IV Year B.Tech.

CSE I - Semester

CS445 INTERNET OF THINGS

(ELECTIVE - IV)

Course description and objectives:

Students will be explored to the interconnection and integration of the physical world and the cyber
space. They are also able to design & develop IOT Devices.

Course Outcomes:

1.Able to understand the application areas of IOT

2.Able to realize the revolution of Internet in Mobile Devices, Cloud & Sensor Networks

3.Able to understand building blocks of Internet of Things and characteristics.

Unit I

Introduction to Internet of Things

Definition : A dynamic global network infrastructure with self-configuring capabilities based on

standard and inter-operable communication protocols where physical and virtual "things" have
identities, physical attributes, and virtual personalities and use intelligent interfaces, and are seamlessly
integrated into the information network, often communicate data associated with users and their
environments.

Characteristics of IoT

1. Dynamic and self adapting

2.Self configuring

3.Inter-operable communication protocols

4.Unique identity

5.Integrated into information network

Physical Design of IoT

Things of IoT

A thing, in the context of the Internet of things (IoT), is an entity or physical object that has a unique
identifier, an embedded system and the ability to transfer data over a network.
IOT Protocols

1.Link layer

802.3Ethernet

Ethernet, defined under IEEE 802.3, is one of today's most widely used data communications
standards, and it finds its major use in Local Area Network (LAN) applications. With versions
including 10Base-T, 100Base-T and now Gigabit Ethernet, it offers a wide variety of choices of speeds
and capability. Ethernet is also cheap and easy to install. Additionally Ethernet, IEEE 802.3 offers a
considerable degree of flexibility in terms of the network topologies that are allowed. Furthermore as it
is in widespread use in LANs, it has been developed into a robust system that meets the needs to wide
number of networking requirements.

802.11 WiFi

IEEE 802.11 is a set of media access control (MAC) and physical layer (PHY) specifications for
implementing wireless local area network (WLAN) computer communication in the

900 MHz and 2.4, 3.6, 5, and 60 GHz frequency bands. They are created and maintained by the
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) LAN/MAN Standards Committee (IEEE 802).
The base version of the standard was released in 1997, and has had subsequent amendments. The
standard and amendments provide the basis for wireless network products using the Wi-Fi brand. While
each amendment is officially revoked when it is incorporated in the latest version of the standard, the
corporate world tends to market to the revisions because they concisely denote capabilities of their
products. As a result, in the market place, each revision tends to become its own standard.

802.16 WiMax

IEEE 802.16 is a series of wireless broadband standards written by the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE). The IEEE Standards Board established a working group in 1999 to
develop standards for broadband for wireless metropolitan area networks. The Workgroup is a unit of
the IEEE 802 local area network and metropolitan area network standards committee.

Although the 802.16 family of standards is officially called WirelessMAN in IEEE, it has been
commercialized under the name "WiMAX" (from "Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access")
by the WiMAX Forum industry alliance.

The Forum promotes and certifies compatibility and interoperability of products based on the IEEE
802.16 standards.

802.15.4-LR-WPAN

•IEEE 802.15.4 is a standard created and maintained by consultants which specifies the physical layer
and media access control for low-rate wireless personal area networks (LR- WPANs). It is maintained
by the IEEE 802.15 working group, which has defined it in 2003. It is the basis for the ZigBee,
ISA100.11a, WirelessHART, MiWi, and Thread specifications, each of which further extends the
standard by developing the upper layers which are not defined in IEEE 802.15.4. Alternatively, it can
be used with 6LoWPAN as Network Adaptation Layer and standard Internet protocols and/or IETF
RFCs defining the upper layers with proper granularity to build a wireless embedded Internet.

2G/3G/4G – Mobile Communication

2G (or 2-G) is short for second-generation wireless telephone technology. Second generation 2G
cellular telecom networks were commercially launched on the GSM standard in Finland by Radiolinja
(now part of Elisa Oyj) in 1991.[1] Three primary benefits of 2G networks over their predecessors were
that phone conversations were digitally encrypted; 2G systems were significantly more efficient on the
spectrum allowing for far greater mobile phone penetration levels; and 2G introduced data services for
mobile, starting with SMS text messages. 2G technologies enabled the various mobile phone networks
to provide the services such as text messages, picture messages and MMS (multi media messages). All
text messages sent over 2G

are digitally encrypted, allowing for the transfer of data in such a way that only the intended receiver
can receive and read it.

3G, short form of third generation, is the third generation of mobile telecommunications technology.
This is based on a set of standards used for mobile devices and mobile telecommunications use services
and networks that comply with the International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000)
specifications by the International Telecommunication Union. 3G finds application in wireless voice
telephony, mobile Internet access, fixed wireless Internet access, video calls and mobile TV.

3G telecommunication networks support services that provide an information transfer rate of at least
200 kbit/s. Later 3G releases, often denoted 3.5G and 3.75G, also provide mobile broadband access of
several Mbit/s to smartphones and mobile modems in laptop computers. This ensures it can be applied
to wireless voice telephony, mobile Internet access, fixed wireless Internet access, video calls and
mobile TV technologies.

4G, short for fourth generation, is the fourth generation of mobile telecommunications technology,
succeeding 3G. A 4G system must provide capabilities defined by ITU in IMT Advanced. Potential and
current applications include amended mobile web access, IP telephony, gaming services, high-
definition mobile TV, video conferencing, 3D television, and cloud computing.[citation needed]

Two 4G candidate systems are commercially deployed: the Mobile WiMAX standard (first used in
South Korea in 2007), and the first-release Long Term Evolution (LTE) standard (in

Oslo, Norway, and Stockholm, Sweden since 2009). It has however been debated if these first-release
versions should be considered to be 4G or not, as discussed in the technical definition section below.

2.Network/Internet Layer

IPv4

Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is the fourth version of the Internet Protocol (IP). It is one of the core
protocols of standards-based inter-networking methods in the Internet, and was the first version
deployed for production in the ARPANET in 1983. It still routes most Internet traffic today, despite the
ongoing deployment of a successor protocol, IPv6. IPv4 is described in IETF publication RFC 791
(September 1981), replacing an earlier definition (RFC 760, January 1980).

IPv4 is a connectionless protocol for use on packet-switched networks. It operates on a best effort
delivery model, in that it does not guarantee delivery, nor does it assure proper sequencing or avoidance
of duplicate delivery. These aspects, including data integrity, are addressed by an upper layer transport
protocol, such as the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).

IPv6

Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is the most recent version of the Internet Protocol (IP), the
communications protocol that provides an identification and location system for computers on
networks and routes traffic across the Internet. IPv6 was developed by the Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF) to deal with the long-anticipated problem of IPv4 address exhaustion.

IPv6 is intended to replace IPv4.

Every device on the Internet is assigned an IP address for identification and location definition. With
the rapid growth of the Internet after commercialization in the 1990s, it became evident that far more
addresses than the IPv4 address space has available were necessary to connect new devices in the
future. By 1998, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) had formalized the successor protocol.
IPv6 uses a 128-bit address, theoretically allowing 2128, or approximately 3.4×1038 addresses. The
actual number is slightly smaller, as multiple ranges are reserved for special use or completely
excluded from use. The total number of possible IPv6 address is more than

7.9×1028 times as many as IPv4, which uses 32-bit addresses and provides approximately 4.3 billion
addresses. The two protocols are not designed to be interoperable, complicating the transition to IPv6.
However, several IPv6 transition mechanisms have been devised to permit communication between
IPv4 and IPv6 hosts.

6LoWPAN

6LoWPAN is an acronym of IPv6 over Low power Wireless Personal Area Networks. 6LoWPAN is the
name of a concluded working group in the Internet area of the IETF.

The 6LoWPAN concept originated from the idea that "the Internet Protocol could and should be
applied even to the smallest devices," and that low-power devices with limited processing capabilities
should be able to participate in the Internet of Things.

The 6LoWPAN group has defined encapsulation and header compression mechanisms that allow IPv6
packets to be sent and received over IEEE 802.15.4 based networks. IPv4 and IPv6 are the work horses
for data delivery for local-area networks, metropolitan area networks, and wide-area networks such as
the Internet. Likewise, IEEE 802.15.4 devices provide sensing communication-ability in the wireless
domain. The inherent natures of the two networks though, are different.

3.Transport Layer

TCP
The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a core protocol of the Internet protocol suite. It originated
in the initial network implementation in which it complemented the Internet Protocol (IP). Therefore,
the entire suite is commonly referred to as TCP/IP. TCP provides reliable, ordered, and error-checked
delivery of a stream of octets between applications running on hosts communicating over an IP
network. Major Internet applications such as the World Wide Web, email, remote administration and
file transfer rely on TCP. Applications that do not require reliable data stream service may use the User
Datagram Protocol (UDP), which provides a connectionless datagram service that emphasizes reduced
latency over reliability.

UDP

The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is one of the core members of the Internet protocol suite. The
protocol was designed by David P. Reed in 1980 and formally defined in RFC 768.

UDP uses a simple connectionless transmission model with a minimum of protocol mechanism. It has
no handshaking dialogues, and thus exposes the user's program to any unreliability of the underlying
network protocol. There is no guarantee of delivery, ordering, or duplicate protection. UDP provides
checksums for data integrity, and port numbers for addressing different functions at the source and
destination of the datagram.

With UDP, computer applications can send messages, in this case referred to as datagrams, to other
hosts on an Internet Protocol (IP) network without prior communications to set up special transmission
channels or data paths. UDP is suitable for purposes where error checking and correction is either not
necessary or is performed in the application, avoiding the overhead of such processing at the network
interface level. Time-sensitive applications often use UDP because dropping packets is preferable to
waiting for delayed packets, which may not be an option in a real-time system. If error correction
facilities are needed at the network interface level, an application may use the Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) or Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) which are designed for this purpose.

