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Dynamic modeling of the Dual-Active Bridge topology for high-power

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Conference Paper in PESC Record - IEEE Annual Power Electronics Specialists Conference · July 2008
DOI: 10.1109/PESC.2008.4591971 · Source: IEEE Xplore

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 Dynamic Modeling of the Dual-Active Bridge
Topology for High-Power Applications
Georgios D. Demetriades, Hans-Peter Nee *
ABB AB Corporate Research
721 78 Västerås-SWEDEN
email: georgios.demetriades@se.abb.com
*
Royal Institute of Technology-KTH
Electrical Machines and Power Electronics
Teknikringen 33- SE-100 44 Stockholm-SWEDEN
email: hansi@kth.se

Abstract—In the present paper the staedy-state and the ZVS conditions. Simultaneously, the snubber capacitor,
dynamic behavior of the Dual-Active Bridge topology have which is connected across the transistor TA − , will be
been studied. The small-signal model of the converter has discharged and will eventually force the diode D A − to be
been derived and theoretical and experimental results are forward-biased. Therefore, the inductor current starts
presented.
flowing through the diode D A − and diodes Ds1 and Ds 4 ,
The Dual-Active Bridge is an attractive solution for high-
power applications where a bi-directional operation is as shown in Figure 1(d).
needed. Similarly, the transistor TA − is turned on at ZVS as
shown in Figure 1(e) and Figure 1(f), and the
I. INTRODUCTION commutation sequence will be repeated as above.
The Dual-Active Bridge (DAB) topology which was TA + DA + Cs Ts1 Ds1 Ts 3 Ds 3
+Vdc
first presented by Kheraluwala et.al in [1], [2], and [3] Ideal T / F
consists of two switch-mode active bridges, one operating Lσ C R
in the inversion mode and the other in the rectification
mode. The ac-terminals of the bridges are interconnected −Vdc
TA − DA − Cs Ts 2 Ds 2 Ts 4 Ds 4
by means of a high-frequency transformer, enabling
power flow in both directions as shown in Figure 1. Each (a)
bridge can be controlled to generate a high-frequency TA + DA + Cs Ts1 Ds1 Ts 3 Ds 3
square-wave voltage at its transformer terminals +Vdc
Ideal T / F
( ±Vdc ,±V0 ). By incorporating a controlled amount of Lσ C R

leakage inductance into the transformer the two square

waves can be appropriately phase-shifted to control the −Vdc
TA − DA − Cs Ts 2 Ds 2 Ts 4 Ds 4
power flow from one dc-source to the other. A bi-
directional power transfer can be achieved. Power is (b)
delivered from the bridge generating the leading square +Vdc
TA + DA + Cs Ts1 Ds1 Ts 3 Ds 3

wave. Maximum power transfer is achieved at a phase Ideal T / F

shift of 90 degrees. In a wide load range all the devices are Lσ C R

operated at ZVS and therefore high efficiency is obtained.

The DAB can operate with bi-directional power flow in −Vdc
TA − DA − Cs Ts 2 Ds 2 Ts 4 Ds 4
both step-up and step-down operation
(c)
II. STEADY-STATE OPERATION AND ANALYSIS TA + DA + Cs Ts1 Ds1 Ts 3 Ds 3
+Vdc

The commutation sequence starts by assuming that the Ideal T / F

inductor current is flowing in the negative direction i.e. Lσ C R

through the devices D A + , Ds3 and Ds 2 as shown in Figure

−Vdc
1(a). While the current is flowing through diode D A + the TA − DA − Cs Ts 2 Ds 2 Ts 4 Ds 4

voltage across the switch T A+ is zero. The transistor T A+ is (d)

switched on at zero voltage and eventually the current TA + DA + Cs Ts1 Ds1 Ts 3 Ds 3
+Vdc
reverses and starts flowing through the transistor and Ideal T / F

through the diodes Ds1 and Ds 4 as illustrated in Figure Lσ C R

1(b) and Figure 1(c). At a certain instant the transistor T A+

−Vdc
is turned off and the energy stored in the inductance is TA − DA − Cs Ts 2 Ds 2 Ts 4 Ds 4

transferred to the snubber capacitors by resonance. The (e)

snubber capacitor, which is placed across T A+ , will take Figure 1:The equivalent circuits for each mode of operation
over the current, and the transistor turn-off occurs under

