Dáire were not
agreeable, then Medb and Ailill would have come and take the bull
by force.
So drunk were the messengers they didn’t notice the lord’s butler
and junior servant arrive with more food and ale. The butler heard
that last remark. He put down the platter of food, and nodded harshly
for the servant to deposit the ale, and they left in a hurry.
The butler returned to the main house and went straight to his
master. “My lord, the messengers just revealed a most disturbing
truth —if you had not agreed to the terms, the king and queen of
Connacht would have come to take your bull by force.”
“What?” asked Dáire. “This is outrageous. I swear by the gods whom
I worship unless they take him thus by force, they shall not take him
by fair means.”
In the morning, the messengers went back to the lord’s house. Mac
Roth said, “Guide us, noble sir, to the spot where Donn Cúailnge is.”
“Not so, indeed,” said Dáire, “but if it were my custom to deal
treacherously with messengers, travelers or voyagers, not one of
you should escape alive.”
“What is this?” said Mac Roth.
“There is great cause for it,” said Dáire. “You said that if I did not give
the bull willingly, then I should give him under compulsion by reason
of the army of Ailill and Medb and the sure guidance of Fergus.”
“Nay,” said Mac Roth, “whatever messengers might say as a result
of indulging in your meat and drink, it should not be heeded or
noticed nor accounted as a reproach to Ailill and Medb.”
“Yet, I shall not give my bull, Mac Roth, on this occasion.”
And so began the Great Táin Bó Cúailnge — the Great Cattle Raid
of Cooley.
Characters and Name Meanings
Ailill (male name meaning “elf”) was the mythical king of Irish
Connaught, in west central Ireland. His full name was Ailill mac
Máta, the surname being matronymic after his mother.
Dáire (male name meaning “fruitful,” “fertile” and “rage”) was the
mythical lord and owner of Donn Cúailnge, living in northeastern
Ireland in a region known as Ulaidh (part of modern Ulster).
Donn Cúailnge (“donn” means “the dark one;” Cúailnge is an area of
the north of Ireland now known as Cooley) was a powerfully fertile
stud bull, owned by Dáire mac Fiachna. He was the object of the
cattle raid (Táin bo) of Cooley.
Mac Roth (male name meaning “son” of Roth, which may mean
“red,” “wood” or “fame”) was a highly respected messenger.
Medb (female name meaning “intoxicating”) was Ailill’s queen. She
took many lovers and had many kings to serve on the Connaught
throne with her.
The Mythological Cycle
The Mythological Cycle includes several stories about the divine
beings who arrived in Ireland during the five invasions. Most of the
focus is on the Tuatha Dé Danann. These are the groups we talked
about in the chapter on Irish Celtic gods.
The Ulster Cycle
The Ulster Cycle is a collection of stories centered on the rule of
King Conchobar mac Nessa of Ulaidh (an ancient name for Ulster).
Within the numerous tales, the most significant hero is the king’s
nephew, Cú Chulainn.
The primary source of conflict in the tales was the Connachta, led by
Queen Medb and her husband, Ailill. Medb’s chief ally in these
disputes was the former king of Ulaid, Fergus mac Róich, now in
exile from his home. We’ve already seen a small part of the most
extensive story within the cycle — the “Cattle Raid of Cooley,” also
known as Táin Bó Cúailnge.
Queen Medb raised a massive army to steal the nation’s prize bull,
and the only one defending the creature was Cú Chulainn, the king’s
nephew.
One of the best-known stories concerns the tragedy of Deirdre,
which has been used by others as inspiration for their works, most
notably, by J.M. Synge and W.B. Yeats.
The Cycle also includes numerous stories of courtships, birth,
deaths, and of the many conflicts between the characters.
In the Ulster Cycle, The Morrígan (“great queen”) finds her first
mention. Here, she was a single goddess, instead of three. In the
Ulster Cycle, she had a conflicted relationship with the hero,
sometimes supporting him, sometimes taunting him, and at other
times attempting to destroy his chances at success.
The Fenian Cycle
The Fenian Cycle is also called the Fiannaíocht and sometimes even
the Ossianic Cycle, named after Oisín, the cycle’s narrator.
The focus of this Cycle was the adventures of Fionn mac Cumhaill, a
mythical hero. This Cycle also dealt with Fionn’s warriors, known as
the Fianna.
Sequentially, this is the third Cycle, after the Ulster and before the
Historical.
Some of the various tales also involve individual Fianna warriors, like
Caílte, Diarmuid and Oisín's son Oscar. It also includes stories of
Fionn’s chief adversary, Goll mac Morna.
In the Cycle, the Fianna warriors were brought together by High King
Cormac mac Art as guardians of the kingdom. Membership in the
Fianna was dominated by Cumhal’s Clan Bascna and Goll’s Clan
Morna.
Years earlier, the Morna had killed Cumhal, leader of Clan Bascna,
after the Battle of Knock. Someone also stole Clan Bascna’s
treasure bag. Muirne, Cumhal’s wife, whom he had kidnapped to
force her marriage, escaped, though she was already pregnant by
her now dead husband.
Muirne’s father refused to take her back, because of a prophecy
which had foretold of his own demise stemming from her marriage.
Instead, he ordered her to be burned, but the High King protected
her, and placed her in the care of a woman named Bodhmall and a
woman warrior named Liath Luachra. When she finally gave birth to
a boy, she named him Deimne. Later, however, her son became
known as Fionn mac Cumhaill, the future leader of the Fianna.
The Cycles of the Kings
The Cycles of the Kings is also known as the Historical Cycle. The
word “cycles” is more appropriate, because there are a number of
independent groups of tales involved. Naturally, these groupings
contain tales of the legendary rulers of the island, like Niall of the
Nine Hostages, Lóegaire mac Néill, Conall Corc, Cormac mac Airt,
Diarmait mac Cerbaill, Éogan Mór, Conn of the Hundred Battles,
Brian Bóruma, Lugaid mac Con, Crimthann mac Fidaig, and Guaire
Aidne mac Colmáin.
The bards of medieval Ireland (court poets) were tasked with
recording the lineage and history of their king. Their poetry combined
both historical facts and fanciful mythology. The amount of each —
fact and mythology — varied from bard to bard, but the results were
invariably a skillful packaging of the “brand” that was their king and
his family. It was an early form of advertising, meant to impress other
families and other nations.
The earliest king in these Cycles was the High King Labraid
Loingsech who supposedly rose to the throne in 431 BC. Was he a
real person, or merely some fanciful invention of one of the bards?
We don’t know. But the Cycles include many well-documented rulers
who are known truly to have lived, though some of the details might
be a bit questionable.
Perhaps the most celebrated tale of this Historical Cycle or Cycles is
called the Buile Shuibhne (translated as “The Frenzy of Sweeney”).
As king of Dál nAraidi, Suibhne had been cursed by Saint Ronan to
become a hybrid being — half-bird, half-man. He had been damned
to spend the remainder of his existence in the woods fleeing from
humans.
Chapter 6 — Celtic Beliefs: Animal and Human
Sacrifice
By the grace of the gods, evening had interrupted the battle. It had
become too dark to fight. This blessed fact had become horribly
apparent when men had begun to hack at their own friends, rather
than at the enemy.
Lord Karney led his men back to their camp from the battlefield. He
was as weary as every other man fighting under him, except perhaps
the wounded, of which there were many. Nearly everyone helped
carry the wounded. And despite being exhausted from battle, they
each helped to dress the wounds of those who had been injured.
As everyone helped with tending to the wounded, the staff of the
camp prepared the evening meal. These tired warriors needed
nourishment so their weary muscles could be rejuvenated, or their
wounds could be healed. Karney looked over the mass of bodies
going about their various tasks. A deep sadness crossed his mind
and weighed heavily on his expression.
Commander Glifieu noticed his king’s dour face and asked, “What is
it, my lord?”
“You need to ask?” Karney shook his head. “We’re losing. I doubt
we’ll survive the morrow.”
“Then we will die bravely, my lord, doing what we must to protect our
people.”
Karney snorted half a laugh, dry and without humor. “Protect? More
like failing to protect.”
Glifieu’s expression also became glum. “What can we do, sire?”
The look on Karney’s face stiffened and he squinted, not looking at
anything in particular. For a moment, he was deep in thought. Then
he turned to his commander. “Call all your officers together.” Karney
nodded sharply, and Glifieu turned and started rounding up all the
officers.
When they were assembled, Karney stood before them with his
hands on his hips. He walked up and down the line of them,
inspecting the looks on their faces and the posture of their bodies.
They were all good men — strong and faithful. These men were
worth dying for.
“My brothers,” Karney said finally. “The gods require death so that
others may live. Very much as in the hunt, when we ask the gods’
permission to slaughter a deer or a boar — or even to catch a fish.
Now, we are losing. Can we change that? Can we ask — even plead
with the gods? If they demand life for life, then perhaps it is time for
the ultimate sacrifice so that our people may survive this tragedy.”
“But, my lord,” said Nels, one of the lieutenants, “if we’re losing, we
will all be dead soon enough. How will that help?”
Pwyll, an older captain, snorted and spoke up, “He’s young, my lord.”
He then laughed and shook his head. “Forgive his ignorance. I
volunteer for the sacrifice. I’ve seen better days and my fighting skills
are not what they used to be.”
Karney shook his head. “But will it be enough? I don’t think so. I feel
certain that the gods require something bigger and more important. I
am the one who needs to volunteer. As we entered the camp this
evening, I spoke briefly with one of the Druids and he agrees with
me. We need a far larger sacrifice if our people are to escape the
ultimate tragedy.”
There was a sudden clamor of voices throughout the camp.
Everyone heard what had been said. Even the weakest of the
wounded turned toward their king, ears bristling to hear more.
“No, my lord,” said Pwyll. “We need our leader. You have a wisdom
many of us can’t touch, and which all of us cannot equal. We need
your guidance for when the war is over.”
“But,” said Karney, “we need to remain alive. I will be born again. I’m
not concerned about that. We need life so any wisdom will have a
purpose. And we can have faith the gods will deliver a new source of
wisdom to us.”
“No, my lord,” said Kirwyn, a captain who had been wounded
severely enough to be laying down nearby, recuperating. “I have
been wounded and I’m not certain I will survive. And most assuredly,
I will not be of much use to any of us in tomorrow’s battle. Please, let
me, and any other of the wounded who volunteer, be the gift required
by the gods. We will all come back as better warriors in the next life.”
“Yes, please let us do this thing,” said another of the wounded.
And a host of voices rose up with “Yes!” and with other words of
affirmation.
Karney blinked several times to keep the wetness in his eyes from
showing. He swallowed with difficulty and nodded slowly. “Very well.
Let it be done. Who will volunteer?”
Without exception, every seriously wounded warrior gave some sign
of assent. Those who could walk, came forward to the Druids to
perform the sacred ceremony, so the gift would be properly received
by the gods. Those who were too weak had others help them
forward.
And before the night was full, 384 men had given their lives so that
the tribe might vanquish their enemy in the coming battle.
Characters and Name Meanings
Glifieu (male name meaning, “mythical son of Taran;” Celtic).
Karney (male name meaning, “fighter;” Celtic).
Kirwyn (male name meaning, “dark skinned;” Celtic).
Nels (male name meaning, “chief;” Celtic).
Pwyll (male name meaning, “mythical lord of Annwn;” Celtic).

Sacrifice
Did the Celts perform animal sacrifices? Like many animist societies,
they felt killing any creature was an act that needed to be sanctified
— to make the killing less selfish, an act which the gods and nature
might deem necessary for the continuation of life.
Animal sacrifice was quite common in the ancient world. Even the
Romans performed animal sacrifice, making each such event an
elaborate affair. But we know the religious and cultural behavior of
the Celts largely from the writings of their enemies — the Romans,
Greeks and others. For instance, Lucan, the Roman poet, called
Taranis a brutal deity who required human sacrifice.
Cultures have long demonized their enemies to justify their own
brutal treatment and attacks on those cultures. Such behavior has
been quite common throughout ancient times and even into modern
times. If a military leader wanted his men to attack another group,
naturally he wouldn’t use sweet words to describe their enemy.
Archaeologists have found evidence in Gordion, Anatolia (modern
Turkey) which suggests some human sacrifice was performed.
Before we look at the evidence, let us look at the historical back
story.
After Alexander the Great (356–323 BC) had conquered much of the
known world, his empire was divided amongst his men. Around 280
BC, a large army of Celts attacked Macedonia, Alexander’s
homeland. Two years later, King Nicomedes I of Bithynia welcomed
20,000 Celts as allies. They called themselves Galatai and they
migrated from northwestern Anatolia, where the Turkish peninsula
faces Europe. They ended up settling in central Anatolia, bringing
with them 2,000 wagons filled with baggage, plus 10,000 additional
people, including wives, children, merchants and others. These
Galatians settled in Gordion. Later, the Romans would call that
region “Galatia.”
In the last few decades of excavation at Gordion, scientists have
uncovered two sites where human bones were piled on top of one
another. Each skeleton had suffered a broken neck. According to
Greco-Roman sources, Celtic Druids (religious leaders) would
sometimes sacrifice humans to forecast the future. Such sacrifices
may have been performed on prisoners of war or criminals.
Celts typically cremated their dead, collecting their bones and ashes
in perishable containers such as leather bags, wooden barrels, or
wicker baskets. Finding piles of bones not collected in the normal
burial fashion proved to be quite startling to the archaeologists
investigating the Gordion site.
In attempting to explain the behavior of human sacrifice, the first
century BC historian Diodorus Siculus presented the idea that
human sacrifice was merely a bargaining strategy. Whether Siculus
interviewed Celts or merely made up his analysis as a logical idea,
we do not know. Siculus suggested the gods or demons demanded a
life, so the Celts offered lives to save lives. If some were afflicted
with disease, then humans would be sacrificed to prevent the
disease from spreading to others. Such appeasement, they
supposedly hoped would placate the gods and their desire for death.
In battle, the wounded might sacrifice themselves to buy the lives of
those who were yet uninjured. Sometimes, a great leader may even
sacrifice himself so the battle might turn in their favor.
Captives from a battle were never held for ransom by the Celts, but
were sacrificed to fulfill oaths given during battle. Victims were
sacrificed in various manners depending on the god which the Celts
wanted to appease. For instance, victims of human sacrifice might
be burnt alive to placate Taranis. For Teutates, a victim might be
suffocated. For Esus, the tree god, death might be by hanging from a
tree. Drowning might be employed to satisfy any of the local water
deities.
Victims of human sacrifice may have been captives, the ill, criminals
who had been imprisoned, or perhaps even members in good
standing within their own tribe. The Roman senator and historian,
Tacitus stated, “the Druids consult the gods in the palpitating entrails
of men.” Disemboweling a man or woman and examining the shape
of their entrails would somehow help the religious priest discover the
future. Though the Romans did not perform human sacrifice, they did
use the entrails of birds to understand the best course of action.
The Greek geographer and historian, Strabo, wrote that Druid priests
would strike down a sacrificial victim to study how their body
convulsed before death. Such convulsions would tell them what they
needed to know from the gods.
The Wicker Man
We have two Roman sources — Julius Caesar and Strabo the
geographer — who describe the Wicker Man. According to them, a
huge, wicker statue of a man was sometimes created by the Celts.
Within the torso of the statue, there was room enough to hold a man
or woman—the object of a human sacrifice. Once the victim was
placed inside, a ceremony might be performed and the Wicker Man
would be set ablaze.
Though there is insufficient archaeological evidence to corroborate
their story, we must remember that a lack of evidence never
disproves a thesis, either. Any stronger claims, one way or the other,
are logically fallacious without more evidence.
We know that people in power have used negative stereotypes to
demonize their enemies. That’s part of human nature — the
selfishness to get ahead, so this is certainly a possibility, but not one
that has been proven. It’s a clever idea, but there is no proof that
either Julius Caesar or Strabo used such a deceitful trick on this
topic.
Such Wicker Men would be used by Druids to burn prisoners or
criminals as a tribute to the Celtic gods. When no criminals could be
found, the Druids would sometimes use slaves instead.
But until we have more solid evidence, if ever, we must remain
uncertain about the validity, or historical accuracy of this Wicker Man
phenomenon.
Chapter 7 — Celtic Beliefs: Reincarnation
Vercingetorix stood before his commanders and their staff, surveying
their mood.
“We have a supreme advantage over these Latins. They fear death,
thinking that it is the end of all things. Fear can strengthen a man’s
efforts, but more often, it can also distract and befuddle.”
A rumble of affirmations ran through the crowd of warriors.
“These Latins think they have an advantage over us. And they do.
So long as we remain separate, we will not be strong enough to win
against them, despite their fear of death. But with our combined
forces, working together, and fearless of death, we shall crush these
invaders and oppressors.”
Cheering erupted amongst the men. Vercingetorix allowed it to die
down naturally.
“We know,” continued the leader, “that memory rarely travels with us
from one life to the next, but we are confident of the transference.
Many of us can feel the depth of our spiritual existence, even if we
don’t have all the details. But some of us have remembered. Some
of us have called out the names of loved ones still alive and have
even remembered their nicknames and other details that confirm
their identity as a reincarnated friend.”
More noises of affirmation rumbled through the assembly.
“When we dispatch our brethren to the otherworld, we do so not so
much in malice because they oppose us and want to kill or enslave
us, but for the balance of things, so that nature remains protected
from those who would despoil her. We know that they are not hurt by
their death, because it is no more than the removal of one cloak,
awaiting the next.”
