CAMBRIDGE trtas tannery Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE™CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE™ 1 COURSEBOOK Richard Harwood, Chris Millington & lan LodgeCAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS ‘atveray Puiming House Cambridge cs 85 United Kingdom ‘One Liberty ln, 2th Floor, New York, 10006, USA 477 Willaston Read, Port Mourne, vc 3207, Auta 314-321, 14 Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, Jago Distt Cente, New Delhi - 110025, nia 79 Anson Road, #06-04/06, Singapore 079906 ‘Cambridge University Pres is part ofthe Unventy of Cambridge ‘furthers the University’s mlsion by disseminating koovledge in the raul of ucation, Jearning and research a the highest international levels of excellence, sworcambridge ong “Information on this tile: wwwcambrdge.orglo783108953609 (© Cambridge University Press 2081 ‘This publication isin copyright Subject a statutory exception and tthe provisions of relevant collective icensing agreements ‘no reproduction of any part may take place without the writen perraission of Cambridge Univesity Press. First published 1998 ‘Secon edition 2002 ‘Thid ection 20:0 Fourth edition 034 Fifth edition 2021 20 19 18 a7 16 a5 14 23 22 11 10987 6 54920 Print nal by LEGO.S pA ‘A catalogue record for ths publication is avaiable from th Bitih Library ISBN 978-1-108-95160-9 Coursebook with Digit Acces (a Years) ISBN 978-1-108-97040-2 Digital Coursebook (2 Years) ISBN 978-2-108-p4830-2 Couriebook eBook ‘Additional resources fr this publication at wwsecambrige org ‘NOTICE To TEACHERS IN THE UK tis ileal to reproduce any part ofthis work in material form (including photocopying and electronic storage) except under the following circumstances (0 where you are abiding by alcence granted to your schoo or institution bythe Copyright Licensing Agency, (i) where no such cence exists, or where you wi to exceed the terms ‘ofa lence and you have gained the writen permission of Cambridge University Press * (Gi) where you ar allowed to reproduce without permission under the provisions of Chapter 3 ofthe Copyright, Deigas an Patents Act gH, which covers, or example, the reproduction of shoct passages ‘within certain types of educational anthology and reproduction forthe purposes of sting examination questions. NOTICE TO TEACHERS ‘Cambridge International copyright material in this publicetion i reproduced under lence and remains the intelectual property of Cambridge Assessment International Education. -Exam-style questions an sample answers have been writen bythe suthos. In examinations, the way marks ace swarded may be diferent. References to assessment and/or asessme preparation ae the publisher interpretation of the slabs requirements and may nat filly refet the approach of Cambridge AssestmentIntertions|, ‘Educatione’4 DEDICATED € TEACHER ia AWARDS Coton fe eM ecokoNlallatec-te lel MN Tata iene Riel ‘- i ay> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK > Contents How to use this series vi How to use this book viii Introduction x 1 States of matter 1 1.4 States of matter 3 1.2 Kinetic particle theory of matter. =I 1.3. Mixtures of substances and diffusion 14 2. Atomic structure 28 24 Atoms and elements 30 22 Isotopes ot 23 Electronicconfigurationof elements 38 3. Chemical bonding 47 3.4 Non-metallic substances and covalent bonding 49 3.2. Ionsand ionic bonding 37 3.3. Giant strctores @ 4. Chemical formulae and equations 73 4.1 Chemical names and formulae 15 4.2 Chemical equations for reactions 83. 43 Relative masses of atoms and molecules 7 5 Chemical calculations 9 5.1 Themole and Avogadro's constant 101 5.2 Themole and chemical equations 108 5.3 Molesand solution chemistry us 6 Electrochemistry 124 64 Types of electrical conductivity 126 62 Products of electrolysis 130 6.3 Hydrogen asa fuel 139 7 Chemical energetics 148 7 Physical and chemical changes 150 7.2. Exothermic and endothermic eastions 151 8 Rates of reaction 163 B41 Factors affecting the rate of reaction 165, 8.2 Collision theory of reaction rate 174 9 Reversible reactions and equilibrium 183 9.1 Reversible reactions 185, 92 Haber process and Contact process 190. 93 Fertilisers 197 10 Redox reactions 203 10.1 Combustion, oxidation and reduction 205 10.2 Redox reactions 207 11 Acids and bases 219 14.1 The nature of acids and bases 221 11.2. Characteristic reactions of acids 230 12 Preparation of salts 242 12.1 Theimportance of salts ~an introduction 24 12.2. Preparation of salts 248\ 13 The Periodic Table 13.4 13.2 133 Classifying the elements ‘Trends in groups ‘Trends across a period 14 Metallic elements and alloys 144 142 143 ‘The properties of metals Uses of metals, Alloys 15 Reactivity of metals 45.1 Themetal reactivity series 45.2 Metal displacement reactions 16 Extraction and corrosion of metals 464 Metal extraction and the reactivity series 46.2 Corrosion of metals 17 Chemistry of our environment 474 Airgualty 17.2 Carbon dioxide, methane and + climate change 173 Woter 18 Introduction to organic chemistry 18.1 18.2 ‘Names and formulae of organic compounds Structural formulae, homologous series and isomeis 259 261 265 270, 277 29 284 286 295 297 301 309 au 317 325 327 331 334 344 346 353 19 Reactions of organic compounds 19.1 Characteristic reactions of different homologous series 19.2 Chemistry of ethanol 19.3 Carboxylic acids and esters 20 Petrochemicals and polymers 20.1 ‘Petroleum and its products 20.2 Polymers 20.3 Plastics 21 Experimental design and separation techniques 211 Experimental design 21.2 Separation and purification 24.3. Chromatography 22 Chemical analysis 22.1 Tests to identify common cations 22.2 Tests o identify common anions 22.3 Tests to identify common gases 22.4 Quantitative analysis: acid bace tations Glossary Appendix: Periodic Table Index Acknowledgements 362 364 3m 313 380 382 387 395 404 406 410 417 426 428 435 438 440 447 458 467fore) ‘This coursebook provides coverage of the full Cambridge GCSE Chemistry syllabus. Each chapter explains facts tnd concepts, and uses televannt real-world examples of cu uu Sites aunes cone ecu eeu uae Pewee ues cat ae Resco mias coe na ee Cin GD ek ec uy un Pose Rs ‘The digital teacher's resource contains detailed guidance forall topics of the syllabus, including common misconceptions identifying areas where learners might need ‘extra support as wel as an engaging bunk of lesson ideas for each ssllabus top. Differentiation is emphasised with advice for identification of different learner ‘needs and suggestions of appropriate interventions ‘to support and stretch learners. The teacher's resource also contains support for preparing and earrying out ail the investigations in the practical workbook, including a set of sample results for when practical aren't possible. ‘The teacher's resource also contains scaffolded ‘worksheets and unit tests for each chapter. Answers forall components are accessible to teachers for free on the Cambridge GO platform.The skills-focused workbook has been carefully constructed to help learners develop the skills that they need as they progress through pr Reale Cee rae et nora eat Of all the topies in the coursebook. A three-tier. scaffolded approach to skills development enables students to gradually progress through Reon hen eect eme e ates De ee eet te eer es ‘deal for use in class or as homework S Sen oy bec) s-on practical work. giving them Chemistry era ter eter crn their investigative skills These skills include planning Se eee eee ett Derren nearer ee cream ee ers SNS Wea)> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK >» How to use this book Throughout this book, you will notice lots of different features that will help your learning. These are explained below, Inthe learning intentions table, the summary table and the exam-style questions, Supplement content See ee ae et eer Gain ie This contains questions and activities on subject knowledge you will need before starting this chapter. Questions Appearing throughout the text, questions give you a ‘chance to check that you have understood the topic you have just read about. The answers to these questions are accessible to teachers for free on the Cambridge GO site. Activities give you an opportunity to check and develop your understanding throughout the text ina more active