978-1-4244-1668-4/08/$25.00 ©2008 IEEE 457

A. Steady-state analysis 0.8
Output Power versus phase-shift angle

M=1
In Figure 2 the input voltage, the output voltage and, 0.7 M=0,8

the inductor current are shown. M=0,5

0.6

Vdc + Vdc

Output Power in p.u

0.5

0.4
0
ωt

− Vdc 0.3

V0 + V0 0.2

0.1
0 ωt
0
− V0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Phase shift angle in rad

i Lσ Figure 3: Output Power versus phase-shift angle at different conversion

ω t 0'
ratios

III. STATE-SPACE AVERAGING AND SMALL-SIGNAL

0 ω t0 ω t1
ωt
ANALYSIS
As a basis for the controller design a dynamic small-
signal model [6] is derived [4]. Having a small-signal
φ π
model, the controller design is quite straightforward, and
stability problems can easily be foreseen with pole plots.
Figure 2: (a) Voltage and current for the DAB and (b) Output power The small-signal model also provides an understanding of
versus phase-shift angle
the dynamic properties of the converter. Due to symmetry
In Figure 2, two modes of operation are identified. The conditions, the DAB topology can be averaged over one
two modes of operation can be defined as half cycle. Consequently, the phase-shift angle φ must be
• Mode 1: The two voltage sources have different expressed in terms of the conversion ratio M . Thus, the
polarity duty ratio defined by ω t0' ≤ ω t ≤ ω t0 can be written as
• Mode 2: The two voltage sources have the same
2 φ + ( M − 1 )π
polarity d1 = (6)
4π (1+ M )
During mode 1 the inductor current can be expressed as
Similarly, the duty ratio for the time interval
Mode 1 : 0 ≤ ω t ≤ ω t 0
ω t0 ≤ ω t ≤ ω t1 can be expressed as
i Lσ ( ω t ) = Vdc + V0 ω t + iLσ ( 0 ) (1) 1§ φ ·
ω Lσ d2 = ¨ 1− ¸ (7)
2 ¨© π ¸¹
Similarly, in mode 2 the inductor current is given by
Mode 2 : ω t 0 ≤ ω t ≤ ω t1 The duty ratio for the controllable switch can be defined
as
i Lσ ( ω t ) = Vdc − V0 ( ω t − ω t0 ) + iLσ ( ω t0 ) (2) d = 1 − d D A+ (8)
ω Lσ
The state-space averaged model for the DAB topology
From Figure 2 it is found that ω t1 − ω t0 = π − φ and that
can now be written as
ω t 0 = φ . Eqs. (1) and (2) can now be used to formulate
ª 2 d1 − 1 º
ª • º « 0 » x ª 2 d − 1º
i Lσ ( 0 )= − Vdc
[ ( 1 − M )( π − φ ) + ( 1 + M ) φ ] (3) « x1 » « Lσ »ª 1 º « L »
2ω L « »=« »« » + « σ »V (9)
«• » « « » « »
dc
« x2 » « 1 1 » «¬ x2 »¼ « »
i Lσ ( φ ) = Vdc [( 1 + M ) φ − ( 1 − M )( π − φ ) ] (4) ¬ ¼ « C −
R C »¼
» ¬ 0 ¼
2 ω Lσ ¬
As stated in [Khe1] the output power of the converter is The state variables are the inductor current and the
found to be output capacitor voltage. Linearization of the state-space
averaging model will result in the small-signal model as
2 Vdc2 § φ ·
P0 = M φ ¨ 1− ¸ (5) defined by Eq. (10).
ω Lσ ¨ π ¸¹
© ª • º
Equation (5) is plotted in Figure 3 for different values « ~ » ª A11 A12 ºª ~ º
« x1 » « » « x1 » ª B11 º ~ ª E11 º~
of the phase-shift angle φ . The maximum power is « »=« »« » + « » V dc + « »φ (10)
«• » « 1 − 1 »«~ » « » « »
delivered by the source to the load at φ = 90 . For positive « ~ » «¬ C » « x 2 » ¬« 0 ¼» ¬« 0 ¼»
RC ¼¬ ¼
values of the phase-shift angle the power flow is always ¬« x 2 »¼
delivered from the primary bridge to the secondary bridge. where
Consequently, for negative values of the phase-shift angle
the power flow is reversed, i.e. from the secondary bridge
to the primary bridge.