“But they know,” said one of the other chieftains. “Their leader, Julius
Caesar, he already knows of our beliefs. Would that knowledge work
against us?”
Vercingetorix blinked, then glared at the man. What a fool, he
thought. Here I am, attempting to bolster the spirits of our men, and
he trashes everything I’ve said. He nodded slowly, his mind racing to
come up with a powerful response. He hoped what he said next
would restore the bond of strength he had attempted to forge.
“That is true, my friend,” and he scanned the remaining chieftains,
their generals and staff, “but it is one thing to hear about such things
and to disbelieve them, and it is entirely different to live such beliefs
and to know their validity in your very bones.”
Everyone in the hall cheered exuberantly. Even the one doubtful
chieftain saw the wisdom in it.
“This Julius Caesar is clever as a fox,” continued Vercingetorix. “But
we have other advantages. “We have our food stores. His men will
have to scavenge for food. We know the land better than he does.
But don’t ever let these things blind us to the very real danger. He
could still win. He has technology that is new to us. We’ve seen it
work and our artisans still don’t know how to build such things, like
their—” he hesitated, searching for the word.
“Siege weapons, my lord,” said someone nearby.
“Yes, siege weapons. So, we will have to be even more clever and
ferocious. We need to use nature to our advantage; the gods be
willing.”
Again, he surveyed the group, assessing their mood. It seemed
somewhat improved.
“We can still win this, my friends. Let us work together as well as we
work with nature. Let our own individual selfishness for domination
be subdued, just as we subdue our own egos when going on the
hunt—asking the gods for permission. Let us gain each other’s
permission to allow this union to work.”
Again, there were cheers, and Vercingetorix let out a loud whoop!
Others picked up on the noise and repeated it, turning it into a chant.
The leader let the noise go on for a minute, then waved his arms
over his head. “Okay, okay, my friends. Let us do this.”
Our One Character and Name Meaning
Vercingetorix (male name meaning, “king over warriors;” ancient
Gallic Celt). This was the name of the king of the Arverni tribe who
united many of the Gauls against Julius Caesar. In the end, he was
defeated, transported to Rome and then executed.

A Belief in Reincarnation
Most Christians think of reincarnation as an Eastern idea, but it
remained quite common throughout the world, including amongst the
ancient Greeks, Celts, Jews (especially the Kabbalists), and even
the early Christians.
Julius Caesar, when writing about his campaigns against the Celts of
Gaul, said, “A lesson which [the Druids] take particular pains to
inculcate is that the spirit/mind does not perish, but after death
passes from one body to another; they think this is the best incentive
to bravery, because it teaches men to disregard the terrors of death”
— De bellico Gallico VI, 14.
Another chronicler from the same period wrote, “The Pythagorean
doctrine prevails among the Gauls’ teaching that the
consciousness/souls of men are immortal, and that after a fixed
number of years they will enter into another body” — Alexander
Cornelius Polyhistor, 1st century BC.
Jarnail Singh quotes Julius Caesar in his book, “With regard to their
actual course of studies, the main object of all education is, in their
opinion, to imbue their scholars with a firm belief in the
indestructibility of the human soul, which, according to their belief,
merely passes at death from one tenement to another; for by such
doctrine alone, they say, which robs death of all its terrors, can the
highest form of human courage be developed” Druids in World
Religions and the New Era of Science, p. 172.
With reincarnation, there is the promise of continued life, even
without the continuity of memory. But the Celts were already familiar
with the need for humility. Their prayers and rituals spoke of this
need, lest they anger the gods and lose the opportunity to find the
food and other resources needed for their survival.
Chapter 8 — Celtic Beliefs: Matriarchy
Keelia sat at the place of prominence within the great lodge house.
Her husband, Naois, sat on a lower step, looking over the throng of
visitors.
Royal Prince Naois stroked his graying beard and looked back to his
wife. After all these years, she still looked beautiful, and he was
certain it wasn’t merely his own prejudice. Queen Keelia could feel
her husband staring at her, but she would not give in to the
temptations of personal desire while presiding over the council of the
tribes.
“Who is next?” asked Keelia, raising her right arm toward the crowd.
“I am, my lady.” A tall and somewhat muscular woman strode toward
the center of the lodge house.
“Yes, Joyce. What do you require of me, today?”
“Permission, my lady.” The woman hesitated and looked at some of
the others on the side of the mass of people in attendance. “We
have grown prosperous over the last few generations. Our numbers
are now too great for this small valley. I recommend that we send
some of our number to the West in order to find another suitable
home.”
Keelia offered half a laugh and nodded. “I’ve been thinking the same
thing, good lady.” She stood and turned from one side of the lodge
house to the other, surveying all in attendance. “I nominate Joyce to
be the leader of our new tribe. Any who would like to go with her are
welcome, but to be limited to five hundred. That should be enough to
get your new tribe started. After one year, you are to send a
messenger back here to report on your progress. At that time, I will
judge whether others may go to join you. Are there any objections?”
Joyce was noticeably shaken by the sudden approval. And no one
spoke out against her nomination.
“Very well,” said Keelia. “You are to take the first 500 volunteers,
starting early tomorrow morning. And you shall have everything you
may require.”
“Thank you, my lady.” Joyce bowed slightly and backed away,
smiling broadly.
“Very well,” replied Keelia. “And who is next?”
An older man, holding a hat in his hands, shuffled forward and
bobbed his head several times. His hands fidgeted with the hat,
rotating it nervously.
“Gwawl, isn’t it?” asked Keelia.
“Yes, my lady,” he replied and merely stood there, furtively glancing
at his monarch.
“I would like to give you all the time you need,” said Keelia, “but I do
have other responsibilities. Can you speak?”
“Yes, yes, my lady. I — er.”
Queen Keelia shook her head, blinked and took a deep breath. “I
won’t bite you, my good man. Out with it, or hold your peace.”
Suddenly, Gwawl blurted out everything he had to say in one dense
string of words. “So many other cultures surrounding us have male
leaders and they jeer at us for having a woman in the ruling seat.”
Keelia’s face went slack, her head trembling as if slapped.
The old man took a step backward. His head turned slightly as if
eyeing the path for a quick escape.
“Perhaps I was wrong,” said Keelia, “to say that I wouldn’t bite.”
Everyone in the lodge suddenly roared with laughter. The queen also
laughed softly and squinted at the old man. “So, are you here to
claim the throne?”
More laughter, but it quickly died down on its own accord.
“No, no, no, my lady.” Gwawl looked nervously from one nobleman
to the next. “It’s just that perhaps the next ruler should be a man.”
“And does anyone else, here, feel the need to bow to this ridicule
from other tribes?”
Everyone grew silent.
“Does anyone think that a woman ruling makes us weaker?”
“No, my lady,” said one of the elders. “A man might do as good a job,
but he could also do worse. We have beat many invaders. Their
words are empty.”
Queen Keelia nodded, but there was no enthusiasm in the gesture.
“Very well. I will consider these things. That is all for now.” She lifted
her hand and waved at the crowd in dismissal.
When all were gone but the honor guard and her husband, she took
his hand and led him out of the lodge house toward a nearby
meadow. In the distance, she could see the northern Alps rising
above the forested hills. The land was rich with life and abundance.
The mid-afternoon sun made all the summer green glisten.
“What do you think of this idea?” Keelia asked her husband.
Naois tilted his head back and breathed deeply the clean forest air.
Then, he lifted Keelia’s hand to his lips and kiss it. “I have always
trusted your judgment, my love. But this is not the first time we have
heard of this attitude of the patriarchal tribes. We value both
genders. In their tribes, women are little more than slaves. I wouldn’t
want that. And I’m happy to have far more freedom than they give
their women.”
“I don’t think we could lose our love for one another so easily,” said
Keelia. “If you were to become king, I suspect that everything would
be very much the same as before. Except—” she chuckled softly, “I
might have more rest, not being so put upon by the responsibilities of
the people.”
For several minutes, they merely held each other. Finally, a breeze
kissed their cheeks, and they stepped apart.
Still holding hands, they made their way back to their encampment.
“I will give this much thought,” said Keelia. “I would not want the
patriarchal tribes to attack us simply because they think we are
weak. That could become tiresome. But so far, that has not been a
problem.”
Characters and Name Meanings
Gwawl (male name meaning “mythical son of Clud;” Celtic).
Joyce (female for Jodoc, a male Celtic name meaning “lord”).
Keelia (female name meaning “slender of comely;” Celtic).
Naois (male name meaning “mythical warrior;” Celtic).
Where Women Ruled
Suleviae was a group of Celtic goddesses whose name meant
“those who govern well.” This group was sometimes associated with
the Matres (mothers). In fact, one inscription starts out, “To the
Sulevi mothers...”
The fact that the Matres and Matronae were a primary, divine trinity
suggests that females were held in higher regard throughout Celtic
society.
The fact that Boudicca went to war with the Romans to protect her
daughters’ birthrights shows that women were more highly respected
in their society and had more rights.
Both Romans and Greeks greatly despised the Etruscans (northern
Italy) for the power they gave their women, so we know the prejudice
in those two societies ran deep against any concept of female
empowerment. And since we receive most of our knowledge of
Celtic culture from Greco-Roman sources, it’s easy to understand
how something like a matriarchal society would be dismissed,
suppressed, or even willfully forgotten.
Modern scholars consider the Picts of Scotland to be
ethnolinguistically Celtic in origin. And some scholars feel the Picts
were a matriarchal society. Even more scholars acknowledge the
possibility the Picts were a matrilineal society, where men ruled, but
only by marrying the daughter of an earlier king. So, whoever
married the princess would become the king.
Because the Romans could never conquer the Picts, those invaders
built Hadrian’s Wall at the north end of England to keep the Picts
from roaming too far south. But there was little contact with the Picts,
so we know very little about them, especially because there was no
writing amongst them.
Most assuredly, the Celts were patriarchal in the historical periods of
the Iron Age. But we know almost nothing of the Celts before 500
BC.
There is evidence that some other cultures were matriarchal at some
prehistoric point in the past, but we do not know what could have
caused the switch or how it progressed across the Eurasian
landscape, if indeed it did happen at all.
Even though we don’t have direct evidence of explicit matriarchy, we
do have evidence of a more egalitarian society. The Celts viewed
women differently than their Roman and Greek neighbors. They had
women rulers and warriors, like Medb, who, as we’ve seen, took
many lovers and had many kings to serve on the Connaught throne
with her.
We also learned about Medb’s traits from her conversation with her
husband in the story of the Cattle Raid of Cooley in the Ulster Cycle.
“But my father was in the high-kingship of Ireland [and] had six
daughters: Derbriu, Ethne and Ele, Clothru, Mugain and Medb. I was
the noblest and worthiest of them. I was the most generous of them
in bounty and the bestowal of gifts. I was best of them in battle and
fight and combat. I had fifteen hundred royal mercenaries of the sons
of strangers exiled from their own land and as many of the sons of
native freemen within the province.”
Romans would likely choke on this statement of female power.
Indeed, they tried to cheat Boudicca’s daughters out of their
inheritance, and that led to the sacking of the young settlement that
would one day become the great city of London.
We also know the names of men sometimes included a matronymic
— such as that of Medb’s husband, Ailill mac Máta’s — “mac Máta”
coming from his mother.
And we know some of the chief divinities of the Celtic pantheon were
female. All these clues open the door to the notion the Celts may at
one time have been a matriarchy.
Conclusion – What We Have Learned
We gained a healthy perspective on the Celts and how they fit into
our shared history and heritage. Their culture stretched across
nearly all of mid-latitude Europe and partly into Asia — from Ireland
to Anatolia.
The mild climate of the mid-Holocene helped the Celts grow their
numbers in central Europe, expanding into an ever-broader territory.
As the Celts reached their greatest numbers, the Romans were on
the verge of their own initial expansion.
We got a taste of the Celtic reverence for nature, how they viewed
the physical properties of their environment as imbued with spirit. We
compared their early animism with the more structured polytheism of
the Etruscans, Romans and the Greeks.
Chapter 2 gave us a look at many of the Celtic gods that were
worshipped across a broad territory. We also learned how many of
the Celtic gods became generally mixed with the Roman pantheon
and the two cultures — conqueror and conquered — became as
one. We learned of individual Celtic gods, and learned some of the
little we do know about their traits — gods like Epona, Matres and
Matronae, Toutatis, Belenus, Cathubodua, Cernunnos, Esus, Lugus,
Ogmios and Taranis.
In chapter 3, we settled into the deeply mythological tales of Ancient
Ireland, and the several invasions of the god-kings who first migrated
to the Emerald Island.
Chapter 4 took us back to the continent and the Celts of Gaul,
learning more about their local gods. We even saw how one Roman
officer might have gotten a surprising taste of Celtic divine help.
In Chapter 5, we discovered about the Celtic Sagas and the four
main Cycles — The Mythological Cycle, The Ulster Cycle, The
Fenian Cycle and the Cycles of the Kings.
Celtic beliefs gave us the subjects of the last few chapters, with
chapter 6 covering animal and human sacrifice. We gained a better
understanding of how the Celts may have justified such societal
behavior, because of their unique views of life, balance with nature
and the gods, and their belief in reincarnation. We also learned a
little about the phenomenon of The Wicker Man.
The concept of reincarnation, in chapter 7, helped us see how the
Celts could be so fearless in battle.
And finally, in the last chapter, we saw how the possibility of a
matriarchal past, where women ruled instead of men, may have
given the Celts a far more egalitarian society.
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 Part 5:
Roman Mythology
A Captivating Guide to Roman Gods,
Goddesses, and Mythological
Creatures
Introduction
Gravitas was a founding principle of Roman society. Life can be
brutal, and the Romans figured out early that guiding one’s actions
with weightiness or seriousness—or, in today’s word—intentionality
—was necessary. Using gravitas as a guide for life made them
exceptionally practical—although not particularly creative. In fact, the
Romans were an unimaginative society. The creativity they did
employ was greatly borrowed –sometimes forcibly--from other
cultures.
Only a few of their gods were entirely Roman. Because little is
written during the early years of Rome, it is difficult to separate their
own divinities as opposed to those they appropriated.
Originally, the Romans were farmers. Many of their earliest gods
dealt with crops, rain, and their main river—the Tiber.
Gravitas, with its intentionality and practicality, led the Romans to
think affinities could be cultivated by making their gods look like
those of their neighbors. These affinities made assimilation or
conquest much easier. Allowing citizens to keep their religious
traditions, a widespread practice among some early civilizations,
helped make them more compliant with Roman rule. And if Roman
traditions looked like the traditions of the conquered peoples, the
subjugated populace would believe they truly belonged to Rome.
Like a modern exercise in building a commercial brand, Roman
writers of the first century BC developed stories of Roman myth and
history to manufacture legitimacy for their rulers. Virgil (70–19 BC),
for instance, gave Rome its most important work of authority—the
Aeneid, which told the story of Rome’s roots in the Trojan War; they
were descended from Trojans, the enemies of the Greeks. We’ll take
a brief look at the truth of this possibility in “Chapter 4 — Borrowings
from Etruria.”
The Shape of Things to Come
We will look at many aspects of the Roman gods, goddesses, and
mythological creatures. Each of the first six chapters begins with a
narrative scene which helps bring the legendary and mythical
characters to life.
In chapter 1, we explore the seeds of legitimacy that Virgil planted
regarding the Trojan connection to Rome. Though Aeneas was a
minor character in Homer’s epic Iliad, Virgil shows Aeneas to be the
epitome of what a good Roman should be—heroic, serious, virtuous,
and devoted. And, important to the Iliad, Aeneas was one of the
sons of Venus or, as she was known to the Greeks, Aphrodite—the
goddess of love.
How do we get from a Trojan demigod to the reality of Rome? This is
the topic of chapter 2. In this chapter, we explore the foundation of
that great city by the semi-divine, wolf-suckled brothers, Romulus
and Remus. We also consider the myth of Aeneas’s son, Ascanius,
who was also known as Iulus—the basis of the name of Julius, and
the basis of the Julio-Claudian dynasty of the Roman Empire. Virgil
gave the family of Julius Caesar its back-story to make his patron,
and Rome’s first emperor, Augustus, seem worthier of being a living
god.
In chapter 3, we examine the gods of Roman origin as well as
Roman mythological creatures.
Chapter 4 focuses on the Etruscan influence on Roman mythology.
Latin culture co-opted Minerva as its own, and then gave her the
Greek attributes of the goddess Athena.
Perhaps the strongest influence in Roman mythology came from the
Greeks. The Greeks were far more creative, and their legends were
far richer and more detailed. The Greek influence is the topic of
chapter 5. The Greeks had expanded their influence to the southern
portion of the Italian peninsula far from the tiny Kingdom of Rome. In
the centuries before the Roman Republic, the Greeks had expanded
into southern France and eastern Spain.
In chapter 6, we delve into the world of Celtic influence and see how
the gods of the Celts were melded with the Roman pantheon in
creative ways. What we know about the Celtic pantheon comes from
the Romans. The Celts used oral storytelling to record their history
for generations.
Finally, in chapter 7, we take a brief look at the potential truths
behind the Roman gods, goddesses, and creatures. Every myth had
a beginning, and in this chapter, we explore some of the possibilities.
The Romans were builders and innovators in many industries. They
took existing resources and shaped them to suit their needs. But
they also adopted the creative ideas of others. Over time, the Roman
pantheon became increasingly a melting pot of ideas blended into a
cultural potpourri.
