S454 Asian Pac J Trop Med 2014; 7(Suppl 1): S454-S460

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine

journal homepage:www.elsevier.com/locate/apjtm

Document heading doi: 10.1016/S1995-7645(14)60274-1

Structural diversity, its components and regenerating capacity of lesser

Himalayan forests vegetation of Nikyal valley District Kotli (A.K), Pakistan
*
Muhammad Shoaib Amjad , Muhammad Arshad, Sunbal Khalil Chaudhari
Department of Botany, PMAS- University of Arid Agriculture, Rawalpindi, Pakistan

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history: Objective: To report the patterns of species diversity, and regenerating capacity in the forest of
Received 9 Dec 2013 Nikyal valley in relation to environmental variables and underlying anthropogenic influence.
Received in revised form 5 Mar 2014 Methods: A study area was selected in a traditionally managed mountain woody pasture during
Accepted 20 May 2014 July 2012 to June 2013. The area was sampled by quadrat method. The quadrats were laid down at
Available online 29 Jul 2014 regular intervals of 150 m. The size of quadrats was kept 10伊10, 5伊5 and 1伊1 m2 for trees, shrubs
and herbs respectively. Density, frequency and cover were recorded. Importance value index of
each plant species was calculated and plant communities were named after the plant species
having the highest IV. Then diversity, its components and regenerating capacity were calculated
with their formulas.
Results: S hannon’s diversity ranged from 2 . 75 to 3 . 31 , S impson’s diversity, 0 . 90 to 0 . 95 ;
Keywords: Menhinick’s diversity, 0.83 to 1.19; evenness, 0.41 to 0.65; species richness, 4.89 to 6.08 and
Diversity maturity index, 30 to 44 species distribution pattern. Diversity values were similar to the other
Richness Himalayan forests. Pinus roxburghaii was the only regenerating species whereas the remaining
Evenness four tree species including Qurecus dilatata regenerate up to 100 cm; they are at extreme risk of
Regeneration elimination due to anthropogenic factors.
Nikyal hills Conclusions: Nikyal valley is under severe deforestation pressure for fuel and timber value.
T here is an urgent need to promote the ethics among the people that improvement and
conservation of natural resources are critical for land and soil management.

1. Introduction about three quarters of Himalayan forest cover have been

S pecies diversity and regeneration capacity are
important ecological attributes that are strongly correlated
with prevailing environmental as well as anthropogenic
variables [1-4] . T he lesser H imalayan region, with an
altitudinal range of 900-1 800 m, is colonized by subtropical
broadleaved forests, mainly dominated by Chir pine (Pinus
roxburghii) (P. roxburghii) and Oak (Quercus) species[5,6].
Himalayan forests are considered to be among the globe’s
most depleted forests[7-9]. This has been attributed to the
high population increase along with land use changes, socio-
economic transformations and unsustainable exploitation
of natural forest resources[10-12]. During the last century
*Corresponding author: Muhammad Shoaib Amjad, Department of Botany, PMAS-
University of Arid Agriclture, Rawalpindi, Pakistan.
Tel: 00923453812987
E-mail: malikshoaib1165@yahoo.com
lost[9,13]. Eight percent loss in the Eastern and 23% in the
western Himalayas has been occurred in last three decades.
In Pakistan, 4.8% of area is covered by forest which has
deforestation rate of 3%[14]. Just in last fifteen years, Pakistan
lost 24.7% of its forest[9].
S pecies diversity is an important character of any
vegetation. It not only reflects the health of vegetation but
also its productivity. Index of diversity is the measure of
complexity of form and function within a community. Its
precise measurement leads to understanding of processes
involved in the developmental changes and organization of
communities[15]. Regenerating capacity tells us whether the
forest is regenerating, still standing or dying condition[16-
18]. The forest diversity, regeneration patterns and governing
environmental as well as anthropogenic factors in the
Himalayan sub-tropical region of the world have been
 Muhammad Shoiab Amjad et al./Asian Pac J Trop Med 2014; 7(Suppl 1): S454-S460
S455

studied in the past by phytosociologists i.e. Gairola et al[1,5,19-
29]. Literature dealing with Azad Jammu and Kashmir showed
that very little work has been done on the diversity and
regenerating capacity of Azad Jammu and Kashmir. The
only available references for Azad Jammu and Kashmir are
that of[4,6,30-32]. The aim of this work was to report recent
diversity, its components and regenerating capacity which
might be helpful for future ecologist, ethnobotanist, and
conservationist who engaged in the work of phytosociology
especially for the development of this area.
positioning system. Phytosociological attributes (relative
frequency, density and basal area) were calculated[34].
Importance value index was used to rank each species and
the plant species with the highest importance value in the
stand was considered as dominant species[35]. The plant
community of a particular area was named on the basis of
first three dominant species. Communities were merged
into four associations by cluster analysis and detrended
correspondence analysis using PAST and CANACOO 5.0 (Figure
1).