458
 2 Vdc0
the Single-Active Bridge topology [4] similar dynamic
A11 = − characteristics should be expected. This implies that the
Ts ( Vdc 0 + x 20 ) dynamics of the DAB topology are predictable and non-
oscillatory. The phase-margin of the system is 35 degrees
§ Vdc 0 Ts ( ( φ0 − 3 π ) Vdc 0 − 2 x 20 π )+ · and the cross-over frequency is f c = 4.8 k Hz .
¨ ¸
¨ π Ts Lσ ( Vdc0 + x 20 )2 ¸
¨ ¸ B. Small-signal control-to-state transfer function
¨ ¸
¨ ¸ (11) The small-signal control-to-state transfer function for
1¨ 4 π Lσ x10 Vdc 0 − π Ts x 20 2 ¸
A12 = + the DAB converter is defined in Eq. (18).
2¨ π Ts Lσ ( Vdc 0 + x 20 )2 ¸
¨ ¸ ~
¨ ¸ ) x1 ( s
¨ ¸ Gsd ( s ) = = [ s I − A0 ]−1 [ E ]
~
(18)
¨ ¸ φ ( s ) U (s )= 0 ~
¨ ¸
© ¹
N (s )
Gsd ( s )= G sd
(19)
x 20 ( Ts φ 0 x 20 − 2 π Lσ x10 ) + π Ts Vdc0 ( Vdc0 + 2 x 20 ) (12) Δ(s )
B11 =
π Ts Lσ ( Vdc 0 + x 20 )2 where
x20 x20 § ·
E11 =
π Lσ ( M + 1 )
(13) N G sd ( s )= ¨ s+
1
¸ (20)
π Lσ ( M + 1 ) ¨© R C ¸
¹
~ ~
where x0 , Vdc 0 , and D are the dc terms and x , V dc , and
Bode Diagram
~ 30
d are the signal-frequency ac terms.
20

Magnitude (dB)
A. Small-signal control to output transfer function
10
The control-to-output transfer function of the DAB
topology can be defined as 0

~
x2 ( s
) -10

= [ s I − A0 ]−1 [ E ] 45
Gvd ( s ) = ~
(14)
φ(s ) ~
U (s )= 0 0
Phase (deg)

The control parameter is the phase-shift angle φ . -45

N Gvd (s)
Gvd ( s )= (15)
Δ(s ) -90
10
1
10
2 3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10

The numerator of the control-to-output transfer function Frequency (rad/sec)

corresponds to Figure 5: Bode diagram for the control-to-state transfer function

N Gvd ( s ) = E11 (16) C. Small-signal source-to-output transfer function

C
The audio-susceptibility of the converter is of great
Similarly, the determinant of the system is defined as interest. Line variations can cause instabilities and/or
§ 1 · A oscillations to the system with fatal consequences.
Δ ( s ) = s 2 + s ¨¨
A
− A11 ¸¸ − 11 − 12 (17) Additionally, in case where a six-pulse rectifier is used the
© R C ¹ R C C
300 Hz ripple can be of significance.
In Figure 4 the Bode diagram of the control-to-output
The source-to-output transfer function of the DAB
transfer function is shown.
topology can be expressed as
~
x2 ( s
)
Bode Diagram