Chapter 1 — The Trojan Connection
Goddess Juno—Jupiter’s queen—looked down upon the ragtag fleet
of Trojan ships, led by Aeneas, and she sneered with delight as she
thought of sinking them to the bottom of the sea. Juno despised Troy
and its people. Petty and immature, like all the gods and goddesses
—they lacked the maturity and humility to act wisely.
She hated Troy because of Paris, Prince of Troy, snubbed Juno
when he judged who was the most beautiful goddess—between
Juno (the Greek Hera), Minerva (Athena) and Venus (Aphrodite).
The dispute began at the wedding of the Greek goddess, Thetis, to
King Peleus of Aegina.
One goddess, though, despised the event. Eris, goddess of discord,
and daughter of Jupiter and Juno was not being invited because the
other gods wanted a peaceful event. Her exclusion angered her. She
said, “to the fairest one” and threw a golden apple over the wall and
into the party. No one caught the apple, but three goddesses claimed
the golden apple as her own—Juno, Minerva, and Venus. To settle
the dispute, they asked Jupiter to judge between them.
Understanding the potentially dire consequences of such a task,
Jupiter chose a mortal to judge who should own the apple based on
the inscription: “to the fairest one.” That mortal was the fair-minded
Paris, Prince of Troy. Jupiter understandably protected himself by
choosing Paris, since the choice would upset the two goddesses not
selected—and that hostility might last forever. Jupiter protected his
own sanity and safety by transferring the dangerous duty onto an
expendable and convenient mortal. Perhaps even wise Minerva did
not realize how truly foolish Paris would be to accept such an
inherently dangerous task.
After the wedding celebration was over Mercury (Hermes) escorted
the three goddesses to Asia Minor—also known as Anatolia, or
modern Turkey. There, they bathed in a local spring on Mount Ida,
not very far from Troy. After freshening up, they found Paris, sitting
on a log under the shade of a mature tree, tending to his flock on the
slopes of the mountain. Naturally, the prince was surprised to have
the three lovely goddesses present him with this interesting
challenge.
At first, the goddesses posed before the honest prince--Juno,
Minerva and finally Venus. But Paris could not decide.
“I’m afraid, my ladies,” he said, taking a deep breath before
continuing, “that this is an impossible task. You are each incredibly
beautiful, and my mind is at an impasse.”
“What if we were to show you our full form,” asked Venus, “without
the visual impediment of the divine clothing we typically wear out of
sensible modesty?”
The other two goddesses nodded encouragingly.
Paris smiled. He had seen naked women before and knew the
pleasure that came with the sight. In fact, his wife was the beautiful
mountain nymph, Oenone. The thought that three major goddesses
would willingly bare themselves for his judgment aroused him more
than he thought possible.
He spoke cautiously, though. He knew of their power, and he did not
want to answer rashly and risk offending any of them.
“I can sense the importance of this challenge you’ve given me. If it
pleases each of you that I—a mere mortal—view your beauty in its
entirety to complete the charge you’ve laid upon me, then I will
humbly do this thing as you request. I sincerely hope that this will be
enough to settle in my own mind an answer to your question.”
Again, Juno went first because of her seniority amongst the three
goddesses. Quietly, she unfastened her garment and let it fall to her
feet. Slowly, she stepped out of it and moved toward the young man
as he remained seated.
Closer she came, slowly advancing. When she was close enough to
touch, she showed the young man her neck and breasts down to her
abdomen. She showed him her thighs and buttocks, as well as the
small of her back. As she displayed her physical form in all its
splendor, she whispered to him, bribing him in exchange for his vote
for her. She would give him rule over all of Europe and Asia, and not
merely Asia Minor—from Eriu to Yamato—Ireland to Japan.
As Juno returned to her clothes, the other two goddesses guessed
what she had done. Each secretly decided to sway the young
prince’s decision with the best possible bribe they could consider.
Next, Minerva dropped her clothing and approached Paris, equally
seductively. Because of her temperament as a warrior and
protectress of the homeland, her movements added power and
finesse which Juno lacked. Her earthiness left Paris breathless. As
Minerva displayed up-close each curve of her beautiful body, she
whispered to him that she could make the young prince the wisest
and most skilled of all mortals in the art of war. All he would need to
do was to choose her as the owner of the golden apple.
Moments later, as Minerva restored her vestments, Venus dropped
her gown and stepped forward, turning with a coy seduction that left
the young mortal’s heart pounding with each step. This was the
goddess of love and Paris felt once again the impossibility of this
challenge.
Venus promised that if Paris chose her, she would make it possible
for him to marry the most beautiful mortal woman in all the world—
the already married, Helen, wife of King Menelaus of Sparta.
Assailed by so much feminine charm, the bribe which raked most
heavily across his mind was the one that most closely matched the
feelings overpowering his mind, body, and soul. Helplessly, he chose
Venus and thus sealed the fate of Troy, setting in motion events that
would eventually lead to the creation of Rome.
When Helen left her husband to join Paris in Troy, the Greeks
banded together to attack the Trojan capital. Why would there be
such unity amongst the usually conflicting Greek city-states? The
leaders of those city-states had agreed to that attack.
Helen was so beautiful that almost every king in the Greek kingdoms
sought her hand in marriage. Her wise father feared any man he
chose for his daughter would soon lose her because the others
would continue to fight over her, even after she married. Minerva’s
wisdom guided him to bind each king to the father’s decision by
swearing to protect Helen’s marriage to whomever she was to be
pledged. Only after each king gave his pledge did the father reveal
his choice.
Thus, when Helen left her husband, the other Greek kings were
duty-bound to go after her—to protect her marriage to Menelaus of
Sparta. For a decade, they laid siege to Troy to protect those
wedding vows between Menelaus and Helen. In the end, Troy lost,
and the city was destroyed.
Now that Juno and Minerva had ensured the collapse of Troy, after
its ten-year war against the Greeks, its remaining citizens were
dispersed throughout the eastern Mediterranean. The future heritage
of Troy depended upon Aeneas, second cousin of the now dead
princes of Troy—including Hector, Paris, Deiphobus, Polydorus.
Juno despised Troy for several reasons.
From her great height, Juno also looked down upon her favorite city
—Carthage—and dreaded the thought the descendants of Aeneas
would someday ruin the now-fledgling town. If only she could stop
Aeneas and end the prophecy concerning him.
Juno also despised the Trojans because her own daughter, Hebe,
had been replaced as Jupiter’s cupbearer. Her husband had chosen
instead the Trojan, Catamitus (Greek Ganymede).
After the destruction of Troy, Aeneas had directed his ships to head
west. Somewhere out there was a new home for him and his people.
Slowly, at first, and then with conviction, Juno descended down to
Earth and to the island of Aeolus—master of the winds.
“My dear King Aeolus,” said Juno.
“My goddess!” Aeolus stood back, amazed at her sudden entrance.
“To what do I owe this honor.”
Juno looked away for a moment, considering her words carefully,
then turned back to him with a look that drilled into his eyes,
commanding his full attention, even though she already had it. “I
have come to ask a favor. A tiny thing, really. It’s trivial, but it needs
to be done.”
“Yes, my lady?”
“I would like you to use your winds to create a storm. Over there,”
she pointed out to sea, “are the ships of Aeneas, the Trojan prince,
and all his fellow refugees. I want them destroyed—especially the
ship holding Aeneas.”
“Hmm-mm,” Aeolus nodded thoughtfully, then shook his head in
disagreement. “My lady, I cannot. I have no grievance with Aeneas
or his people.”
“But you must,” said Juno. “Perhaps I could make the task more
attractive by including Deiopea to become your bride.”
The king’s eyebrows raised in appreciation of the offer. The sea
nymph, Deiopea, was said to be the loveliest of all sea creatures.
But he shook his head again. “My lady, I will not take her as wife, for
I already have one, and she is sufficient for me. But because this
means so much to you, I will help.”
“Thank you, kind sir,” said Juno, and abruptly vanished.
Immediately, Aeolus gathered all his winds and overwhelmed the
Trojan fleet. This storm disturbed the surface of the sea, and
suddenly, Neptune (Greek Poseidon) was alerted to the commotion
in his realm.
“What goes on here?” Neptune demanded. He saw the winds and
their target—the Trojan ships. The sea god had no love for Troy, but
he resented the intrusion into his domain. “Be still, waters!” he
commanded. And he calmed the winds, despite the efforts of Aeolus.
This was Neptune’s territory, and any intrusion by another god was
unwelcome.
Neptune could smell the handiwork of Aeolus and knew someone
else was behind this attack. Despite his dislike of the Trojans, he
disliked the intrusion even more. So, he gave the ships of Aeneas a
favorable breeze which took them to the north coast of Africa, not far
from the new town of Carthage.
Aeneas and his fellow travelers landed on the shore, thankful to be
alive.
In the distance, Aeneas saw a beautiful woman approaching on
horseback. She had a bow strung across her shoulder and a quiver
on her back. He watched her as she made her way to them.
“You are all lucky to be alive,” said the woman, who happened to be
his mother, Venus, in disguise. “Some of the gods favor you and your
companions.”
“I was beginning to lose hope,” said Aeneas. “I appreciate your
words, but even I was beginning to wonder if all of the gods might be
against us, now that we have lost our war with the Greeks.”
“Fear not,” she said, “your destiny is to plant the seed of a great
empire.”
The young prince cocked his head to the side, uncertain he could
believe this from some strange huntress on the beach of North
Africa.
“And you are in luck,” she said. “Not far this way,” she pointed toward
the West, “there is a new town called Carthage, founded by the
Phoenicians of Tyre, and ruled over by good queen Dido. You will
usually find her in the Temple of Juno.”
“Well, thank you, fair stranger,” said Aeneas, just as she prodded her
horse into a trot in the same direction. “But—” and she was gone,
receding into the distance, ignoring his words.
“I see trees over there, master,” said one of his fellow travelers.
“There may be a well and clean water.”
“Good. Let’s us refresh ourselves and then head toward this new
town, Carthage.”
Aeneas found his way to the Temple of Juno and there entreated the
queen to help his small band of refugees. In the tradition of all
civilized folk, she invited him and his fellow travelers to a banquet in
their honor.
In the meantime, Venus met with her son, Cupid—half-brother to
Aeneas.
“My darling son, I need your help. I would like you to help me create
a bond between Queen Dido and your brother, Aeneas.”
“Yes, mother.”
At the banquet which Dido arranged for Aeneas and the other
Trojans, Cupid showed up disguised as Ascanius, Aeneas’s son by
his first wife, Creusa. While the image of the son approached Queen
Dido bearing gifts, invisible Venus surrounded the real Ascanius with
a ghostly shroud to keep others from noticing there were two of him.
Even the real Ascanius was bewitched into ignoring the imposter.
Dido graciously received the gifts and reached for the handsome
young boy to draw him close. She felt an overpowering urge to give
him a mother’s affection. While in Dido’s embrace, Cupid worked his
charms on her, weakening a sacred pledge she had made to stay
faithful to her dead husband, slain by her brother.
“Tell me, Aeneas,” said Queen Dido, “all that has happened to you. I
want to hear the entire story. Stories help us to understand.” She
was going to say that stories also entertain, but thought better of it,
knowing the Trojan’s tale would include great tragedy.
“Well, my lady,” said Aeneas, “I would like to thank you for your
gracious hospitality. We are weary from our travels. This spot of
civilization soothes our souls.”
The queen raised her cup toward him and smiled.
“Our once-great city,” said Aeneas, “at the entrance to that enormous
body of water, northeast of the Mediterranean—what the Greeks call
the Euxine Sea—our city was attacked by the Greeks. For ten long
years, they tried to destroy us all. Then, on the eve of what seemed
like our victory, the Greeks left a gift on our doorstep and departed
en masse. But the gift was our undoing, for within it was Greek
soldiers who lay as still as death until we were drunk and asleep
from our long celebration.
“By the end of the next day, our city was a smoldering mass of
former humanity. Our people killed or under Greek subjugation.
Some of us escaped inland. The next day, when the hostilities were
done, and some semblance of peace returned, I went back to Troy to
find my wife, but she was dead. In the smoke, I saw an image of her,
and it spoke, telling me I would establish a great city to the West.
“Inspired by her words, I convinced my fellows to help me build our
small fleet of ships. Our travels took us all over the Eastern
Mediterranean—to Thrace, where we found the remains of our fellow
Trojan, Polydorus. Then to Strophades, where we met Celaeno, the
Harpy. She told us to leave her island. And before we left, she said I
must look for a place called Italy. After that, we landed at Crete. We
thought perhaps we arrived at our destination and began to build our
city. We named it Pergamea. But then Apollo visited us and told us
we had not yet arrived at our true destination.
“At fair Buthrotum, north of Macedonia, we attempted to replicate
Troy. On that island, we met the widow of Prince Hector and found
Prince Helenus who had also escaped. Now, Helenus has the gift of
prophecy. From him, I learned more about my own destiny. He told
me I needed to find Italy which is also known as Ausonia, and by the
name Hesperia.”
“There are two large peninsulas named Hesperia,” said the queen.
“One is due north of here, across the Tyrrhenian Sea. The other is at
the far western end of the Mediterranean, north of the exit to our
small, inland sea, and entrance to a far larger, Great Ocean, the
realm of Atlas and the once great Atlantis which sank so long ago.”
The queen suddenly felt self-conscious about what she had just said.
The Phoenician custom was to keep secret the discoveries of the
Phoenician people. Such discoveries were frequently made at great
cost and to give them away would be to lose the Phoenician hold on
such knowledge. But the queen had been feeling exceptionally
joyous with the arrival of these guests. She felt overcome with a
generous spirit.
“Thank you, my lady, for your help in our quest. After Buthrotum, we
found ourselves in a land called Trinacria where our ships barely
escaped a grave danger we later learned was called Charybdis—a
vast whirlpool which threatened to swallow entire ships. From there,
we encountered the Cyclopes and one of the Greeks—a soldier who
had served under Ulysses—a soldier who had been left behind in
their mad rush to escape the great, one-eyed beasts. We took
Achaemenides, the Greek, on board with us, but barely escaped with
our own lives when blind Polyphemus heard our voices. Not long
afterward, my own father, Anchises, died peacefully of his own
years. We sailed next into the open seas, unsure where to find this
Hesperia—this Italy. A great storm nearly destroyed us, but then we
found the coast not far from here.”
“I am so thankful that you made it,” said the queen. Her eyes
glistened toward him, and at that moment, she knew she loved this
prince.
Aeneas, too, could feel the bond and gazed upon her with deep
admiration.
Later, after they had taken in their fill. Dido suggested Aeneas, and a
few of his best hunters go inland with her to find game.
In the hall, but invisible to these mortals, Juno confronted Venus.
“Listen,” said Juno. “I would like to strike a bargain with you. These
two seem to be well-suited for one another. See how much they are
in love?”
“Yes,” said Venus, “what did you have in mind.”
“I will stop my attacks on these Trojans if Aeneas stays here in
Carthage with Dido, becoming her husband.”
Venus smiled at the thought of her son marrying the local queen.
This pleased her greatly. And since she already orchestrated the
beginnings of love, she would do everything she could to hold Juno
to her promise.
During their hunt, Dido and Aeneas followed their clues to find their
prey and became separated from the others. And when a storm
struck they found a nearby cave for shelter. Within the cave, Aeneas
held Dido close to keep her warm. In that embrace, there came
kisses and a deeper, more passionate experience which Dido took to
mean Aeneas was now bound to her for life.
After they returned to the palace in Carthage, the two were clearly
and deeply in love. But their affection was short-lived. While the two
were together in her chamber, a bright light appeared in the middle
of the room and suddenly there appeared the form of Mercury,
messenger of the gods.
“Aeneas, son of Venus,” said Mercury, “this has gone too far, and
Jupiter himself has commanded me to intervene. You have a destiny,
and it must be seen through to the end.”
“But,” said Dido. “does he have to stay away. Can’t he return to me?”
“I’m afraid not, my lady,” replied Mercury. “The future fate of the
world hangs on the shoulders of Aeneas.”
Dido shook her head and screamed in agony. The pain of such fresh
love being snuffed out before its full blossom was too much to bear.
She looked to Aeneas for some relief from her agony.
“Sorry, my love,” was all he could say.
Her screams filled the palace with such remorse all could feel her
pain.
Immediately, she grabbed the sword of Aeneas and left the room.
Cautiously, he followed. He could hear her commands to build a pyre
in the great opening in front of the palace. When it had been built,
she climbed up to the top of it, his sword in her hand.
“People of Carthage. We’ve all suffered too much tragedy of late.
First, the murder of my husband, and now this tragic love that must
never be. Suddenly, she plunged the sword into her abdomen.
Her eyes goggled in incredible pain, and she dropped to her knees,
the sword sliding from her wound. “There will forever be great strife
between our peoples, Aeneas. You have wounded me more than
this sword could ever do.” She then fell backward onto the pyre,
gasping these final words, “rise up from my bones, avenging spirit.”
Understanding the gravity of this act, Aeneas quickly gathered his
people and ushered them out of the city and back to their ships.
As they sailed away, he looked back at Carthage, but all he could
see was the smoke pouring upward into the sky from Dido’s funeral
pyre.
What History and an Analysis of Myth
Tell Us
Estimates for the founding of Carthage range from 1215 to 814 BC.
