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Potluri Siddhartha Institute Of Technology use

A. Ferrari1
Department of Energy,
Politecnico di Torino,
Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24,
Torino 10129, Italy
e-mail: alessandro.ferrari@polito.it
F. Paolicelli
Department of Energy,
Politecnico di Torino,
Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24,
Torino 10129, Italy
Modal Analysis of Fuel Injection
Systems and the Determination
of a Transfer Function Between
Rail Pressure and Injection Rate
A detailed analysis of a common rail (CR) fuel injection system, equipped with solenoid
injectors for Euro 6 diesel engine applications, has been performed in the frequency
domain. A lumped parameter numerical model of the high-pressure hydraulic circuit,
from the pump delivery to the injector nozzle, has been realized. The model outcomes
have been validated through a comparison with frequency values that were obtained by
applying the peak-picking technique to the experimental pressure time histories acquired
from the pipe that connects the injector to the rail. The eigenvectors associated with the
different eigenfrequencies have been calculated and physically interpreted, thus provid-
ing a methodology for the modal analysis of hydraulic systems. Three main modal
motions have been identified in the considered fuel injection apparatus, and the possible
resonances with the external forcing terms, i.e., pump delivered flow rate, injected flow
rate, and injector dynamic fuel leakage through the pilot valve, have been discussed. The
investigation has shown that the rail is mainly involved in the first two vibration modes.
In the first mode, the rail performs a decoupling action between the high-pressure pump
and the downstream hydraulic circuit. Consequently, the oscillations generated by the
pump flow rates mainly remain confined to the pipe between the pump and the rail. The
second mode is centered on the rail and involves a large part of the hydraulic circuit,
both upstream and downstream of the rail. Finally, the third mode principally affects the
injector and its internal hydraulic circuit. It has also been observed that some geometric
features of the injection apparatus can have a significant effect on the system dynamics
and can induce hydraulic resonance phenomena. Furthermore, the lumped parameter
model has been used to determine a simplified transfer function between rail pressure
and injected flow rate. The knowledge obtained from this study can help to guide design-
ers draw up an improved design of this kind of apparatus, because the pressure waves,
which are triggered by impulsive events and are typical of injector working, can affect
the performance of modern injection systems, especially when digital rate shaping strat-
egies or closely coupled multiple injections are implemented. [DOI: 10.1115/1.4039348]

Keywords: modal analysis, fuel injection systems, signal power spectra, injected mass
control

Introduction However, numerous efficient and versatile techniques have

recently been developed for the identification of modal parameters
Mechanical, hydraulic, and electromagnetic systems all react in
from output-only measurements [4–7]. The main advantages asso-
their own typical ways, when subjected to excitations, and gener-
ciated with their use are related to the test execution, which is
ate oscillations at specific frequencies within their structure. The
cheaper and faster, since no artificial excitation is required, and
dynamic characterization of these systems, at nominal conditions,
these techniques do not interfere with the use of the system
is generally useful to monitor any possible alterations that could
because they are noninvasive and nondestructive. Furthermore, the
be due to damage, wear, or critical situations, such as operations
modal parameters are identified under the actual operative condi-
under conditions that are particularly stressful to the components
tions of the system.
of a system. Furthermore, it allows the design of complex inte-
Output-only modal identification analyses can be classified into
grated systems, consisting of several subsystems, to be optimized,
time domain and frequency domain methods. The former group
since the behavior of the assembly depends on the interaction of
includes techniques such as the stochastic subspace identification
the subcomponents [1–3].
technique, the eigensystem realization algorithm [8], and the
Modal analysis is a mathematical methodology, which allows
least-square complex exponential technique. Stochastic subspace
the dynamic features of a system, in terms of resonance frequen-
identification determines a stochastic state space directly from the
cies, damping factors, and modes of vibration, to be clearly identi-
measured time data or output signal time correlations [9,10].
fied. Traditional experimental modal analysis is based on
Least-square complex exponential techniques and eigensystem
externally applied input signals, such as step or sinusoidal func-
realization algorithms extract the modal parameters from auto and
tions, which are measured alongside the response of the system.
cross-correlations of the time signals [11].
The most undemanding and popular frequency domain method
1
Corresponding author. for modal parameter estimation from output-only signals is the
Contributed by the IC Engine Division of ASME for publication in the JOURNAL
OF ENGINEERING FOR GAS TURBINES AND POWER. Manuscript received November 26,
basic frequency domain (BFD) technique. This is also called the
2016; final manuscript received January 18, 2018; published online July 30, 2018. peak-picking technique [12], since the identification of the system
Assoc. Editor: David L. S. Hung. eigenfrequencies is based on the identification of the peaks in the

Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power NOVEMBER 2018, Vol. 140 / 112808-1
C 2018 by ASME
Copyright V