= [ s I − A0 ]−1 [ B0 ]
40
Gvg ( s ) = ~
(21)
U(s )
20
~
φ =0
Magnitude (dB)

0
Thus,
(s)
-20
N Gvg
-40 Gvg ( s )= (22)
Δ s)
(
-60
0
The numerator of the small-signal transfer function
-45 corresponds to
Phase (deg)

-90
N Gvg ( s ) = B11 (23)
-135
C

-180
1 2 3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

Figure 4: Bode diagram for the control-to-output transfer function

As shown in the figure the control-to-output transfer
function for the DAB topology is stable and is not
oscillatory either. Since the DAB topology is derived from

459
 function, a LHP zero is present which is forcing the phase
20
Bode Diagram
angle to overshoot the frequency axis and increase the
0
magnitude of the source-to-state transfer function. Similar
characteristics where observed in the SAB topology.
Magnitude (dB)

-20

-40
IV. CONTROL AND REGULATION: SMALL-SIGNAL
-60
CONTROLLER
-80

-100 A constant-frequency constant-duty-ratio control

0
strategy is employed. Thus, in order to increase or
-45 decrease the power deliver to the load a phase-shift angle
Phase (deg)

-90
-135
-180
1 2
10 10
Figure 6: Small-signal source-to-output transfer function. Bode
diagram.
As shown in Figure 6, the phase margin of the source-
to-output transfer function is adequate, 145 degrees,
implying that the stability criteria are fulfilled. On the
other hand, and at low frequencies, small variations
around the steady-state value of the input voltage are
slightly amplified in the output of the converter. In the
SAB topology the small-signal variations where damped
resulting in lower filter capacitance. As predicted by
Figure 6, the 300 Hz ripple should be slightly amplified.
D. Small-signal source-to-state transfer function
is introduced. As stated previously the maximum power
can be achieved for a phase-shift angle equal to 90
degrees. Minimum power can be achieved at phase-shift
angle which equals zero. Minimum power or zero output
3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10 power does not imply zero current. The current is still
Frequency (rad/sec)
circulating through the devices causing losses.
Consequently, zero active power does not correspond to
zero reactive power. If the duty ratio is kept constant, it is
not possible to achieve zero reactive power if the output
power is zero.
In order to study and design a controller for the DAB
topology the small-signal transfer functions are employed.
The control configuration is identical to the case of the
SAB converter. Thus, two PI regulators are connected in a
cascade scheme with two loops, a voltage loop and an
inner current loop as shown in Figure 8. The states of
interest are the inductor current and the output voltage.
~
V dc Gvg

The susceptibility of the state to small-signal variations Source-to-output

of the source is defined in Eq. (24).

Gvd

~ +

x1 ( s
)
Control-to-output +

= [ s I − A0 ]−1 [ B0 ]
Σ

Gsg ( s ) = (24)
~
V0
~
U(s)
~
V0
~ −
φ =0
~
Vref I ref φ
+ Σ PI Σ PI
+
−

Eq. (24) results to ~

I Lσ

N G sg(s) Control-to-state +
Σ

Gsg ( s )= (25) +

Δ(s ) G sd

Control-to-state

Where, ~
V dc Gsg

§ ·
N G sg ( s ) = B11 ¨¨ s + 1 ¸
¸ (26) Source-to-state

© RC ¹
Power Stage

Bode Diagram
-10

Figure 8: The small-signal controller for the DAB topology

-20
Magnitude (dB)