Modern historians seem to favor the later date, because of a
reference made by Timaeus of Taormina that Carthage had been
founded 38 years before the first Olympiad (776 BC). This is ironic
and possibly quite wrong, if we believe the story of Aeneas, because
the Trojan War was supposedly far earlier—traditionally dated at
1184 BC. Some historians placed the founding of Gadir (Roman
Gādēs, Moorish Qādis, modern Cádiz, Spain) at about 1104 BC, as
a colony of Tyre—far beyond Carthage when traveling from Tyre.
While it’s entirely possible that Tyre bypassed many locations to
establish a lonely outpost beyond the far, opposite end of the
Mediterranean, it seems more likely they created at least one or two
intermediate colonies across that 4,000-kilometer length. The
archaeological level at Hissarlik, Turkey, associated with the Trojan
War, called Troy VIIa was destroyed about 1220 BC.
Though Aeneas has minor mention in Homer’s Iliad the myth of
Aeneas being the grandfather of Rome came about during the first
century with writers like Virgil, Ovid, and Livy. So, it seems highly
probable the Roman connection to Troy, was contrived to establish a
pseudo-historical basis for the Julian family brand.
From this fictionalized narrative, Julius Caesar could claim direct
descent from the goddess Venus, through her son, the Trojan
Aeneas. In addition, Aeneas’s father, Anchises, was fourth grandson
of Zeus and Electra. Thus, every time a member of the Caesar
family spoke, they were speaking from a position of divine power,
and this helped them to command greater respect. It didn’t save
Julius Caesar from the conspiracy to assassinate him, but it did help
to lay the foundation of “gravitas” that grew into the office of emperor.
Venus was the goddess of love, but Julius Caesar had made a name
for himself, and his extended family, more from his own acts of war—
against the Celtic Gauls, and later against disruptive elements within
the Roman Republic.
From these histories (contrived or handed down), we learn which
gods favored the Romans and their founders.
Some of the other gods were no friend to Rome and its founding.
These defacto enemies of Troy, and thus, by implication, of Rome,
were Juno (Greek Hera), Vulcan (Hephaestus), Mercury (Hermes),
Neptune (Poseidon), Thetis (no counterpart in Roman mythology),
Timorus (Phobos), Formido (Deimos) and Discordia (Eris). Discordia
(Eris), after all, was the goddess who had started the entire Trojan
problem with her jealous spitefulness for not being invited to a divine
wedding. It seems doubly abusive she should be against the party
being attacked because of her own behavior. Supporting Troy, and
by inference, also Rome, were Venus (Aphrodite), Apollo, Mars
(Ares), Diana (Artemis), Latona (Leto) and Greek Scamander (no
Roman equivalent).
From the expanded story of Aeneas, by the Romans, we see Jupiter
also supported the Roman cause.
From Aeneas, the son of Venus down to the founders of Rome—
Romulus and Remus—there were 15 generations of Latins, first at
Lavinium and then at Alba Longa.
In the next chapter, we see how these divine, Trojan demigods
struggled to establish a beachhead in the middle of the Italian
peninsula, amongst numerous other tribes.
Chapter 2 — Founding of Rome
“Numitor is the rightful king,” said someone in the crowd.
“Then why did he make it so easy for his brother, Amulius, to depose
him?” asked Domitianus, “Does it sound right that such a reckless
and weak king should remain on the throne? Numitor is too soft.”
“If I steal your cloak,” asked Remus, “does that make me the new
owner?”
“If you were weak enough with your protection of your own property
to permit its theft, then, yes,” said Domitianus, “you would no longer
deserve it.” Remus did not miss the fact that his opponent had
shifted the focus from Domitianus to Remus, apparently incapable of
considering himself ever to be vulnerable.
“And,” Remus raised a small purse of coins, “this used to be on your
person, but you could not feel it when I took it? Does that make you
weak and soft?”
“Give that back,” said Domitianus reaching out for it.
“Why?” asked Remus. “It’s mine, now. You said so in your own
words.”
Domitianus clenched his fists, furrowing his brow, and worked his
mouth as if chewing a tough slab of beef. He stepped toward
Remus, but one of his friends held him to keep him from taking
another.
“Remus has a point,” said Romulus. “Amulius stole the throne by
force—betrayal from within. If I were Numitor, I’d have Amulius
drawn and hanged by his own entrails for his betrayal. Simple
treason. You don’t do that to your own king. Betrayal is one of the
worst of crimes.”
Remus continued to taunt Domitianus by dangling the coin purse in
front of him. Suddenly, Remus attempted an underhanded toss
which was poorly aimed—not with conscious intent—and hit
Domitianus in the face with his own purse.
Enraged, Domitianus attacked Remus and the violence quickly
spread throughout the crowd.
Romulus called for his supporters to withdraw. “Retreat, my friends.
These traitors are not worth our time.”
So, they departed, fending off the last few blows from their
opposition.
When Romulus and his friends had retreated to a safe distance, they
noticed the supporters of King Amulius also retreating, carrying their
wounded.
“Where’s Remus?” asked Romulus. He looked from one friend to
another. They shrugged. “By the gods! They’ve taken my brother!”
“What do we do?” asked someone nearby.
“We rescue him,” replied Romulus, sharply.
“Yes, yes. Of course,” said another. “But how?”
“Iulianus, follow them,” said Romulus. “Find out where they’re
holding my brother and report back.”
The young man—their fastest runner—nodded and took off after the
supporters of the usurper. Romulus spent the next hour gathering
men to support a rescue effort. Not long afterward, Iulianus reported
back and gave the location where Remus was being held.
Minutes later, three groups of Numitor’s supporters approached the
holding place by different paths and quickly overwhelmed the guards
standing outside. Two others had been taken with Remus and all
three of them were freed.
That evening, both Romulus and Remus received word King Amulius
was looking for them. This was followed shortly by a message which
took them both by surprise. It was from Numitor himself. He wanted
to meet the two young men.
It was late in the evening when Romulus and Remus were led to the
home of Numitor, the deposed king.
“Welcome, lads. Please,” he motioned toward seats in front of a
table toward the center of the room. “I have enquired about your
family. Faustulus informs me that he found you both being suckled
by a woman of the Rasennan wolf clan, not far north of here. She
gave you two up to him, for she had merely found you both drifting
on a raft on the River Tiber.”
“Yes,” replied Romulus. “That is as much as we know.”
Numitor nodded. “I heard how you stood up for me against the
supporters of my brother.” He smiled.
“I am surprised,” said Romulus, “that your brother would let you live
after taking your throne.”
“Yes,” said Numitor, smiled weakly and turned from them, continuing
to speak. “He has my daughter, Rhea Silvia, in a convent which they
control. After Amulius led his forces to overthrow me, he had my son
killed, and had my daughter committed to 30 years of celibacy in the
convent to ensure I could not have an heir.” Numitor nodded and
turned back to them. “My brother fears me, but cannot kill me. It’s
ironic he can kill babies, though. He killed his nephew easily enough.
But perhaps he feels it’s safer to keep me alive so my supporters
don’t kill him outright.”
“If only there were something we could do,” said Remus.
“Perhaps there is,” said the former king. “Perhaps there is. But first,
let me tell you a story. Do you know of Aeneas?”
“Yes, of course,” said Romulus. “Every child of our tribe learns of the
great Trojan, descended from the gods—from Venus directly, as her
son, and from Jupiter through his father, the fifth great-grandson of
Jupiter, himself.”
“Many of us,” said Numitor, “are directly related to Aeneas and to the
gods. When my daughter was locked away in the convent, Mars
visited her.”
“Really?” asked Remus. “In a convent?”
“He is a god,” said Romulus.
“And my lovely Rhea has divinity running through her veins, just as it
does through those of my brother. But she gave birth to twins.”
Numitor paused for a moment, looking deeply in the eyes of Remus,
and then Romulus. “Amulius ordered those twins to be killed, but the
servants put them in a basket and set them adrift on the River Tiber.”
Romulus’s eyes went wide, and he looked at Remus, who was
equally surprised. “But—”
“When Aeneas reached these shores,” continued Numitor, “he made
friends with King Latinus of the Latins. The king was so impressed
by the Trojan that he offered him his daughter, Lavinia, in marriage.
This did not sit well with King Turnus of the Rutuli, for he had
expected Lavinia’s hand in marriage. Turnus therefore attacked, but
Aeneas prevailed and killed Turnus. Aeneas founded the city of
Lavinium, named in honor of his new wife.
“After the death of Aeneas, his son, Ascanius—also known as Iulus
—became the king of Lavinium. A greedy Etruscan king, named
Mezentius, attacked after Ascanius’s installation as king, forcing the
people of Aeneas to pay tribute. Not long afterward, Ascanius
attacked Mezentius, killing his son, and forced the Etruscan to pay
tribute. When that had been settled, Ascanius left the city under rule
of his step-mother, Lavinia, and he went on to found this city of Alba
Longa.”
“But wait,” said Romulus, “What was that you said earlier about twins
and the river?”
Numitor smiled and nodded. “I am the twelfth great-grandson of
Aeneas and you, my two wonderful boys, are the fourteenth great
grandsons of Aeneas.”
Both young men stood and again looked at one another. Numitor
stepped toward them and flung his arms around them both, drawing
them close for a strong embrace. “You are my grandchildren,” he
said. “I knew it the moment I heard of your strength of character,
your support of me. You have the blood of the gods running in your
veins.” He stopped and wept, holding them tightly. They both
embraced their grandfather.
Through the night, they talked about how to restore Numitor to the
throne. Within three days, they had gathered the necessary forces
and developed the strategy to overthrow Amulius, while also
protecting their mother, Rhea Silvia. In the fighting, Amulius was
killed along with many of his supporters. Those who were left were
told to submit to Numitor or to face exile.
Both boys wished their grandfather well, but felt their destiny lay
back where the Etruscan wolf woman had nurtured them. They
returned to the seven hills of their upbringing vowing to build an even
greater city. With their grandfather’s blessings, they returned to the
home they knew.
“There,” said Romulus, “on the Palatine Hill. That is the most
strategically defensible position for a new city.”
“I disagree,” said Remus. He pointed, “There, on the Aventine Hill.”
They argued for several minutes, finally deciding to let the gods help
in their decision.
“Let augury help us,” recommended Remus.
“Agreed,” replied Romulus. “Begin!”
“There, there, there,” said Remus excitedly. “I have spotted six
auspicious birds.
Romulus grumbled and waved for his brother to be patient. A few
moments later, he said, “Well, now. Look at that. Twelve. I win.”
“But I spotted mine first,” said Remus. “I win.”
Romulus shook his head and muttered, “Incredible. Do what you
must. I’m building my city there.” Again, he pointed to the Palatine
Hill and waved to his followers. “Let’s go.”
Remus looked back to those who remained with him. “To the
Aventine Hill,” he said. “Perhaps we’ll have two cities in support of
each other.”
Before long, Romulus and his men had built a wall partway around
their new city. Remus decided to investigate the defenses and
leaped over the wall. A surprised guard whirled on him and thrust his
sword into the young man before the guard recognized who it was.
“By the gods,” remarked Romulus, “what have you done?” He
rushed forward and held his brother in his arms. “Remus, oh
Remus!” The life went out of him and Romulus wailed with grief.
For several days, his men, combined with those who had followed
Remus, continued to build the wall. Romulus, however, stood apart
from them, working through his grief.
Finally, he gathered his men together to talk with them.
“This city has one major problem.”
“But sir,” said one of his men, “what could that be. The site is good,”
he looked to some of the men who had followed Remus, “perhaps as
good as the Aventine Hill, and our wall is sturdy and highly
defensible. What are we missing?”
Romulus chuckled and then smiled for the first time in over a week.
“As we are now, we are a city of only one generation. After we are
gone, so will be our city.”
“What?”
“Oh,” said one of the others. “Of course. No women.”
Suddenly, everyone laughed.
“What I propose,” said Romulus, “is that we negotiate with the
Sabines just beyond these hills and ask for their daughters in
marriage.”
Everyone nodded. It sounded like a good plan, but when the Sabine
elders were consulted, their answer was a resounding “No!” Those
elders feared the competition. A new city-state in their midst could
only mean eventual tyranny, overthrow, or conquest.
Though his men were disheartened, Romulus, smiled a sly grin as
he gathered them once again to discuss their options.
“Men,” said Romulus, “we have great skills—building, metallurgy,
farming and the like. We, therefore, should be able to come up with a
plan to gain the women we need. I propose that we prepare a feast
and invite our neighbors to join us. Let us finish our wall, and use
that as a guise for the celebration. We need weapons, but we also
need food. We need to plan this carefully so that it is both enticing to
our neighbors and foolproof in our aims to gain our future wives. In a
few weeks, about the time we will be finishing our wall, there is the
festival of Neptune Equester—god of the sea as patron of horses.
We should have some horses by then, too.”
Everyone nodded. And Romulus set them each to the tasks in
preparation for their upcoming festival.
On the day of the feast, people from all the neighboring villages
came—Sabines, Caeninenses, Crustumini, and Antemnates—
bringing their sons and daughters to help the new Romulans
consecrate their new city and to celebrate the completion of the
outer wall.
Midway through the festivities, Romulus gave the signal and half his
men grabbed a woman and took her forcefully back up to the wall.
There, some of the men remained to guard their catch and keep
them from escaping, while others used their new weapons to fend off
the angry fathers and brothers. Then, more of the men grabbed
another batch of young women to take to their wall, so all would
have wives.
Only a small force was needed to guard the women. Most of
Romulus’ forces were employed to defeat the neighboring men and
their wives, forcing them to retreat.
After the guests left, the kidnapped women were taken, one by one,
to see Romulus. He talked to each of them, pleading with them to
submit to their new husbands for the sake of their new civilization.
He appealed to their maternal instincts, suggesting there is nothing
more sacred than to share in the creation of children.
The next day, the King of the Caeninenses brought his army and
attacked the Romulans. Their king was killed and their army was
sent home, demoralized by their humiliating defeat.
Romulus gathered his strongest troops and attacked their city,
Caenina, and easily took it. On the first of March, 752 BC, Romulus
celebrated the defeat of the Caeninenses by dedicating ground for a
temple to Jupiter.
The Antemnates attacked Romulus’s new city. And again, Romulus
retaliated, capturing their city. Then the Crustumini took up arms
against the forces of Romulus and they, too, lost their town.
Finally, the Sabines decided Romulus needed to be vanquished for
his theft of their women. King Titus Tatius sent his forces against the
gates of the new city and found that one of the women would open
the gates if she would receive what they wore on their arms. She
was Tarpeia, daughter of Spurius Tarpeius. When she opened the
gates, she was immediately killed by their advancing shields—borne
on their arms--squeezing the life out of her. Her dead body was
thrown off a nearby high rock which came to be known as the
Tarpeian Rock—the place Rome executed all traitors.
Now, the Sabines held the city’s citadel. The Romulans attacked but
were easily repulsed. Romulus’s men were depressed by their failure
to reacquire their own city.
Romulus talked to them, attempting to lift their spirits. “By Jupiter
himself, we will win this. And in his honor, I will build another temple,
this time to Jupiter Stator. The gods are on our side if only we will do
the brave thing and take these invaders down.”
With his men sufficiently motivated, they attacked and sent the
Sabine general running. As they closed in on their Sabine enemies,
Romulus and his men received the shock of their lives.
Suddenly, between the opposing forces, the Sabine wives rushed to
stop them.
“Hear me!” said one of the women, “oh men of Sabine and husbands
of Romulus. We do not care to lose either our husbands or our
fathers. Please, put down your arms, or you will have to use them
against us. We cannot live without fathers or husbands. Please do
not make us choose.”
The war ended abruptly. King Titus Tatius agreed to rule with
Romulus over both the new city and the old city of Sabinium.
As the final agreements had been made, one of Romulus’ men
spoke, “Sir, we have called this place our city or the city of Romulus,
but we truly need a name worthy of a city. Perhaps we could call it
simply, ‘Romulus.'”
King Romulus looked down for a moment in all humility and then
addressed first the man and then all his men. “My fellow countrymen.
I am honored by this suggestion, but I would not want to forget my
dear brother, Remus. Perhaps we can use his name, instead.”
“Or,” said another man, “we could use a shorter name that would
remind us of both brothers—Roma.”
Several others nodded or voiced approval of the new name.
“Yes,” said Romulus. “This name makes me happy. I’m sure Remus
would approve.”
From the She-Wolf to the Founding of
a Great City
The first time the story of Romulus and Remus appeared in Roman
literature was toward the end of the third century BC. Whether their
story had always been a part of the Roman culture is unknown.
Many cultures had oral traditions that were eventually written down
for posterity—the Greeks, the Germans, and the Romans.
Romulus and Remus were suckled by a she-wolf. The image seems
to shout, “We are tough; don’t mess with us.” Modern scholars
consider the wolf symbol to have been Etruscan (Rasennan). What
might be more likely, if these two legendary heroes are based on real
people, is they were suckled by an Etruscan maiden (human).
Etruria (Rasenna), at the founding of Rome, included much of the
surrounding terrain, with its capital at Velzna, northwest of Rome.
Many other cultures occupied what is today modern Italy and several
within 75 miles of Rome. Modern-day Tuscany was home to the
Etruscans, and in southern Italy and Sicily, Greeks occupied many
places along the coast.
The tiny kingdom of Rome had a great deal of competition on the
peninsula, including the two main islands associated with Italy:
Sardinia and Sicily.
The city of Lavinium is, a real place, and archaeological evidence
suggests Alba Longa was a real town or group of smaller towns
along Lake Albano, stretching from the Alban Mount.
It took a great deal of practical, as well as military wisdom for the
Romans to survive and to thrive amongst so many other cultures.