way, for example by creating presentations, posters or ole plays. When activities This feature focuses on developing your practical have answers, teachers can find these for free on skills, They include lists of equipment required and ‘the Cambridge GO site, any safety issues, step-by-step instructions so you can carry out the experiment, and questions to help you think about what you have learnt. ‘Command words that appear in the syllabus and ight be used in exams are highlighted in the exem-style questions. In the margin, you will find the Cambridge international definition. You will is frst introduced, and definitions are given in boxes also find these definitions in the Glossary at the near the vocabulary. You will also find definitions of back of the book, these words in the Glossary at the back of this book. Key vocabulary is highlighted in the text when it >> Supplement content: Where material is intended for students who are studying the Supplement content of the syllabus [_ #8 wellas the Cone thsi indleated using the arow andthe bar, as onthe ft here, You may alo se just an artow (and no bar), in boxed features such as the Key Words where part of the definition is Supplement. ee ee a aa vil >& How to use this book ‘At the end of some activities and experimental skills boxes, you will fine! opportunities to help you assess your own work, or that of your ‘classmates, and consider how you can improve Wherever you need to know how to use a formula to carry out a calculation, there are worked examples boxes to show you how to do this. the way you learn. These activities ask you to think about the approach that you take to your work, and how youl might improve this in the future. SUMMARY [Theis summary of key pin te dof cack cape Project allow you to apply your learning from the whole chapter to group activities such as making posters or presentations, or taking part in debates, They may give you the opportunity to extend your learning beyond the syllabus ifyou want to ‘Questions atthe end of each chapter provide more demanding exam-style questions, some of which may require use of knowledge from previous chapters: The answers to these questions are accessible to teachers for free on the Cambridge GO site. SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST ‘The summary checklists are followed by ‘I can’ statements which relate to the Learning intentions at the beginning of the chapter. You might find it helpful to rate how confident you are for each of these statements when you are revising, You should revisit any topics that you rated ‘Needs more work’ or ‘Almost there’. (Needs | Almost een pg cea od Supplement> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK » Introduction (Chemistry is « laboratory science: its subject material and theories are based on experimental observation, However, its scope reaches out beyond the laboratory into every aspect of our lives — to our understanding of the nature of our planet, ‘the environment we live in, the resources available to us and the factors that affect our health. ‘This is the Sith edition of our Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry Coursebook, and it provides everything that you need to support your course for Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry (0620/0971). Tt provides full eoverage of the syllabus for examinations from 2023 onwards. ‘The chapters are arranged in the same sequence as the topics ia the syllabus ‘The various features that you will find in these chapters are explained in the How to use this book section. Many of the questions you will meet during your course test whether you have a deep understanding of the facts and concepts you have learnt. It is therefore not enough just to learn words and diagrams that you can repeat in answer to questions; you need to ‘ensure that you really understand each concept fully. Trying to answer the questions ‘that you will find within each chapter, and at the end of each chapter, should help you 10 do this Although you will study your chemistry as a series of different topics itis important {0 appreciate that all of these topics link up with each other. You need to make links bbetiveen different areas of the syllabus to answer some questions As you work through your course, make sure that you keep reflecting on the work that you did earlier and how it relates to the current topic that you are studying. The reflection boxes throughout the chapters ask you to think about how you learn, which may help you to make the very best use of your time and abilities as your course progresses. You can also use the self-evaluation checklists at the end of each chapter to decide how well you have understood each topic in the syllabus, and whether or not you need to do more work on each one. Practical skills are an important part of your chemistry course. You will develop these skills as you do experiments and other practical work related to the topics you are studying. Note to teachers: Guidance on safety has been included for each of the practical investigations in this coursebook. You should make sure that they do not contravene any school, education authority or government regulations. You and your schoo] are responsible for safety matters> Chapter 1 States of matter aioe aianroennee rn that matter can existin three different states: solid, liquid or g understand that substances can change state depending on the phy understand that matter is made up of very small particles such as atoms or molecules see how changes in temperature produce changes of state by affecting the motion of the particles involved learn how to describe the structure of the physical states in terms of the arrangement and movement ohpatcles Jescribe how changes in temperature and pressure affect the volume of a gas explain dfusion in terms of the movernent of particles think sbout how the movement of particles ikinetic perticle theory) helps explain how changes of ego Understand the effects of changes in temperature and pressure on the volume oi a gas learn how the molecular mass of particles in a gas affects the rate of diffusion> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK You will know about solids, liquids and gases from general life experience and your science courses, However, the ideas concerning the ways in which ‘one state of matter changes into another are more complex. Spray a small amount of air freshener at the front of a room, How does the smell spread around the 100m? Shake the can. Can you hear the liquid in it? Or try placing some liquid perfume in a dish in front of you and see how long it takes for someone to notice the scent some distance away. Discuss these observations in terms of changes of state and the movement of the molecules involved. Look at the flowchart (Figure 1:1). Werking in ‘gr0ups, can you add more detail to improve and extend the flowchart? MATTER canbe elements, compounse ‘canbazotid, |] [i liquid er gas jeupot porticlos atoms, molecules or fons ¥ ¥ ecupis» volume in pace hore mess Figure 1.1: Flowchart of the nature of matter anlar 3ps the most beautiful of the 9m. Satuen has fascinated _astronomers, even the famous Galileo, because of its mysterious rings. Galleo himself was confused the rings, thinking at first that the rings were - planets. The Pioneer, Voyager and Cassini-Huygens _ space probes have sent back a lot af information to Earth about the structure ofthe moons and singe of Saturn. Figure 1.2 is an image captured by the Hubble Space Telescope. The photograph shows | the rings at clase to their maximum tit(engle) to ‘the Earth, which shows their magnificence. Each ring around Saturn is made up of «stream of icy particles, following each other nose-to-tail, ike ‘ars in a traffic jam, around the planet, The particles can be of widely varying sizes. The rings resemble a ‘snowstorm, in which tiny snowflakes are mixed with "snowballs that can be as large as a house. The ice that surrounds one of the most spectacular planets ‘of our solar system is macle of water, which is the same substance (with the ¢ame chemical formula, H,0) that covers so much of the Earths surface. Figure 1.2: Saturn ands rings. photograph tekon by the Hulbble Space Telexcopa Figure 1.2 also shows the pastel colour of the CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Changes in state Evaporation and condensation ake | clon ie Sremperotres bolting Sublimation afew #8 ice eee enapeat sols change dre aL : Femnsakdys ges on hort aT eas thoterm sublimation i | jeveed tae angen | titer direction, Melting: 3 pure substance Neto that ubimation a a mas seen ata portular esieriey aratiey | ‘erate Freezing: the reverse takes placa sharply at the same temperature ae Figure 1.4: Changes of physical state and the effect of increasing temperature at atmospheric pressure Large increases, or decreases, in temperature and pressure can cause changes that are more dramatic than expansion or contraction. They can cause a substance to | melting point (mip): the temperature at which a change its Physical state: The changes between the three | sic ens into a liquid ~ it has the same value as States of matter are shown in Figure 1.4. Atatmospheric | the freezing point; a pure substance has a sharp pressure these changes can occur by rising orlowering | melting port _ the temperature of the substance, Melting and freezing incressing temperature ‘The temperature at which a substance turns to a liquid. phe a {s called the melting point (mp). This always happens : z es at one particular temperature for each substance —F — (Figure 15). The process is reversed at precisely the same temperature if a liquid is cooled down. Iti then called the freezing point (Ep). The melting point and freezing point of any given substance are both the same wie aid pile temperature, For example, the melting and frezing of apt ind pure water take place at 0°C. — decreasing temperature Figure 1.5: Relationship between the melting and bolling points ofa substance, GSublimation A few solids, such as Solid carbon dioxide, do not melt when they are heated at normal pressures, Instead, they turn directly into gas, Solid carbon dioxide's often called ‘dry ice’ because the surface of the block is dry (Figure 1.6). This is different to a normal ice cube, which has a thin film of liquid water on the surface This change of state is called sublimation: the solid sublimes (see Figure 1.4). Sublimation is a direct change of state from solid to gas, or {988 to solid; the liquid phase is bypassed, As with melting, this azo happens at one perticular temperature for each pure soli. Evaporation, boiling and condensation If a liquid is let with its surface exposed to the air, it ‘evaporates. When liquids change into pases in this way, the process is called Evaporation takes place from the surface of the liquid, The larger the surface area, the faster the liquid evaporates. The warmer the liquid is, the faster it evaporates. The hot climate around the Dead Sea means that water evaporates easily and the sea has a high salt concentration (Figure 1.7). ‘2 process occurring at the surface of @ liquid, involving the change of state from 3 liquid into a vapour at a temperature below the boiling point , CoRR eee Figure 1.6: Solid carbon dioxide sublimes. The white smoke is composed of water droplets condensed from the air there ‘sna liquid film on the solid pieces.> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Eventually, at a certain temperature a liquid becomes ‘hot enough for gas to fori within the liquid and not just at the surface. Bubbles of gas appear inside the liquid (Figure 1.8a). This process is known as boiling It takes place at a specific temperature, known as the boiling point for each pure liquid (Figure 1.5). Water evaporates fairly easily and has a relatively low boiling point (100°C). Water is quite a volatile liquid, Ethanol, with a boiling point of 78°C, is more volatile than water. It has a higher volat ‘The reverse of evaporation is condensation, This is usually brought about by cooling. However, we saw carlier that the gas state is the one most affected by changes in pressure. Its possible, at normal temperatures, to condense a gas into a liquid by increasing the pressure, without cooling, We can see these different processes in action if we look closely at a kettle as water boils (Figure 1.8b). Coloutless, invisible water vapour escapes from the kettle. Water vapour is present in the clear region we can see at the mouth of the kettle. The visible cloud of steam is made up of droplets of liquid water formed by condensation as the vapour cools in the ar, boiling: the process of change from liquid to gas at the boiling point of the substance; a condition under which gas bubbles are able to form within a liquid - gas molecules escape from the body of a liquid, not just from its surface . boiling point: the temperature at which a liquid boils, when the pressure of the gas created above the liquid equals atmospheric pressure volatile: term that describes a liquid that evaporates easily; it isa liquid with a low boiling point because there are only weak intermolecular forces between the molecules in the liquid volatility: the property of how easily a liquid evaporates : condensation: the change of a vapour or a gas into a liquid; during this process heet is given out to the surroundings Figure 1.8 a: Water bolling ina glass kettle: bubbles are formed throughout the liquid. br A boiling kettle produces be measured using an electrically heated melting-point apparatus or by the apparatus described later in Figure 19. A substance’s melting and boiling points in relation to room temperature (standard taken as 25°C) determine whether itis usually seen as a solid, a liquid or a gas, For example, if the melting point is below 25°C and the boiling point is above 25°C, the substance will be a liguid at room temperature. Effect of impurities ‘Seawater is impure water. This fact can be easily demonstrated if you put some seavater in a dish and heat ituntil al of the water evaporates. solid residue of salt is Jeft behind in the dish (you can see this effect in Figure 1.7, ‘which shows solid salt formations on the surface of the ‘Dead Sea). Impurities often affet the valu ofthe melting or boiling point of a substance. An impure substance sometimes melts or bois over range of temperatures, nota the preci point ofthe pure substance Seawater freezes ata temperature below the fteezing point of pure water (0°C) and boil at a temperature above the boiling point of pure water (100°C). Other substances that contain impurities show differences in their freezing and boiling points when compared with the ‘known values forthe pure substance. Questions 1. State the names for the following physical changes: liquid to solid b liquid to gos.at a precise temperature © gusto liquid 2 The melting and boiling points of three pure substances are given in Table 1.3. seers eee ethanol 78 rather Ties mercury 357 Table 1.3: Melting and boiling points of ethanol methane and mercury 2 Aillthree substances have negative values for their melting point. Which of them has the lowest melting point? b Which two substances are liquids at room temperature? Explain your answer. © Whateffect does the presence of an impurity have on the freezing point of a liquid? SL a a> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK 3a Whatdo you understand by the word volatile ‘when used in chemistry? b Put these three liquids in order of volatility. with. the most volatile first: water (byp. 100°C), ethanoic acid (bp. 128°C) and ethanol (bp. 78°C). ¢ Table 1.4 shows the melting and boiling points of four substances A-D. In which of these four substances are the particles arranged in a lattice (@ regular structure) at room temperature? Table 1.4: Melting and boiling points of four unknown substances, 4 Iodine is often seen as an example of a substance that changes directly from a solid to a gas. However, data books that giv the standard physical ‘measurements for substances show values for the ‘melting point (114°C) and boiling point (184°C) of iodine at atmospheric pressure. a Explain why iodine seems to miss out the liquid stage if crystals are heated strongly in a boiling tube. 