output-signal power spectrum plots, which are obtained by apply-
ing the fast Fourier transform theory. Despite the known exiguous
accuracy of the BFD and some limits in the parameter identifica-
tion, which require other methods to be used together with the
BFD for the evaluation, for instance, of the damping factors, this
approach is very fast and simple to use [6]. The BFD method can
lead to erroneous results if the basic assumptions of low damping
and well-separated frequencies are violated [6,12]. The applica-
tion of the singular value decomposition technique to the power
spectral density matrix leads to the enhanced frequency domain
decomposition method [6,13], which can detect mode multiplicity,
and allows the performance of the BFD method to be improved.
All the above modal identification techniques can be applied to
time-invariant coefficient systems, although there are also some
refined extensions of these to linear time-varying coefficient sys-
tems [14]. In this perspective, mechanical and electrical systems
are natural candidates for the application of modal analysis, since
they can generally be modeled as linear time-invariant coefficient
systems. On the other hand, the nonlinearity of Navier–Stokes
equations hinders the usage of the classic modal approach to fluid
dynamics. Nevertheless, those hydraulic systems in which the
density, viscosity, and speed of sound changes, due to pressure
and temperature variations, are not remarkable, can take advant-
age of the modal analysis, especially when their working is char-
acterized by the presence of impulsive or unsteady events.
In the present work, a home-made zero-dimensional (0D)
hydraulic model of a common rail (CR) injection apparatus has
been developed, and a modal analysis of this system has been per-
formed. In order to validate the numerical model, the numerical
eigenfrequencies have been compared with the results of the BFD
analysis, which was applied to experimental pressure traces
acquired on the pipe that connects the rail to the injector, under
different working conditions. A physical interpretation of the
main modes of vibration is also provided. By analyzing the
dynamic behavior of the components of the hydraulic circuit, it is
illustrated how they interact during system operation, and which
components may be critical for the occurrence of hydraulic reso-
nance phenomena. Finally, a simplified transfer function that
relates the rail pressure to the injected fuel flow rate time history
has been determined with the aim of assessing a novel approach
to the control of the actual injected mass.
Experimental Injection System and Facilities
The experimental campaign on the CR fuel injection system
was performed at the Moehwald–Bosch hydraulic test bench
installed in the Internal Combustion Engine Advanced Laboratory
(ICEAL) of the Politecnico di Torino [15,16]. The test rig is
equipped with several instruments to detect injected quantities,
instantaneous injected flow rates, pressure and temperature levels
at different locations in the high-pressure circuit of the system, as
well as electric driving signals to the injectors. In the performed
tests, the EVI flowmeter [17] was applied to measure the injected
flow-rate time history and to detect the fuel temperature at the
injector outlet. Furthermore, the KMM flowmeter was used to
monitor the leakage through the injector pilot valve.
The EVI injection meter consists of a long oil-filled measuring
tube, a piezoelectric pressure transducer, and a temperature sen-
sor. During the injection, the fuel discharged by the injector into
the measuring tube gives rise to a pressure wave, whose amplitude
is related to the actual discharged flow rate. Hence, the injection
rate time history can be calculated on the basis of the measure-
ment of the pressure variation detected by the piezoelectric pres-
sure transducer, and by knowing the fluid passage cross section
and some physical properties, such as the sound speed in the fluid
and the fuel density.
KMM is a continuous flow meter that consists of a small dis-
placement volumetric pump, which is activated by an electric
motor. The KMM pump is placed within a hydraulic circuit and
connects two piezometric pipes, which are located upstream and
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downstream of the pump, respectively. During the injection, the
fuel leakage is discharged, through the injector pilot valve, into
the upstream piezometric pipe. Hence, the hydraulic head of such
a duct increases, compared to that of the downstream pump duct.
As a result, the KMM pump is activated to restore the same
hydraulic head in the two branches of the hydraulic circuit. The
injector fuel leakage, which is equal to the fuel delivered by the
KMM pump per engine cycle in order to balance the hydraulic
head of the two piezometric pipes, can be continuously evaluated
on the basis of both the pump displacement value and the number
of pump revolutions.
The layout of the tested CR system consists of a high-pressure
rotary pump with a displacement of 700 mm3, a rail with an inter-
nal volume of about 20 cm3 and a single electro injector. The rail
is connected to the high-pressure pump and to the injector through
high-pressure pipes, the geometrical sizes of which are reported in
Table 1. The pipes are straight, except for a curve at their extrem-
ities to connect them with the other components (rail, pump, or
injector). However, such curves should not affect the dynamics of
the system under consideration, since the radius of curvature is
much greater than the inner diameter of the pipe.
A piezoresistive pressure sensor and a pressure control valve
(PCV) have been installed on the rail to control the rail pressure
[18], while a second piezoresistive pressure transducer has been
installed on the rail-to-injector pipe, at 130 mm from the injector
inlet, to acquire pinj,in(t). Moreover, a fuel-metering valve (FMV)
is available at the pump inlet to control the sucked-up flow rate,
according to the injector requirements, and thus to increase the
efficiency of the high-pressure control system [18]. In general,
either the PCV or the FMV can be used to control the rail pressure;
in the performed tests, the high pressure was only controlled by
means of FMV operation, since this is the preferred strategy for
steady-state engine working conditions, for energy-saving reasons.
An indirect-acting solenoid injector that features a pressure-
balanced pilot valve and allows the static fuel leakage to be
reduced [19] has been employed. The injector is equipped with a
seven-hole Microsac nozzle (the holes are not axis-symmetrically
distributed), and each hole features a diameter of 138 lm.
Lumped Parameter Model of the Complete Fuel
Injection System
The overall high-pressure hydraulic circuit of the CR system is
modeled in Fig. 1(a). It is a network of zero-dimensional cham-
bers, in which the pressure is supposed to be uniform and can only
vary with respect to time; the chambers are connected by means
of one-dimensional (1D) pipes and calibrated orifices. High-
pressure fuel, coming from the pump, supplies the rail, runs along
the injector inlet pipe, and enters the injector (cf., also Fig. 1(b)),
where a chamber with volume Vinj,in exists. Then, the fluid fills
the internal hydraulic circuit of the injector; a part of the fuel
reaches the control chamber (volume Vcc) through hole Z, while
the other part of the fluid, after passing through a restriction,
reaches the delivery chamber (volume Vdc), which is located
upstream of the nozzle zone.
When the current to the injector solenoid is switched on, the
pilot valve opens and this causes a pressure drop in the control
chamber; this in turn produces a force imbalance on the needle,
which is lifted by the pressures in the delivery chamber, in the
upstream sac chamber (volume Vup,s) and in the sac (volume Vs).
As a result, the nozzle opens and injection occurs through the
injection holes. As soon as the current is switched off, the closure
Table 1 Geometric dimensions of the high-pressure pipes
Length (mm) Internal diameter (mm)
Pump-to-rail pipe 360 3.0
Rail-to-injector pipe 230 2.4
Transactions of the ASME