The secondary bridge is the master unit and the primary

-30
bridge is the slave unit, switching with a constant duty
-40 ratio and a constant switching frequency.
Simulations have been performed in order to study the
-50
45 controller performance at steady-state, and with small-
signal perturbations. In Figure 9 small-signal perturbations
0 are added to the reference voltage. The peak value of the
Phase (deg)

perturbation corresponded to 10% of the steady-state

-45
value of the dc-link voltage. As shown in the figure the
-90
controller response is a well-damped stable response and
10
1
10
2
10
3 4
10
5
10
6
10 neither instabilities nor oscillations are present. When the
Frequency (rad/sec)
small-signal pulse is added to the reference voltage, the
Figure 7: Small-signal source-to-state transfer function. Bode controller adjusts the phase shift angle in order to cope
diagram. with this variation. The output voltage increases with a
The susceptibility of the state to small-signal variations certain slope while the current rapidly increases and then
of the source is fully described by Figure 7. Small-signal is settled to its new steady-state value. Both signals are
variations of the source are attenuated which is a following their new reference values as governed by the
favourable peculiarity. Comparing, the source-to-state controller until the next variation occurs.
transfer function with the source-to-output transfer

460
 V. MEASUREMENTS
Small-signal variations around the reference voltage
600 A 10 kW prototype has been built and tested in the
Voltage in volts 400 laboratory. The specifications of the converter are
200
summarized in Table 1.
0

60
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Input voltage (pole-to-pole) Vd 400[Volts]
Current in A

40
Output Power P0 >8 [kW]
20

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Switching frequency fs 10 [kHz]
30
Voltage in volts

20 Total Inductance Lσ 150 [ȝ H]

10

0 Snubber capacitor Cs 10 [nF]

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Time in seconds
Transformer turns ratio n 1
Figure 9: Control performance. Small-signal variations around the
reference voltage. Table 1: Converter specifications

In Figure 10 a 300 Hz small-signal ripple is added to At nominal power the phase-shift angle should be 90
the dc-link voltage. As predicted by the small-signal degrees. Due to load power handling limitations the
source-to-output transfer functions, small-signal phase-shift angle was limited to values less than 90
perturbations added to the line voltage are amplified and degrees during measurements, and the nominal power
are added to the output voltage of the converter. Despite delivered to the load was 10 kW. Consequently, the
the inherent property of the converter to amplify the converter can deliver considerably higher power than 10
perturbations, the controller should attenuate the small- kW at a phase-shift angle of 90 degrees. Additionally, the
signal variations to acceptable levels. As shown in the converter was operated as a step-down converter and at
figure the output voltage is oscillating with 300 Hz but the certain loads as a step-up converter for demonstration
ripple is only 1% of the nominal voltage. reasons.
Small-signal line variations In Figure 12 the inductor current and the secondary
snubber capacitor voltage are shown. Thus, at i Lσ ( φ ) the
Voltage in volts

384

382
secondary placed controllable switches are turned-off and
380
0.8 0.805 0.81 0.815 0.82 0.825 0.83 0.835 0.84 0.845 0.85 the snubber capacitors are charging up, forcing the
15
antiparallel diode to commutate the current.
Current in A

10 Measured Inductor Current and Snubber Voltage at M=0.86 and R=16

5 20
0.8 0.805 0.81 0.815 0.82 0.825 0.83 0.835 0.84 0.845 0.85
Current in A

40
Voltage in volts

20 0
0
-20 -20
-40
0.8 0.805 0.81 0.815 0.82 0.825 0.83 0.835 0.84 0.845 0.85
Time in seconds 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
-4
x 10