'b Suggest iow you could demonstrate that iodine ‘ean melt to form liquid at atmospheric pressure. lattice: a regular three-dimensional arrangement of atoms, molecules or ions in a crystalline solid Heating and cooling curves ‘The melting point of a solid can also be measured using the apparatus shown in Figure 19. A powdered solid is put in a narrow melting-point tube so that it can be heated easily. Ano bath can be sed 30 that melting points above 100°C can be measured. We can follow the temperature of the sample before and after melting. ‘On heating, the temperature rises until the solid starts to melt. However close observation shows that the temperature stays constant untill the solid has melted ‘The temperature then rss a3 the liquid warms further thermometer melting-point tube sold Figure 1.9: Apparatus for measuring the melting point of ‘aol, A waterbath can be used for melting points below 100°C and an cil bath for melting pints above 100% It is possible to continue to heat the liquid in the same apparatus until its boiling point is reached. Again, the temperature stays the same until all the liquid has completely evaporated. ‘We can perform this experiment in reverse. Similar apparatus can be used to produee a cooling curve, but the thermometer must be plaved in a test-tube containing the solid being studied. The sold is then relted completely and the liquid heated. Heating is then stopped. The temperature is noted every minute as the substance cools. This produces & cooling curve Figure 1.10), The level horizontal) part of the curve ‘curs where the liquid freezes, forming the solid “Temperature /°C Time Figure 1.10: A cooling curva, The temperature stays constant while the liquid solidifies. A cooling mixture of ce and salt could be used to lower the temperature below 0°C. ‘These experiments show that heat energy is needed to change a solid into a liquid, or aliquid into a gas, Dusing the reverse processes, heat energy is given out.1 States of matter Plotting a cooling curve In this experiment, you are going to plot cooling curves for two substances, A and B. This ‘experiment investigates the eneray changes taking place as a liquid cools down below its freezing point. Substance A is paraffin wax (choose a low m.p. type, m.p. around 55°C). Substance B is either coctadecanoic acid (stearic acid) m.p. 70°C or phenyl salicylate (salol) m.p. 43°C. 200m} boeoker sample A Figure 1.11: Samples A and B are melted ina water-bath {is important that you follow the safety rules, set out by your teacher for all practical. In particular, pay attention to the type of Bunsen burner flame needed as well as the concentrations ‘and volumes of chemicals used. Wear eye protection throughout. Getting started Before starting the experiment, make sure you are familiar with the scale on the thermometer {you are using. You will need to be able to read it confidently. You can check on your reading of the thermometer as you are heating up the water-bath, Make sure you and your partner are clear as to the tasks you each have, Method 1 ‘Questions 1 Fill a 250cm# beaker three-quarters full of water ‘and heat using a Bunsen burner to make a waterbath, Place a thermometer in the water, Heat the water until itis at 90°C. Put boiling tubes containing a sample of each solid A and B into the waterbath (Figure 1.11). When the solid has melted, place a thermometer in each tube. There should be ‘enough liquid to cover the bulb at the base of the thermometer, Remove the tubes from the waterbath and stand them in an empty beaker for support Look at the thermometer and record the temperature in each tube, Then start the timer. Look at the thermometer and record the ‘temperature in each tube every minute until the ‘temperature reaches 40°C. Plot a graph for each set of readings with time cn the x-axis and temperature on the y-axis Which of the two substances is a pure substance? Explain your answer. Explain any ways in which your method could be improved to give more reliable results =>Have you drawn the axes with a ruler, using most of the width and height ofthe grid? Have you used a good scale for the x-axis and the y-axis, going up n 025s, 05s, 18 or 28? (Note that the axes do not necessarily need to start at the origin (0,0)) | Have you labelled the axes correctly giving the correct units for the scales on both axes? Have you drawn a single, clear best-fit line through each set of points? Have you ignored any anomalous results when drawing the line through each set cof points? Total (out of 1 ther advice on ar Questions energy absorbed energy absorbed 5 Sketch a cooling curve for vate from 80°C to. hui TE ne =20°C, noting what taking place inthe difercot evergy seared @ revion ofthe graph, 6 Energy is needed to overcome the forces of attraction holding the particles in position in a solid. Energy is absorbed during melting. Figure 1,12 energy released shows how energy is involved in the different . changes of state. Complete Figure 1.12 by providing Figure 1.12: Energy changes involved in diferent changes labels for the positions A, B and C. ree7 Asanalternative to following the cooling of a substanee, itis possible to draw a heating curve. Figure 1.13 shows the heating curve for substance X. Temperature /°C Time Figure 1.13: Heating curve for substance X. What physical state, or states, will X be in at points A,B, Cand D on the curve? 1.2 Kinetic particle theory of matter ‘Existence of atoms cand molecules Elements and compounds mix and react to produce the world around us, They produce massive objects such as ‘the ‘gas giants’ (the planets Jupiter and Saturn) that we rmet at the start of this chapter. They also give rise to the tiny highly structured crystals of solid sugar or salt. How do the elements organise themselves to give this variety? Flow can an element exist in the three different states of matter simply through a change in temperature? ‘Our modern understanding is based on the idea that all matter is divided into very small particles known as “abomts’The key ideas in our understanding are that: ‘+ cach element is composed of its own type of atom + atoms of different elements can combine to make the molecules of a compound. “This dea that all substances consist of very small particles begins to oxplain the structure of the three different states of matter. The different levels of freedom of movement of the particles explains some of the diferent features of the three states. Figue 1.14 illustrates the basic features of the three states we discussed earlier (see Table 1.1). Asolid cannot liquid can flow, itisa A gasisa fluid flow. thas fluid. Ithas a definite and spreads definite shape volume but takes the throughout its and volume. shape of ts container container. It has no defirite volume. Figure 1.14: The basic differences between the physical properties of the three states of matter. (Main points of the |kinetic ‘The \dsineticn particle theor¥of matter describes the three different states, and the changes between them, in terms of the movement of particles. The major points ofthe theory are ¢Allmatteris made up of very small particles (different substances contain different types of particles, suchas atoms, sor fons). © Particles are moving all the time (the higher the temperature, the higher the average energy of the particles). * The freedom of movement and the arrangement of the particles is different for the three states of matter, ‘The pressure of a gas is produced by the atoms ‘or molecules of the gas hitting the walls of the container. The more often the particles collide with the walls, the greater the pressure. _atomthe smallest particle of an element that can take part in.a chemical reaction | Keiaaticenertitbertiven yy; ‘a theory which accounts “or the bulk properties of the different states of matter in terms of the movement of particlas {atoms or molecules) - the theory explains what happens during changes in physicel state smmaleoule’a group of atoms held together by | | covalent bonds |> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Figure 1.15 is a more detailed summary of the organisation of the particles in the three states of matter and explains the changes involved in the different changes in state Figure 1.15: Applying the kinetic particle theory to changes in physical state. The highly structured, ordered microscopic arrangements in solids can produce the regular crystal structures seen in this state, In a solid, the particles are packed close together. The particles cannot move freely. They simply vibrate about fixed positions in their regular arrangement (lattice) 2 > Ina