of the pilot valve makes the pressure rise in the control chamber,
thus inducing the needle closure phase. The working principle of
the injector has been described in detail in Refs. [20] and [21],
whereas a detailed analysis of the effects of the pressure balanced
pilot-valve layout has been carried out in Ref. [19].
A simplified zero-dimensional model of the CR system (cf.,
Fig. 2) has been realized in terms of fluid dynamics resistances
(Ri), inductances (Li), and capacitances (Cj) [22] in order to be
able to analyze the injection apparatus performance in the fre-
quency domain. The analyzed model is constituted by a high-
pressure pump delivery chamber (item C1), a pump-to-rail pipe
(items with subscript 2), a rail capacitance (item C3), a rail-to-
injector pipe (items with subscript 4), and an injector (items with
subscripts 5–11). The capacitive contribution of each pipe has
been split between the capacitances of the adjacent chambers,
and, as a result, the pipes are considered as purely inductive-
resistive elements, thus limiting the number of degrees-of-
freedom in the numerical model. The calibrated orifice located at
the connection port of the rail with the injector supply pipe and
the restriction inside the injector (cf., Fig. 1) have been considered
in the lumped parameter model by increasing the values of resis-
tances R4 and R8. Furthermore, the rail inductance has been con-
sidered and split between the L2 and L4 inductances.
The injector has only been investigated from the hydraulic
point of view. Since the focus of this work is on the free response
of the system (eigenvalues and eigenvectors), the model can refer
to the conditions after the end of injection, when the pressure
waves triggered by the water hammer, which is due to needle
closure, travel back and forth through the high-pressure hydraulic
circuit. In this condition, the valves are at rest and the chambers
are fixed, without any change in volume over time. In other words,
neither the electrical nor the mechanical subsystems have been
modeled because the dynamics of the mobile elements and the
electrodynamics of the solenoid are induced by forcing terms that
are not meaningful in a modal analysis.
Obviously, the thus resulting CR model is not useful for a reli-
able prediction of the injected flow-rate time history (this can be
obtained by means of 1D models [16,20]), but this has not been
the purpose of the present research.
Even though the tested injection system features a single injec-
tor, the presence of more than one injector can easily be
Fig. 1 Schematic of the CR hydraulic model (a) and fuel injector cross section (b)
Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power
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simulated. A settable parameter has been introduced into the
model to take into account a plurality of injectors. This parameter
allows the model to be expanded by replicating the subsystem
constituted by the rail-to-injector pipe (item with subscript 4 in
Fig. 2) and the injector (items with subscripts 5–11) according to
the number of injectors. This makes the system more complex.
However, since the injectors work sequentially, any dynamic
interaction between them is minimized, in part due to the installa-
tion of calibrated orifices at the rail connections with the pipes
(these orifices dampen the pressure disturbances caused by one
injector on the others). Preliminary experimental tests carried out
at the hydraulic rig confirmed that it is feasible to analyze the
most significant vibration modes of the system by installing only
one injector and by increasing the rail capacitance in the model to
take into account the other injectors.
The resistances, inductances, and capacitances can basically be
expressed as follows (i ¼ 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 and j ¼ 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11)
[23]:
128li li li Vj
Ri ¼ Li ¼ 2 Cj ¼ 2 (1)
pqi di4 pdi =4 aT;j
where li is the length of pipe i and di is its internal diameter, while
li and qi are the dynamic viscosity and density of the fuel in pipe
i, respectively. Furthermore, Vj and aT,j are the volume and the
isothermal speed of sound of the chamber with capacitance Cj,
respectively. The fluid properties are evaluated for the mean pres-
sure and temperature values of the considered pipe or chamber at
the end of the injection. These values depend on the working con-
ditions, which have been characterized in terms of nominal rail
pressure value (pnom), energizing time of the single injection event
(ET) and pump rotational speed (n). As already mentioned, terms
Ri, Li, and Cj can then be increased with respect to the values
resulting from Eq. (1) in order to take into account calibrated orifi-
ces, hydraulic capacitance of the pipes, and rail inductance.
A second-order ordinary differential equation can be written for
the mass flow rate Gi in each pipe element of the system [23].
Hence, the following set of five second-order ordinary differential
equations is obtained for the overall injection system:
€ þ ½R f Gg
½L f Gg _ þ ½ C fGg ¼ f0g (2)
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Fig. 2 Schematic of the analogous RLC system