4.Application layer

HTTP

The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an application protocol for distributed, collaborative,
hypermedia information systems. HTTP is the foundation of data communication for the World Wide
Web.

Hypertext is structured text that uses logical links (hyperlinks) between nodes containing text. HTTP is
the protocol to exchange or transfer hypertext.

The standards development of HTTP was coordinated by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
and the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), culminating in the publication of a series of Requests for
Comments (RFCs). The first definition of HTTP/1.1, the version of HTTP in common use, occurred in
RFC 2068 in 1997, although this was obsoleted by RFC 2616 in 1999.

A later version, the successor HTTP/2, was standardized in 2015, then supported by major web
browsers and already supported by major web servers.

CoAP
Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP) is a software protocol intended to be used in very simple
electronics devices that allows them to communicate interactively over the Internet. It is particularly
targeted for small low power sensors, switches, valves and similar components that need to be
controlled or supervised remotely, through standard Internet networks. CoAP is an application layer
protocol that is intended for use in resource-constrained internet devices, such as WSN nodes. CoAP is
designed to easily translate to HTTP for simplified integration with the web, while also meeting
specialized requirements such as multicast support, very low overhead, and simplicity. Multicast, low
overhead, and simplicity are extremely important for Internet of Things (IoT) and Machine-to-Machine
(M2M) devices, which tend to be deeply embedded and have

much less memory and power supply than traditional internet devices have. Therefore, efficiency is
very important. CoAP can run on most devices that support UDP or a UDP analogue.

The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) Constrained RESTful environments (CoRE) Working
Group has done the major standardization work for this protocol. In order to make the protocol suitable
to IoT and M2M applications, various new functionalities have been added. The core of the protocol is
specified in RFC 7252, important extensions are in various stages of the standardization process.

WebSocket

WebSocket is a protocol providing full-duplex communication channels over a single TCP connection.
The WebSocket protocol was standardized by the IETF as RFC 6455 in 2011, and the WebSocket API
in Web IDL is being standardized by the W3C.

WebSocket is designed to be implemented in web browsers and web servers, but it can be used by any
client or server application. The WebSocket Protocol is an independent TCP- based protocol. Its only
relationship to HTTP is that its handshake is interpreted by HTTP servers as an Upgrade request. The
WebSocket protocol makes more interaction between a browser and a website possible, facilitating the
real- time data transfer from and to the server. This is made possible by providing a standardized way
for the server to send content to the browser without being solicited by the client, and allowing

for messages to be passed back and forth while keeping the connection open. In this way a two-way
(bi-directional) ongoing conversation can take place between a browser and the server. The
communications are done over TCP port number 80, which is of benefit for those environments which
block non-web Internet connections using a firewall. Similar two-way browser- server communications
have been achieved in non-standardized ways using stopgap technologies such as Comet.

The WebSocket protocol is currently supported in most major browsers including Google Chrome,
Internet Explorer, Firefox, Safari and Opera. WebSocket also requires web applications on the server to
support it.

MQTT
MQTT (formerly Message Queue Telemetry Transport) is an ISO standard (ISO/IEC PRF 20922)
publish-subscribe based "light weight" messaging protocol for use on top of the TCP/IP protocol. It is
designed for connections with remote locations where a "small code footprint" is required or the
network bandwidth is limited. The publish-subscribe messaging pattern requires a message broker. The
broker is responsible for distributing messages to interested clients based on the topic of a message.
Andy Stanford-Clark and Arlen Nipper of Cirrus Link Solutions authored the first version of the
protocol in 1999.

The specification does not specify the meaning of "small code foot print" or the meaning of "limited
network bandwidth". Thus, the protocol's availability for use depends on the context. In 2013, IBM
submitted MQTT v3.1 to the OASIS specification body with a charter that ensured only minor changes
to the

specification could be accepted. MQTT-SN is a variation of the main protocol aimed at embedded
devices on non-TCP/IP networks, such as ZigBee.

Historically, the 'MQ' in 'MQTT' came from IBM's MQ message queuing product line. However,
queuing per se is not required to be supported as a standard feature in all situations.

Alternative protocols include the Advanced Message Queuing Protocol, the IETF Constrained
Application Protocol and XMPP.

XMPP

Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP) is a communications protocol for message-
oriented middleware based on XML (Extensible Markup Language). It enables the near-real-time
exchange of structured yet extensible data between any two or more network entities. Originally named
Jabber, the protocol was developed by the Jabber open-source community in 1999 for near real-time
instant messaging (IM), presence information, and contact list maintenance. Designed to be extensible,
the protocol has been used also for publish- subscribe systems, signalling for VoIP, video, file transfer,
gaming, Internet of Things (IoT) applications such as the smart grid, and social networking services.

Unlike most instant messaging protocols, XMPP is defined in an open standard and uses an open
systems approach of development and application, by which anyone may implement an XMPP service
and interoperate with other organizations' implementations. Because XMPP is an open protocol,

implementations can be developed using any software license; although many server, client, and library
implementations are distributed as free and open-source software, numerous freeware and commercial
software implementations also exist.

DDS

The Data Distribution Service for Real-Time Systems (DDS) is an Object Management Group (OMG)
machine-to-machine middleware "m2m" standard that aims to enable scalable, real- time, dependable,
high-performance and interoperable data exchanges between publishers and subscribers. DDS
addresses the needs of applications like financial trading, air-traffic control, smart grid management,
and other big data applications. The standard is used in applications such as smartphone operating
systems, transportation systems and vehicles, software-defined radio, and by healthcare providers. DDS
may also be used in certain implementations of the Internet of Things.

AMQP

The Advanced Message Queuing Protocol (AMQP) is an open standard application layer protocol for
message-oriented middleware. The defining features of AMQP are message orientation, queuing,
routing (including point-to-point and publish-and-subscribe), reliability and security.

AMQP mandates the behavior of the messaging provider and client to the extent that implementations
from different vendors

are interoperable, in the same way as SMTP, HTTP, FTP, etc. have created interoperable systems.
Previous standardizations of middleware have happened at the API level (e.g. JMS) and were focused
on standardizing programmer interaction with different middleware implementations, rather than on
providing interoperability between multiple implementations. Unlike JMS, which defines an API and a
set of behaviors that a messaging implementation must provide, AMQP is a wire-level protocol. A wire-
level protocol is a description of the format of the data that is sent across the network as a stream of
octets. Consequently, any tool that can create and interpret messages that conform to this data format
can interoperate with any other compliant tool irrespective of implementation language.

Logical Design of IoT

IoT Functional Blocks

•Device

The things in IoT are nothing but the devices in IoT.

Services

An IoT system uses various types of IoT services such as services for device monitoring, device control
services, data publishing services etc.

Communication

Many communication technologies are well known such as WiFi, Bluetooth, ZigBee and 2G/3G/4G
cellular, but there are also several new emerging networking options such as Thread as an alternative
for home automation applications, and Whitespace TV technologies being implemented in major cities
for wider

area IoT-based use cases. Depending on the application, factors such as range, data requirements,
security and power demands and battery life will dictate the choice of one or some form of combination
of technologies. These are some of the major communication technologies on offer to developers.
Management

Management functional block provides various functions to govern the IoT system.

Security

Security functional block secures the IoT system and by providing functions such as authentication,
authorization, message and content integrity, and data security.

Application

IoT application provide an interface that the users can use to control and monitor various aspects of the
IoT system.

IoT Communication Model

Request-Response

Request–response, or request–reply, is one of the basic methods computers use to communicate with
each other, in which the first computer sends a request for some data and the second computer responds
to the request. Usually, there is a series of such interchanges until the complete message is sent;
browsing a web page is an example of request–response communication. Request–response can be seen
as a telephone call, in which someone is called and they answer the call.

Request–response is a message exchange pattern in which a requestor sends a request message to a

replier system which receives and processes the request, ultimately returning a message in response.
This is a simple, but powerful messaging pattern which allows two applications to have a two-way
conversation with one another over a channel. This pattern is especially common in client–server
architectures.

Publish-Subscribe

In software architecture, publish–subscribe is a messaging pattern where senders of messages, called

publishers, do not program the messages to be sent directly to specific receivers, called subscribers, but
instead characterize published messages into classes without knowledge of which subscribers, if any,
there may be. Similarly, subscribers express interest in one or more classes and only receive messages
that are of interest, without knowledge of which publishers, if any, there are.

Pub/sub is a sibling of the message queue paradigm, and is typically one part of a larger message-
oriented middleware system. Most messaging systems support both the pub/sub and message queue
models in their API, e.g. Java Message Service (JMS).

This pattern provides greater network scalability and a more dynamic network topology, with a
resulting decreased flexibility to modify the Publisher and its structure of the data published.

Push-Pull

Most of the business communication tools we use today are “push” tools, where the sender of the
message decides who will receive it. Email is the classic example of this; the sender of the message
chooses who to put on the To and Cc lines. The recipient gets no choice about whether they receive the
message or not, and anyone who is not copied on the message doesn’t even know of its existence. The
sender is firmly in control. Instant messaging, SMS and even phone calls are all examples of push.

Exclusive Pair

Paired sockets are very similar to regular sockets.

•The communication is bidirectional.

•There is no specific state stored within the socket

•There can only be one connected peer.

•The server listens on a certain port & a client connects to it.

IoT Communication APIs

•REST-based communication APIs

•REST (REpresentational State Transfer) is an architectural

style, and an approach to communications that is often used in the development of Web services. The
use of REST is often

preferred

over the

more heavyweight SOAP

(Simple

Object Access Protocol)

style because

REST

does not
leverage as much bandwidth, which

makes it a better fit

for use over the Internet. The SOAP

approach

requires

writing or using a provided server program (to serve data) and a client program (to request data).