liquid, the particles are still close together. However, they can now move about past each other. The separation between particles is much greater in 4 gas. Ina gas, the particles are very far apart and move randomly, The ability of the particles to move in the liquid and gas phases produces their fluid properties. The particles are very widely separated in a gas, but close together in a liquid or solid, The space between the particles is called the intermolecular space, In a gas, ‘the intermolecular space is large and can be reduced bby increasing the external pressure. Therefore, gases are easily compressible, In liquids, this space is very much smaller. As a result, liquids are not very compressible. Changing the external pressure on a sample of a gas produces a change in volume that can easily be seen. ‘+ An inerease in external pressure produces contraction in volume. The gas is compressed * A decrease in external pressure produces an {nerease in volume. The gas expands. The volume of a gas is also altered by changes in temperature. * An increase inthe temperature of a gas produces an increase in volume The gas expands * A decrease in temperature produces a contraction of the volume of a gas. intermolecular space: the space between atoms or molecules in a liquid or gas. The intermolecular space is small in a liquid, but relatively very large in a gas. ‘The movement of particles in a liquid also helps to explain evaporation from the surface of a liquid. Some of the particles are moving faster than other particles. At the surface, these faster moving particles ‘may have enough energy to escape into the gaseous state (Figure 1.16).1 States of matter These faster moving particles escape Figure 1.16: Fester moving particles leaving the surface of aliquid, causing evaporation ‘The fact that the space between the rapidly moving particle in a gas is much greater than in the other (wo states of matter explains why the volume of « gas is ‘much more easily changed by conditions of temperature and pressure. Ifthe temperature is raised then the ‘bas particles move faster and there is less chance of interaction between them. The gas particles move faster and more freely and occupy a greater volume ‘The opposite is true if the temperature is lowered. The ‘particles are moving more slowly. They are more likely to ‘interact with each other and move together to occupy & smaller volume. ‘Changes in pressure also affect the volume of a gas sample. An increase in pressure pushes the particles closer together meaning that the moving particles are ‘more likely to interact with each other and move closer together. The opposite is true when the external pressure is lowered. The particles occupy a greater space and interactions between the particles are less likely. The interpretation of a cooling curve ‘The way the particles in the three states are arranged and interact with each other also helps to explain the energy changes involved when a substance is heated or cooled. Figure 1.17 summarises the energy changes that take place ‘at the different stages of a cooling-curve experiment. ‘Condensation: a gas and liguid both present 9 g Freezing: s 8 liquid end solid g liquid both present : e c solid Time Figure 1.17: The eneray changes taking place during the cooling oF a gas toa solid. ‘The cooling of the gas gives rise to a sequence of changes during which the particles move less rapidly and interact ‘more strongly with each other. The substance passes through the liquid state, eventually becoming a solid. ‘Over the course of the experiment the temperature falls. ‘However, the graph shows two periods during which the temperature remains constant, These regions are the time when first condensation, and then freezing takes place. In region A (Figure 1.17), the temperature is falling. The energy of the particles decreases. The particles ‘move more slowly and interact with each other more strongly. The particles begin to come together to form the liquid. As the intermolecular forces increase between the particles, energy is given out. This results in the temperature staying constant until the gas is completely condensed to tiquid. ‘Once the liquid is formed the temperature starts to fall again (region B). The liquid cools. The particles in the liquid slow down and eventually the solid begins to form. ‘The forces holding the solid together form and energy is given out. While the solid is forming this release of ‘energy keeps the temperature constant. The temperature stays the same until freezing is complete. ‘After the solid has formed the temperature falls again (region C). The particles in the solid vibrate less strongly as the temperature falls. intermolecular forces: the weak attractive forces ‘that act between molecules> CAwisRIBGE SESE cHEMISTRY: CouRsEBOOK The key points about the processes taking place during condensation and freezing are: ‘© ai the particles comie closer together, new forves of tatoo ‘* this means that energy is given out during these changes + therefore, the temperature remains unchanged until tt ori ii 3 oa eg ct (chaps soe eng “ai iat th eee site direction, sine ee maau cane this. Pmt constant pe melting ee ener bas 0 be mn ee the patil es. The entergy these interactions sd he partic able cs (et. Ase be: ne forces that hold a solid oF liquid t c attractive fore screg tc ic tha tw ‘ aioe i ote renee ee substances such as water or ethanol they act between the _ pod and so are intermolecular forces. aie hig: » proces or chemical eee energy is produced and released to the surroundings, ‘AH for an exothermic change has a negative value. ‘shalgthrie hati: @ process or chemical reaction that taker heat rom the surouncing. AH for an endothermic change has a positive value. 1.3 Mixtures of substances and diffusion ‘The chemical world is very complex, owing to the vast range of pure substances available and to the variety of ‘ways in which these pure substances can mix with each other, Each gsr must be made from at least two paris, which may be either solid, liquid or gas. There are anumber of different ways in which the three states can be combined. In some, the states are completely mixed to ‘become one single state or phase. Technically, the term ‘slit i8 used for this type of mixture composed of two ‘or more substances. Solid salt dissolves in liquid water to produce a liquid mixture, This is called a salt solution (Figure 1.18). The solid has completely disappeared into the liquid. In general terms, the solid that dissolves in the liquid is called the site: The liquid in which the solid dissolves is called the saijait. In other types of mixture, the states remain separate. One phase is broken up into small particles, droplets or bubbles, within the main phase, The most obvious example of this type of mixture isa gusjijaiod of fine particles of a solid in a liquid, such as we often get after a precipitation reaction (Chapters 12 and 22) friittipe: to or more substances mixed together but not chemically combined ~the substances can be separated by physical means 2pliitigi is formed when a substance (solute) dissolves into another substance (solvent) g9liit@: the solid substance that has dissolved in a liquid (the solvent) to form a solution geivaiit: the liquid that dissolves the solid solute to form a solution; water is the most common solvent but liquids in organic chemistry that can act as solvents are called organic solvents ‘USB @HziGH: @ mixture containing small particles of an insoluble solid, or droplets of an insoluble liquid, spread (suspended) throughout a liouid poscipitatien reartian: a reaction in which an insoluble salt is prepared from solutions of two soluble salts1 States of matter solution = solute particles eennot be seen liquid solvent Figure 1.18: When solute dissolves in solvent, the solute particles are completely dispersed inthe Liquid, Solutions ‘We most often think of a solution as being made of a solid dissolved in a liquid. Two-thirds of the Earth’s surface is covered by a solution of various salts in, water. The salts are totally dispersed in the water and ‘cannot be seen. However, other substances that are not normally solid are dissolved in seawater. For example, the dissolved gases, oxygen and carbon dioxide, are important for life to