Question number 4

Blood tests
1. Complete blood count (CBC).
A complete blood count (CBC) measures three types of blood cells circulating in your
bloodstream. The results can help healthcare providers diagnose cancer or detect whether
cancer has spread.
2. Tumor markers.
Tumor markers are substances made by cancerous cells or your body’s normal cells in
response to cancer. Some tumor markers indicate a specific type of cancer. Others can
indicate several different types of cancer.
 Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) for liver cancer.
 Beta 2-microglobulin (B2M) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) for blood cancers.
 Calcitonin for thyroid cancer.
 Cancer antigen 125 (CA 125) for ovarian cancer.
 Cancer antigens 15-3 and 27-29 for breast cancer.
 Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) for colorectal cancer, lung cancer, stomach cancer,
pancreatic cancer and others.
 Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) for testicular cancer and ovarian cancer.
 Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) for prostate cancer.

3. Blood protein testing.

Blood protein testing uses a special process called electrophoresis to find certain proteins in your
blood. The proteins are called immunoglobulins, which your immune system releases in response
to diseases such as myeloma.
4. Circulating tumor cell tests.
A new type of blood test for cancer looks for circulating tumor cells. These cells have broken off
from a tumor and are in your bloodstream. This may indicate that cancer is spreading
(metastasizing). The test can currently help monitor certain types of cancer, such as breast,
prostate and colorectal cancers. Scientists are still developing the technology.
Imaging Tests
An imaging test is a way to let doctors see what’s going on inside your body. These tests send
forms of energy (like x-rays, sound waves, radioactive particles, or magnetic fields) through your
body.

 Computed tomography (CT) scan

 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan
 Breast MRI
 X-rays and other radiographic tests
  Mammography
 Nuclear medicine scans (bone scans, PET scans, Thyroid scans, MUGA scans, gallium
scans)
 Ultrasound
Genetic test
They may refer you to a local genetics service for an NHS genetic test, which will tell you if you
have inherited one of the cancer risk genes. This type of testing is known as predictive genetic
testing. It's "predictive" because a positive result means you have a greatly increased risk of
developing cancer.
Cytogenetic analysis
Cytogenetic analysis can also be utilized to diagnose malignancies, determine appropriate
therapy for prognostic stratification.
Bone Marrow Aspiration and Biopsy
These tests involve extracting a sample of bone marrow to check for cancerous cells or to
evaluate the extent of cancer spread in diseases like leukemia or lymphoma.
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diagnostics/22338-blood-tests-for-cancer
https://www.cancer.org/cancer/diagnosis-staging/tests/imaging-tests/imaging-radiology-tests-for-
cancer.html
www.nhs.uk/conditions/predictive-genetic-tests-cancer/

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563293/

Question number 3
Cancer-specific markers are related to the presence of certain cancers (the tumor itself produces
the biomarker). Because there is a large overlap between the many different tumor types and the
markers produced, these markers might not be specific enough to make a correct diagnosis.
Chemicals created by cancer cells or released into the circulation as a result of the presence of a
certain form of cancer are known as tumor-derived indicators linked to particular neoplasms.
These markers are frequently employed as indicators to support the monitoring, diagnosis, and
treatment of particular cancer types. These are a few instances of tumor-derived markers linked
to specific cancers.

 PSA (Prostate-Specific Antigen)

 CA-125
 AFP
 CEA (Carcinoembryonic Antigen)
 CA 19-9
 HER2 (Human Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor 2)
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diagnostics/22744-cea-test-carcinoembryonic-antigen
https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/diagnosis-staging/diagnosis/tumor-markers-fact-
sheet#:~:text=Tumor%20markers%20have%20traditionally%20been%20proteins%20or%20
other,or%20bodily%20fluids%20of%20some%20patients%20with%20cancer.
https://www.cancer.gov/types/prostate/psa-fact-sheet
https://www.origene.com/catalog/antibodies/primary-antibodies/ta600014/alpha-1-
fetoprotein-afp-mouse-monoclonal-capture-antibody-clone-id-oti2e2

Question number 2
The TNM Staging Classification System is a commonly employed tool for standardizing the
description of cancer stage. It supports choices about the course of therapy and helps
determine the prognosis. The acronym for Tumor, Nodes, and Metastasis is TNM. The TNM
staging method is a useful tool for physicians to share information about the stage of a
patient's cancer with other medical professionals, choose the best course of therapy, and
assess the patient's prognosis. TNM staging is a crucial technique in oncology since the stage
of the disease can have a substantial impact on prognosis and cancer treatment.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553187/