Client-Server

The client–server model of computing is a distributed application structure that partitions tasks or
workloads between the providers of a resource or service, called servers, and service requesters, called
clients. Often clients and servers communicate over a computer network on separate hardware, but both
client and server may reside in the same system. A server host runs one or more server programs which
share their resources with clients. A client does not share any of its resources, but requests a server's
content or service function. Clients therefore initiate communication sessions with servers which await
incoming requests.

Stateless

In computing, a stateless protocol is a communications protocol that treats each request as an

independent transaction that is unrelated to any previous request so that the communication consists of
independent pairs of request and response. A stateless protocol does not require the server to retain
session information or status about each communications partner for the duration of multiple requests.
In contrast, a protocol which requires keeping of the internal state on the server is known as a stateful
protocol.

Examples of stateless protocols include the Internet Protocol (IP) which is the foundation for the
Internet, and the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) which is the foundation of data communication
for the World Wide Web.

Cache-able

A cacheable communications protocol includes accommodating the ability for client-side caching and a
set of specifications for when a response to a query can be cached. The HTTP 1.1

protocol is such a protocol and includes an entire section on the rules of the road for caching

Layered system

Communication programs are often layered. The reference model for communication programs, Open
System Interconnection ( OSI ) is a layered set of protocols in which two multilayered programs, one at
either end of a communications exchange, use an identical set of layers. In the OSI model, each
multilayer program contains seven layers, each reflecting a different function that has to be performed
in order for program- to-program communication to take place between computers.

TCP/IP is an example of a two-layer ( TCP and IP ) set of programs that provide transport and network
address functions for Internet communication. A set of TCP/IP and other layered programs is
sometimes referred to as a protocol stack .

Web-Socket based communication APIs

WebSocket is a protocol providing full-duplex communication channels over a single TCP connection.
The WebSocket protocol was standardized by the IETF as RFC 6455 in 2011, and the WebSocket API
in Web IDL is being standardized by the W3C.

WebSocket is designed to be implemented in web browsers and web servers, but it can be used by any
client or server application. The WebSocket Protocol is an independent TCP-based protocol. Its only
relationship to HTTP is that its handshake is interpreted by HTTP servers as an Upgrade request. The
WebSocket protocol makes more interaction between a browser and a website

possible, facilitating the real-time data transfer from and to the server. This is made possible by
providing a standardized way for the server to send content to the browser without being solicited by
the client, and allowing for messages to be passed back and forth while keeping the connection open. In
this way a two- way (bi-directional) ongoing conversation can take place between a browser and the
server. The communications are done over TCP port number 80, which is of benefit for those
environments which block non-web Internet connections using a firewall. Similar two-way browser-
server communications have been achieved in non-standardized ways using stopgap technologies such
as Comet.

IoT Enabling Technologies

Wireless-Sensor networks

Wireless sensor networks (WSN), sometimes called wireless sensor and actuator networks (WSAN),
are spatially distributed autonomous sensors to monitor physical or environmental conditions, such as
temperature, sound, pressure, etc. and to cooperatively pass their data through the network to a main
location. The more modern networks are bi-directional, also enabling control of sensor activity. The
development of wireless sensor networks was motivated by military applications such as battlefield
surveillance; today such networks are used in many industrial and consumer applications, such as
industrial process monitoring and control, machine health monitoring, and so on.

The WSN is built of "nodes" – from a few to several hundreds or even thousands, where each node is
connected to one (or sometimes several) sensors. Each such sensor network node has typically several
parts: a radio transceiver with an internal antenna or connection to an external antenna, a
microcontroller, an electronic circuit for interfacing with the sensors and an energy source, usually a
battery or an embedded form of energy harvesting. A

sensor node might vary in size from that of a shoebox down to the size of a grain of dust, although
functioning "motes" of genuine microscopic dimensions have yet to be created. The cost of sensor
nodes is similarly variable, ranging from a few to hundreds of dollars, depending on the complexity of
the individual sensor nodes. Size and cost constraints on sensor nodes result in corresponding
constraints on resources such as energy, memory, computational speed and communications bandwidth.
The topology of the WSNs can vary from a simple star network to an advanced multi-hop wireless
mesh network. The propagation technique between the hops of the network can be routing or flooding.

Cloud computing

Cloud computing, also on-demand computing, is a kind of Internet-based computing that provides
shared processing resources and data to computers and other devices on demand. It is a model for
enabling ubiquitous, on-demand access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g.,
networks, servers, storage, applications and services), which can be rapidly provisioned and released
with minimal management effort. Cloud computing and storage solutions provide users and enterprises
with various capabilities to store and process their data in third-party data centers.[3] It relies on
sharing of resources to achieve coherence and economy of scale, similar to a utility (like the electricity
grid) over a network.

Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS)

In the most basic cloud-service model—and according to the IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force)—
providers of IaaS offer computers —physical or (more often) virtual machines—and other resources.
IaaS refers to online services that abstract the user from the details of infrastructure like physical
computing resources, location, data

partitioning, scaling, security, backup etc. A hypervisor, such as Xen, Oracle VirtualBox, Oracle
VM,KVM, VMware ESX/ESXi, or Hyper- V runs the virtual machines as guests. Pools of hypervisors
within the cloud operational system can support large numbers of virtual machines and the ability to
scale services up and down according to customers' varying requirements. IaaS clouds often offer
additional resources such as a virtual-machine disk-image library, raw block storage, file or object
storage, firewalls, load balancers, IP addresses, virtual local area networks (VLANs), and software
bundles.[63] IaaS- cloud providers supply these resources on-demand from their large pools of
equipment installed in data centers. For wide-area connectivity, customers can use either the Internet or
carrier clouds (dedicated virtual private networks).

Platform-as-a-Service (PaaS)

PaaS vendors offer a development environment to application developers. The provider typically
develops toolkit and standards for development and channels for distribution and payment. In the PaaS
models, cloud providers deliver a computing platform, typically including operating system,
programming-language execution environment, database, and web server. Application developers can
develop and run their software solutions on a cloud platform without the cost and complexity of buying
and managing the underlying hardware and software layers. With some PaaS offers like Microsoft
Azure and Google App Engine, the underlying computer and storage resources scale automatically to
match application demand so that the cloud user does not have to allocate resources manually. The
latter has also been proposed by an architecture aiming to facilitate real-time in cloud environments.
Even more specific application types can be

provided via PaaS, such as media encoding as provided by services like bitcodin.com or media.io.

Software-as-a-Service (SaaS)
In the software as a service (SaaS) model, users gain access to application software and databases.
Cloud providers manage the infrastructure and platforms that run the applications. SaaS is sometimes
referred to as "on-demand software" and is usually priced on a pay-per-use basis or using a subscription
fee.]

In the SaaS model, cloud providers install and operate application software in the cloud and cloud users
access the software from cloud clients. Cloud users do not manage the cloud infrastructure and
platform where the application runs. This eliminates the need to install and run the application on the
cloud user's own computers, which simplifies maintenance and support. Cloud applications differ from
other applications in their scalability—which can be achieved by cloning tasks onto multiple virtual
machines at run-time to meet changing work demand. Load balancers distribute the work over the set
of virtual machines. This process is transparent to the cloud user, who sees only a single access-point.
To accommodate a large number of cloud users, cloud applications can be multitenant, meaning that
any machine may serve more than one cloud-user organization.

Big data Analytics

Characteristics of big data : volume, velocity, variety

Big data analytics is the process of examining large data sets containing a variety of data types -- i.e.,
big data -- to uncover hidden patterns, unknown correlations, market trends, customer preferences and
other useful business information. The analytical findings can lead to more effective marketing, new
revenue opportunities, better

customer service, improved operational efficiency, competitive advantages over rival organizations and
other business benefits.

Communication Protocols

In telecommunications, a communications protocol is a system of rules that allow two or more entities
of a communications system to transmit information via any kind of variation of a physical quantity.
These are the rules or standard that defines the syntax, semantics and synchronization of
communication and possible error recovery methods. Protocols may be implemented by hardware,
software, or a combination of both.

Communicating systems use well-defined formats (protocol) for exchanging messages. Each message
has an exact meaning intended to elicit a response from a range of possible responses pre-determined
for that particular situation. The specified behavior is typically independent of how it is to be
implemented. Communications protocols have to be agreed upon by the parties involved. To reach
agreement, a protocol may be developed into a technical standard. A programming language describes
the same for computations, so there is a close analogy between protocols and programming languages:
protocols are to communications as programming languages are to computations.

Embedded System

An embedded system is a computer system with a dedicated function within a larger mechanical or
electrical system, often with real-time computing constraints. It is embedded as part of a complete
device often including hardware and mechanical parts. Embedded systems control many devices in
common use today. 98 percent of all microprocessors are manufactured as components of embedded
systems.

Examples of properties of typically embedded computers when compared with general-purpose

counterparts are low power consumption, small size, rugged

operating ranges, and low per-unit cost. This comes at the price of limited processing resources, which
make them significantly more difficult to program and to interact with. However, by building
intelligence mechanisms on top of the hardware, taking advantage of possible existing sensors and the
existence of a network of embedded units, one can both optimally manage available resources at the
unit and network levels as well as provide augmented functions, well beyond those available. For
example, intelligent techniques can be designed to manage power consumption of embedded systems.