But the Romans had the gods on their side. Roman humility to the
higher power of the gods made those mortals modest enough to
seek practical and workable answers, instead of relying on their own,
shortsighted egos.
Chapter 3 — Purely Roman Gods
Around 640 BC, King Ancus Marcius led his people down to the
Tiber in a slow, solemn procession.
Ancus Marcius Rex, King of Roma, at age 37, had only recently
become the tiny kingdom’s new ruler. His predecessor was the
grandson of Hostus Hostilius, the hero who fought alongside
Romulus in reclaiming the city from the Sabines. Hostus died a hero,
and his grandson made a fine king but paid too little attention to
worship of the gods. Ancus was a Sabine by lineage, and grandson
of the city’s second king—Numa Pompilius—the great successor of
Romulus.
As his first act, he ordered the Pontifex Maximus to make a public
copy of the text of his grandfather’s commentaries on religious rites,
so every citizen knew the details of proper worship.
His people were soon intent on appeasing the god of the river—
Tiberinus.
Four men carried a straw effigy of a man on their shoulders. They
walked up to the edge of the water and waited.
“Citizens,” said the king, “Let us first invoke Janus, the god of
beginnings to bless this event so that everything we do here will
have a righteous impact on our lives. Lord Janus, visit us now and
consecrate these proceedings as only you can.” He turned from one
side to the other to survey the crowd, including them all in what he
said.
“We gather today,” the king continued, “to pay homage to Tiberinus
and to his waters which bring life to the land. Please accept this
offering of ours which symbolically links us to the river which
bestows to us so many blessings every day of our existence.”
A priest from one of the temples stepped forward and consecrated
the straw effigy, saying several words of prayer over it. Then the four
men threw the straw man into the river, and everyone watched as
the current carried it toward the sea.
“Thank you, my good people,” said the king, “and may the festivities
begin.”
There was a loud cheer from the crowd, and everyone walked back
up the hill to where the eating and games were held.
Ennius Cloelius was an old man with white hair, but he walked erect
despite his age. As counselor to the king, he was frequently found by
the king’s side. Today was no exception. As they walked behind the
crowds of people, they talked.
“My Lord,” said Ennius, “I’ve received reports that a number of the
Latin tribes are becoming jealous of our successes. I fear they may
attack.”
“Thank you, my friend,” replied the king, “It’s always good to know
the truth of things, even when bad news. We need to be prepared,
certainly.”
“But, Lord, how do we respond if they do attack?”
“With strength, certainly. We defend ourselves. But more than that,
we need to realize the people of each city are not necessarily
responsible for the acts of their rulers or their military. I, for one,
would welcome more citizens, if they are willing to live in peace. As
Romulus had done before us, we need to bring more of the Latins
into our midst and give them a home within our protection. If more
attack us, we defeat them, too, and take their citizens as booty—not
as slaves, mind you, but as honored guests and citizens of our new
nation.”
“Thank you, my Lord. And how will we be legitimizing our attack on
the Latins?”
The king laughed. “You’re testing me?” He chuckled again and
slapped the advisor on the back with affection. “As always, we
consult the gods. We will only ever declare war on others through
the rites of the fetials. After all, we do want to win, if we do go to war.
The last thing we need is to attack and to find that the gods are
against us in that attack. That would be foolish, indeed.”
“I see, my Lord. Very wise.”
“And, as always, my old friend, I rely on your wisdom to tell me when
I need to rethink my case.”
Earliest Rome
Rome had a habit of acquiring gods along with their conquest of
territory and their peoples. The gods included here are those which
inherently part of the Roman culture or were imported in the
beginning when they kidnapped their Sabine brides.
Abundantia is the goddess of abundance and prosperity.
Bubona is the goddess of cattle.
Candelifera is the goddess of childbirth. The name literally means
“she who bears the candle,” perhaps referring to someone who
provides light for deliveries made at night.
Carmenta is the goddess of childbirth and prophecy.
Clementia is the goddess of forgiveness and mercy.
Cloacina is the goddess of the sewers in Rome, and protector of
sexual intercourse during marriage.
Deverra is the goddess of midwives and women in labor. The name
means “to sweep away, ” and this is aimed at the evil that might
threaten the mother or newborn child.
Dis Pater is the Roman god of prosperity derived from the land—
minerals, metals, crops and more—and later of the underworld. How
did the realm of the dead become associated with crops and
minerals? Everything connected with the ground was also connected
to the underworld. The dead were buried in the ground. Beyond the
ground, as the old myths went, the gods ruled over the dead souls.
Later, Dis Pater was absorbed into the god, Pluto, who was the
counterpart to the Greek god of the underworld, Hades. Pater comes
from the root for “father,” and sometimes the god was merely called
“Dis.”
Edesia is the goddess of food who presided over banquets.
Fabulinus is the god of children and teaching them to speak. When
an infant spoke their first word, an offering would be made to this
god in thanks for the blessed event.
Felicitas is the goddess of good luck and success. Similar to
Fortuna, but the luck coming from Felicitas was always positive.
Fides is the goddess of loyalty, trust, and good faith. Her symbol
was the turtle-dove, and she oversaw the protection of all state
treaties with foreign countries.
Honos is the god of military honors and chivalry.
Janus is the Roman god of beginnings, endings, and the doors or
openings between states, realms, and conditions. We see his name
even today in the Western calendar for the year’s first month—
January. Because everything important has a beginning, Janus was
the first god consulted at such events—marriages, births, seasons,
days, deaths, and even new buildings, and towns. All religious
ceremonies had their beginnings. If a festival of Neptune were being
held, Janus would be mentioned first, so the celebration begins on
the right footing.
Romans held a fascination for omens. They were forever looking for
signs to tell the future, and as the present passed through the
doorway into the future, Janus was always present demanding
consideration from each righteous Roman citizen. As the god of
doors, Janus had some say about who could communicate with the
other gods and was always consulted in matters concerning any
divinity.
The god Janus likely derived from a conflation of two Etruscan gods
—Ana (goddess of beginnings), and Aita (god of endings and the
underworld).
Juventas is the goddess of youth, especially for the young men who
have come of age and were “new to wearing the toga.”
Lares was not the name of an individual god, but the term used for
all personal, family gods. These gods looked out for the family, its
members, and the spirits of its ancestors. Small offerings were given
each day to the Lares so they would continue to take care of their
dead ancestors and to look out for the good fortunes of the family.
During more important functions, more elaborate offerings were
made to the Lares in proportion to the importance of the event,
whether it be a wedding, birth or some other occasion. See
“Penates” for another group of protective gods. Roman cities had
public Penates and Lares to protect them.
Larunda is the goddess of silence. She is famous for both her
beauty and talkativeness. She was so loquacious she could never
keep a secret. When Jupiter had an affair with a fellow nymph—
Janus’ wife Juturna—Larunda told Juno all the juicy details. For this
betrayal of the King of gods to his wife, Jupiter cut out Larunda’s
tongue so she could never speak again, and Mercury escorted her to
the underworld. Taken with her beauty, Mercury made love with her.
To keep his affair with her a secret from Jupiter, Mercury hid her in a
woodland cottage where the King of gods would never find her. The
children she bore became known as the Lares. See also Muta and
Tacita.
Liber and Libera are a pair of gods—male and female, who
represented fertility. Liber was especially important in this patriarchal
society as a symbol of male fertility, as well as the personal transition
of a boy into manhood. The worship of Liber also involved partying.
He was so popular early Romans dedicated an entire month to the
adoration of this god. Celebrations included the symbol of male
fertility—a giant phallic emblem which was paraded through the city
to protect the current season’s crops. Later, Liber was superseded
by the Roman equivalent of Greek Dionysis, Bacchus. Liber was
held in high esteem by traditionalist cults who desired to perpetuate
the wild sex parties and the rare slaying of a partygoer which
heightened the sense of pleasure.
Muta is the goddess of silence. Her name means “the mute one.”
See also Larunda and Tacita.
Ocnus is the Roman god of delay, hesitation, and frustration—
everything to do with unsuccessful efforts, and is the son of
Tiberinus. He was kept in the underworld, condemned forever to
weave a rope made of straw. The rope was eaten by a donkey as
fast as he made it, thus symbolizing the futility over which he had
been given domain.
Penates, like Lares, was not the name of an individual god, but the
term applied to all household gods. While the Lares were protective,
ancestral spirits, the Penates were gods of Roman households and
guardians of storerooms and hearths. Roman cities had public
Penates and Lares to protect them.
Pietas is the goddess of duty, loyalty, filial piety and proper religious
behavior.
Pomona is the goddess of fruit trees, fruitful abundance, and
orchards. She is a wood nymph.
Quirinus is an early Sabine addition. He is a god of war, long before
Roman borrowed Greek Ares and renamed him, Mars. Later, when
Mars was the defacto god of war, Quirinus became associated with
Romulus, elevating the legendary founder to a form of divinity. Thus,
Quirinus later represented Rome itself.
Sancus is the god of loyalty, honesty, and oaths.
Sors is the god of luck, possibly a son of Fortuna (see the chapter
on Greek gods).
Spes is the goddess of hope.
Tacita is the goddess of silence. Her name means “the silent one.”
See also, Muta and Larunda.
Tempestes is the goddess of storms and sudden changes in
weather.
Tiberinus is a Roman river god for the River Tiber, which ran
through the capital city. Like many primitive societies, the Roman
culture was at least partially animistic—viewing the world around
them as possessing a dual nature—part physical and part spiritual.
Tiberinus is the god who helped Aeneas when the Trojan first arrived
in Italy. He suggested which allies should help Aeneas defeat the
jealous Turnus who wanted Lavinia’s hand in marriage. Tiberinus
also rescued Rhea Silvia after her imprisonment in the convent. With
a Greek female fortune teller named Manto, he had a son named
Ocnus. Each 27 May citizens create a straw effigy and toss it into the
Tiber River to appease Tiberinus.
Tranquillitas is the goddess of peace, calmness, security, and
tranquility. Her qualities are the embodiment of the Roman Way (Via
Romana) and the justification for Rome to subdue, overcome and
civilize the world around them.
Trivia is the goddess of magic, witchcraft, sorcery. She often
frequented graveyards and haunted crossroads. Only barking dogs
could see her as she wandered about at night.

The Creatures of Roman Mythology

The Romans did not contribute much in the way of mythological
creatures. Their attempts at creating these creatures for their
mythological world seem weak compared to the efforts of the
Greeks.
Achlis is an elk-like creature with an upper lip so large the creature
grazed backward to prevent the lip covering its mouth. In addition,
Achlis’ back legs have no joints, so it cannot sit down, and remains
standing while sleeping. Frequently, it would be found leaning
against a tree while resting. Hunters took advantage of this defect by
cutting halfway through the tree against which the creature leaned.
When the creature’s weight forced the tree to topple, the creature
could not get up fast enough to escape the hunters.
Cacus is a fire-breathing giant who terrorizes the people who live
around the Aventine Hill before Rome is built. Cacus is a son of
Vulcan who loved to eat human flesh. He was killed by Hercules
(Greek Herakles).
Caladrius is a snow-white bird that lives in the house of the king. In
Greek myth, this bird is called Dhalion. The bird benefited the king’s
household as it served as it could absorb the sickness of anyone
who fell ill.
Faun is half-human and half-goat. The top half is human except for
horns on their heads. Sometimes, they would help humans; at other
times, they would hinder them. Fauns are sometimes confused with
Greek satyrs.
Genius is similar to the Greek Daemon—a generalized divinity
associated with every individual person. Sometimes, this creature is
compared to the soul. Every place also had a spirit or soul—the
genius loci, or spirit of a place.
Lemures are vengeful spirits who have not been properly buried.
They manifested as a formless darkness and dread.
Strix are birds of ill omen who feed on flesh and blood of men. They
have long beaks, are golden in color, with black talons, and round
yellow eyes. They also suckled their young, which indicates they
may have been bats and not birds.
Tarpeian Rock is an object in Roman legend that created a
sufficient amount of horror in the minds of its citizens. All Roman
traitors were thrown from this rock to their deaths.
The Romans were not imaginative when it came to mythological
creatures. In the chapter on Greek gods, we will also look at some of
the Greek mythological creatures adopted by the Romans.
Chapter 4 — Borrowings from Etruria
“Okay, you’re so smart,” said Kutu Lausa, “tell us why our capital
was named for Menrva Velzna, but the Greeks got it all wrong,
thinking her name was Pallas Athena.” He lifted his cup to his mouth
and took another swig of wine.
Tarquin Pulenas squinted, held his cup aloft for a thoughtful moment,
then gulped his remaining wine. Ramtha, his wife, quickly refilled his
cup.
Leaning forward, Tarquin looked at his guest and replied, “Yes, I am
smart, but also quite aware of our shared histories. Menrva left the
capital of Pos—the head city—taking with her hundreds of fellow
refugees. She also took with her the knowledge of a mature society,
the elements of weaving, furniture making, shipbuilding, fishing and
other things basic to the art of civilization. She was fully equipped
with the armaments to protect her fragile group, and they set up their
outpost on Sherden Island across the Rasna Sea. We Rasenna are
direct descendants of those who followed Menrva.
“When she built her capital, she used all her wisdom to reestablish
the foundation of civilization.
Her beloved, who she thought had been killed, was actually alive
and joined her in building their capital. The people were so overjoyed
their savior could benefit from some happiness of her own, they
requested the town be named in his honor.
“In the language of the day, towns were called ‘pels.’ And, because
his name was Aten, the town was given the name, Pel es Atenai—
Town of Aten.”
“But wait,” said Kutu, “that name sounds somewhat Egyptian.”
“Very good, my friend,” replied Tarquin. “It wasn’t Egyptian, but
because Menrva and Aten befriended the Egyptians against the Sett,
Aten’s name made its way into their legends.
“To continue, ages after Pel es Atenai had succumbed to the rising
seas, the children of Menrva’s refugees spread across the world,
and some settled in what is today is the Greek homeland. Kekropna
was a general of our people, and he led his men to sit on the
Acropolis of Athens, long before it received that name. There, they
debated what to name their new city. But look—the focus was on the
name of a city—not a person.”
Kutu nodded and bit his lower lip thoughtfully.
“Okay, now look at this fact: Pel es Atenai looks very much like the
name these ignorant, modern-day Greeks attribute to their goddess
—Pallas Athenai—borrowed from us, though they think they
originated the legend. It came from us through General Kekropna.
But again, they were naming not a person, but a city. So, they gave it
a city’s name—Pel es Atenai.
“They debated between Athenai and another great city named Pos.
By that time, they had conflated two cities which had good relations,
even unto the time of Menrva—Pos, and Onn—but the two cities
were not even close to the same location. Later, because of the
nature of Pos, they used its name for their god of the sea—Poseidon
—Pos and Onn.
“So, finally: Our capital was named Velzna—Menrva’s family name in
the ancient homeland toward the setting sun. Our people had left this
area in an earlier age, traveling to Anatolia. But after our capital
there was destroyed by the Greeks, we returned to our ancient
homeland to start again.”
Kutu took another sip and shook his head. “That’s all well and good,
and I appreciate you filling in a lot of the missing pieces for me, but
I’ve also heard that Menrva’s lover was, in truth, named Apollo,
instead of Aten.”
Tarquin laughed so hard, the bench upon which he sat shook, rattling
against the floor. After a moment, he regained his composure
enough to speak again.
First, he held up his right hand to prevent any interruption and took
another swig of wine from the cup in his left. Again, he chuckled
softly and then spoke. “Yes, I’ve heard that, too. And it’s true. Yet,
Menrva was faithful to her Aten until the very end. Some of today’s
young people condemn this notion of her having a dalliance with this
other fellow, Apollo—god of the sun. But it’s quite simple.
“In Egypt, Aten was god of the sun. And in his own land, to
distinguish Aten from the town after which he had been named, the
citizens gave him a nickname—a name which meant quite literally
‘not the pel.’ Can you guess?”
Kutu shook his head slowly, uncertain how to respond. “Apollo?” he
asked weakly.
Tarquin chuckled again. “Yes, my friend. A-pel-u—not the pel. He
was also Apollo, god of the sun, poetry, prophecy, medicine, and
agriculture.”
Now, it was Kutu’s turn to laugh. He did so, shaking his head.
“Amazing how simple things are when you know the whole story
behind all of the various details handed down as scraps in one
Rasennan family or another. Very good. Very good, indeed.”
From Rasenna
The Romans knew them as Etruscans and called their land Etruria.
Today, it’s called Tuscany. The Greeks called them Tyrrhenians—the
name used for the sea west of Rome. To the people themselves,
they were known as Rasenna or Rasna.
The following are some gods and goddesses who made their way
from the Etruscan pantheon to that of the Romans.
Libitina is thought to be an Etruscan goddess of death, corpses, and
funerals. Some scholars believe the name is taken from the Etruscan
root, lupu-, which means “to die.”
Minerva (Etruscan Menrva) is the goddess of wisdom who took on
the traits and history of the Greek goddess Pallas Athena. As with
Athena, Minerva was born from the head of Jupiter (Zeus) after the
King of gods had swallowed her mother, Metis.
Orcus is the god of the underworld and punished those who did not
live up to their oaths. Later, the Romans merged Orcus with Dis
Pater, and then supplanted them with Pluto. Orcus provided the
inspiration for J.R.R. Tolkien’s orcs in his “Lord of the Rings” trilogy.
Volturnus is the god of water and the Tiber River. His festival is
traditionally held on 27 August.