2.5
2. Materials and methods PQI

QOJ
2.1. Study area
RQO PQO

Nikyal Hills are situated in District Kotli, Azad Jammu and QRT
Q
Kashmir at an altitude of 1 500-1 900 m. They are located 30 OPB

km away from Kotli towards North. The investigated area lies OTP I

within longitude 74°04’ to 10’ east and latitude 33°26’ to 29’

OTP II
MPR

north. It is surrounded by Kotli on south, on western side by

Tatapani, on Northern side by Mender and on east by Pir-
Panjal[33].
M

MRP
2.2. Climate QMB
0.0

0.0 2.5

The climate of Nikyal valley is of sub-tropical humid type Figure 1. A ssociations formed by cluster analysis are demarcated by
detrended correspondence analysis.
with average annual rainfall of 95.60 mm. The maximum
Red color: Association A; Brown color: Association B; Green color: Association
rainfall occurs during July amounting to 251.52 mm, while C; Blue color: Association D.
least rainfall occurs during November amounting to 14.44
mm. The hottest months of the year are June and July, with Diversity were calculated by using three indices–after by
mean daily maximum temperature of 37.69 °C and 34.82 formulas as following[36-38]:
°C respectively and minimum temperature of 23.61 °C and Formula 1: n ln(n)
23.62 °C respectively, while the coldest months of year were
H=暺( 伊 )
N ln(N)
December and January with mean maximum temperature of
N(N-1)
19.99 °C and 18.09 °C respectively and minimum temperature Formula 2: D=1-
of 5.49 °C and 4.41 °C respectively. The average maximum 暺n(n-1)
and minimum relative humidity received by the area is S
Formula 3: d=
79.64% and 30.82% respectively (Source: Pakistan Metrological √N
Department, Lahore). T he component of diversity as species richness was
calculated by formula 4 and species evenness was calculated
2.3. Methodology by formular 5[39,40]. where, H=Shannon index; D=Simpson
index; M=Margalef index; E=Evenness; n=Actual number
The study area was divided into 13 stands on the basis of individual of one species in a stand; N=Total number of
of differences in physiognomy, altitude and floristic individual of all species present in a stand; S=Total number
composition. Q uadrat method was used for vegetation of species in a community. The maturity index was recorded
sampling. Size of quadrat was 10伊10 m2 for tree, 5伊5 m2 for using Formula 6 as following[41].
shrubs and 1伊1 m2 for herbs. Altitude, latitude and longitude Formula 4: M= S-1
of each site were calculated by using Garmin 2000 global ln(N)
S456 Muhammad Shoiab Amjad et al./Asian Pac J Trop Med 2014; 7(Suppl 1): S454-S460