Table 2 Eigenvalues of some of the examined operative points

where [L] is the matrix of the inductances, [R] is the matrix of the
resistances, matrix [C] contains the capacitance elements of the pnom ¼ 400 bar, pnom ¼ 1400 bar, pnom ¼ 1800 bar,
apparatus, and G ¼ fG2, G4, G6, G8, G10gT is the flow rate vector. (rad/s) ET ¼ 0.4 ms ET ¼ 0.5 ms ET ¼ 0.3 ms
Since, as already mentioned, the aim of the work is the investiga-
tion of the free oscillations of the system, the external forcing k1 –11.963740i –7.564362i –11.164689i
terms acting on the injection apparatus, that is, the flow rate com- k2 –19.564690i –12.365470i –18.265880i
k –29.2612,767i –18.4614,890i –27.3616,006i
ing from the pump (Gpump) and entering capacitance C1, the
k4 –64.3657,496i –40.5667,052i –66.0687,996i
injected flow rate (Ginj) leaving capacitance C11, and the flow rate k5 –70.6670,194i –44.4681,859i –60.1672,079i
through the pilot valve (Gpv) have been considered null (cf.,
Fig. 2). The level-of-detail representation of the model allows the
static leakages through the pilot valve to be neglected, in part due
to the pressure-balanced configuration of the pilot valve, which trace has been computed. The time-averaged value of the pressure
reduces them. time history was preliminarily removed from the pinj,in(t) trace to
Equation (2) results in five degrees-of-freedom, which corre- obtain a signal characterized by a zero-mean value.
spond to the five unknown flow rates located throughout the The power spectrum of the experimental pinj,in signal has been
hydraulic network. Five couples of complex conjugate eigenval- preprocessed: harmonic terms with a higher frequency than 5 kHz
ues (kk, k ¼ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5) can therefore be calculated. As a general have been removed, and the resulting spectrum (referred to as
rule, the imaginary part of the eigenvalues is related to the fre- “filtered” in Figs. 4–8) has an energy content that is equal to
quency of the free waves, whereas the real part of the roots is 99.75% of the pre-filtered spectrum (the graphs show that the sig-
related to the product of the damping factors and the kk modulus nificant harmonic terms are still lower than 4 kHz).
(|kk|). Since the damping matrix [R] has not resulted to be propor- The frequencies that correspond to the local peaks of the nor-
tional to any linear combination of the [L] and [C] matrices, the malized single-side (f  0) power spectra of the filtered experi-
Duncan method [3,24–26] has been applied to calculate the kk mental pressures and the model eigenfrequencies, estimated as
values. |Im [kk]|/2p, are compared in Figs. 4–8 for some of the tested
The real and imaginary parts of the five eigenvalues are operative conditions (each working condition is identified in terms
reported in Table 2 for three distinct working conditions for a of pnom, ET and n values).
pump rotational speed n ¼ 1000 rpm. As can be inferred, the imag- As can be inferred, the agreement between the zero-
inary parts of the eigenvalues are well separated, and the rela- dimensional numerical model results and the outcomes of the
tively small negative real parts of the eigenvalues reveal that BFD procedure is quite satisfactory. The first three oscillation
slight damping is present (the damping factor is always lower than modes, the frequencies of which are k1, k2, and k3, have the most
0.05 in Table 2).

Eigenfrequency Analysis and Model Validation

Figure 3 shows the time history of the experimental pressure
detected on the rail-to-injector pipe over a complete engine cycle,
for pnom ¼ 600 bar and ET ¼ 300 ls. The first part of the pressure
trace, that is, up to about 10 ms in the figure, pertains to injection
development. Then, the pressure control system brings the pres-
sure inside the rail to the value it had before the injection
occurred. As can be observed, the pressure during an injection
event is subjected to significant variations, compared to the pnom
value. An abrupt decrease in the pinj,in(t) pressure occurs when the
nozzle opens and some fuel starts to be injected into the combus-
tion chamber. Around the end of the injection phase, there is a
sudden rise in pressure, that is, a water hammer, due to the closure
of the injector nozzle. This phenomenon activates a series of free
oscillations that propagate throughout the hydraulic circuit of the
injection system.
In order to determine the frequency content of the pinj,in pres- Fig. 3 Experimental pressure time history at the inlet of the
sure signal, a fast Fourier transform of the experimental pressure injector: pnom 5 600 bar, ET 5 300 ls and n 5 1000 rpm

112808-4 / Vol. 140, NOVEMBER 2018 Transactions of the ASME


Fig. 4 Single-side power spectrum of pinj,in(t): pnom 5 600 bar,
ET 5 300 ls, n 5 1000 rpm
Fig. 5 Single-side power spectrum of pinj,in(t): pnom 5 400 bar,
ET 5 400 ls, n 5 1000 rpm
impact on the dynamics of the injection apparatus, whereas the
contributions of the modes, which correspond to eigenvalues k4
and k5 in Table 2, fall outside of the effective pinj,in signal power
spectra and are therefore negligible.
The experimental pressure signals also include frequency con-
tents that are caused by the external forcing terms, which cannot
generally be removed with an a priori filtering process. Neverthe-
less, it has been possible to identify the origin of some of these
frequency components within the spectra (cf., Fig. 5). A first low-
Fig. 6 Single-side power spectrum of pinj,in(t): pnom 5 1400 bar,
ET 5 500 ls, n 5 1000 rpm
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Fig. 7 Single-side power spectrum of pinj,in(t): pnom 5 1600 bar,
ET 5 400 ls, n 5 1000 rpm
Fig. 8 Single-side power spectrum of pinj,in(t): pnom 5 1800 bar,
ET 5 300 ls, n 5 1000 rpm
frequency peak, which is present in each spectrum at about 17 Hz,
is due to the duration of the pump revolution cycle for
n ¼ 1000 rpm. Furthermore, the spectra show a second low-
frequency peak, caused by the positive displacement pump deliv-
ery cycles, which can be expressed as
n
fp ¼ p  (3)
60
where p is the number of the radial pistons in the pump (p ¼ 3 in
the current investigation and therefore fp ¼ 50 Hz for n ¼ 1000
Fig. 9 Power spectrum of pinj,in(t) for different rotational
speeds of the pump
NOVEMBER 2018, Vol. 140 / 112808-5