Figure 10: Controller performance. Small-signal line variations

300
Voltage in volts

Similarly, a small-signal step is added to the nominal 200

value of the phase-shift angle as illustrated in Figure 11. 100

As shown in the figure the step in the phase-shift angle 0
will force the output voltage to rise to a new value (since 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Time in seconds -4

the load resistance is constant) but after a certain time the x 10

integral part of the voltage controller is forcing it to follow Figure 12: Measured waveforms. Primary current and snubber
the reference value. The current instantly increases in capacitor voltage
order to cope with the phase-shift variation but returns In order to fulfil the soft-switching constraints, the
back to its steady-state value with a certain derivative. controllable switches must turn off a finite current.
Phase-shift angle variations can neither cause instabilities Additionally, the phase-shift angle must be limited within
nor oscillations to the system assuring that the system is a certain range. By examining Figure 12 it is obvious that
robust and well-defined. the secondary placed controllable switches are turned-off
Small-signal phase-shift angle step
under ZVS conditions resulting to almost negligible
400
switching losses. At turn-off, and when the capacitors are
Voltage in volts

200 fully charged oscillations are generated. Part of the

0
oscillations are caused by the stray inductance in the
15
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
circuit, but the major part of the oscillations are caused
during the reversal of the voltage of the transformer
Current in A

10

5 winding capacitance.
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 The inductor current and voltage at a conversion ratio
5
0,86 are shown in Figure 13. As discussed in [4]
Angle

4 oscillations are present in the inductor voltage but not in

3
the inductor current. Observe that the inductor current
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Time in seconds presented in the figure is the primary current. Oscillations
are presented in the same figure. As shown in the figure
Figure 11: Small-signal step in phase-shift angle

461
the oscillating current is flowing through the snubber flowing through the magnetising inductance and the
capacitors implying that are part of the resonance circuit. winding capacitance of the transformer.
Nevertheless, the different frequencies appears in the Measured Secondary Current at M=0.96 and R=16
40
current, and as a result two different resonance modes are
present. 30

Inductor Current and Voltage and Snubber Current Oscillations

50
20
20
Current in A

Current in A
10
0 0

Current in A
-20 0
-50
0.5 1 1.5 2 1.25 1.3 1.35 1.4
-4 -4
x 10 x 10
30 -10
20 20
10
Current in A
Current in A

10
-20
0 0

-10 -10

-20 -20 -30

-30
0.5 1 1.5 2 1.25 1.3 1.35 1.4
-4 -4
x 10 x 10
400 100 -40
0 0 1 2
Voltage in volts

Voltage in volts

200
-100 Time in Seconds -4
x 10
0 -200
-300
-200

-400
-400
-500
Figure 15: Measured secondary current at nominal load
0.5 1 1.5 2 1.25 1.3 1.35 1.4
Time in seconds -4 Time in seconds -4
x 10 x 10
Measured Primary and Secondry Current and the difference (ip-is) at M=0.96 and R=16
40

Current in A
20
Figure 13: Measured inductor current, snubber current, and 0
inductor voltage -20
-40
In addition very high frequency oscillations are taking 40
0 1
-4
2
x 10
place when the charging current is reaching the peak
Current in A
20

value. These oscillations are result of the stray inductance 0

-20
of the snubber circuit and the stray inductance of the -40
IGBT module. Oscillations of this nature are well known 10
0 1
-4
2
x 10
and have been thoroughly examined.
Current in A

0
Measurements have also been performed at a higher
conversion ratio as shown in Figure 14. As shown in the -10
0 1 2
figure the oscillations are not affected by the conversion Time in seconds
x 10
-4

ratio but on the contrary are expected to be damped under

light load conditions. Figure 16: Measured primary and secondary current at nominal
load
Inductor Current and Voltage and Snubber Current Oscillations at M=0.96
50

20 A. Measurements at step-up mode of operation

Current in A

Current in A

0 0

-20
The DAB converter has the ability to operate in the
0.5 1 1.5 2
-50
1.25 1.3 1.35 1.4
step-up mode. In this mode of operation the conduction
time of the primary placed diodes corresponds to the
-4 -4
x 10 x 10
40