Table 1
Diversity and its components recorded from Kotli Hills during Monsoon 2012.
Associations Communities Altitude Shannon’s Simpson’s Evenness Equitability Maturity Species Menhinick’s
(m) diversity diversity “E” index richness index
A: Olea-Pinus- OPB 1 540 3.13 0.94 0.64 0.87 36.24 5.00 1.090
Themeda association OTP I 1 595 2.94 0.92 0.56 0.83 30.81 4.92 1.190
OTP II 1 655 2.89 0.90 0.48 0.80 34.92 5.29 1.230
Average 2.99 0.92 0.56 0.83 33.99 5.07 1.170
B: Myrsine-Rhus- MPR 1 535 3.12 0.94 0.48 0.81 30.10 6.06 1.060
Qurecus association MRP 1 610 2.75 0.90 0.41 0.75 34.37 5.00 0.940
M 1 670 2.96 0.91 0.47 0.80 38.59 5.53 1.100
QMB 1 710 2.91 0.92 0.51 0.81 44.33 4.89 1.000
Average 2.93 0.92 0.47 0.79 36.85 5.37 1.020
C: Qurecus-Rubus- RQO 1 650 3.03 0.93 0.55 0.83 41.55 5.03 0.960
Pinus association QOJ 1 700 2.80 0.91 0.46 0.78 42.44 4.64 0.830
PQI 1 820 3.16 0.95 0.65 0.88 34.61 4.99 1.080
Average 3.00 0.93 0.55 0.83 39.53 4.89 0.960
D: Qurecus association Q 1 620 3.29 0.95 0.61 0.87 37.16 5.96 1.190
QRT 1 760 3.31 0.95 0.62 0.87 33.55 6.08 1.280
PQO 1 870 2.95 0.93 0.50 0.81 37.56 5.09 1.005
Average 3.18 0.94 0.58 0.85 36.09 5.71 1.150
M=Myrsine community; Q=Quercus community.
Table 2
Regenerating capacity of trees of Nikyal valley during 2012.
Girth class (cm)
Plant species
0-20 20-40 40-60 60-80 80-100 100-120 120-140 140-160 160-180 180-200 200-220
P. roxburghii Sargent 64 158 125 101 32 6 1 1 3 - 1
Qurecus dlatata Lind 171 141 63 18 12 2 1 - - - -
Prunus persica (L) Batsch 9 7 - 1 - - - - - - -
Punica granatum L. 48 9 1 - - - - - - - -
Olea ferruginea Royle 64 6 1 - - - - - -

Formula 5: E= H (MRP) community to a maximum of 3.12 in Myrsine-Pinus-

ln(S) Rhus (MPR) community. The association A showed average
Formula 6: Total frequency value of all species in a stand value of 2.99 ranging from a minimum of 2.89 in Olea-
Degree of maturity= Themeda-Pinus II (OTP II) community to a maximum of 3.13
Total number of species
in Olea-Punica-Berberis (OPB) community. Association C has
The regenerating capacity was calculated by using method average value of 3.00 with minimum 2.80 in Qurecus-Oxalis-
of A mjad [4]. F or measuring regenerating capacity, the Justica (QOJ) community to maximum 3.16 in Pinus-Quercus-
circumference of each individual of tree is recorded at chest Indigofera (PQI) community (Table 1, Figure 2).
height. The trees were divided into 12 diameter classes by
keeping the interval of 20 cm. 6
Diversity and its components