IoT Levels

IoT System comprises of the following components:

•Device

•Resource

•Controller Service

•Database

•Web Service

◦Stateless/Stateful

◦Unidirectional/Bi-directional

◦Request-Response/Full Duplex

◦TCP connection

◦Header overhead

◦Scalability

•Analysis component

•Application

IoT Level-1

Location technologies can be used to provide a context to an application. The application can use the
location to present the user with appropriate data and actions that are relevant to them in that location.
There are three key pieces of the puzzle here. Firstly, who is the user? Is it an engineer, a loyal
customer or another stakeholder? Secondly, what is the context? Is it a specific location in a building,
or a specific piece of equipment or thing? Where is the data coming from, is it open data feeds or data
feeds that the company has control or access to? Thirdly, what information is important at that time?
What does the user need and how are you going to get that data and present it to them, to help them or
help the business?

At this level, the most basic level, things are given context and the ability to make their awareness
known, connecting digital and physical things together.

IoT Level-2

At the second level, environmental awareness, driven by various different sensors is added. Our phones
already have this capability, to an extent, but at this level, the environment is also talking to the phone
and telling it about its status. This may also be taken to another level, where the user doesn’t need to be
physically there, but the space can still send information back to a backend system. For example, a
company is able to monitor their entire infrastructure remotely, without employees being there. This is
one of the most common forms of Internet of Things, especially within large manufacturing,
engineering or utility firms.

This is already largely used with weather systems, to track changes in the weather and is largely used
throughout the agriculture industry.

IoT Level-3

The third level of IoT is linked with remote control of environment and things, whether someone is in a
physical space or sitting in an office 5,000 miles away. This is being seen increasingly in the
automotive and smart home industry, where people can monitor the status of their cars or homes, turn
on heating, or control the lighting and other elements.

This is also seen in large scale modern factories and even offices that have smart heating systems,
smart printers and security systems. The third level is also about a level of intelligence within remote
systems and things; where they can tell a user or a backend system when they are developing an issue
and when they need help. At this level, it goes beyond awareness, from communication to insight,
mixed with control.

To get started with IoT consider the levels. What level are you trying to achieve and is it logical to
work through level one to three in a linear fashion? Or is it about experimenting and learning as you
go? There is an argument for jumping straight in at level two and three, but this will depend on the
current infrastructure and capability.

What is interesting to note is that to get started is relatively straightforward. There are ways and means
to prove concepts, technologies and user experiences without spending a fortune. Experimenting and
aiming to prove or disprove a case is great way to start exploring the possible.

IoT Level-4

A level-4 IoT system has multiple nodes that perform local analysis. Level-4 contains local and cloud-
based observer nodes which can subscribe to and receive information collected in the cloud from IoT
devices.
IoT Level-5

A level-5 IoT system has multiple end nodes and one coordinator node. The end node perform sensing
and/or actuation. Coordinator node collects data from the end nodes and sends to the cloud.

IoT Level-6

A level-6 IoT system has multiple independent end nodes that perform sensing and/or actuation and
send data to the cloud.

Questions

1.Describe an example of an IoT system in which information and knowledge are inferred from data.

2.Why do IoT systems have to be self-adapting and self-configuring?

3.What is the role of things and Internet in IoT?

4.What is the functioon of communication functional block in an IoT system?

5.Describe an example of IoT service that uses publish-subscribe communication model.

6.Describe an example of IoT service that uses WebSocket-based communication.

7.What are the architectural constraints of REST?

8.What is the role of a coordinator in wireless sensor network?

9.What is the role of controller service in an IoT system

Unit II

Domain Specific IOTs:

Home Automation

Home automation is the use and control of home appliances remotely or automatically. Early home
automation began with labour-saving machines like washing machines. Some home automation
appliances are stand alone and do not communicate, such as a programmable light switch, while others
are part of the internet of things and are networked for remote control and data transfer. Hardware
devices can include sensors (like cameras and thermometers), controllers, actuators (to do things), and
communication systems. Remote control can range from a simple remote control to a smartphone with
Bluetooth, to a computer on the other side of the world connected by internet. Home automation
systems are available which consist of a suite of products designed to work together. These typically
connected through Wi-Fi or power line communication to a hub which is then accessed with a software
application. Popular applications include thermostats, security systems, blinds, lighting, smoke/CO
detectors, and door locks.[1] Popular suites of products include X10, Z-Wave, and Zigbee all of which
are incompatible with each other. Home automation is the domestic application of building automation
•Smart Lighting

•Smart Appliances

•Intrusion detection

•Smoke/Gas detectors

Cities

A smart city is an urban development vision to integrate multiple information and communication
technology (ICT) solutions in a secure fashion to manage a city’s assets – the city’s assets include, but
not limited to, local departments information systems, schools, libraries, transportation systems,
hospitals, power plants, water supply networks, waste management, law enforcement, and other
community services. The goal of building a smart city is to improve quality of life by using technology
to improve the efficiency of services and meet residents’ needs. ICT allows city officials to interact
directly with the community and the city infrastructure and to monitor what is happening in the city,
how the city is evolving, and how to enable a better quality of life. Through the use of sensors
integrated with real-time monitoring systems, data are collected from citizens and devices - then
processed and analyzed. The information and knowledge gathered are keys to tackling inefficiency.

ICT is used to enhance quality, performance and interactivity of urban services, to reduce costs and
resource consumption and to improve contact between citizens and government. Smart city
applications are developed with the goal of improving the management of urban flows and allowing for
real time responses to challenges. A smart city may therefore be more prepared to respond to challenges
than one with a simple 'transactional' relationship with its citizens. Yet, the term itself remains unclear
to its specifics and therefore, open to many interpretations and subject

•Smart parking

•Smart Lighting

•Smart roads

•Structural health monitoring

•Surveillance

•Emergency Response

Environment

The concept of smart environments evolves from the definition of ubiquitous computing that, according
to Mark Weiser, promotes the ideas of "a physical world that is richly and invisibly interwoven with
sensors, actuators, displays, and computational elements, embedded seamlessly in the everyday objects
of our lives, and connected through a continuous network."[1]

Smart environments are envisioned as the byproduct of pervasive computing and the availability of
cheap computing power, making human interaction with the system a pleasant experience.
Smart environments are broadly classified to have the following features

1Remote control of devices, like power line communication systems to control devices.

2Device Communication, using middleware, and Wireless communication to form a picture of

connected environments.

3Information Acquisition/Dissemination from sensor networks

4Enhanced Services by Intelligent Devices

5Predictive and Decision-Making capabilities

•Weather Monitoring

•Air pollution Monitoring

•Noise pollution Monitoring

•Forest Fire detection

•River Floods Detection

Energy

Smart Grids

A smart grid is an electrical grid which includes a variety of operational and energy measures including
smart meters, smart appliances, renewable energy resources, and energy efficiency resources.
Electronic power conditioning and control of the production and distribution of electricity are
important aspects of the smart grid.

Smart grid policy is organized in Europe as Smart Grid European Technology Platform.

Roll-out of smart grid technology also implies a fundamental re- engineering of the electricity services
industry, although typical usage of the term is focused on the technical infrastructure.

•Renewable Energy Systems

•Prognostics

Retail

IoT has caught the imagination of technology enthusiasts and there are many predictions of how it
might revolutionize industries and practices as we know them today. The retail industry has already
undergone a wave of disruption with the onset of e-commerce and online retail. There is every chance
that IoT heralds the next wave of disruption along the following areas in retail:
–Supply Chain Management

–Inventory & Warehouse Management

–Marketing

–In-Store Experience

•Inventory management

•Smart payments

•Smart vending machines

Logistics

•Route Generation & Scheduling

•Fleet tracking

•Shipment Monitoring

•Remote Vehicle Diagnostics

Agriculture

Agriculture has been evolving with new technology such as the Internet of Things (IoT). For example,
greenhouses are connected to each other, and their environments are controlled automatically and
optimized for the best quality of agricultural products. In addition, the advanced cattle sheds are built
based on the IoT technologies. These efforts enhance the quality and safety of agricultural products and
mitigate information asymmetry between producers and consumers.

•Smart Irrigation

•Green House control

Industry

•Machine Diagnosis and prognosis

•Indoor air quality monitoring

Health & Life Style

•Health & Fittness monitoring

•Wearable electronics

Questions
1.Determine the IoT-levels for designing home automation IoT systems including smart leghting and
intrusion detection.

2.Determine the IoT-levels for designing structural health monitoring system.

3.Determine various communication models that can be used for weather monitoring system. What is
more appropriate model for this system. Describe the pros and cons.

4.Determine the type of data generated by a forest fire detection system? Describe alternative
approaches for storing the data. What type of analysis is required for forest fire detection from the data
collected.

Unit III

M2M & System Management with NETCONF-YANG:

M2M

The aptly named IoT subset M2M initially represented closed, point-to-point communication between
physical-first objects. The explosion of mobile devices and IP-based connectivity mechanisms has
enabled data transmission across a system of networks. M2M is more recently referred to technologies
that enable communication between machines without human intervention. Examples include
telemetry, traffic control, robotics, and other applications involving device-to-device communications.

Difference between IOT and M2M

1.Communication protocols

2.Machines in M2M vs Things in IoT

3.Hardware vs Software Emphasis

4.Data Collection & Analysis

5.Applications

SDN and NFV for IOT

Software defined Networking (SDN)

Software-Defined Networking (SDN) is an emerging architecture that is dynamic, manageable, cost-

effective, and adaptable, making it ideal for the

high-bandwidth, dynamic nature of today's applications. This architecture decouples the network
control and forwarding functions enabling the network control to become directly programmable and
the underlying infrastructure to be abstracted for applications and network services. The OpenFlow®
protocol is a foundational element for building SDN solutions. The SDN architecture is:
•Directly programmable: Network control is directly programmable because it is decoupled from
forwarding functions.