rpm). A series of tests has been conducted in which n has been
varied over the 500–2500 rpm range, and the low-frequency peaks
of the pinj,in power spectra, which are reported in Fig. 9, confirm
the presence of the two contributions related to n and fp.
Finally, a small high-frequency contribution, between 3 kHz
and 3.5 kHz, has been detected in the experimental pinj,in spectra,
as can be observed in Figs. 6–8. This contribution has been
ascribed to the presence of an internal rail mode, in line with the
results in Ref. [27], although the internal dynamics of the rail has
not been simulated in the present model. It has been verified that
the contribution of this model corresponds roughly to the time
required by the pressure waves to travel back and forth between
the two rail extremities.
Discussion on the Mode Shapes
The solution to the eigenproblem related to Eq. (2) also
includes the calculus of the eigenvectors of the system. These
allow the modes, which correspond to the eigenvalues reported in
Table 2, to be visualized.
In what follows, the plotted results refer to pnom ¼ 1600 bar,
ET ¼ 400 ls, and n ¼ 1000 rpm, but the main comments and con-
clusions can be extended to the other injector working conditions.
The first mode is illustrated in Figs. 10 and 11. In order to
obtain an efficient discussion, the quantities in each diagram have
been normalized with respect to the maximum value. The eigen-
vector that corresponds to a certain eigenfrequency gives rise to
both pressure and flow-rate fluctuations. The phases and the
amplitudes of the flow-rate oscillations are related to those of the
pressure waves by means of mass conservation and momentum
balance equations. A slight damping is recognizable in both fig-
ures, since the amplitude of the p and G fluctuations reduces
slightly as time passes. Since the flow is highly unsteady, and both
the capacitive and inertial terms are important in Eq. (2), the flow
rates in the pipes are not related directly to the pressure differen-
ces between the adjacent chambers. This would occur if the flow
rates were steady and the pipe fluid dynamics was dominated by
the Ri elements. An analysis of the flow rates is preferred, due to
their easier physical interpretation and visualization. Figure 12
points out the flow-rate directions in the injection apparatus: the
solid-line arrows indicate the actual directions of the flow-rate
motion, which have been deduced from the sign of the flow rates
in Fig. 11, whereas the dashed-line arrows give information about
the conventional positive direction of the flow rates in the model
(cf., Fig. 2). The thickness of the solid-line arrows in Fig. 12 is
proportional to the amplitude of the corresponding flow rates in
Fig. 11. It is possible to infer that the first mode makes the most of
the fuel (G2) going from the pump delivery (C1) toward the rail
(C3) and back, while only a small portion (G4) from the pump is
Fig. 10 Pressure eigenvector: pnom 5 1600 bar and ET 5 400 ls.
First mode at 714 Hz.
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transmitted to the injector inlet (C5), enters the delivery chamber
(C9) as flow rate G8, and then reaches the nozzle (C11) as flow rate
G10. Finally, a tiny fluid quantity (G6) goes from the injector inlet
toward the control chamber (C7). The large hydraulic capacitance
of the rail acts as a decoupling element, as it insulates the pump
and its delivery pipe from the hydraulic circuit, which is made up
of the injector and its supply pipe, and is located downstream
from the rail.
The normalized pump delivered flow-rate time history, meas-
ured with respect to its average value by means of the innovative
FLOTEC flowmeter developed in Ref. [28], is reported in Fig.
13(a) for n ¼ 1000 rpm, pnom ¼ 1600 bar, ET ¼ 400 ls, and FMV
operation, whereas the normalized Fourier power spectrum of this
flow rate is plotted in Fig. 13(b). As a result, the resonant har-
monic terms of the pump delivered flow-rate time history, which
features a significant frequency content in the 600750 Hz range
(|Im [k1]|/2p  714 Hz in Fig. 13(b)), can interfere with the first
mode and disturb the action of the high-pressure control system,
but should not affect the injector performance.
The eigenfrequency of the first mode is mainly related to the
geometrical features of the pump-to-rail duct (items with subscript
2 in Fig. 2). The time required by a pressure wave to travel along
this pipe reduces, and thus the eigenfrequency increases, as either
the pipe diameter enlarges or its length shortens [23,29]. The
aspect ratio of the pump-to-rail pipe, namely l2/d2, should there-
fore be selected in order to minimize the resonance phenomena
that are due to the pump delivered flow rates within the typical
operation range of the CR pump. An optimum value of the aspect
ratio of this pipe could reduce the disturbances induced by the
pump working on the rail pressure time history, and would thus
enhance the accuracy of the high-pressure control.
The second mode (Figs. 14 and 15) is hydraulically centered on
the rail and involves the complete high-pressure circuit. The rail
constitutes the accumulator of the system and is like a “lung” of
the apparatus: the flow rates in Fig. 15 exit from the component
and then go back into the rail, thus simulating a sort of
“breathing” of the rail. Once again, the motion toward the control
chamber is not significant, but it is not completely negligible
either in this case.
Forcing terms acting at frequencies of around 8001000 Hz
can produce some resonance effects over the whole injection
apparatus, based on the second mode (|Im [k2]|/2p  895 Hz in
Fig. 7, which refers to pnom ¼ 1600 bar and ET ¼ 400 ls, |Im [k2]|/
2p  875 Hz in Fig. 6, which refers to pnom ¼ 1400 bar and
ET ¼ 500 ls and |Im [k2]|/2p  950 Hz in Fig. 8, which refers to
pnom ¼ 1800 bar and ET ¼ 300 ls). From this point of view, it is
worth observing that 1 kHz is the fundamental frequency at which
the PCV is usually operated, under a pulse-width modulation
strategy, in injection systems, and that the PCV excites the system
Fig. 11 Flow-rate eigenvector: pnom 5 1600 bar and ET
5 400 ls. First mode at 714 Hz.
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Fig. 12 Flow-rate into the system (first mode)
in correspondence to the rail. Therefore, PCV working can affect
the second mode, even though this valve is not effective in the
present analysis.
The injected flow-rate time history (cf., Fig. 16(a)) of the con-
sidered solenoid injector has been measured by means of the EVI
flowmeter [17] for the pnom ¼ 1600 bar and ET ¼ 400 ls case. Its
normalized power spectrum, plotted in Fig. 16(b) for the zero
time-average signal, also features a significant frequency content
in the 800–1200 Hz range, and can therefore excite the second
mode.
The third mode is represented in Figs. 17 and 18. The main
fluid motion (G8) occurs within the injector, in the sections
Fig. 13 Pump delivered flow-rate: experimental time history (a)
and Fourier power spectrum (b)
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between the injector inlet (C5) and the delivery (C9) chamber. The
injector nozzle and the control chamber are involved to a moder-
ate extent, while a significant flow rate (G4), in the antiphase
oscillation with respect to G8, goes through the high-pressure pipe
that connects the injector to the rail. Furthermore, the pump-to-
rail pipe fluid dynamics is not affected by the third mode to any
significant extent. In other words, the center of the third mode is
at the injector inlet and this mode involves the injector and the
injector supply pipe.
Forcing harmonic terms that act at around 2.4 kHz on the deliv-
ery chamber and come from the injected flow-rate time history
(cf., Fig. 16(b) for ET ¼ 400 ls) could trigger moderate hydraulic
resonance phenomena in the subsystem that is made up of the
injector and the rail-to injector pipe. Furthermore, the dynamic
leakage of the injector, that is, the flow-rate time history through
the pilot valve could excite the third mode, when the pilot valve is
opened by the current signal.
The dynamic leakage has been calculated considering the
numerical results of a CR system 1D model (cf., Fig. 19(a)),
which was developed in Ref. [29]. The normalized frequency
spectrum of the difference between the dynamic leakage and its
time average value is reported in Fig. 19(b) for the pnom
¼ 1600 bar and ET ¼ 400 ls case. As can be inferred, harmonic
terms with frequencies close to 2.4 kHz can only offer a perceiva-
ble contribution to dynamic leakage. Furthermore, the flow rate
expelled through the pilot valve during the solenoid energizing
time can also excite the second mode at about 900 Hz, but only to
a limited extent, since the amplitude of the G6 fluctuations in
Fig. 15 is small.
Fig. 14 Flow-rate eigenvector: pnom 5 1600 bar and ET 5 400 ls.
Second mode at 895 Hz.
NOVEMBER 2018, Vol. 140 / 112808-7