4
3. Results
3

2
The average Shannon’s wiener diversity value computed for
1
the investigated area was 3.02 ranging from a minimum of 2.75
0
in Pinus-Quercus-Oxalis (PQO) community to a maximum 1 540-1 655 1 535-1 710 1 650-1 820 1 620-1 870
Altitude (m)
of 3.31 in Quercus-Rabdopsia-Themeda (QRT) community. Diversity Species richness Equitability
A ssociation D showed higher diversity values with an
Figure 2. Graphical represention of diversity and its components.
average of 3.18, ranging from 2.95 in PQO community to 3.31
in Quercus-Rabdopsia-Themeda (QRT) community. The The Simpson’s diversity, unlike the Shannon’s diversity
association B represented lower diversity values averaging values showed similarity in the whole investigated area, in
2.93 with a minimum value of 2.75 in Myrsine -Rhus-Pinus all vegetation types studied. The values averaged 0.93 ranging
 Muhammad Shoiab Amjad et al./Asian Pac J Trop Med 2014; 7(Suppl 1): S454-S460
between 0.90 and 0.95; association A, B in 0.90-0.94 range
whereas association C, D in a little high range of 0.91-0.95
and 0.93-0.95 respectively.
Menhinick’s diversity values calculated for the study
area averaged 1 . 07 ranging from a minimum of 0 . 83 at
QOJ community to a maximum of 1.19 at Olea-Themeda
-Pinus I (OTP I) and Quercus communities. Association A
showed an average value of 1.17 ranging from 1.09 at OPB
community to 1.23 at OTP II. Association C temperate zone
showed an average value of 0.96 with a minimum of 0.96 at
PQO community to a maximum of 1.08 at PQI community.
Subtropical association B averaged 1.02 ranging from 0.94
at MRP community to 1 . 06 at MPR community. Whereas
association D represented an average of 1.15 ranging from
minimum 1.00 at PQO community to minimum 1.28 at QRT
(Table 1).
Evenness in the investigated area averaged 0.53 with a
minimum of 0.41 at MRP community to a maximum of 0.65
at PQI community. H ighest evenness values averaging
0.58 were recorded from association D ranging from 0.50-
0 . 62 range. A ssociation B showed an average evenness
value of 0.47 ranging from a maximum of 0.51 at Quercus-
Myrsine- Berberis (QMB) community to a minimum of 0.41
MRP community. Association A showed an average evenness
of 0.56 ranging from a minimum of 0.48 at OTP II community
to a maximum of 0 . 64 at OPB community. A ssociation
C represented an average eveness of 0.55 ranging from
minimum 46 at QOJ community to maximum 0.65 at PQI
community (Table 1, Figure 2).
Study area exhibited an average species richness of 5.27
per site with a minimum of 4.89 at QMB community to a
maximum of 6.08 at QRT community. Association D showed
highest average richness value of 5.71 ranging from 5.09-6.08.
Association C showed lower average species richness of 4.89
with a minimum of 4.64 at QOJ community to a maximum of
5.03 at Rubus-Quercus-Oxalis (RQO) community. Association
B showed a species richness averaging 5.37 with a minimum
of 4.89 at QMB community to a maximum of 6.06 at MPR
community. Whereas association A represented an averaging
richness value of 5.07 ranging from minimum 4.92 at OPT I to
maximum 5.29 at OPT II community (Table 1).
The number of individuals of each tree species is presented
in Table 2. It was observed that P. roxburghii is the only tree
regenerating up to 200-220 cm. There is a gap in 180-200 cm
which was due to deforestation. Similarly, Qurecus dlatata
regenerated up to 140 cm. The remaining three plant species
viz Prunus persica, Punica granatum and Olea ferruginea
were not regenerating due to sporadic individuals in different
girth classes (Tabel 2). The mature plants were lacking.
S457
4. Discussion
S pecies diversity is measures of complexity in form
and structure. Diversity can be correlated with different
variables such as productivity, stability, maturity, predation
pressure, evolutionary time and spatial heterogeneity[42].
It is important for protection and conservation of natural
vegetation which is increasingly threatened due to forest
cutting for industrial and urban expansion[43]. Temperate
forest can be regarded as highly valuable habitat in term of
biodiversity.
The Shannon diversity value ranges from 2.75-3.16. The
recorded value lies within the reported range of 1 . 16 -
3.40 for other Himalayan forests[25,44-46]. The low diversity
value in Nikyal valley is due to human interaction (Kumar
and Bhutt, 2006) overgrazing, deforestation, disappearance
of annual plants, removal of medicinal plant and cold
condition requirement of species[47]. Diversity was high (3.18)
in Qurecus association (1 620-1 870 m) while low in Myrsine-
Rhus-Qurecus association (1 535-1 710 m). Ahmed et al.
studied same vegetation in Dau-khan hills where diversity
increases with increase in altitude[23]. This may be due to
increase in humidity. Danin also reported that diversity of
eastern vegetation increased with increase in humidity[48].
So our findings in this regard are in line with him. In OPT
association (1 540-1 655 m) diversity was high at the base
and low at the top[16,49,50]. The results are also in agreement
with Malik who reported similar trends in Ganga Chotti
and Bedorri hills[17]. In Qurecus-Rubus-Pinus association
diversity decreases from 1 650-1 700 and then increases from
1 720-1 800 m. In the same manner diversity increases from
1 620-1 760 m and then decreases from 1 760-1 820 m.
At the top of all type of forest Qurecus (B) association low
diversity was observed. Similarly Sai and Misra reported low
species diversity at upper reaches of NE and SW aspects
in his study area[51]. So our results are in line with them.
Low diversity at the upper reaches might be due to stressful
environmental conditions as reported by Khan et al[26].
The diversity is high in the tree layer[52]. However, at
some sites such as OTP and PQO communities low species
diversity was reported for woody species. Franklen and
Merlin reported low diversity for woody species in the Forest