Chapter 5 — Influence of the Greek Pantheon
Flavius Secundus Iulius looked up at his father and frowned. After
shaking his head for several seconds, he asked, “Why is it, father,
that so many of our own gods sound like Greek gods? Not the
names. No, that would be silly. But their descriptions—their attributes
and accomplishments. Comparing Greek with Roman, they sound
like the same gods, but with different names.”
His father looked down at his son’s large blue eyes and blond curls
and smiled. He reached out and ruffled those curls, then winked.
Marcus Quintinus Iulius turned back to the plow shear he had been
sharpening and continued to improve the blade with a sharpening
stone.
“So?” said Flavius, as more of a demand than a question.
“Patience, my son,” he replied, sliding the stone across the blade.
“I’m thinking about the proper answer. You are wise to ask such a
question, but not every answer will be so easily understood.”
Flavius took a deep breath, let some of it out and said, “Yes, father.”
The boy’s slumped shoulders and down-turned mouth told his father
the boy was not happy being patient. But even when the father had
formulated an answer, he kept it to himself for several more, long
seconds.
“Remember the hunt?” asked Marcus. “When you don’t have
patience...”
“…You can’t catch game,” Flavius repeated the well-worn lesson. He
lifted his shoulders and let them down again, this time forcing them
back. He sat more erect and compelled his lips to smile. “Yes,
father.”
Marcus laughed, a deep round noise that spoke of his pleasure with,
and love of his son. “If you are in a crowd and someone your age
calls out ‘Iulius,’ would you answer?”
“Possibly,” he said, slowly, “if I were the only Iulius around.”
“And,” continued the father, “if someone else called out, ‘Flavius,’
would you answer them, as well?”
“In town, I suspect so,” he replied, “since I’m the only Flavius that I
know of.”
“Fair enough.” He gave his plow one more swipe with the sharpening
stone, looked at the edge carefully and then set both the plow and
the stone to one side. He turned to face his son squarely. “So, you
would answer to two different names. And don’t you have a
nickname?”
“Father! Of course, I do. You’ve used it many times.”
“Yes, I have. And it’s a good one—Lex—meaning law or legal. So
often you sound much like a legislator, with your logic. I’m proud of
you, son.”
Flavius nodded and looked away, suddenly distracted by his mother
finishing the preparation for supper.
“So, Flavius Secundus Iulius Lex, you have a number of names that
anyone could use to gain your attention.”
“Yes, father. Even Secundus, on occasion.”
“Very good. Now, the gods are very real. They have made their
presence known to us, to the Greeks, to the Etruscans, and to many
others, and they also have many names. To the Greeks, the founder
of our family had the blood of Aphrodite flowing in his veins. To us,
we call her ‘Venus.' The goddess is the same. Different peoples
merely have different names by which to call her.”
Flavius nodded slowly, then hopped off his stool. Suddenly, he
started pacing back and forth, hands tightly clasped behind his back.
Then he stopped and stroked his chin, holding his elbow with his
other hand, much as he had seen many a senator do in the capital.
“So, Minerva is Athena; Jupiter is Zeus; Juno is Hera; Neptune is
Poseidon, and Vulcan is Hephaestus.”
His father nodded slowly and with a shallow, but certain movement.
“We may not understand everything that the gods do, but if we
uphold the nineteen virtues, that is the most the gods or any man
can expect of us.”
From the Greeks
Many of the gods we easily recognize as Roman may have been
early Roman gods, but we have little documentation about them.
Nearly everything we know about the following Roman gods has
been intermingled with the stories and traits of their Greek
counterparts.
Jupiter (Zeus) is king of the gods--God of sky, lightning, and
thunder. He is the patron god of the Roman state. His nickname was
Jove.
Juno (Hera) is the queen of the gods, wife, and sister to Jupiter, and
sister to Neptune and Pluto, and protector of the Roman state. The
month of June was named after her.
Minerva (Athena) is the goddess of wisdom. She was originally an
Etruscan goddess but was given virtually all the attributes possessed
by Athena—the ones that she did not already possess in Etruscan
myth.
Neptune (Poseidon) is the god of the sea, horses, and earthquakes.
Pluto (Hades) is the god of the underworld and ruler of the dead.
Caelus (Uranus or Ouranos) is the god of the heavens.
Saturn (Cronus) is the god of time and harvests.
Vesta (Hestia) was the virgin goddess of home, hearth, and family.
Apollo (Apollo), son of Jupiter and Leto, twin brother of Diana, and
god of music, archery, healing, light, truth, and prophecy. He was
responsible for taking the sun across the sky.
Bacchus (Dionysus) is the god of grape harvesting, winemaking,
wine, fertility, theater, religious ecstasy, and ritual madness. His
followers were many, because of the emotional and drug-like hook of
alcohol consumption and the enjoyable revelry of partying.
Ceres (Demeter) goddess of grain, agriculture, crops, initiation,
civilization. She is the protector of motherhood, women, and
marriage.
Cupid (Eros) is the god of desire, attraction, affection, and erotic
love.
Diana (Artemis) is the goddess of fertility, the Moon, hunting, nature,
childbirth, forests, animals, mountains, and women. She is a
guardian of creatures.
Discordia (Eris) is the goddess of discord and strife. It was because
of her the Trojan War happened, and Aeneas ended up in Italy.
Hercules (Herakles) is a demi-god or divine hero who had incredible
strength and used his unique abilities on many incredible quests.
Latona (Leto) is a goddess, daughter of the Titans Coeus and
Phoebe, consort of Zeus and mother of the twins, Apollo and
Artemis. Because Juno (Hera) was extremely jealous of her
husband’s girlfriends and their children, the queen of the gods
forbade any land from receiving Latona so she could give birth.
Ultimately, she found an island which was not attached to the sea
floor—technically not “land”—and thereupon gave birth to the divine
twins.
Mars (Ares) was, early on, a god of agriculture, but then took on the
responsibilities as the god of war. He is also the father of Romulus
and Remus—founders of Rome.
Mercury (Hermes) is a god with many responsibilities, including,
commerce, financial gain, messages, communication, eloquence in
communication, poetry, divination, travelers, boundaries, thieves,
trickery, and luck.
Proserpina (Persophone) is the goddess of grain and Queen of the
dead. She is the daughter of Ceres. She was kidnapped by Pluto
and forced into living in the underworld for a portion of the year. We
have seasons because everything died when she was underground.
Venus (Aphrodite) is the goddess of mortal love. According to myth,
she was born of sea foam created by the severed genitals of Uranus
that his son Cronus threw into the sea.
Vulcan (Hephaestus) is the god of fire and metallurgy. He is
frequently seen with his blacksmith’s hammer. In fact, when Jupiter
had a splitting headache, years after swallowing Metis whole, Vulcan
used his hammer to whack Jupiter on the head, thus splitting the
king’s skull and allowing Minerva to step forth, full-grown (mature),
and fully armored, holding weapons at the ready.
Lesser Gods and Goddesses
The following lesser-known gods and goddesses were the Roman
version of the Greek deity.
Aesculapius (Asclepius) god of health and medicine.
Aurora (Eos) goddess of the dawn.
Concordia (Harmonia) goddess of agreement in marriage and
society. She was frequently associated with Pax (“peace”) and thus
remained symbolic of a stable society.
Fama (Pheme) goddess of fame and rumor. If you were on her good
side, you received renown and notability. If you ever made her angry,
you were more likely to be plagued by scandalous rumor.
Faunus (Pan) horned god of animals, forest, plains, and fields. His
wife was called Fauna, and she had similar attributes.
Flora (Chloris) a Sabine goddess of flowers and spring.
Formido (Deimos) god of dread or terror. See also Timorus. Both
Formido and Timorus had their Greek versions used as the names of
the planet Mars’s two moons. After all, horror and dread are two
common emotions felt during war, of which Mars was the god.
Fortuna (Tyche) goddess of fortune and luck. She is similar to
Felicitas, but luck coming from Fortuna could sometimes be very
negative.
Hespera (Hesperides) goddess of dusk. In Greek mythology, the
name used refers to a group of evening nymphs and sunset’s golden
light.
Invidia (Nemesis, Rhamnusia or Adrasteia [“the inescapable”])
goddess of revenge, envy, jealousy, and retribution, especially
against those who unwisely became arrogant—confident without
humility—in the face of the gods.
Iris (Iris) goddess of the rainbow and a messenger of the gods.
Justitia (Themis or Dike) goddess of justice.
Luna (Selene) goddess of the Moon. In Roman mythology, both
Juno and Diana were considered moon goddesses, and sometimes
“Luna” was used not as a separate goddess, but as an epithet
applied to the multi-talented Juno and Diana.
Maia (Maia) goddess of growth and the oldest of the seven sisters of
the Pleiades.
Necessitas (Ananke) goddess of destiny, necessity, compulsion,
and inevitability.
Opis (Rhea) goddess of fertility, named after the Sabine goddess,
Ops. She was said to be the wife of Saturn and mother of the chief
Roman gods—Jupiter, Neptune, Pluto, Juno, Ceres, and Vesta.
Pax (Eirene) goddess of peace.
Portunes (Palaemon) god of keys, doors, ports, and livestock. Some
scholars believe he may also have been associated with
warehouses where the Romans stored their grain. The connection to
ports likely came from the similarity between the Latin words “portus”
(harbor) and “porta” (door or gate). Harbors were, after all, gateways
to the sea.
Sol (Helios) god of the sun. An early form of this god was called Sol
Indiges. The later form, Sol Invictus (“unconquered sun”), seems to
have come from Mithraic influences during the Roman Empire,
especially after 274 AD.
Somnus (Hypnos) god of sleep.
Timorus (Phobos) god of fear or horror. See also Formido. Both
Formido and Timorus had their Greek versions used as the names of
the planet Mars’s two moons. After all, horror and dread are two
common emotions felt during war, of which Mars was the god.
Veritas (Aletheia) goddess of virtue and truth.
Victoria (Nike) goddess of victory.
Voluptas (Hedone) goddess of sensual pleasure and delight.
Greek Creatures Adopted by the
Romans
The following is a list of many of the more widely known monsters
and other creatures of Roman myth, focusing on those imported
from the Greeks.
Caucasian Eagle is a large bird which was destined to eat the liver
of Prometheus every day while he was chained to one of the
Caucasus mountains.
Centaur is a half-horse and half-man. In effect, it had two torsos and
six limbs. Most centaurs of ancient myth were wild and uneducated,
but Chiron was a wise centaur who taught many of the legendary
Greek heroes.
Cerberus is a three-headed dog which guarded the gates of Hades.
Charybdis is a massive whirlpool at a narrow strait between the
island of Trinacria (Sicily) and the mainland peninsula (Italy). The
narrow strait was dangerous for ships. If it is a ship got too close to
one side, it might be swallowed by Charybdis. If it got too close to
the other side, its crew might be snatched up by the Scylla.
Chimera is a complex, hybrid creature which combined the entire
body of a lion with a neck and head of a goat coming out of the
middle of its back, and a tail with a snake’s head on its end.
Colchian Dragon is a fierce reptilian creature which had a serpent-
like head and body, plus wings and feet. It stood in the gardens of
Colchis guarding the Golden Fleece. It was finally vanquished by
Jason and his Argonauts with the help of the Colchian princess,
Medea.
Cyclopes are giant creatures of man-like form, but with only one eye
in the center of each of their foreheads. There were two groups of
these creatures. The relationship between these groups remains
unknown. One set of three Cyclopes was born to Caelus (Uranus)
and Terra (Gaia). They were imprisoned in the underworld but were
rescued and freed by Jupiter. They were so grateful they fashioned
three gifts, one each for Jupiter and his two brothers. For Jupiter,
they created a lightning bolt. For Neptune, they fashioned a magical
trident. And for Pluto, they hammered out a helmet that imparted
invisibility to the wearer. The other Cyclopes were children of
Neptune. The most famous Cyclops of this group was Polyphemus
who ate some of Odysseus’ men and was later blinded by Odysseus
and his fellow survivors.
Echidna is a goddess who was half-woman and half-snake. She is
the wife of Typhon and the mother of many monsters.
Gorgons are three monstrous sisters who are sometimes pictured
with wings. Stheno and Euryale were immortal, but Medusa was not
(see also, Medusa).
Graeae is a group of three witches who shared a single eye through
which they possessed psychic and clairvoyant sight. The Greek
demi-god Perseus consulted them when he was on his quest.
Hydra of Lerna (also called the Lernaean Hydra, or simply Hydra).
This is a many-headed snake, child of Typhon and Echidna. Some
versions of the myth include the creature’s ability to regenerate two
heads for every one cut off. Both its breath and blood were
poisonous.
Medusa is one of the Gorgon monsters. Because Neptune had
raped Medusa in the temple of Minerva, the goddess of wisdom
condemned Medusa with a special curse which turned her hair into
living, venomous snakes and her gaze into one which could turn
men into stone.
Minotaur has the head of a bull and the body of a man. He lived in a
labyrinth beneath the Minoan palace. He was slain by Theseus, the
Athenian hero and illegitimate son of the king.
Nemean Lion could not be killed by mortal men or their weapons. Its
golden fur was impervious to common blades. Its claws were strong
and sharp enough to cut right through armor, making the creature a
dangerous, formidable opponent. He is the offspring of Typhon and
Echidna. Hercules found the Nemean Lion living in a cave with two
entrances. He blocked one entrance and then went in the other to
confront the monster. In the darkness, he grasped the creature, and
with his great strength, crushed the lion’s neck, strangling it. To get
proof of his conquest, Hercules attempted to skin the lion with his
knife and then with a sharp rock, but neither one worked. Minerva
saw his struggling and told him to use one of the lion’s own claws to
skin the beast which worked.
Scylla is a monster with six long necks, each equipped with a
gruesome head with lots of sharp teeth. Her parents were Typhon
and Echidna. She stood on one shore of the narrow strait between
the island of Trinacria (Sicily) and the mainland peninsula (Italy),
posing a danger to sailors. The narrow strait was dangerous for
ships because if a ship got too close to one side, its crew might be
snatched up by the Scylla. If it got too close to the other side, it might
be swallowed by Charybdis (see Charybdis, also).
Sphinx is a creature with the head of a woman, the body of a lion,
and the wings of an eagle. She blocked the road to travelers insisting
they answer her riddle. If they answered incorrectly, she would
devour them. When Greek tragic hero, Oedipus encountered the
Sphinx, the riddle most often quoted went like this: “What is that
which in the morning goeth upon four feet; upon two feet in the
afternoon; and in the evening upon three?” Oedipus realized only a
man does these things—first crawling on all fours as an infant, then
walking on two legs as an adult, and finally using a cane as an old
man. The Sphinx was so shocked someone had answered the riddle
correctly; she devoured herself in her anguish.
Typhon is the son of Terra (Gaia) and Tartarus (Tartarus). He is the
father, with Echidna, of many monsters. He challenged Jupiter for
rule over the universe, after Jupiter, and his fellow gods had
defeated the Titans.
Chapter 6 — Celtic Potpourri
Boudicca (30-61 AD) is a middle-aged woman of noble birth
wronged by the Roman Empire.
Her late husband was King of the Iceni in Britannia. When he died,
he left his kingdom to three parties—his two daughters and the
Roman Emperor. But the Romans ignored the will because they
believed women were not allowed to possess property.
Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, the Roman governor of the Empire’s
British holdings, simply annexed the Iceni territory. When Boudicca
protested, she was flogged, and her daughters were raped.
But now, Governor Paulinus was away, claiming new territory for the
Empire off the coast of Wales.
Behind Boudicca was a force of over 100,000 men and women, from
her own tribe, from the Trinovantes, and from many others.
She wiped her upper lip, carefully with the back of her hand. Exertion
and this sweltering, summer had her sweating profusely. Britannia
during the Roman Warm Period was measurably warmer than in
modern times. She lightly touched the gold torc wrapped around her
neck—a symbol of royal authority amongst her people. The rigid
neck ring was intricately decorated with symbols representing the
spirits. On the front of her torc, where the two ends met, one end
was embossed with the tiny image of three women—the máthair or
matronae. The other end had embossed a tiny image of Epona—the
horse goddess, and goddess of fertility.
She should not have to fight to restore the birthright of her two
daughters, but they had been cheated by the patriarchal Romans.
But here she was, leading a massive army toward Londinum—a
settlement only 20 years old. Her forces destroyed Camulodunum, a
Roman settlement that was rebuilt and called Colchester.
She looked back as she heard the others approach. The old man
was Haerviu—too long in years to live up to his name “battle worthy.”
He was an adviser of hers and surprisingly had survived the war so
far.
Lugubelenus was a brash young man who had already made several
advances against one of her daughters and fancied himself as a
leader. What he lacked in wisdom he made up for with fierce skills as
a warrior and a deep humility to the gods.
Teutorigos was the last to arrive. His name meant “ruler of the
people,” and he had great potential but little interest in such power.
His brand of humility was not the righteous kind, but more of a weak
lack of ambition. A worthy Celt needed to maintain strong
confidence, but with a deep humility to the gods and their laws.
“By Epona,” she whispered loudly. “What have you found out?”
“Londinum is empty,” replied Teutorigos quietly. “They’ve abandoned
it.”
“Apparently, they did not think their auxiliary forces could hold the
settlement,” said Haerviu. “I sincerely doubt the liars merely had a
change of heart and decided to honor the will of their supposed
friend, the late king.”