20
20
conduction time of the primary placed controllable
Current in A

Current in A

0
0

-20 -20 switches when the converter operates in the step-down

0.5 1 1.5
-4
2
-40
1.25 1.3 1.35 1.4
-4
mode. Thus, the conduction losses of the primary bridge
400
x 10
100
0
x 10
are expected to be lower in the step-up mode than in the
step-down mode. On the contrary, the conduction time of
Voltage in volts

Voltage in volts

200
-100
0 -200

-200
-400
0.5
Time in seconds
Figure 14: Measured inductor current, snubber current, and
inductor voltage at M=0,96
When the secondary placed controllable switches are
turned off the current will not commutate to the diode.
The current is clamped at zero. This due to the reversal of
the voltage across the winding capacitance, thus, the
winding capacitance is charged and/or discharged. This is
clearly shown in Figure 15. Thus, oscillations are present
only when the secondary placed controllable switches are
turned off.
In Figure 16 the primary and the secondary currents are
shown. The difference between the primary and the
secondary current is shown in the last plot. As shown in
the figure the oscillations occur during the commutation
of the secondary placed controllable switches. Assuming
that the primary and the secondary current are in phase the
difference of the two currents should represent the current
-300
-400
the secondary placed controllable switches is considerably
1
1.5
-4
2
-500
1.25 1.3
Time in seconds
1.35 1.4
-4
increased in the step-up mode. Specifically, the
x 10 x 10
conduction time of the secondary placed controllable
switches corresponds to the conduction time of the
secondary placed diodes when the converter operates in
the step-down mode. This implies that the conduction
losses of the secondary bridge are higher in the step-up
mode than in the step-down mode.
For clarification reasons, when the converter operates in
the step-down mode the conduction time of the primary
placed controllable switches is considerably higher than
the conduction time of the diodes. For the secondary
bridge, the conduction time of the diodes is considerably
higher than the conduction time of the controllable
switches at step-down. The measurements in the step-up
mode were carried out just to demonstrate the ability of
the DAB converter to boost the output voltage within
reasonable limits with maintained high efficiency.
In both Figure 17 and Figure 18 the inductor current
and voltage and, the charging/discharging snubber
capacitor current are shown. The converter has the ability
to boost the output voltage corresponding to 1.4 times the

462
input dc link voltage. As in the step-down operation the therefore, the conduction losses are considerably higher
oscillations are present in the step-up mode as well. The than in the step-down mode.
oscillations are expected to be damped at light loads and Output power versus efficiency
96
amplified at heavy loads as already discussed.
95
Measured Inductor Current and Voltage at M=1.4 and R=25
M=0.96
40
94
20
Current in A

93
M=1

Efficiency in %
0
92
-20
91
-40
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
-4
90
x 10
89
M=1.4
Voltage in volts

200
88

0
87
3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000
-200 Output power in watts

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

Time in seconds
1.4 1.6 1.8
-4
2
Figure 19: The efficiency of the DAB topology at different
x 10
conversion ratios
Figure 17: Step-up operation. Inductor current and voltage
VII. CONVERTER DYNAMICS
Inductor Current and Voltage and Snubber Current Oscillations
40 50
The converter dynamics have been studied, i.e. the
20
response of the converter with respect to reference steps.
Current in A

Current in A

0 0

-20 In Figure 20 the response of the system to step in the

-40
0.5 1 1.5
-4
2
-50
1.4 1.42 1.44 1.46 1.48 1.5
-4
reference voltage at heavy load is shown. In Figure 20(a)
50
x 10
60
x 10
the reference voltage is rapidly increased with 10% of the
40
nominal value and in Figure 20(b) the reference voltage is
Current in A

Current in A

0 20

-50
0

-20
rapidly decreased by 10%. In both cases the system is
0.5 1 1.5 2
-40
1.4 1.42 1.44 1.46 1.48 1.5
neither unstable nor oscillatory. The voltage is increased
and/or decreased monotonically as governed by the
-4 -4
x 10 x 10
200

200
controller, in order to reach the new reference value.
Voltage in volts

Voltage in volts

100
0
0 + 10% Step
-200

-100
0.5 1 1.5 2 1.4 1.42 1.44 1.46 1.48 1.5
Time in seconds -4 Time in seconds -4 20
Current in A

x 10 x 10

Figure 18: Step-up mode. Oscillations -20

VI. EFFICIENCY MEASUREMENTS 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05

The efficiency of the converter has been measured at 400

different power levels and at different conversion ratios.