of Cook Island[53]. They also observed the effect of herbivory
on the species diversity which changes from community to
community. In the investigated area, lower reaches were
severely grazed by animals goat, buffalo and cow that is
why species diversity was low while in open reaches where
animal cannot reach have low grazing pressure, diversity
was high.
S458 Muhammad Shoiab Amjad et al./Asian Pac J Trop Med 2014; 7(Suppl 1): S454-S460
Species diversity is also influenced by change in physico
-chemical properties of soil. In the investigated area, soil
varies from loam to clay loam type, p H from 7.15-7.70,
saturation from 42-57, E.C. from 0.52-0.72, organic matter
from 0.57-1.40, phosphorus from 2.80-6.60 mg/kg, potassium
from 60-160 mg/kg.
Species richness is the number of species per unit area.
Richness is mainly controlled by the fertility and episodic
removal of leaves typically by grazing and forest fire. This
regional pattern of species richness is the product of many
intermingling factors such as environmental variables,
geography, topography, species pool, productivity and
competition [54] . T his may also due to high degree of
variations in soil differentiation and altitude[55]. However,
moisture, temperature and nutrient availability affect the
distribution and bulk of species in any area[56].
In the study species, richness was high during monsoon
due to high proportion of therophytes. The high species
richness was observed in Qurecus association that had
relatively stable climatic conditions. S pecies richness
decreased with the increase in size classes of trees[57]. Our
findings are in agreement with them as diversity indices and
species richness decrease with increase in size classes (21-
220).
Hump-shaped distribution of species with high species
richness at an elevation of 800-1 400 m was observed by
Yu[58]. Maximum value was observed at 1 000 m, then again
there was a decrease in species richness as observed at the
top. Decrease in species richness was because of reduced
growing season, low temperature and low productivity at
high altitude.
In our case, decrease in species richness in the middle
height and increase in species richness at the base and
at the top was observed. So our findings in this regard do
not agree with him. Here vegetation was disturbed due to
deforestation and overgrazing.
Equitability is the indicator of environmental stability
and is more important to land than species richness
in vegetation analysis [59,60] . I n the investigated area,
equitability varies from 0.75-0.87. This may due to the
conditional presence/absence of functional relationship of
species. Equitability was low at the base (1 540-1 620) and
high at the top (1 620-1 870). Habib et al. reported similar
situation from Garhi Dopatta Hills[18]. The high equitability
was due to prevalence of stable climatic conditions for long
period of time. Hussain and Shah stated that association of
communities was the outcome of the performance of species
in response to prevailing environmental conditions[61]. So
our finding in this regard is also agreed with them. The
maximum species diversity at high level of disturbance is
the result of high equitability for relatively small number of
species.
It was considered that a community was mature when its
maturity index was more than 60%[41], accordingly, none
of the community was mature as the indices value for all
communities were less than 45%. Low maturity indicates
heterogeneity within stands due to lesser adaptation to
the ecological conditions of the investigated area. Present
finding indicates that deforestation, soil erosion and frequent
fire are the main factors influencing the immaturity. The
high pressure of these anthropogenic activities prevents
the communities vegetation to reach the climax stage of
community maturity[62]. Similarly, Malik reported the main
causes of immaturity were less crown and deforestation, so
our findings in this regard agreed with him[16].
Age class is the ratio of different age groups to each
other at given time. The diameter of tree suggests the age
of tree[63]. In the present study, it was observed that P.
roxburghii was only regenerating species. Local inhabitants
used Qurecus dilatata, Prunus persica, Punica granatum
and Olea ferruginea for various other utilities. Unlike our
results, Martinkova et al. observed predominant regeneration
in communities due to less anthropogenic pressure[64,65]. The
continued anthropogenic pressure reduced the regeneration
of species in our case.
A hmed et al. and C haghtai and G hawas reported P.
roxburghii was regenerating in their study area[66,67]. So
our findings are also in line with them. In the case of P.
roxburghii and Prunus persica, gaps were seen. The gaps are
classes with less number of individual then those on either
side[68]. They were produced due to removal of particular
sized tree or no regeneration in past[66]. This pattern of tree
structure reflects inadequate recruitment producing unstable
population[69]. The soil at many places was washed out due
to deforestation and overgrazing and rocks were exposed[16].
It may be concluded that due to anthropogenic interference
these Pinus-Qurequs forest are in unstable and degraded
state therefore prompt conservation steps should be instantly
taken to save these ecologically and economically important
plant species.
Nikyal valley is under severe deforestation pressure for
fuel and timber value. Alternative sources could be provided
by the government and valley should be protected for 30
years to promote natural vegetation (especially trees and
shrubs cover). There is an urgent need to promote the ethics
among the people that improvement and conservation of
natural resources are critical for land and soil management.
Conflict of interest statement
We declare that we have no conflict of interest.
 Muhammad Shoiab Amjad et al./Asian Pac J Trop Med 2014; 7(Suppl 1): S454-S460
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