“We should burn the settlement, nonetheless.” Lugubelenus glanced
at Boudicca and lifted his chin a bit.
“For once, I agree with Lugubelenus,” replied Boudicca. “Punish
these thieves in every way we can, but more importantly, force them
to spend time rebuilding, if they desire to keep this Londinum. If the
gods smile on us, perhaps the Romans will get the idea that holding
this island is too much trouble.”
“May Cernunnos guide us,” said Haerviu. “We don’t do these things
for our own selfish needs, but for the greater good of the natural
world, of which we are a part.”
“Well said, as always, Haerviu,” replied Boudicca. “May the three
mothers protect us in what we are about to do. Teutorigos, send our
scouts to the West. Make certain the governor isn’t going to surprise
us. Lugubelenus, take ten thousand men into Londinum and set it
ablaze.”
“Yes, my queen,” said Lugubelenus.
Despite their successes, so far, Boudicca secretly feared Roman
power. With such a vast, organized empire, her people could easily
be overwhelmed by their millions. She prayed to the gods her people
would prevail. But sometimes prayer was not enough.
Roman Conquests of the Celts
The Romans kept running into Celtic peoples—from Gallia and
Britannia to Illyrium and Galatia. Roman expansion meant they
encountered the Celts on almost every front, for over three centuries.
The Matres and Matronae were, across most of the Celtic world,
worshipped throughout the period of the Roman Empire. Almost
always, they were depicted on altars and votive offerings as a group
of three goddesses—the “mother” goddesses. These divine beings
were similar in some respects to the dísir and the valkyries of Norse
mythology, as well as the Fates of Greek mythology. Dea Matrona
means “divine mother goddess, ” and this name was sometimes
used in place of Matres and Matronae. Dea Matrona was also the
source name for the river Marne in Gaul.
Toutatis is considered a tribal protector for the Celts of Gaul and
Britain. In Roman Britain, finger rings with the initials “TOT” were
common and were thought to refer to the god Toutatis. Some
scholars believe the Romans associated Toutatis with their own
Mercury. In fact, Julius Caesar said that “Mercury” was their most
esteemed god and that images of him were to be found throughout
the Celtic territory. To the Celtic “Mercury” were attributed the
functions of “inventor of all the arts,” protector of merchants and
travelers, and the preeminent god for everything concerning
commercial gain. Toutatis could have been one member of a triune
god named Lugus.
Caesar studied the Celts intensely because he wanted to conquer
them. He also mentioned that the Celts of Gaul paid homage to
Apollo because he rid them of diseases. They honored Mars, who
ruled over all the things of war. They revered Jupiter, who oversaw
the heavens. And they honored Minerva, who remained patroness of
handicrafts. Julius Caesar also mentioned the Celtic Gauls all
claimed to be descended from Dīs Pater, which was a Roman god of
the underworld. Likely what he meant was that the Gauls claimed to
be from a god who resembled Dīs Pater in some way—perhaps a
subterranean god associated with prosperity and fertility.
Aerecura (see Erecura).
Aisus (see Esus).
Alaunus is a god of healing and prophecy which are two of the traits
held by Apollo, both in the Greek and Roman pantheons.
Alisanos may have been a mountain god or may have been related
to the alder tree.
Andarta is a warrior goddess with evidence of her worship in Bern,
Switzerland and in southern France.
Anextiomarus (female form, Anextiomara) has been associated
with the Roman god Apollo, with dedications found throughout
France and Switzerland.
Artio is a bear goddess. Her worship was centered on Bern,
Switzerland.
Aveta is a mother goddess worshipped across a region which
includes parts of France, Germany, and Switzerland.
Belenus is a sun god, associated with horses, and thought to ride
across the sky in a horse-drawn chariot, pulling the sun along with it.
His consort is Celtic goddess Belisama, who is frequently associated
with Minerva.
Borvo is a god involved in healing, minerals, and bubbling spring
water. Whenever associated with a Roman god, Borvo was always
paired with Apollo.
Brigantia is associated with Roman Victoria and remains a cognate
with Irish Brigit.
Camulus is another Celtic god associated with Mars. In one stone
carving, he is portrayed with a wreath of oak. In another location, he
is shown with a ram head wearing horns. His name may have been
the basis of Camelot—the legendary city of King Arthur fame. Many
theories have been offered about the possible reality of King Arthur,
but there is no way to verify them with the current evidence.
Cathubodua is a Celtic goddess and possible cognate of Irish Babd
Catha. Her name meant “battle crow.” Several goddesses share the
same root which means either “victory” or “fighting.” Because of this,
she would be comparable to goddesses in other cultures—Victoria
(Roman), Nike (Greek) and Sigyn (Norse).
Cernunnos is a horned god of life, fertility, wealth, animals and the
realm of the underworld. He is shown with stag antlers, sometimes
carrying a coin purse. Most of the time he is seen seated cross-
legged. He is also shown wearing torcs or holding them in his hands.
Cicolluis is the “Great-Breasted” god of strength, associated with
Mars. This god has sometimes been associated with Cichol
Gricenchos of Irish Celtic myth.
Cissonius is yet another Celtic god associated with Mercury. In
attempting to understand his name, linguists have interpreted it as
meaning “carriage-driver” or “courageous.” From this, they suspect
he is a god of trade and patron protector of those who traveled.
Thus, the association with Mercury seems to be a good fit. There is
also a minor note of a goddess named Cissonia, but the relationship
to this god is unknown.
Condatis—a name which means “waters meet”—is a Celtic god
related to rivers, especially where they come together. He is
associated with the Roman god Mars, likely through his divine
healing powers.
Damona is a Celtic goddess. According to one scholar, her name
means “divine cow”—from Celtic “damos” which means “cow.” In two
different regions, she was seen with a divine consort—Apollo Borvo
in one, and Apollo Moritasgus in another.
Epona is a goddess of fertility, plus a protector of horses, ponies,
donkeys, and mules. The Roman spelling was sometimes Hippona.
She was one of the most broadly worshipped of any Celtic god.
Some scholars feel she may have been associated with the dead,
leading them to the “otherworld” on a pony. Evidence of her worship
has been found in Britain, throughout Gaul, modern Germany and
the Roman provinces of the River Danube. One inscription in
Germany was made by someone from the region of ancient Syria.
Erecura (also spelled Aerecura) a Celtic goddess associated with
the Roman goddess of the underworld, Proserpina (Greek
Persophone). Evidence of her worship has been found in modern
Belgium, southeastern France, southwestern Germany, eastern
Austria, northeastern Italy and central Romania. Along with her
symbols of the underworld, she is frequently seen with a cornucopia
or an apple basket—symbols of fertility. Though the Celts revered
this goddess across a broad territory, scholars doubt the name was,
in fact, Celtic. One researcher suggested the name was originally
Illyrian.
Esus (also spelled Hesus and Aisus) is a Celtic god. He was
depicted cutting branches from a willow tree with his blade. One
intellectual suggests that his name derives from the Indo-European
root for “well-being, passion, and energy.” The willow tree may
represent the “Tree of Life.” He could have been one part of a triune
God, Lugus.
Grannus is a Celtic god of spas—healing mineral and thermal
springs. He was also associated with the sun, and thus frequently
associated with Apollo as Apollo Grannus. His worship was also
frequently associated with Celtic Sirona and sometimes Roman
Mars. Perhaps the most famous center for worshipping Grannus can
be found near the modern city of Aachen, Germany, that country’s
westernmost municipality. In ancient times, the hot springs there was
called Aquae Granni. Roman Emperor Caracalla (AD 188–217) was
said to have visited there with votive offerings and prayers to be
healed.
Hesus (see Esus).
Ialonus Contrebis (or Ialonus and Gontrebis) was either a Celtic
god or two gods. The first part—Ialonus—seems to come from a root
meaning “clearing.”
Lenus is the Celtic god of healing, frequently associated with Roman
god Mars. He was particularly important to the Treveri tribe in what is
now western Germany. Unlike most syncretized names combining
Celtic with Roman divinity, most inscriptions show “Lenus Mars,”
rather than “Mars Lenus.” Quite often, he is pictured wearing a
Greek Corinthian helmet.
Litavis (also Litauis) is a Celtic goddess sometimes associated with
the Gallo-Roman syncretized god, Mars Cicolluis, suggesting she
may have been his consort. Some scholars consider her to be an
earth goddess with a name derived from language roots meaning “to
spread out flat.”
Loucetios is a Celtic god whose name means “lightning.” He was
invariably associated with Mars as Mars Loucetios and frequently
associated with the goddess Gallic Nemetona or Roman Victoria. He
was known throughout the Rhine River Valley region, from Austria
and Switzerland, through Germany, France, Liechtenstein and the
Netherlands. Inscriptions to this god have also been found in Angers,
western France and in Bath, England.
Lugus is a Celtic god whose name remains a cognate with the Irish
god Lugh. Though his name is rarely mentioned directly, his
importance is implied by the proliferation of place names which seem
to pay homage to him. His name seems to come from the Proto-
Indo-European roots “to break” and “to swear an oath.” A three-
headed image found in Paris and Reims was thought to represent
Lugus and is associated with the Roman god Mercury. Linguists
suggest his name was the basis for the following location names:
Dinlleu, Wales
Legnica, Silesia
Leiden, Netherlands
Lothian, Scotland
Loudoun, Scotland
Loudun and Montluçon in France
Lugdunum (modern Lyon, France)
Lugones, Asturias, Spain
Luton, England
One scholar suggests Lugus was a triune God, as represented by
the three-headed image, representing Esus, Toutatis, and Taranis.
Maponos is a Celtic god with a name that meant “great son.” He
was equated with Roman Apollo.
Mogons is a Celtic god frequently adopted by common Roman
soldiers in Roman Britain and Gaul. Linguists suggest its meaning
derives from roots for “effective” or “powerful.”
Nantosuelta is a Celtic nature goddess of fire, earth, and fertility.
She is thought to have been part of the Irish Tuatha Dé Danann,
combined with Sucellus and subsequently with Dagda. Some
evidence suggests hers was the name assumed by The Morrígan
after a joining of new alliances or a transformation. Her name literally
means, “sun-drenched valley” or “of winding stream.”
Ogmios is a Celtic god of persuasiveness. His name remains a
cognate with the Irish god Ogma. He is described as an older
version of Herakles, the Greek demigod of great strength. Like
Herakles, Ogmios wore a lion skin and carried a club and bow. In his
Celtic version, however, he is seen with chains piercing his tongue,
flowing from his mouth and out to the ears of his happy followers.
Ritona (also Pritona) was a Celtic goddess of “water crossings” or
“fords.” Her temples seemed to have more extras than do many of
the other gods—like courtyards which could easily have been used
for the placement of ritual offerings or the preparation of religious
banquets. Another such temple even had a theater, supposedly for
religious performances.
Rosmerta is a Celtic goddess of abundance and fertility. Her image
is often found alongside the Roman god Mercury as if she were his
consort. She was worshipped from central France to western
Germany.
Segomo is a Celtic war god whose name meant “mighty one” or
“victor.” Naturally, he is associated with the Roman god, Mars, but
also with Hercules.
Sirona is a Celtic goddess throughout Gaul but also worshipped as
far east as the Danube River. She has been associated with the
Roman goddess, Diana.
Sucellus is a Celtic god frequently depicted with Nantosuelta. He is
usually seen carrying a large hammer or mallet, which could easily
have been a beer barrel on a long pole.
Suleviae was a group of Celtic goddesses whose name meant
“those who govern well.” This group was sometimes associated with
the Matres. In fact, one inscription starts out, “To the Sulevi
mothers...”
Taranis is a Celtic god of thunder. One curious coincidence ties
Taranis with the Greek cyclops Brontes (whose name meant
“thunder”) because both were associated with a wheel. Some
scholars suggest that Taranis was not so much a god of thunder as
he was actually the thunder itself. His worship spanned a broad
territory including Gaul, Britain, parts of former Yugoslavia and
modern Germany. Lucan, the Roman poet, called Taranis a “savage
god” who required human sacrifice. Taranis also remains a cognate
with the Irish god Tuirenn. Taranis could also have been part of a
triune God, Lugus. Because of his association with thunder or
identity as thunder, he is also associated with the Roman god
Jupiter, the Greek god Zeus, and the Norse god Thor.
Virotutis is a Celtic byname given the Roman god, Apollo. It meant,
“benefactor of humanity.” Apollo Virotutis was worshipped just south
of Switzerland and in western France.
Visucius is a Celtic god whose name meant “knowledgeable” or “of
the ravens.” He was usually associated with the Roman god,
Mercury, and was worshipped from western Germany to northern
Spain.
Other Borrowed Gods
One goddess which was actively sought out by the Romans was the
Phrygian Great Mother, Cybele. The assimilation of this goddess had
nothing to do with conquest. During the Second Punic War (218–201
BC), the Romans suffered one setback after another. Several natural
events were taken as signs of imminent failure in their war against
the Carthaginians. One of those signs was a meteor shower, which
the ancients always took as a bad omen, even though their enemies
were very likely to have seen the same sign. Another involved a
failed harvest and resulting famine. But that was merely a natural
occurrence of climate change, cooling the planet between warm
periods. There was a particularly sharp drop in temperature,
measured in the Greenland ice cores indicative of a northern
hemisphere cooling period that lasted several years during the time
of the Second Punic War. But despite these things, the Romans
were persistent and insistent.
After consulting the Sibylline oracle, Rome’s religious advisers came
up with a unique answer to their problem. If they could legally import
the Magna Mater (Cybele) of Pessinos, Phrygia (west-central
Anatolia, or modern-day Turkey), they would be able to regain the
favor of the gods.
In Rome’s favor, the home of worship of this “Great Mother,” was at
the center of one of their allies—the Kingdom of Pergamum.
Immediately, the Roman Senate sent emissaries to gain the king’s
approval for Rome to import the goddess. These emissaries stopped
by the Oracle at Delphi to confirm they were doing the right thing and
received the confirmation they sought—that the goddess should be
taken back to Rome.
To make the transference official, the King of Pergamum gave his
Roman friends a black meteoric stone which was symbolic of the
goddess. In a great ceremony full of pomp, the stone was met at
Rome’s seaport at Ostia and escorted by Rome’s “best man,”
Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica, along with an entourage of virtuous
matrons to take the stone back to the temple of Victoria to be stored,
while a more rightful temple of the Great Mother was being built on
the Palatine Hill.
Not long afterward, the famine ended, and the Romans were
victorious against Hannibal and the Carthaginians.
One of the most important gods which the Romans borrowed from
cultures other than the Etruscans, Greeks or Celts, was the Persian
god, Mithra—renamed Mithras by the Greeks, and worshipped by
Imperial soldiers. The citizens-at-large knew about the worship, but
the adherents kept their rituals and prayers a secret. Roman
Mithraism was a “mystery religion,” full of symbolism and secrecy.
They did not need or want new members. They had a special
handshake, plus an intricate system of seven levels for the various
stages of initiation. Some rituals involved the killing of a bull. To its
adherents, each ritual symbolized the struggle between good and
evil, and of the sacrifice that is sometimes required. Roman
Mithraism presented strong competition for early Christianity.
In 312 AD, at the Battle of Milvian Bridge, Constantine the Great
(c.272–337 AD) had a decisive win, the success of which he later
attributed to the Christian God. After that battle, he converted to
Christianity and placed the Christian God ahead of all others.
After nearly two centuries of brutal persecution, the Christian religion
had become the dominant religion in the Roman Empire. Because of
Constantine’s conversion, Europe became predominantly Christian.
Chapter 7 — Truth Behind the Roman Gods
While we may never know the actual truth behind each Roman god
and goddess, we should acknowledge there is some unknown truth
that may well remain unrecorded by any history, as with any myth.
What do we mean by this? At the very least, the gods may have
been created to explain physical or social phenomena. This is one
possibility.
Another possible truth is that a god or goddess may have been an
ancient king, queen, hero or heroine.
Still another possibility holds that some of the gods and goddesses
of myth were groups, instead of individuals. At least one other
researcher has put forth this idea, and we should remain open to this
possibility.
To primitive hunter-gatherers, the name of an empire might have
been a mystery because they didn’t have any concept of “empire.”
It’s easy to see how such a name might have become transformed
into a god or goddess. It’s also easy to see how the many traits of a
god may merely have been the talents collectively held by a group,
especially if the hunter-gatherers suffered from the power of the
empire.
For example, we trust those in authority. But for over a thousand
years in Europe, those in authority did not consider challenging their
ideas about the universe. Even today, non-traditional ideas are
discounted, ignored, or even ridiculed simply because they don’t fit
some current consensus. Simply because an idea is popular doesn’t
make it right. For example, scientists of the 19th century felt Homer’s
Iliad was purely myth with little basis in fact.
Scientists felt that Troy was pure myth simply because they had
known of no evidence to the contrary. While this conclusion from a
lack of evidence is value, it should not present pursuing further
exploration. The pursuit of evidence of Troy did, in fact, lead to the
discovery of Troy.
It is possible that pursuit of the truth underlying myths could lead to
challenges to the prevailing religious understanding.
As we saw earlier, the Etruscans have a genetic relationship to the
people who currently live in what is modern Turkey (ancient Anatolia
or Asia Minor). The Etruscans may have been descendants of
Aeneas and the Trojans, or at least the people who lived in and
around Troy, They may, therefore, have been distant relatives of
Romulus and Remus. Was Etruscan the language of the Trojans, or
a derivative of their language? As far as we know, the Trojans did
not employ writing, so we cannot prove such an idea. But an inability
to prove an idea doesn’t make it false. It simply remains an
unknown.