•Agile: Abstracting control from forwarding lets administrators dynamically adjust network-wide
traffic flow to meet changing needs.

•Centrally managed: Network intelligence is (logically) centralized in software-based SDN controllers

that maintain a global view of the network, which appears to applications and policy engines as a
single, logical switch.

•Programmatically configured: SDN lets network managers configure, manage, secure, and optimize
network resources very quickly via dynamic, automated SDN programs, which they can write
themselves because the programs do not depend on proprietary software.

•Open standards-based and vendor-neutral: When implemented through open standards, SDN
simplifies network design and operation because instructions are provided by SDN controllers instead
of multiple, vendor-specific devices and protocols.

Limitations of the conventional network architectures:

•Complex Network Devices

•management Overhead

•Limited Scalability

Key elements of SDN

•Centralized network Controller

•Programmable Open APIs

•Standard Communication Interface (OpenFlow) Network Function Virtualization (NFV)

Network function virtualization (NFV) is a network architecture concept that uses the technologies of
IT virtualization to virtualize entire classes of network node functions into building blocks that may
connect, or chain together, to create communication services.

NFV relies upon, but differs from, traditional server-virtualization techniques, such as those used in
enterprise IT. A virtualized network function, or VNF, may consist of one or more virtual machines
running different software and processes, on top of standard high-volume servers, switches and storage,
or even cloud computing infrastructure, instead of having custom hardware appliances for each
network function.

For example, a virtual session border controller could be deployed to protect a network without the
typical cost and complexity of obtaining and installing physical units. Other examples of NFV include
virtualized load balancers, firewalls, intrusion detection devices and WAN accelerators.

Key elements of NFV architecture

•Virtualized Network Function (VNF)

•NFV Infrastructure (NFVI)

•NFV Management and Orchestration

Need for IOT Systems Management

•Automating Configuration

•Monitoring Operational & statistical data

•Improved Reliablity

•System Wide Configuration

•Multiple System Configuration

•Retrieving and reusing configuration Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)

Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is an Internet-standard protocol for collecting and
organizing information about managed devices on IP networks and for modifying that information to
change device behavior. Devices that typically support SNMP include routers, switches, servers,
workstations, printers, modem racks and more.

SNMP is widely used in network management systems to monitor network- attached devices for
conditions that warrant administrative attention. SNMP exposes management data in the form of
variables on the managed systems, which describe the system configuration. These variables can then
be queried (and sometimes set) by managing applications.

Limitations of SNMP

•SNMP is stateless

•SNMP is connectionless, so unreliable

•SNMP can be used only for device monitoring and status polling.

•It is difficult to differentiate between configuration and stste data in MIBs.

•SNMP does not support easy retrieval and playback of configurations.

•SNMP latest version have security addede at the cost of increased complexity.

Network Operator Requirements

•Ease of use
•Distinction between configuration and state data.

•Fetch and state data seperately

•configuration of the network as a whole

•configuration transactions across devices

•configuration deltas

•Dump and restore configurations

•configuration validation

•configuration database schemas

•Comparing configurations

•Role-based access control lists

•Multiple configuration sets

•Support for both data-oriented and task-oriented access control

NETCONF

The Network Configuration Protocol (NETCONF) is a network management protocol developed and
standardized by the IETF. It was developed in the NETCONF working group and published in
December 2006 as RFC 4741 and later revised in June 2011 and published as RFC 6241. The
NETCONF protocol specification is an Internet Standards Track document.

NETCONF provides mechanisms to install, manipulate, and delete the configuration of network
devices. Its operations are realized on top of a simple remote procedure call (RPC) layer. The
NETCONF protocol uses an Extensible Markup Language (XML) based data encoding for the
configuration data as well as the protocol messages. The protocol messages are exchanged on top of a
secure transport protocol.

The NETCONF protocol can be conceptually partitioned into four layers:

1.The Content layer consists of configuration data and notification data.

2.The Operations layer defines a set of base protocol operations to retrieve and edit the configuration
data.

3.The Messages layer provides a mechanism for encoding remote procedure calls (RPCs) and
notifications.

4.The Secure Transport layer provides a secure and reliable transport of messages between a client and
a server.
The NETCONF protocol has been implemented in network devices such as routers and switches by
some major equipment vendors. One particular strength of NETCONF is its support for robust
configuration change transactions involving a number of devices.

YANG

YANG is a data modeling language for the NETCONF network configuration protocol. The name is an
acronym for "Yet Another Next Generation". The YANG data modeling language was developed by the
NETMOD working group in the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and was published as RFC
6020 in October 2010. The data modeling language can be used to model both configuration data as
well as state data of network elements. Furthermore, YANG can be used to define the format of event
notifications emitted by network elements and it allows data modelers to define the signature of remote
procedure calls that can be invoked on network elements via the NETCONF protocol.

YANG is a modular language representing data structures in an XML tree format. The data modeling
language comes with a number of builtin data types. Additional application specific data types can be
derived from the builtin data types. More complex reusable data structures can be represented as
groupings. YANG data models can use XPATH expressions to define constraints on the

elements of a YANG data model.

IoT Systems management with NETCONF-YANG.

•Management System

•Management API

•Transaction Manager

•Rollback Manager

•Data Model Manager

•Configuration Validator

•Configuration Database

•Configuration API

•Data Provider API NETOPEER

Netopeer server is the leading open source NETCONF reference implementation. It has many features
but sometimes it may prove to be a challenging task to gather all pieces and get it installed successfully
on your Linux box.

The Netofeer tools include

•Netopeer-server
•Netopeer-agent

•Netopeer-cli

•Netopeer-manager

•Netopeer-configurator

Questions:

1.Which communication protocols are used for M2M local area networks?

2.What are the differences between Machines in M2M and Things in IoT?

3.How do data collection and analysis approaches differ in M2M and IoT?

4.What are the differences between SDN and NFV?

5.Describe how SDN can be used for various levels of IoT?

6.What is the function of a centralized network controller in SDN?

7.Describe how NFV can be used for virtualizing IoT devices?

8.Why is network wide configuration important for IoT systems with multiple nodes?

9.Which limitation make SNMP unsuitable for IoT systems?

10.What is the difference between configuration and state data?

11.What is the role of a NETCONF server?

12.What is the function of a data model manager?

13.Describe the roles of YANG and TransAPI modules in device management.

Unit IV

Developing Internet of Things & Logical Design using Python:

IOT Design Methodology

•Step 1: Purpose & Requirements Specification

•Step 2: Process specification

•Step 3: Domain Model Specification

•Step 4: Information Model Specification

•Step 5: Service Specifications

•Step 6: IoT Level Specification

•Step 7: Functional View Specification

•Step 8: Operational View Specification

•Step 9: Device and Component Integration

•Step 10: Application Development

MODULE-III

Features of Python

Simple

Python is a simple and minimalistic language. Reading a good Python program feels almost like
reading English, although very strict English! This pseudo- code nature of Python is one of its greatest
strengths. It allows you to concentrate on the solution to the problem rather than the language itself.

Easy to Learn

As you will see, Python is extremely easy to get started with. Python has an extraordinarily simple
syntax, as already mentioned.

Free and Open Source

Python is an example of a FLOSS (Free/Libré and Open Source Software).

In simple terms, you can freely distribute copies of this software, read it's source code, make changes to
it, use pieces of it in new free programs, and that you know you can do these things. FLOSS is based on
the concept of a community which shares knowledge. This is one of the reasons why Python is so good
- it has been created and is constantly improved by a community who just want to see a better Python.

High-level Language

When you write programs in Python, you never need to bother about the low- level details such as
managing the memory used by your program, etc.

Portable

Due to its open-source nature, Python has been ported (i.e. changed to make it work on) to many
platforms. All your Python programs can work on any of these platforms without requiring any changes
at all if you are careful enough to avoid any system-dependent features.
You can use Python on Linux, Windows, FreeBSD, Macintosh, Solaris, OS/2, Amiga, AROS, AS/400,
BeOS, OS/390, z/OS, Palm OS, QNX, VMS, Psion, Acorn RISC OS, VxWorks, PlayStation, Sharp
Zaurus, Windows CE and even PocketPC !

Interpreted

This requires a bit of explanation.

A program written in a compiled language like C or C++ is converted from the source language i.e. C
or C++ into a language that is spoken by your computer (binary code i.e. 0s and 1s) using a compiler
with various flags and options.

When you run the program, the linker/loader software copies the program from hard disk to memory
and starts running it.

Python, on the other hand, does not need compilation to binary. You just run the program directly from
the source code. Internally, Python converts the source code into an intermediate form called bytecodes
and then translates this into the native language of your computer and then runs it. All this, actually,
makes using Python much easier since you don't have to worry about compiling the program, making
sure that the proper libraries are linked and loaded, etc, etc. This also makes your Python programs
much more portable, since you can just copy your Python program onto another computer and it just
works!

Object Oriented

Python supports procedure-oriented programming as well as object-oriented programming. In

procedure-oriented languages, the program is built around procedures or functions which are nothing
but reusable pieces of programs. In object-oriented languages, the program is built around objects
which combine data and functionality. Python has a very powerful but simplistic way of doing OOP,
especially when compared to big languages like C++ or Java.

Extensible

If you need a critical piece of code to run very fast or want to have some piece of algorithm not to be
open, you can code that part of your program in C or C+ + and then use them from your Python
program.

Embeddable

You can embed Python within your C/C++ programs to give 'scripting' capabilities for your program's
users.

Extensive Libraries

The Python Standard Library is huge indeed. It can help you do various things

involving regular expressions, documentation generation, unit testing, threading, databases, web
browsers, CGI, ftp, email, XML, XML-RPC, HTML, WAV files, cryptography, GUI (graphical user
interfaces), Tk, and other system-dependent stuff. Remember, all this is always available wherever
Python is installed. This is called the 'Batteries Included' philosophy of Python.