exist in the oceans. A closer look at solutions ‘Water is the commonest solvent in use, but other liguids are also important. Most of these other solvents are organic liquids, such as ethanol, propanone and trichloroethane, These organic solvents are important because they will often dissolve substances that do not dissolve in water. If a substance dissolves in a solvent, it is said to be soluble; if it does not dissolve, itis insoluble. Less obvious, but quite common, are solutions, of one liquid in another. Alcohol mixes (dissolves) completely with water. Alcohol and water are completely miscible: this means that they make a solution, Alloys are similar mixtures of metals, though we do not usually call them solutions. They are made by mixing the liquid metals together (dissolving one metal in the other) >defore solidifying the alloy. Solubility of solids in liquids If we ty to dissolve a substance such as copper(I) sulfate ina fixed volume of water, the solution becomes ‘more concentrated as we add more solid. A concentrated solution contains a high proportion of solute. A dilute solution contains a small proportion of solute. If we keep adding more solid, a point is reached when no ‘more will dissolve at that temperature. This is a saturated solution, To get more solid to dissolve, the temperature ‘must be increased. The concentration of solute in a saturated solution is the solubility of the solute at that temperature, The solubility of most solids inereases with temperature, ‘The process of crystallisation depends on these observations. When a saturated solution is cooled, the solution can hold less solute at the lower temperature and some solute crystallises out. soluble: 2 solute that dissolves in a particular solvent insoluble: a substance that does not dissolve in a Particular solvent. ‘miscible: if two liquids form a completely uniform mixture when added together, they are said to be miscible alloys: mixtures of elements (usually metals) designed to have the properties useful for a particular purpose, e.g. salder (an alloy of tin and ead) has 2 low melting point saturated solution: a solution that contains as much dissolved solute as possible at a particular temperature concentration: @ measure of how much solute is dissolved in a solvent to make a solution Solutions can be dilute (with a high proportion of solvent), or concentrated (with a high proportion of solute) ‘solubility: a measure of how much of a solute dissolves in a solvent at a particular temperature> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Solubility of gases in liquids Ualike most solids, gases become les soluble in water as the temperature rises. The solubility of gases from the air in water is quite small, but the amount of dissolved oxygen is enough to support fish and other aquatic life, ‘The solubility of gases increases with pressure. Sparkling Grinks contain carbon dioxide dissolved under pressure. ‘They ‘fize’ when the pressure is released by opening the container. They go ‘flat’ if the container is left to stand. open, and more quickly if left to stand in a warm place. Diffusion in fluids Some of the earliest evidence for the kinetic model of the states of matter came from observations on diffusion, where particles spread to fill the space available to them. ‘The main ideas involved in diffusion are: + particles move from a region of higher ‘concentration towards a region of lower concentration; eventually, the particles are evenly spread. Their concentration is the same throughout. + the rate of diffusion in liquids is much slower than in gases + diffusion does not take place in solids as the particles cannot move from place to place. ix a8 a result of the random motions of their particles Dissolving A potassium manganate(VI) crystal is placed at the bottom of a dish of water. The dish is then left to stand, AL irst the water around the erystal becomes purple as the solid dissolves (Figure 1.19), Particles move off from the surface of the crystal into the water. Eventually, the crystal dissolves completely and the purple colour spreads through the liquid. The whole solution becomes purple, The particles from the solid become evenly spread through the water. Figure 1.19: The diftusion of potassium manganatetV') in water. Whether a solid begins to break up like this in a liquid depends on the particular solid and liquid involved But the spreading of the solute particles throughout the liquid is an example of diffusion. Diffusion in solution is also important when the solute is a gas. This is especially important in breathing. Diffusion contributes to the movement of oxygen from the lungs to the blood, and of carbon dioxide from the blood to the lungs, Diffusion of gases ‘A few drops of liquid bromine are put into a gas jar and, the lid is replaced, The liquid bromine evaporates easily. Liquid bromine is highly volatile. After a short time, the brown gas begins to spread throughout the jar. The jar becomes full of brown gas. Bromine vaporises easily and its gas will completely fil the container (Figure 1.20). Gases diffuse to fill all the space available to them, Diffusion is important for our ‘sensing’ of the world around us Ttis the way that smells reach us ‘The atoms or molecules in gases move at high speeds. We are being bombarded constantly by nitrogen and ‘oxygen molecules in the air, which are travelling at about 1800km /hour. However, these particles collide very frequently with other particles in the air (many millions of collisions per second), so their path is not direct ‘These frequent collisions slow down the overall rate of diffusion from one place to another. The pressure of a {gis the result of collisions of the fast-moving particles with the walls of the container.1 States of matter Not all gases diffuse at the same rate. The speed at shown by the experiment in The ammonia and hydrochloric acid fumes react when they meet, producing a white smoke ring of sride. This smi iade of fir jum chi the tube shows that 3s faster. nonia, the lighter molecule of © heavier gas particles move more slowly than lighter particles at the same temperat ger molecules diffuse more slowly than diffusion is inversely relate reed of the partic! jemperature. Figure 1.20: Bromine vapour diffuses throughout the container to fil the space available. Figure 1.21: Ammonia and hydrochloric acid fumes diffuse at different rates.> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Investigating diffusion in liquids This experiment helps to demonstrate the process of diffusion in a liquid. Diffusion is shown by the formation of an insoluble precipitate where the ions meet in a solution Wear eye protection throughout, Use tweezers to handle the crystals. Be careful with chemicals. Never ingest them and always wash your hands after handling them. Note that silver nitrate is corrosive, oxidising and can stain the skin. Silver nitrate is also hazardous to the aquatic environment. Waste silver nitrate solution must not be poured down the drain. Getting started Before starting, try the reaction between potassium iodide and silver nitrate solutions in a test-tube. Add Tem? of equeous silver nitrate to a similar volume of potassium iodide solution. Note the formation of the precipitate, particularly its colour. Method 1 Puta Petri dish on a white tile or piece of white paper. Fill the Petri dish nearly to the top with deionised water. 2 Using tweezers, put a crystal of silver nitrate at one side of the dish and a crystal of potassium iodide at the other side (Figure 1.22) 3. Look at the crystals. Notice that as crystals begin to dissolve in the water, a new compound is formed within the solution, Petei igh containing water 1 eystal of silver nitrate 1 exystal of potassium iodide Figure 1.22: Experiment to investigate diffusion through water. 11 Whats the precipitate formed in this reaction? 2 Write @ word equation to show the reaction taking place. 3. What factors control where the solid is formed in the Petri dish? 4 Why does the solid not form exactly in the middle of the dish?1 States of matter Questions 8 A small amount of liquid bromine is placed in a gas jar, which is then sealed with a lid. Evaporation of ‘the liquid bromine takes place. Br) + Brg) Use the ideas of the kinetic theory to explain why, after about an hour, the gaseous bromine molecules have spread to evenly occupy the whole container. 