One researcher—Rod Martin, Jr.—discovered a linguistic link
between Etruscan (Rasennan) and Basque (Eskual), albeit a weak
one. The nature of the link suggests both cultures may have been
matriarchal at one time. The most sentimentally favorite words in any
language may arguably be “mother” and “father.” Basque for father is
“aita,” while mother is “ama.” Etruscan for father was “apa,” while
mother was “ati.” This, by itself, seems very weak, indeed, and the
terms seem to be gender opposites. But as we saw earlier, the
Etruscan goddess of beginnings was “Ana,” while the god of endings
was “Aita.” These match the Basque terms almost perfectly by
gender.
Martin suggests both cultures may have been matriarchal in
prehistory. As more patriarchal societies entered Europe, peer
pressure may have affected a desire to switch.
“What? You let your women rule? You must be weak!” would be the
attitude of a patriarchal society. If a patriarchal tribe judged a
matriarchal society as weak, they might continue to attack that
society. Weary of being attacked, a matriarchal society might switch
to change the perception of their enemies.
Both Greek and Roman cultures viewed the Etruscans with disdain,
even though the Etruscans were patriarchal because they gave their
women so much power and allowed them to own property. But what
if, instead, it was the women who gave their men the power?
In analyzing the two languages, Martin realized both were
agglutinative. That by itself proves little. But he suggests the
Basques switched to patriarchy and kept the terms for mother and
father with the same gender always attached to those terms.
However, the Etruscans kept the terms with the societal roles. Their
rulers had been mothers and men became the new mothers—“apa,”
or two letter “a’s” separated by a labial sound (“p”), just as Basque
for mother—“ama”—is also two letter “a’s” separated by the labial
“m.” The names of their god and goddess of endings and beginnings
may hold the clue to the gender switch, because Basque for father,
“aita,” is exactly the same as the Etruscan male god for endings,
“Aita.” And Basque for mother, “ama,” is almost the same as the
Etruscan female goddess for beginnings, “Ana.”
How valid is this analysis? Even Martin acknowledges this is a
hypothesis which needs additional support. But one other culture
may validate this notion of a matriarchal society switching to
patriarchy and keeping the terms with the role rather than the
gender. Another agglutinative language—Georgian (Kartuli ena)—
may have experienced a similar phenomenon. Today, Georgian for
mother is “deda,” and father is “mama.”
Georgia, at the eastern end of the Black Sea, was at one time called
Colchis—the kingdom which held the Golden Fleece and a golden
dragon to protect it. Were the Georgians related in some way to the
Trojans, Etruscans, and therefore the Basques? Linguists of the 19th
century felt the similarities between Basque and Georgia were strong
enough to consider the possibility they were descended from the
same tongue. Both regions have also been called “Iberia,” even
though they are separated by thousands of kilometers. As tantalizing
as the possibilities are, we need to use restraint and remind
ourselves we simply do not know. Today, linguists tell us the
evidence linking the two languages is too tenuous to prove a link.
But again, a lack of evidence is never proof against a thesis. It only
means we need more evidence.
In the final analysis, we may never have conclusive answers to our
questions of divine beginnings. The Roman family of gods was
perhaps one of the largest of all ancient pantheons simply because
they absorbed the gods and goddesses of the peoples they
conquered.
But what about the creatures of myth. Was there some basis in
reality for them, as well, or were they all based purely on
imagination? Consider, for instance, what a primitive man might think
of someone wearing a flight suit or astronaut’s spacesuit. Would the
faceplate of their helmet be thought of as “one eye,” making them a
Cyclops?
Some researchers believe centaurs were merely the result of
primitive shock and awe at seeing a normal man riding horseback. In
their imagination, they saw only the human torso and head, and
horse body. Having never seen the combination of horse and rider,
the primitive mind attempted to process the image in the only way it
could—imagining they had witnessed a new kind of creature.
Could the faun merely have been a soldier with furry leggings and
leather boots, wearing a helmet with horns? These are possibilities,
but with no way to know for certain.
And such is the nature of any myth. Its beginnings remain shrouded
in the mists of prehistory.
Conclusion - What We’ve Learned
I hope this book has helped you to gain a fresh perspective of the
Romans and an overview of their gods, goddesses, and mythological
creatures.
In the introduction, we learned that the Romans were a serious lot.
Though they were not very creative, they did have many virtues,
including the fact that they were hard working and were clever at
using well the resources available to them. We learned that they
were originally farmers and that their gods had a lot to do with rain
and crops.
Chapter 1, “The Trojan Connection,” gave us a look at Aeneas and
how one goddess, in particular, hated the Trojan and the survivors of
the Trojan War. We also gained historical context of the Roman myth
of Aeneas.
In chapter 2, “Founding of Rome,” we got an intimate look at the
founding of that great city by Romulus and Remus. We also learned
how tiny Rome was surrounded by dozens of other tribes, each
vying for supremacy or merely trying to survive.
Chapter 3, “Purely Roman Gods,” showed us the early Roman
kingdom and the celebration of the river god, Tiberinus. We also saw
a list of Roman gods, many of which were likely unfamiliar to the
casual student of history. And we saw a few of the awkwardly
unimaginative creatures from Roman myth.
In “Borrowings from Etruria” (chapter 4), we looked at the gods and
goddesses contributed by Rome's vastly larger neighbor to the North
—Rasenna, or as the Romans knew them—Etruria. Our narrative
took a fanciful look at one possible interpretation for how the various
pantheons may have fit together. We also saw how the Etruscans
might have been more closely related to the Romans than we've
been led to believe, with their ancestors possibly having come from
Troy along with Aeneas. And we learned of a few gods and
goddesses which contributed to the Roman pantheon.
Perhaps the greatest foreign contribution to Roman mythology came
from the Greeks. In chapter 5, “Influence of the Greeks,” we saw
how nearly all of the most well-known Roman gods and goddess
were largely Greek gods which were restyled as Roman. And we
saw how the richest list of Roman mythical creatures was populated
with names borrowed from the Greeks. This should not surprise us,
for to the Romans, Greek myth had merely become part of their own
history.
In chapter 6, we learned how the Celts contribute a great deal of
their own mythology to the Romans. With the Celtic pantheon,
Roman gods and goddesses now took on composite names which
combined Roman and Celtic elements.
Finally, in chapter 7, we explored some of the possible origins of the
gods and goddesses.
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 Preview of Norse Mythology
A Fascinating Guide to Understanding
the Sagas, Gods, Heroes, and Beliefs
of the Vikings
Introduction—Climate Change Made Them
Ruthless

The Vikings of Norse poetry and saga were a fearless lot, and their
tales were frequently tragic. Some, if not all, of the myths were
based on real people and real events. These heroes accomplished
many fantastic feats, some of them even documented by their
enemies.
The Vikings were born out of an age of hardship. Tales of their
earliest raids come to us from the 790s, during the early European
Middle Ages. This was a period of dangerous iciness as the
thousand-year climate cycle dipped to the coldest our world had
experienced in 7,000 years. No doubt, the punishing cold for these
people of Northern Europe helped to dispel any complacency they
may have felt during the warmer, mid-Holocene epoch. Death was
sitting on their doorstep and the weak and timid would have died
from the change in climate. Only the strong and cunning would
survive.
The Vikings began to raid villages farther south, conquering parts of
what is modern day Netherlands, France, England and Ireland. The
Vikings also became adventurers and traders, taking their wares as
far as Byzantium, Baghdad and Kiev.
Generally speaking, the Norwegian clans spread throughout the
western portions of Europe—Scotland, Iceland, and even into the
Americas in Greenland and Canada’s Newfoundland. The Danes
attacked and settled in England and France’s Normandy. In fact, the
Normans who later conquered Anglo-Saxon England and who
became the British aristocracy were originally of Viking blood. The
Swedes traveled East and established the Kievan Rus’ in what is
today the Ukraine. And these Norsemen even ruled over the
southern Mediterranean island of Sicily. But even these rules of
thumb do not cover all of Norse history. Some Norwegians also
traveled to the Slavic lands of East Europe.
So fierce were the Norse warriors that the kings of the Byzantine
Empire kept some of them as their Varangian Guard to protect the
royal household.
Though there were regional distinctions in language and culture, the
modern nations of Denmark, Sweden and Norway would not exist for
a few centuries yet to come. What the Norse shared more greatly
outweighed their differences.
Like most societies throughout history, they were driven for a large
part by the climate. For example, the Early Middle Ages (6th to 10th
centuries) were a period of great strife and conflict, largely in part
due to the great cooling after the end of the Roman Empire. That
age of cold was deeper than the devastating and more recent Little
Ice Age, but shorter in duration. Our Modern Warm Period is merely
the result of natural causes returning us from a period of relative cold
which happens every thousand years. The Little Ice Age lasted
nearly 600 years. The Viking Age’s initial period of cold lasted for
more like 200 years, with its greatest depth exceeding Little Ice Age
cold for less than a century. Yet, it was deep enough and hard
enough to spur the Vikings on to greatness.
The High Middle Ages—also known as the Medieval Warm Period—
were a period of great prosperity, but the Vikings had already been
stirred up. For awhile, they conquered Greenland, growing crops
there, where today it is impossible to do so. Ironically, today’s news
media would have us believe that our modern era is the warmest it
has ever been. Clearly, that is not true; history tells us otherwise.
The Vikings established cities and settlements all across Europe.
Much as the Greeks had done in an earlier era, the Vikings did not
so much create Empire as they, instead, created influence.
Though the Normans of Normandy conquered the land of Northern
France, they adopted the language of the locals. Even so, they gave
part of their own Scandinavian language to the locals. Later, when
the Normans crossed the English Channel, they did the same—
adopting the language of the locals, but adding to it their own
Norman French, already flavored with its Norse influences.
Like their sagas and heroes, the Norse gods were also a rough and
tumble group of individuals with strong character and human frailties.
This book is divided into two main parts. The first will tackle the
heroes, their sagas and history. In the second part of the book, we
will peer into the heart of Norse religious myth.
Part 1—Heroes and Sagas

Twelve winters of grief for Hrothgar, king

Of the Danes, sorrow heaped at his door
By hell-forged hands, His misery leaped
The seas, was told and sung in all
Men's ears
—Beowulf, an English epic tale set in Scandinavia
Chapter 1—The Icelandic Sagas

Ingólfr looked back toward his wife and smiled. Soon, their voyage
would be over. Soon, they would have a new home free from the
threat of the blood feuds they had left behind in Noregi—their ancient
homeland amongst the fjords of the North. Little Torstein looked up
at him from behind his mother’s skirt and admired his fearsome
father—a man whose name meant “royal or kingly wolf.”
With the fabled island of Garðar Svavarsson in sight, Ingólfr looked
down at his high seat pillars—the icons of his status as chieftain—
and nodded at the decision he had made the night before.
“Brother,” he said to Hjörleifr Hróðmarsson, his step mother’s son, “I
have prayed to Odin to have his wisdom guide me. I swore an oath
to him that if we should sight land, I will lay my pillars upon the sea
for the gods to show me where I should build my settlement.” He
then waved to his brother to help him lift the pillars over the railing
and they let them slide into the waters of the cold, north Atlantic.
The year was AD 871. The hardest years of deep cold were behind
them. Before them lay the island Naddod had called “snow land,”
because it had started to sprinkle the white stuff before he had left
several decades earlier. Naddod had missed his intended
destination, the Faroe Islands, north of the Scots, and had been
blown to the northwest. Later, Garðar had been on his way to the
Hebrides, off the coast of Scotland, but also had been blown off
course. He was the first to circumnavigate the island, confirming that
indeed it was an island. That was only a decade earlier than now.
Finally, Ingólfr landed and his thralls and men set up camp. But it
was to be a temporary camp. He had to wait for the gods to deliver
his pillars to the coast of this island. Only then would he know where
to build his new home.
For three years, two of his thralls—Vífill and Karli—searched the
coastline, combing every mile time and again, searching for their
chieftain’s symbols of lordship. Finally, they found the pillars and
Ingólfr had his location—a favorable bay on the southwestern coast
of the island. There, he gave his settlement the name, Reykjavík,
which meant “bay of smokes.” The region was surrounded by many,
natural, hot springs and the steam rising from them looked like
smoke.
Later, Ingólfr found that his step-brother had been killed by his own
men. He gave Hjörleifr a proper Norse funeral and then found his
step-brother’s men had escaped to Vestmannaeyjar (Westman
Islands), just south of Iceland. There, the chieftain caught up with the
murderers and slew them.
Ingólfr and his family had picked the right century to settle in Iceland.
The far more temperate Medieval Warm Period was just starting.
Nearly twenty-five percent of the island was covered by forests, so
homebuilding would have plenty of resources. In our modern era,
only one percent of the island has forests.
Ingólfr’s slave, Karli, was not shy about criticizing his chieftain’s
settlement location. “How ill that we should pass good land, to settle
in this remote peninsula.”
Settlement continued for another sixty years, at the end of which, all
of the arable land had been claimed.
Years later, with the death of his father, Torstein became the new
chieftain and eventually founded the first thing—precursor to the
Althingi, or national parliament. The Althingi was to become one of
the longest running modern parliamentary bodies in the world.
Laws and Blood Feuds
In antiquity, the Norse handled disputes the old-fashioned way—with
violence and bloodshed. Insults were numerous and the resulting
violence was sometimes more numerous, because one act
frequently led to many others in retaliation. One retaliation led to an
explosion of counter-retaliations. Peace was sometimes only
possible through extinction of one family, or through the realization
that extinction was upon them.
To keep things from becoming too chaotic, certain laws were
established so that blood feuds could be carried out with some
sense of decorum. Perhaps we could call it “ordered chaos.”
The Althing (Icelandic Alþingi) was first established AD 930 at
Thingvellir (Þingvellir)—“Parliament fields” or “assembly fields.” This
open assembly was located about forty-five kilometers east of
Ingólfr’s settlement (now Reykjavík). The assembly was open to all
free men. There, they would resolve disputes, hammer out new laws
and even grant exceptions to existing laws.
In the days of the Vikings, the family was the key focus of society. If
you hurt a free man, you also hurt his family. Blood feuds were
common. But sometimes a wrongful death, even if accidental, did not
necessarily have to result in violence and retribution. Sometimes the
injured party or family could demand weregild, or blood money, as
restitution. Every person and object of property was given a
monetary value. Norwegian gjeld and Danish gæld meant “debt.”
The -gäld suffix in Swedish had a similar meaning—gengäld
(exchange or in return), återgälda (return favor, retribute), and
vedergälda (revenge). Of course, if the weregild was not paid, a
blood feud would almost always ensue.
The madness of this cycle of retaliatory violence should seem
obvious. Once started, there is no easy way to stop it, short of
forgiveness. But this is not true forgiveness; this is merely a lull in the
violence until one side or the other has a more clear advantage and
the proper excuse to re-initiate the violence.
From this period of rugged survival and testy conflict, legends of
heroes and struggle were born.
The Sagas
The Icelandic Sagas were tales of heroes and their families who
settled in Iceland, and of their descendents. Some of the most
popular sagas include, Grettis saga, Njáls saga, Egils saga, Laxdæla
saga, Gísla saga, and Hrafnkels saga. The stories would include
anecdotes of family life, tales of raiding parties to win booty and
honor for their family, stories of conquest and even accounts of feuds
between families.
In Egil’s saga, for instance, the tale spans a century and a half of the
family of Kveldulf (“evening wolf”), Egil’s grandfather. Harold Fairhair
wanted to become king of all Norway and it looked as though he
might well accomplish this feat. He called upon Kveldulf to serve in
his army, but Kveldulf was now an old man. The king asked for him
to send one of his sons, instead, but he refused. Eventually, the strife
between Kveldulf’s family and that of Harold, would force Kveldulf’s
family to flee the country and to settle in the newly opened land of
Iceland. The bulk of the saga is about Egil, a complex character full
of seemingly whimsical violence and great skill at poetry. But when
we dig deeper, we find that Egil holds in high regard such values as
respect, honor, friendship and loyalty. His violence only comes when
these are betrayed.
Egil’s saga and several other writings were thought to be the work of
Snorri Sturluson (1179–1241), twice voted lawspeaker of the
Althingi. He posed the idea that the gods were, in truth, merely
mortal men—kings and great heroes of the past who were venerated
for generations until each was remembered merely as a divine
being, rather than a skillful king.
A note on Icelandic names—most citizens of Iceland used a
patronym, rather than a family name, a practice which continues
even unto today. This means that the given name is followed by the
given name of the person’s father. Some surnames in English
cultures were originally patronyms, like Peterson (Peter’s son). The
father’s given name has a genitive suffix appended which merely
means “son of” (-son) or “daughter of” (-dóttir). This is a holdover
from the days of the Vikings when Leif Ericson—the first known
European to visit mainland North America—truly was the son of Eric.
The Icelandic sagas were part of the inspiration for Jules Verne’s
science fiction story, Journey to the Center of the Earth, published
1864. The main character in that story, Professor Lindenbrock of
Scotland, found an artifact which included an original saga by Snorri
Sturluson. It told of an entrance to the center of our world.
Later, American writer, Edgar Rice Burroughs, was inspired by
Verne’s work and created his own story named, Pellucidar, first
published 1915. The influence of the sagas has run deep in our
culture.
In the next chapter, we look at Vikings in the decadent, imperial halls
of Byzantium, where the Varangian Guard protected the royal
household.
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