Besides, the standard library, there are various other high-quality libraries such as wxPython, Twisted,
Python Imaging Library and many more.

Python Data Types & Data Structures

Numbers

Number data types store numeric values. They are immutable data types, means that changing the value
of a number data type results in a newly allocated object.

Python supports different numerical types −

int (signed integers): They are often called just integers or ints, are positive or negative whole numbers
with no decimal point. Integers in Python 3 are of unlimited size. Python 2 has two integer types - int
and long. There is no 'long integer' in Python 3 any more.

float (floating point real values) : Also called floats, they represent real numbers and are written with a
decimal point dividing the integer and fractional parts. Floats may also be in scientific notation, with E
or e indicating the power of 10 (2.5e2 = 2.5 x 102 = 250).

complex (complex numbers) : are of the form a + bJ, where a and b are floats and J (or j) represents the
square root of -1 (which is an imaginary number). The real part of the number is a, and the imaginary
part is b.

Complex numbers are not used much in Python programming.

•Strings

Strings are amongst the most popular types in Python. We can create them simply by enclosing
characters in quotes. Python treats single quotes the same as double quotes. Creating strings is as
simple as assigning a value to a variable.

#!/usr/bin/python3

var1 = 'Hello World!'

var2 = "Python Programming"

print ("var1[0]: ", var1[0])print ("var2[1:5]: ", var2[1:5])

Lists
The list is a most versatile data-type available in Python which can be written as a list of comma-
separated values (items) between square brackets. Important thing about a list is that items in a list need
not be of the same type.

Creating a list is as simple as putting different comma-separated values between square brackets. For
example −

list1 = ['physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000];

list2 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ];

list3 = ["a", "b", "c", "d"]

Tuples

A tuple is a sequence of immutable Python objects. Tuples are sequences, just like lists. The differences
between tuples and lists are, the tuples cannot be changed unlike lists and tuples use parentheses,

whereas lists use square brackets.

Creating a tuple is as simple as putting different comma-separated values. Optionally you can put these
comma-separated values between parentheses also. For example −

tup1 = ('physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000);

tup2 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 );

tup3 = "a", "b", "c", "d";

The empty tuple is written as two parentheses containing nothing −

tup1 = ();

To write a tuple containing a single value you have to include a comma, even though there is only one
value −

tup1 = (50,);

Like string indices, tuple indices start at 0, and they can be sliced, concatenated, and so on.

Dictionaries

Each key is separated from its value by a colon (:), the items are separated by commas, and the whole
thing is enclosed in curly braces. An empty dictionary without any items is written with just two curly
braces, like this: {}.

Keys are unique within a dictionary while values may not be. The values of a dictionary can be of any
type, but the keys must be of an immutable data type such as strings, numbers, or tuples.
To access dictionary elements, you can use the familiar square brackets

along with the key to obtain its value. Following is a simple example−

#!/usr/bin/python

dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'}

print "dict['Name']: ", dict['Name']print "dict['Age']: ", dict['Age']

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

dict['Name']: Zara

dict['Age']: 7

Type conversion

Below is a table of the conversion functions in Python and their examples.

Function

Converting what to what

Example

>>> int('2014') 2014 >>>

string, floating point →

int()

int(3.141592)3
integer

string, integer → floating

>>> float('1.99') 1.99 >>> float(5)5.0

float()

point number

>>> str(3.141592) '3.141592' >>>

integer, float, list, tuple,

str()str([1,2,3,4])'[1, 2, 3, 4]' dictionary →string

>>> list('Mary')

# list of characters

in 'Mary' ['M', 'a', 'r', 'y'] >>>

list()

string, tuple, dictionary →list list((1,2,3,4)) # (1,2,3,4) is a

tuple[1, 2, 3, 4]
>>> tuple('Mary')('M', 'a', 'r', 'y') >>>

tuple([1,2,3,4])

# [ ] for list, ( ) for

tuple()

string, list →tuple

tuple(1, 2, 3, 4)

Control Flow

if statement

Python provide various tools for flow control. Some of them are if , if .. elif .. else, if..else,while ,for ,
switch, pass, range, break, else, continue, function etc. In this article I’ll be covering only if-else and
loops.

if – if this is the case then do this

This control statement indicate that if something happens then do this. It’s a good way of handling
some short conditions. An if block can be followed by zero or any number of else block.

if (condition):

statements…
Note: Use of colon ( ":" ) in python is same as we use brackets in java or C++. Python uses colon and
indentation for defining the scope or code block. So if you are getting an error like the following
picture then correct your code indentation.

if … else

It’s like if have money then spend else wait for salary. I hope it’s clear from the previous line what this
statement means. It’s like if the conditions of if block is evaluated to true then execute that block else
execute the else block. The else block is optional and one if can have any number of else blocks.

Syntax:

if (condition):

statements…

else:

default statements…

if … elif … else

It’s like checking multiple conditions. Let’s Take an example if pocketMoney greater then 90T then
Okay else if pocket money is equal to 50T and Less then 90T then its average else it’s not enough.
Basically that statement can replace switch statement. You can put any number of elif blocks after if
and else block is optional.

Syntax:

if (option1 condition):

option1 statements…

elif(option2 condition):

option2 statements…

elif(option3 condition):

option3 statements…

else:

default option statements…

for
It is used for looping over a sequence. Python doesn’t supports old for loop or c-style for loop. In
traditional style for loop we have one variable which iterates over a sequence and we can change the
value of

sequence and variable as well but in modern for loop we have iteration variable that iterates over a
fixed sequence. We can not change the sequence as well as iteration variable during iteration.

Syntax:

for iterator_name in iterating_sequence:

…statements…

while

A while loop statement in Python programming language repeatedly executes a target statement as long
as a given condition is true.

Syntax

The syntax of a while loop in Python programming language is −

while expression:

statement(s)

Here, statement(s) may be a single statement or a block of statements. The condition may be any
expression, and true is any non-zero value. The loop iterates while the condition is true.

When the condition becomes false, program control passes to the line immediately following the loop.

In Python, all the statements indented by the same number of character

spaces after a programming construct are considered to be part of a single block of code. Python uses
indentation as its method of grouping statements.

range

Sometimes it is required that we just want to iterate over number sequence like 1,2,3,4,… To solve this
purpose python provides range function which generate the arithmetic progression with number of
terms equal to the parameter passed in it. We have 3 variations of range() function. One take only

Syntax:
1for iterator_name in range(10):

…statements…

2for iterator_name in range(start,end):

…statements…

3for iterator_name in range(start,stop,increment):

…statements…

break/continue

Break is used for terminating the loop abnormally. i.e that even the sequence is not completed but loop
is exited.

Continue is used for continuing to next iteration of loop without doing anything inside the loop.

Else is introduced in python and it is placed in loop without if. It will execute only if the loop is
terminated without break.

Note: there are two more else statement, one is for if that I already explained and other is with try. The
difference between try else block and loop else is try else block executes when no code is executed and
loop else executes when no break is executed.

pass

Pass statement is used when you don’t want to do anything but it is required for the sake of syntactical
correctness. Pass has two common uses.

1It is used for creating minimal classes.

2It is used as place holder. For example consider the following snippet

Functions
A function is a block of organized, reusable code that is used to perform a single, related action.
Functions provide better modularity for your application

and a high degree of code reusing.

As you already know, Python gives you many built-in functions like print(), etc. but you can also create
your own functions. These functions are called

user-defined functions.

Defining a Function

You can define functions to provide the required functionality. Here are simple rules to define a
function in Python.

Function blocks begin with the keyword def followed by the function name and parentheses ( ( ) ).

Any input parameters or arguments should be placed within these parentheses. You can also define
parameters inside these parentheses.

The first statement of a function can be an optional statement - the documentation string of the
function or docstring.

The code block within every function starts with a colon (:) and is indented.

The statement return [expression] exits a function, optionally passing back an expression to the
caller. A return statement with no arguments is the same as return None.

Syntax

def functionname( parameters ):

"function_docstring"

function_suite

return [expression]

By default, parameters have a positional behavior and you need to inform them in the same order that
they were defined.

Modules

A module allows you to logically organize your Python code. Grouping related code into a module
makes the code easier to understand and use. A module is a Python object with arbitrarily named
attributes that you can bind and reference.

Simply, a module is a file consisting of Python code. A module can define functions, classes and
variables. A module can also include runnable code.
Example

The Python code for a module named aname normally resides in a file named aname.py. Here's an
example of a simple module, support.py

def print_func( par ):

print "Hello : ", par

return

The import Statement

You can use any Python source file as a module by executing an import statement in some other Python
source file. The import has the following syntax:

import module1[, module2[,... moduleN]

When the interpreter encounters an import statement, it imports the module if the module is present in
the search path. A search path is a list of directories that the interpreter searches before importing a
module.

Packages

Packages are namespaces which contain multiple packages and modules themselves. They are simply
directories, but with a twist.

Each package in Python is a directory which MUST contain a special file called __init__.py. This file
can be empty, and it indicates that the directory it contains is a Python package, so it can be imported
the same way a module can be imported.

If we create a directory called foo, which marks the package name, we can then create a module inside
that package called bar. We also must not forget to add the __init__.py file inside the foo directory.

To use the module bar, we can import it in two ways:

import foo.bar

File Handling

Opening and Closing Files

Until now, you have been reading and writing to the standard input and output. Now, we will see how
to use actual data files.