9 A teacher carried out a class demonstration on CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK es The kinetic model of matter Your model, diagram or display should answer Modelling the arrangement of the particles in a three of the following questions: soli, liquid or ges is one way to help understand» Why can three states of matter exist? the properties of the different states of matter. acaba is ‘+ Whyis it that it takes time for a solid to melt? Working in @ small group, create a model or visual representation that explains the movement of the * Why do solids not diffuse over a normal Particles in the different states. Think about: time period! * What could you use to represent the particles? What s different about substances that means (Balls or marbles in a tray or dish, circular that they each have different melting points? Pieces of card on a plate, groups of people, * Different substances also have different boiling symbols perhaps?) points, Is the reason for this similar to why they + How will you arrange the particles to have different melting points? demonstrate solids, juids and gases? © Whyis it that you can feel a liquid cool when it + How could you represerit the movement of evaporates in your hand? the particles? After you have taken time to answer the questions, each group should choose one of the questions to demonstrate how your model works to the rest of the class To understand some the ideas introduced in this * Are there any experiments which give you clues chapter, you need to be able to think about the to the existence of sub-microscopic particles? ur of partic aller DBohaiour sf part( tee aval toeryou canta, + How useful do you find the different approaches? * What strategies could you use to help you to Visualise particles such as atoms and molectiles? There are three different physical states in which a substance can exist: solid, liquid or gas. ‘The structures of solids, liquids and gases can be described in terms of particle separation, arrangement and motion, : Different changes in state can take place, including melting and freezing, evaporation and condensation, ; and boiling. Changes of state can be produced by changing conditions of temperature and/or pressure Pure substances have precise melting and boiling points. The kinetic particle model describes the idea that the particles of a substance are in constant motion and that the nature and amount of motion of these particles differs in a solid, liquid or gas. RIESE ST >1 States of matter Changing physical state involves energy being absorbed or given out, the temperature of the substance staying constant while the change takes place (as illustrated by the experimental construction of cooling curves) explained in terms of the kinetic particle theory. ‘Changes in temperature or the external pressure produce changes in the volumes of gases which can be Diffusion in liquids and gases is the spreading of particles to fill all of the space available. quickly than those of higher mass. ‘The rate of diffusion of a gas is dependent on molecular size, with molecules of lower mass diffusing more | CAMA ia ee ee ‘The ‘Goldilocks principle’ How we experience the world around ws depends upon the physical conditions and states in which substances exist. This is particularly true in the case ‘of water The Earth is the only body in our solar systern where water exists in all three states of matter. Work in a group of three or four. Use the internet to. search for some information on the topics listed here. Then select one to research in detail. ‘The presence of water: What is distinctive about the physical conditions on Earth that mean thet life could begin, and continue to exist, here? Why is water so important when thinking about how life began? Is Earth the only planet to have water and therefore life? Have other planets had water in their past? Recent space probes have been sentto try to find water on Mars and the moons of Jupiter and Saturn (Figure 1,24), Research the various missions to find out whether there are other planets in our solar system where life may have existed. Figure 1.24: Seturns moon Enceladus has a global ocean of liquid salty water beneath its crust, The ‘Goldilocks Zone’: Earth orbits the Sun at just the right distance for liquid water to exist on its surface, Its neither too hot nor too cold for this. Research this situation, which is known as the ‘Goldilocks Zone’, and its meaning. Then think how it applies to the orbits of Venus, Earth and Mars. Exo-planets and life beyond our solar system: The Kepler and CHEOPS probes have searched for planets outside our solar system (exo-planets) where life may have evolved. Research these missions end find out the characteristics of the other solar systems and planets they were hoping to find, Decide how you will share out the tasks between the members of your group. Then bring your research together 26 an illustrated talk delivered to the whole class. A good illustrated talk should include the following: © a clear structure. * a strong introduction that includes details of the question(s) you have investigated + a short summary of the different areas you researched: make sure your points are in a sensible order ‘+ alist of the key conclusions at the end '* the key information presented in a graphic format (e.g. as a table, chart, pie chart) Instead of just text: illustrations will make your presentation much easier for your aucience to ‘understand and help them to remember your key points. a>> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK oO@ 1 States of matter> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK ‘a Ina gas, the particles are moving rapidly and randomly, Desevibe the ‘movement of the particles ina liquid. (2 'b How does the movement of the particles n a solid change when it isheated? 10] ‘© What name is given to the process which happens when fiquid water changes to water vapour at room temperature? tl d_ What is meant by the tenn freezing? tl Total: 5] 7. A .wacher opens a bottle of perfume atthe front of her laboratory. She notices @ smell of flowers. A few minutes later, students at the front of the lab notice the smell 100, Those students atthe back do not notice it until later ‘a. What two processes must take place for the smell from the perfume to reach the back of the lab? fl “Later in the day, when the room had cooled, the teacher tres the same ‘experiment with a different class. The smell isthe same but it takes longer to reach the back of the lab. bb Explain this observation by reference to the particles of perfume. (ai TTotal: 4) describe: state the points of a topic / give characteristics and main features explain: set out purposes or reasons/make the relationships between things evident/provide why and/or how and support with relevant evidenceo ets ee Melting point ore Oyen cea tens terete soaked in ammonia a Ceca ea gr on ad fee ees eee eestor 1. States of matter ch Se ee Ea rukes 1 feces) cotton woo! soaked in hydrochloric eke ees> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Eeeer never or cotton wool soaked in hydrochloric acid be the colour ehanged in 34s. Estimate eee caeke e) eae en 1c) ia1. States of matter SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST “After studying this chapter, think about how confident you are with the different topics, This will help you to see ‘any gaps in your knowledge and help you to learn more effectively. a 3 gf Sg SEES state the major differences between the three states | 4 of matter Geseribe the changes of state observed with wa ' increasing of decreasing temperature describe the effect of changes in temperature on the | 5 ‘motion of particles in the different states of matter | \, | Interpret the shape of a cooling curve for a io ‘substance in terms of the kinetic particle theory b state the effects of changing temperature and oS pressure on the volume of a gas ‘explain, in terms of the kinetic particle theory, the effects Of changing temperature and pressure on the | 1.2 volumes of gases e Talend how sos and aeccan does 7 iis andthe es densi is ere isin ns and gue 3 eseribe the effect of relative molecular mass on the | rate of diffusion of a gaslear how atoms are the particles that make up the different elements study the nuclear model of the atom Jearn about the relative charge and mass of the subatomic particles: the proton, neutron and electron discover how the structure of any atorn is defined by its proton number and mass number learn how the isotopes of an element have the same proton number but different numbers of neutrons learn how the electrons in an ator are organised in shells around the nucleus ‘see how the electronic configuration of the ators of an element relates to its position in the Periodic Table2 Atomic structure ‘Your earlier science courses will have introduced 4 What do you understand that the formula of you to the world of the very small. In biology, You may have used a microscope to lock at some Iricroscope slides to see the detail of leaves and srall fies. In chemistry, we have seen that matter is made up of very small particles such as atoms or molecules. We have also seen that the chemical formula for water is H,0. From your previous studies, discuss the following questions to begin your study of the sub-microscopic world: water means? What do the letters ‘i’ and ‘O* mean in the formula? What is the difference between an atom and a molecule? 2.. Are you aware of there being any particles that are smaller than an atom? Scientists have used new imaging techniques to‘see' atoms, Over the past few decades, the Use of scanning tunnelling microscopes (57M) a form of ‘atomic microscopy’ ~ has opened up the manipulation of the atomic world. In 1990, scientists at the Zurich laboratories of the multinational technology company IBM were able to create an ‘atomic logo’ using individual xenon aicms. The ability to move and position individual atoms has led to other images of interactions [bepween atoms, One such image is the atornic. ‘corral’ of 48 iron atoms arranged ina ring, which appeared in the international press (Figure 21) Figure 2.1: An atomic ‘cota’ of 48 jon atoms in a ring ‘ona coppersurlace, The iron atoms are viewed using @ scanning waneling microscope (BM, published 1999) ie a! [New forms of atomic microscope have been developed, including the atomic force microscope: and the quantum microscope, More recent advances using both scenning tunnelling and ‘atomic force microscopes have led to the building of specific individual molecules. One such molecule ‘was built to celebrate the 2012 Olympic Game: London. The single molecule was created using a combination of clever synthetic chemistry and State-of-the-art imaging technique. As you would ‘expect this molecule, called olympicene, was made up of five rings and was about 100 000 times thinner than a human heir. Further advances in microscopy and image processing are antic ‘that will allow us to observe digitally and ‘see! the reactions between individual atoms Desens : 41 Which atoms do you think form the basic structure of olympicene? Think of the element: ‘that forms the basis of life. ‘Olympicene was made up of five hexagons arranged with snared sides sin a honeycomb, Predict the structure of the molecule. How ‘many atoms do you think make up the skeleton structure of the five rings of elympicene?> oa ¥: COURSEBOOK 2.1 Atoms and elements Every substance around us is made up of atoms They are the ineredibly small particles from which all the ‘material world is built (Figure 2.2). ‘We talked of atoms, and the molecules they can form, when discussing the kinetic particle theory of matter in Chapter |. A substance made up af just one type of atom is called an clement, Elements cannot be broken down into anything simpler by chemical reactions. ‘There are now 118 known elements, but most of the known mass of the universe consists of just two elements, hydrogen (92%) and helium (7%), with all, the other elements contributing only 1% to the total (Figure 2.3). How a certain number of these elements concentrated together to form the Earth is of great interest and significance. There are 94 elements found naturally on Earth but just eight account for more than 98% of the mass of the Earth's crust. Two elements, silicon and oxygen, which are bound together in silicate rocks, make up almost three-quarters of the erust, Only certain elements are able to form the complex compoum that are found in living things. For example, the human ‘body contains 65% oxygen, 18% carbon, 10% hydrogen, 3% nitrogen, 2% calcium and 2% of other elements. | element: a substance that cannot be further | divided into simpler substances by chemical | methods; all the atoms of an element contain the | seme number of protons, -ompound: a substance formed by the chemical combination of two or more elements in fixed proportions Decreasing size i @ Die Grain of sand Hem 5 SA 700 Figure 2.2: A sense of perspective on the sizeof the atom. © B» Molecule of € haemoglobin Atom: 1 4 yom" = Tooon0a000 °"2 Atomic structure Structure of the atom (Our modern understanding of the atom is based on the atomic theory put forward by the English chemist John Dalton in 1807. Dalton’s idea was that atoms were the basic building blocks of the elements. He thought of them as indivisible particles that could join together tomake molecules. Although certain parts of the theory have had to change as a result of what we have discovered since Dalton’s time, his theory was one of the great leaps of understanding in chemistry. It meant that we could explain many natural processes. Whereas Dalton only had theories for the existence of atoms, ‘modern techniques (eg. scanning tunnelling microscopy) ‘can now directly reveal the presence of individual atoms, Research since Dalton’s time has shown that atoms are ‘made up of several subatomic particles: The electron was discovered in 1897, followed soon after by the proton, ‘Crucial experiments then showed that an atom is mostly space occupied by the negatively charged electrons, suctounding a very small, positively charged nucleus. The nucleus is at the centre of the atom and contains almost all the mass of the atom. By 1932, when the neutron was discovered, it was clear that atoms consisted of three ‘subatomic particles ~ protons, neutrons and electrons. ‘These particles are universal ~ all atoms are made from them. The atom remains the smallest particle that shows the chemical characteristics of a particular element. Note that the term subatomic particles, while # useful eseription, is not an essential term to learn, Understanding atomic structure — a timeline of discovery The discovery of the nature of the subatomic Particles that make up all atoms took place ina relatively short space of time around the beginning of the 20th century. Working in a group, investigate this key period in the history of science and produce a timeline showing how our understanding ‘of the model of the atom developed. You should include words and phrases such as: indivisible, subatomic particles, protons, neutrons, electrons, ‘plum pudding’ mode, nuclear model, nucleus, orbiting electrons Key scientists to research include J. J. Thompson, Hantero Nagaoke, Emest Rutherford, James Chadwick and Niels Bohr. subatomic particle with negligible mass and a relative charge of -1; electrons are present in all atoms, located in the shells energy levels) outside the nucleus proton: a subatornic particle with a relative atomic mass of 1 and a charge of +1 found in the nucleus of all atoms nucleus: (of an atom) the central region of an ‘atom that is made up of the protons and neutrons of the atom; the electrons orbit around the ‘nucleus in different ‘shells’ or ‘energy levels’ ‘neutron: an uncharged subatomic particle present in the nucleus of atoms - a neutron has @ mass of 1 relative to a proton subatomic particles: very small particles — protons, neutrons and electrons ~ from which all atoms are made ‘On your timeline, try to answer the following questions: 1. What was remarkable about thé structure of the atom suggested by the Geiger and Marsden gold foil experiments carried out in Rutherford's laboratory? What is it about the nature ofthe neutron that made it the last of the particles to be discovered? ‘Once your timeline is complete, work individually to answer this question: 3. What do you think was the most important discovery? Justly your answer.