Fig. 15 Flow-rate into the system (second mode)
It is worth to point out that the normalizing factor S0, used for
the dynamic leakage power spectrum in Fig. 19(b), is not the
same as that applied to the flow rate spectra in Figs. 13(b) and
16(b). Consequently, the values of the spectra are not comparable:
the energy content of the flow rate through the pilot valve is cer-
tainly lower than those pertaining to the pump delivered and
injected flow rates.
The values of the eigenfrequencies of the second and third
modes depend on the diameter and length of both the rail-to-
injector duct (items with subscript 4 in Fig. 2) and the injector
delivery chamber feeding pipe (items with subscript 8 in Fig. 2).
The larger the aspect ratio of these pipes, i.e., l4/d4 and l8/d8,
respectively, the lower the values of the second and third eigenfre-
quencies. The geometrical features of these pipes should be
Fig. 16 Injected fuel flow-rate: experimental time history (a)
and Fourier power spectrum (b)
112808-8 / Vol. 140, NOVEMBER 2018
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selected to minimize the occurrence of resonance events, related
to k2 and k3, which can be due to the injected fuel and to the recir-
culated fuel through the pilot valve. As a consequence, the inten-
sity of the pressure perturbations, triggered by the impulsive
working of the injector, would reduce. The benefits would be
effective for multiple injections, especially when the dwell time
between the consecutive injection shots is very short.
In general, the modal analysis can be exploited for an innova-
tive dynamical design strategy of the fuel injection system to min-
imize the disturbances of the pump and injector working on the
high-pressure system.
Transfer Function Between Ginj and prail for an
Improved Mass Control of the Injection System
In the presented approach, the injection apparatus has been
regarded as a linear, time-invariant and lumped parameter system.
Since input signals Ginj, Gpump, and Gpv are simultaneously forc-
ing the system, the relation in the frequency domain between Ginj
(system excitation) and prail (system response) should consist of a
multiple-input and single-output (MISO) generalized transfer
function. However, if the effects of Gpump and Gpv are neglected
(this is introduced in order to challenge the accuracy of a simpli-
fied model that only accounts for Ginj, which is expected to be the
most important input), a single-input and single-output (SISO)
transfer function can be used approximately to connect Ginj to
prail. The latter transfer function can be worked out by considering
Gpump ¼ Gpv ¼ 0 and solving Eq. (2), which involves the ordinary
differential equations for the chambers and pipes.
Fig. 17 Flow-rate eigenvector: pnom 5 1600 bar and
ET 5 400 ls. Third mode at 2436 Hz.
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Fig. 18 Flow-rate into the system (third mode)
Additional inputs, that is, Gpump and Gpv, must be considered
for the generalized MISO transfer function [30]: as already men-
tioned, the instantaneous pump delivered flow rate was detected
by means of the FLOTEC flowmeter [28], whereas the injector
dynamic leakage time history was computed by means of a 1D
model of the injector [19].
Figure 20 reports the SISO and MISO transfer functions, eval-
uated as the ratio of prail to Ginj, for pnom ¼ 1000 bar, ET ¼ 500 ls
(a) and pnom ¼ 1400 bar, ET ¼ 500 ls (b). The accuracy of the
SISO and MISO transfer functions has been evaluated through a
comparison with a transfer function estimator, which was obtained
directly from the experimental injected flow rate and rail pressure
time histories, detected by the EVI flowmeter and the prail trans-
ducer, respectively. The following Shin–Hammond’s estimator
[31] has been used:
Fig. 19 Dynamic leakage of the injector: numerical time his-
tory (a) and Fourier power spectrum (b)
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r
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