Python provides basic functions and methods necessary to manipulate files by default. You can do most
of the file manipulation using a file object.
The open Function

Before you can read or write a file, you have to open it using Python's built-in

open() function. This function creates a file object, which would be utilized to call other support
methods associated with it.

Syntax

file object = open(file_name [, access_mode][, buffering]) Here are parameter details:

file_name: The file_name argument is a string value that contains the name of the file that you want to
access.

access_mode: The access_mode determines the mode in which the file has to be opened, i.e., read,
write, append, etc. A complete list of possible values is given below in the table. This is optional
parameter and the default file access mode is read (r).

buffering: If the buffering value is set to 0, no buffering takes place. If the buffering value is 1, line
buffering is performed while accessing a file. If you specify the buffering value as an integer greater
than 1, then buffering action is performed with the indicated buffer size. If negative, the buffer size is
the system default(default behavior).

Here is a list of the different modes of opening a file −

Modes

Description

Opens a file for reading only. The file pointer is placed at the beginning

of the file. This is the default mode.

rb

Opens a file for reading only in binary format. The file pointer is placed
at the beginning of the file. This is the default mode.

r+

Opens a file for both reading and writing. The file pointer placed at the

beginning of the file.

rb+

Opens a file for both reading and writing in binary format. The file

pointer placed at the beginning of the file.

Opens a file for writing only. Overwrites the file if the file exists. If the

file does not exist, creates a new file for writing.

wb

Opens a file for writing only in binary format. Overwrites the file if the
file exists. If the file does not exist, creates a new file for writing.

Opens a file for both writing and reading. Overwrites the existing file if

w+

the file exists. If the file does not exist, creates a new file for reading

and writing.

Opens a file for both writing and reading in binary format. Overwrites

wb+

the existing file if the file exists. If the file does not exist, creates a new

file for reading and writing.

Opens a file for appending. The file pointer is at the end of the file if

athe file exists. That is, the file is in the append mode. If the file does not exist, it creates a new file for
writing.
Opens a file for appending in binary format. The file pointer is at the

ab

end of the file if the file exists. That is, the file is in the append mode. If

the file does not exist, it creates a new file for writing.

Opens a file for both appending and reading. The file pointer is at the

a+

end of the file if the file exists. The file opens in the append mode. If

the file does not exist, it creates a new file for reading and writing.

Opens a file for both appending and reading in binary format. The file

ab+

pointer is at the end of the file if the file exists. The file opens in the
append mode. If the file does not exist, it creates a new file for reading

and writing.

Date/ Time Operations

Time intervals are floating-point numbers in units of seconds. Particular instants in time are expressed
in seconds since 12:00am, January 1,

1970(epoch).

There is a popular time module available in Python which provides functions for working with times,
and for converting between representations. The function time.time() returns the current system time in
ticks since 12:00am, January 1, 1970(epoch).

Example

#!/usr/bin/pythonimport time; # This is required to include time module.

ticks = time.time()

print "Number of ticks since 12:00am, January 1, 1970:", ticks

Classes

Class : A user-defined prototype for an object that defines a set of attributes that characterize any object
of the class. The attributes are data members (class variables and instance variables) and methods,
accessed via dot notation.

Instance/Object : An individual object of a certain class. An object obj that belongs to a class Circle, for
example, is an instance of the class Circle.

Inheritance : The transfer of the characteristics of a class to other classes that are derived from it.

Function Overloading : The assignment of more than one behavior to a particular function. The
operation performed varies by the types of objects or arguments involved.

Operator Overloading : The assignment of more than one function to a particular operator.

Python Packages of Interest for IoT

JSON (JavaScript Object Notation)

JSON or JavaScript Object Notation is a lightweight text-based open standard designed for human-
readable data interchange. The JSON format was originally specified by Douglas Crockford, and is
described in RFC 4627. The official Internet media type for JSON is application/json. The JSON
filename extension is .json. This tutorial will help you understand JSON and its use within various
programming languages such as PHP, PERL, Python, Ruby, Java, etc.

Before you start with encoding and decoding JSON using Python, you need to install any of the JSON
modules available. For this tutorial we have downloaded and installed Demjson as follows −

$tar xvfz demjson-1.6.tar.gz $cd demjson-1.6 $python setup.py install

JSON Functions

Encoding JSON in Python (encode)

FunctionLibraries

Encodes the Python object into a JSON string

encode

representation.

Decodes a JSON-endoded string into a Python

decode

object.

object into a JSON string representation.

Syntax

demjson.encode(self, obj, nest_level=0)

Python encode() function encodes the Python

Example

The following example shows arrays under JSON with Python.

#!/usr/bin/pythonimport demjson

data = [ { 'a' : 1, 'b' : 2, 'c' : 3, 'd' : 4, 'e' : 5 } ]

json = demjson.encode(data)
print json

While executing, this will produce the following result −

[{"a":1,"b":2,"c":3,"d":4,"e":5}]

Decoding JSON in Python (decode)

Python can use demjson.decode() function for decoding JSON. This function returns the value decoded
from json to an appropriate Python type.

Syntax

demjson.decode(self, txt)

Example

The following example shows how Python can be used to decode JSON objects.

#!/usr/bin/pythonimport demjson

json = '{"a":1,"b":2,"c":3,"d":4,"e":5}';

text = demjson.decode(json)

print text

On executing, it will produce the following result −

{u'a': 1, u'c': 3, u'b': 2, u'e': 5, u'd': 4}

XML

XML is a portable, open source language that allows programmers to develop applications that can be
read by other applications, regardless of operating system and/or developmental language.

What is XML?

The Extensible Markup Language (XML) is a markup language much like HTML or SGML. This is
recommended by the World Wide Web Consortium and available as an open standard.

XML is extremely useful for keeping track of small to medium amounts of data without requiring a
SQL-based backbone.

XML Parser Architectures and APIs

The Python standard library provides a minimal but useful set of interfaces to work with XML.

The two most basic and broadly used APIs to XML data are the SAX and DOM interfaces.
Simple API for XML (SAX) : Here, you register callbacks for events of interest and then let the parser
proceed through the document. This is useful when your documents are large or you have memory
limitations, it parses the file as it reads it from disk and the entire file is never stored in memory.

Document Object Model (DOM) API : This is a World Wide Web Consortium recommendation
wherein the entire file is read into

memory and stored in a hierarchical (tree-based) form to represent all the features of an XML
document.

SAX obviously cannot process information as fast as DOM can when working with large files. On the
other hand, using DOM exclusively can really kill your resources, especially if used on a lot of small
files.

SAX is read-only, while DOM allows changes to the XML file. Since these two different APIs literally
complement each other, there is no reason why you cannot use them both for large projects.

HTTPLib & URLLib

The httplib module has been renamed to http.client in Python 3. The 2to3 tool will automatically adapt
imports when converting your sources to Python 3.

This module defines classes which implement the client side of the HTTP and HTTPS protocols. It is
normally not used directly — the module urllib uses it to handle URLs that use HTTP and HTTPS.

Here is an example session that uses the "GET" method:

>>>import httplib

>>>conn = httplib.HTTPConnection("www.python.org")

>>>conn.request("GET", "/index.html")

>>>r1 = conn.getresponse()

>>>print r1.status, r1.reason

200 OK

>>> data1 = r1.read()

>>>conn.request("GET", "/parrot.spam")

>>>r2 = conn.getresponse()

>>>print r2.status, r2.reason

404 Not Found

>>>data2 = r2.read()

>>>conn.close()

Here is an example session that shows how to "POST" requests:

>>>import httplib, urllib

>>>params = urllib.urlencode({'spam': 1, 'eggs': 2, 'bacon': 0})

>>>headers = {"Content-type": "application/x-www-form- urlencoded",

...

"Accept": "text/plain"}

>>>conn = httplib.HTTPConnection("musi-cal.mojam.com:80")

>>>conn.request("POST", "/cgi-bin/query", params, headers)

>>>response = conn.getresponse()

>>>print response.status, response.reason

200 OK

>>>data = response.read()

>>>conn.close()

The urllib module in Python 3 allows you access websites via your program. This opens up as many
doors for your programs as the internet opens up for you. urllib in Python 3 is slightly different than
urllib2 in Python 2, but they are mostly the same. Through urllib, you

can access websites, download data, parse data, modify your headers, and do any GET and POST
requests you might need to do.

Some websites do not appreciate programs accessing their data and placing weight on their servers.
When they find out that a program is visiting them, they may sometimes choose to block you out, or
serve you different data that a regular user might see. This can be annoying at first, but can be
overcome with some simple code. To do this, you just need to modify the user-agent, which is a
variable within your header that you send in. Headers are bits of data that you share with servers to let
them know a bit about you. This is where Python, by default, tells the website that you are visiting with
Python's urllib and your Python version. We can, however, modify this, and act as if we are a lowly
Internet Explorer user, a Chrome user, or anything else really!
I would not recommend just blindly doing this, however, if a website is blocking you out. Websites will
also employ other tactics as well, but usually they are doing it because they also offer an API that is
specifically made more programs to access. Programs are usually just interested in the data, and do not
need to be served fancy HTML or CSS data, nor data for advertisements, etc.

SMTPLib

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is a protocol, which handles sending e-mail and routing e-mail
between mail servers.

Python provides smtplib module, which defines an SMTP client session object that can be used to send
mail to any Internet machine with an SMTP or ESMTP listener daemon.

Here is a simple syntax to create one SMTP object, which can later be used to send an e-mail −

import smtplib

smtpObj = smtplib.SMTP( [host [, port [, local_hostname]]] )

Here is the detail of the parameters:

host: This is the host running your SMTP server. You can specifiy IP address of the host or a domain
name like tutorialspoint.com. This is optional argument.

port: If you are providing host argument, then you need to specify a port, where SMTP server is
listening. Usually this port would be 25.

local_hostname: If your SMTP server is running on your local machine, then you can specify just
localhost as of this option.

An SMTP object has an instance method called sendmail, which is typically used to do the work of
mailing a message. It takes three parameters −

The sender - A string with the address of the sender.

The receivers - A list of strings, one for each recipient.

The message - A message as a string formatted as specified in the various RFCs.

Questions:

1.What is the difference between a physical and virtual entity?

2.What is an IoT device?

3.What is the purpose of information model?

4.What are the various service types?

5.What is the need for a controller service?

6.What is the difference between procedure-oriented programming and object-oriented programming?

7.What is an interpreted language?

8.Describe a use case of Python dictionary.

9.What is the keyword argument in Python?

10.What are variable length arguments?

11.What is the difference between a Python module and a package?

12.How is function overriding implemented in Python?

Unit IV

IoT Physical Devices & Endpoints:

What is an IoT Device

The Internet of Things (IoT) is the network of physical objects—devices, vehicles, buildings and other
items—embedded with electronics, software, sensors, and network connectivity that enables these
objects to collect and exchange data.

Sensing

IoT devices and systems include sensors that track and measure activity in the world. One example is
Smartthings' open-and-close sensors that detect whether or not a drawer, window, or door in your home
is open or closed.

Actuation

Actuation is nothing but responding back to the environment based on the processing of collected data
at a sensor device

Communication

Once the embedded sensors have gathered data, they are tasked with transmitting this data to an
identified destination. This transference can utilize different connectivity methodologies, depending on
the requirements of the corresponding device, but will most often use

wired/wireless or PAN/BAN/LAN communication links. Regardless of the method used, the links will
generally only need to transmit small kilobytes of data, unless higher bandwidths are required.

Analysis & Processing

The reliance on communication to create cohesion between the physical and the technological realms
places importance on the microprocessors that enable this connection to occur. Whether these
microprocessors allow objects to sense their surroundings, exchange data with other components, or
interact with the cloud, their incorporation into the overall schema of the IoT is integral to the
engagement of the varied systems that must cooperate with one another. Given the changing nature of
the landscape, microprocessors that are low power, cost-effective and leave a smaller imprint will be
those that are favored within the IoT.

Exemplary Device: Raspberry Pi

The Raspberry Pi is a low cost, credit-card sized computer that plugs into a computer monitor or TV,
and uses a standard keyboard and mouse. It is a capable little device that enables people of all ages to
explore computing, and to learn how to program in languages like Scratch and Python. It’s capable of
doing everything you’d expect a desktop computer to do, from browsing the internet and playing high-
definition video, to making spreadsheets, word- processing, and playing games.

About the Board

Processor and RAM

The system on a chip (SoC) used in the first generation Raspberry Pi is somewhat equivalent to the
chip used in older smartphones (such as iPhone, 3G, 3GS). The Raspberry Pi is based on the Broadcom
BCM2835 SoC, which includes an 700 MHz ARM1176JZF-S processor, VideoCore IV graphics
processing unit (GPU), and RAM. It has a Level 1 cache of 16 KB and a Level 2 cache of 128 KB. The
Level 2 cache is used primarily by the GPU. The SoC is stacked underneath the RAM chip, so only its
edge is visible.

On the older beta model B boards, 128 MB was allocated by default to the GPU, leaving 128 MB for
the CPU.[25] On the first 256 MB release model B (and model A), three different splits were possible.
The default split was

192 MB (RAM for CPU), which should be sufficient for standalone 1080p video decoding, or for
simple 3D, but probably not for both together. 224 MB was for Linux only, with only a 1080p
framebuffer, and was likely to fail for any video or 3D. 128 MB was for heavy 3D, possibly also with
video decoding (e.g. XBMC).

USB Ports

The Raspberry Pi 3 shares the same SMSC LAN9514 chip as its predecessor, the Raspberry Pi 2,
adding 10/100 Ethernet connectivity and four USB channels to the board.

As before, the SMSC chip connects to the SoC via a single USB channel, acting as a USB-to-Ethernet
adaptor and USB hub.

Though the model A and A+ and Zero do not have an 8P8C ("RJ45") Ethernet port, they can be
connected to a network using an external user-supplied USB Ethernet or Wi-Fi adapter.
On the model B and B+ the Ethernet port is provided by a built-in USB Ethernet adapter.

The Raspberry Pi 3 is equipped with 2.4 GHz WiFi 802.11n and Bluetooth 4.1 in addition to the 10/100
Ethernet port.

Ethernet Ports

Though the model A and A+ and Zero do not have an 8P8C ("RJ45") Ethernet port, they can be
connected to a network using an external user- supplied USB Ethernet or Wi-Fi adapter.

On the model B and B+ the Ethernet port is provided by a built-in USB Ethernet adapter.

The Raspberry Pi 3 is equipped with 2.4 GHz WiFi 802.11n and Bluetooth 4.1 in addition to the
10/100 Ethernet port.

HMDI Output and Composite Video Output

The video controller is capable of standard modern TV resolutions, such as HD and Full HD, and
higher or lower monitor resolutions and older standard CRT TV resolutions.

As shipped (i.e. without custom overclocking) it is capable of the following: 640×350 EGA; 640×480
VGA; 800×600 SVGA; 1024×768 XGA; 1280×720 720p HDTV; 1280×768 WXGA variant; 1280×800
WXGA variant; 1280×1024 SXGA; 1366×768 WXGA variant;

1400×1050 SXGA+; 1600×1200 UXGA; 1680×1050 WXGA+; 1920×1080 1080p HDTV; 1920×1200
WUXGA.

GPIO Pins

The Raspberry Pi 3 features the same 40-pin general-purpose input-output (GPIO) header as all the
Pis going back to the Model B+ and Model A+.

Any existing GPIO hardware will work without modification; the only change is a switch to which
UART is exposed on the GPIO’s pins, but that’s handled internally by the operating system.

Linux on Raspberry Pi

Raspberry Pi supports various flavors of Linux including

•Raspbian

•Arch

•Pidora

•RaspBMC

•OpenELEC
•RISC OS

Raspberry Pi Interfaces

•Serial

•SPI : There are 5 pins on Raspberry Pi for SPI interface

◦MISO (Master In Slave Out)

◦MOSI (Master Out Slave In)

◦SCK (Serial Clock)

◦CE0 (Chip Enable 0)

◦CE0 (Chip Enable 1)

•I2C

Programming Raspberry Pi with Python

Controlling LED with Raspberry Pi

Interfacing an LED and switch with Raspberry Pi

Interfacing an Light Sensor (LDR) with Raspberry Pi Other IOT Devices

pcDuino

The beauty of the pcDuino lies in its extraordinarily well exposed hardware peripherals. However,
using these peripherals is more complex than using them on, say, an Arduino-compatible board.

This tutorial will help you sort out the various peripherals, what they can do, and how to use them.

Before we get started, there are a few things you should be certain you’re familiar with, to get the most
out of this tutorial:

pcDuino - some familiarity with the basics of the pcDuino is needed before you jump into this.
Please review our Getting Started with pcDuino tutorial before going any further.

Linux - the biggest thing you should be familiar with it the Linux OS. Remember, pcDuino is not an
Arduino–it is a modern microcomputer running a fully-functional, if compact, operating system.

SPI - a synchronous (clocked) serial peripheral interface used for communications between chips at a
board level. Requires a minimum of four wires (clock, master-out-slave-in data, master-in-slave-out
data, and slave chip select), and each additional chip added to the bus requires one extra chip select
line.
I2C - also known as IIC (inter-integrated circuit), SMBus, or TWI (two- wire interface), I2C uses
only two wires (bidirectional data and clock lines) to communicate with multiple devices.

Serial Communication - an asynchronous (no transmitted clock) data interface with at least two wires
(data transmit and data receive; sometimes, additional signals are added to indicate when a device is
ready to send or receive).

Pulse Width Modulation - a digital-to-analog conversion technique using a fixed frequency square
wave of varying duty cycle, which can be easily converted to an analog signal between 0V and the full
amplitude of the digital IC driving the signal.

Analog-to-Digital Conversion - measurement of an analog voltage and conversion of that voltage

into a digital value.

All of the code in this tutorial can be found online, in our pcDuino Github repository. It’s not a bad idea
to check there for any updates to the code since this tutorial was written.

BeagleBone Black

The BeagleBoard is a low-power open-source hardware single-board computer produced by Texas

Instruments in association with Digi-Key and Newark element14. The BeagleBoard was also designed
with open source software development in mind, and as a way of demonstrating the Texas Instrument's
OMAP3530 system-on-a-chip.[8] The board was developed by a small team of engineers as an
educational board that could be used in colleges around the world to teach open source hardware and
software capabilities. It is also sold to the public under the Creative Commons share-alike license. The
board was designed using Cadence OrCAD for schematics and Cadence Allegro for PCB
manufacturing; no simulation software was used.

Cubieboard

Cubieboard is a single-board computer, made in Zhuhai, Guangdong, China. The first short run of
prototype boards were sold internationally in September 2012, and the production version started to be
sold in October 2012. It can run Android 4 ICS, Ubuntu 12.04 desktop, Fedora 19 ARM Remix
desktop, Arch Linux ARM, a Debian-based Cubian distribution, or OpenBSD.

It uses the AllWinner A10 SoC, popular on cheap tablets, phones and media PCs. This SoC is used by
developers of the lima driver, an open-source driver for the ARM Mali GPU. It was able, at the 2013
FOSDEM demo, to run ioquake 3 at 47 fps in 1024×600.

The Cubieboard team managed to run an Apache Hadoop computer cluster using the Lubuntu Linux
distribution.