S~QQ  S~PP þ S~PP  S~QQ 2 þ 4jS~PQ j2
H w ðfÞ  (4)
2S~PQ
where the auto-power (S~QQ , S~PP ) and cross-power (S~PQ ) spectral
densities can be determined as the Fourier transforms of the auto-
and cross-correlation functions of prail(t) and Ginj(t) [31]. As can
be inferred from Fig. 20, the SISO and MISO models generally
show a satisfactory agreement for the frequency range of interest,
but the MISO model is closer to the Hw transfer function at low
frequencies. In other words, the addition of the pump flow rate
and of dynamic leakage as inputs to the model allows the system
behavior to be reproduced almost accurately by the MISO transfer
function over the low frequency range.
The coherence function cGP between signals Ginj and prail can
be defined as [30]
Fig. 20 System transfer function according to three distinct
approaches: SISO model, MISO model and Shin–Hammond’s
estimator (Hw): case pnom 5 1000 bar, ET 5 500 ls (a) and case
pnom 5 1400 bar, ET 5 500 ls (b)
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Fig. 21 Coherence function between the Ginj and prail signals:
case pnom 5 1000 bar, ET 5 500 ls (a) and case pnom 5 1400 bar,
ET 5 500 ls (b)
2 could trigger moderate hydraulic resonance phenomena. The fre-
S~QP
c2GP ð f Þ ¼ 2 ½0; 1 (5)
S~QQ S~PP
The coherence function is an estimation of the linearity that exists
between the two considered signals. If Ginj and prail are linearly
related, cGP ¼ 1, while cGP ¼ 0 if the signals are completely uncor-
related. Values of cGP of between 0 and 1 can be ascribed to dif-
ferent causes: noise in the measured signals, nonlinearity of the
system, and dependence of prail(t) on both Ginj and other input
signals (for example Gpump and Gpv).
Figures 21(a) and 21(b) report the coherence function for the
same working conditions as those in Figs. 20(a) and 20(b), respec-
tively. As can be observed, cGP is close to 1 for most of the ana-
lyzed frequency range. In both of the diagrams, the lowest values
of cGP occur at low frequency values, where the corresponding
Hw(f) transfer function is approximated better by the MISO
model. This probably means that prail is influenced to a significant
extent by Gpump over the low frequency range. On the other hand,
the discrepancies that occur in Fig. 20 between the SISO and
MISO models and the Hw(f) estimator for higher frequencies than
2.5 kHz are not a concern, since the energy content of the forcing
terms is not so significant over this f range (cf., also Figs. 13(b),
16(b), and 19(b)).
The obtained MISO transfer functions could be optimized and
used for developing new control strategies of the CR system,
which allow the actual injected masses to be monitored (the stand-
ard CR systems only control prail with a closed-loop strategy, but
the real injected mass is not monitored) [30].
Conclusions
A modal analysis of a CR system, equipped with solenoid injec-
tors for Euro 6 automotive diesel engine applications, has been
performed by means of an integrated numerical–experimental
approach. The eigenfrequencies, worked out from a simplified
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lumped parameter model of the injection system, have been
compared with the frequency values that correspond to the local
maximum points in the Fourier power spectra of the pinj,in experi-
mental pressure time history, measured at one location along the
rail-to-injector pipe by means of a piezoresistive transducer. This
comparison allowed the lumped parameter model to be validated
successfully.
A physical interpretation of the primary injection system modes,
which correspond to the first three eigenfrequencies of the model,
has been provided by analyzing the flow-rate eigenvectors.
For the first mode, the analysis has revealed that the waves go
back and forth through the pump-to-rail pipe with a frequency of
around 700 Hz. The harmonic terms of the pump delivered flow-
rate time history, which are close to the first eigenfrequency of the
model, can excite the first mode, but the influence that the induced
disturbances can have on the injector performance is reduced. In
fact, in the first mode, the rail acts as a decoupling element
between the pump-to-rail duct and the remaining part of the high-
pressure circuit, which is located downstream of the rail.
The second mode, which oscillates at a frequency of roughly
900 Hz, is centered on the rail. This mode basically involves the
whole apparatus, from the pump delivery to the injector nozzle,
with a minor contribution from the control chamber and its feed-
ing pipe. The second mode is activated by the injected flow-rate
time history, which features a remarkable frequency content in the
neighborhood of |Im [k2]|/2p.
The third mode has a vibration at 2.4 kHz and is mainly related
to the injector. In this case, pressure fluctuations propagate from
the delivery chamber to the injector inlet. Significant waves also
travel along the rail-to-injector pipe, and appreciable oscillations
can be detected from the injector inlet to the control chamber tract
of the hydraulic circuit. Forcing harmonic terms of the injected
flow-rate time history that feature frequencies close to 2.4 kHz
quency content of the dynamic leakage through the pilot valve
can also make the third mode resonant to a moderate extent.
The eigenfrequency of the first mode depends on the length and
diameter of the pump-to-rail pipe. On the other hand, the eigenfre-
quencies pertaining to the second and third modes are sensitive to
the sizes of both the rail-to-injector duct and the delivery chamber
feeding pipe. In general, geometrical features of the pipes have a
remarkable impact on the system dynamics, and special attention
should be paid to their design in an injection apparatus to mini-
mize the occurrence of resonance phenomena with the pump or
the injector working.
Finally, a transfer function that links Ginj to prail has been calcu-
lated on the basis of the developed lumped parameter linear model
of the CR system hydraulic circuit. A comparison between the
transfer functions calculated with the SISO and MISO approaches
has revealed that the simulation of multiple inputs significantly
improves the description of the system behavior over the low fre-
quency range. Transfer functions that connect the rail pressure to
the injected flow-rate time history could be applied to obtain a
real-time estimation of the injected fuel mass, and thus to realize
innovative and more accurate control strategies of the injection
apparatus.
Nomenclature
A¼ pipe cross section
aT ¼ isothermal sound speed
C¼ chamber capacitance
C¼ capacitance matrix
CR ¼ common rail
d¼ pipe diameter
ET ¼ energizing time
EVI ¼ injection curve indicator
f¼ frequency
FMV ¼ fuel-metering valve
G¼ mass flow-rate
Transactions of the ASME
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H ¼ transfer function between rail pressure and injected [6] Brincker, R., Zhang, L., and Andersen, P., 2001, “Modal Identification of
Output-Only Systems Using Frequency Domain Decomposition,” Smart Mater.
flow-rate Struct., 10(3), pp. 441–445.
KMM ¼ continuous flowmeter [7] Rodrigues, J., Brincker, R., and Andersen, P., 2004, “Improvement of Fre-
l ¼ pipe length quency Domain Output-Only Modal Identification From the Application of the
L ¼ inductance matrix Random Decrement Technique,” 23rd International Modal Analysis Confer-
ence, Deaborn, MI, Jan. 26–29.
Minj ¼ injected mass [8] Juang, J. N., and Pappa, R. S., 1985, “An Eigensystem Realization Algorithm
n ¼ pump rotation speed for Modal Parameter Identification and Model Reduction,” AIAA J. Guid. Con-
p ¼ fuel pressure, number of pump radial pistons trol Dyn., 8(5), pp. 620–627.
pnom ¼ nominal rail pressure level [9] Van Overschee, P., and de Moor, B., 1993, “Subspace Algorithms for the Sto-
chastic Identification Problem,” Automatica, 29(3), pp. 649–660.
PCV ¼ pressure control valve [10] Peeters, B., and de Roeck, G., 1999, “Reference-Based Stochastic Subspace
R ¼ resistance or damping matrix Identification for Output-Only Modal Analysis,” Mech. Syst. Signal Process.,
S ¼ power spectral density 13(6), pp. 855–878.
t ¼ time [11] Rainieri, C., Fabbrocino, G., Cosenza, E., and Manfredi, G., 2007,
“Implementation of OMA Procedures Using LabView: Theory and
to ¼ initial time instant in the simulation tests Application,” Second International Operational Modal Analysis Conference
V ¼ volume (IOMAC), Copenhagen, Denmark, Apr. 30–May 2.
c ¼ coherence function [12] Bendat, J. S., and Piersol, A. G., 1993, Engineering Applications of Correlation
l ¼ dynamic viscosity of the fuel and Spectral Analysis, Wiley, New York.
[13] Brincker, R., Zhang, L., and Andersen, P., 2000, “Modal Identification From
q ¼ density of the fuel Ambient Responses Using Frequency Domain Decomposition,” 18th Interna-
0D ¼ zero-dimensional tional Modal Analysis Conference (IMAC), San Antonio, TX, Feb. 7–10,
pp. 625–630.
[14] Liu, K., 1999, “Extension of Modal Analysis to Linear Time-Varying Systems,”
Subscripts J. Sound Vib., 226(1), pp. 149–167.
cc ¼ control chamber [15] Catania, A. E., Ferrari, A., Manno, M., and Spessa, E., 2008, “Experimental
Investigation of Dynamics Effects on Multiple-Injection Common Rail System
dc ¼ delivery chamber Performance,” ASME J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power, 130(3), p. 032806.
inj ¼ injector; injected [16] Catania, A. E., Ferrari, A., and Manno, M., 2008, “Development and Applica-
inj,in ¼ injector inlet tion of a Complete Multijet Common-Rail Injection System Mathematical
nom ¼ nominal Model for Hydrodynamic Analysis and Diagnostics,” ASME J. Eng. Gas
Turbines Power, 130(6), p. 062809.
p ¼ pump [17] Bosch, W., 1966, “The Fuel Rate Indicator: A New Measuring Instrument for
pv ¼ pilot valve Display of the Characteristics of Individual Injection,” SAE Paper No. 660749.
s ¼ sac chamber [18] Catania, A. E., and Ferrari, A., 2011, “Experimental Analysis, Modeling, and
up ¼ upstream Control of Volumetric Radial-Piston Pumps,” ASME J. Fluids Eng., 133(8),
p. 081103.
w ¼ transfer function estimator [19] Ferrari, A., Paolicelli, F., and Pizzo, P., 2015, “The New-Generation of
Z ¼ hole Z Solenoid Injectors Equipped With Pressure-Balanced Pilot Valves for Energy
0 ¼ reference value used to normalize data Saving and Dynamic Response Improvement,” Appl. Energy, 151, pp.
1 ¼ referring to the pump 367–376.
[20] Catania, A. E., Ferrari, A., and Spessa, E., 2009, “Numerical-Experimental
2 ¼ referring to the pipe from the pump to the rail Study and Solutions to Reduce Dwell Time Threshold for Fusion Free Consecu-
3 ¼ referring to the rail tive Injections in a Multijet Solenoid-Type CR System,” ASME J. Eng. Gas
4 ¼ referring to the pipe from the rail to the injector inlet Turbines Power, 131(2), p. 022804.
5 ¼ referring to the injector inlet [21] Huber, B., and Ulbrich, H., 2014, “Modeling and Experimental Validation of
the Solenoid Valve of a Common Rail Diesel Injector,” SAE Paper No. 2014-
6 ¼ referring to the pipe from the injector inlet to the control 01-0195.
chamber [22] Jelali, M., and Kroll, A., 2012, Hydraulic Servo-Systems: Modelling, Identifica-
7 ¼ referring to the control chamber tion and Control, Springer Science & Business Media, London.
8 ¼ referring to the pipe from the injector inlet to the deliv- [23] Baratta, M., Catania, A. E., and Ferrari, A., 2008, “Hydraulic Circuit Design
Rules to Remove the Dependence of the Injected Fuel Amount on Dwell Time
ery chamber in Multijet CR Systems,” ASME J. Fluids Eng., 130(12), p. 121104.
9 ¼ referring to the delivery chamber [24] Wagner, N., and Adhikari, S., 2003, “Symmetric State-Space Method for a
10 ¼ referring to the pipe from the delivery chamber to the Class of Nonviscously Damped Systems,” AIAA J., 41(5), pp. 951–956.
sac chamber [25] Fasana, A., and Marchesiello, S., 2006, Meccanica Delle Vibrazioni, CLUT,
Torino, Italy.
11 ¼ referring to the sac chamber [26] Jablokow, A. G., Nagarajan, S., and Turcic, D. A., 1993, “A Modal Analysis
Solution Technique to the Equations of Motion for Elastic Mechanism System
Including the Rigid-Body and Elastic Motion Coupling Terms,” ASME J.
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