Voltage in volts

300

For very light loads where the soft-switching is lost 200

switching losses from the secondary bridge should be
added to the total losses. 100

0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
The efficiency of the converter at different conversion Time in seconds

ratios, both in the step-down and step-up mode is shown (a)

in Figure 19. As shown in the figure the efficiency of the - 10% Step
converter, operating in the step-down mode, is varying
between 93% and 95%. This can be a result of the 20
Current in A

contribution of the conduction losses to the overall 0

efficiency of the converter. Thus, for M=0,96 the inductor -20

current is lower compared with the current at M=1. As a
result the conduction losses are lower, resulting in a higher 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05

efficiency. This is also true for low power levels where the
soft-switching conditions are fulfilled. For high powers 350
Voltage in volts

300
the peak current is considerably higher implying increased 250

conduction losses. Additionally, at heavy loads the 200

150
oscillations are more severe than at light loads and are 100

contributing to a decrease in the efficiency of the 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
Time in seconds
converter. When the converter is operating as a step-up
converter the peak value of the inductor current is (b)
considerably higher, Figure 18, than in the step-down Figure 20: Dynamic response at heavy load, (a) + 10% and (b) -
mode. At the specified load the peak inductor current is 10%
1,8 times higher in the step-up mode than in the step-down
mode. Consequently, the averaged switch and diode Similarly, in Figure 21 the dynamic behaviour of the
current is 1,8 higher than in the step-down operation, and converter operating at light load is presented. The
converter behaves in an identical way as in the heavy load.

463
 -10% Step 3. Third window in the figures: Measured and reference
20
value for the phase-shift angle
10
Current in A

0
4. Last window in the figures: Alive signal, indicating
-10
that both bridges are synchronised and are operating
-20
0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05 VIII. CONCLUSIONS
The Dual-Active Bridge employing a conventional
350
phase-shift control strategy has been analysed and studied.
Voltage in volts

300
250 Both the steady-state and the dynamic behaviour of the
200
150
converter has been analysed and presented. Converter
100 dynamics have been presented by using a state-space
0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05 averaging technique based on the symmetry assumption.
Time in seconds
Additionally, the small-signal model of the converter has
Figure 21: Dynamic response at light load for -10% step been derived. As a result the dynamic behavior of the
converter and the system in general has been studied. It
In Figure 22 and in Figure 23 the performance of the has been shown that both the power plants and the whole
controller during voltage reference steps is presented. In system including the controller are stable.
both cases the controller is neither unstable nor Measurements have shown that the oscillations are
oscillatory. present even in the DAB topology. However, these
450
vin (r); vouRef (b); vout (g)
oscillations are a result of a resonance between the
400 inductor and the winding capacitance of the transformer.
350

300
The measured efficiency of the converter is varying
0.05 0.1 0.15
iDes (r); idc (b)
0.2 0.25 0.3
between 93% and 95%.
60

40 The performance of the system due to reference voltage

20

0
steps was studied in the laboratory and the results are
x 10
-5 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
phiTDes (r); phiTDesLim (b); phiTMeas (g); t2Per (c)
0.25 0.3
presented in this chapter. The system was proven to be
2

1.5 stable and that it can deal successfully with steps in the
0.5
1
reference voltage without causing any instabilities.
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
6
REFERENCES
opmode (r)

2 [1] M.H. Kheraluwala, R. W. DeDoncker, D. M. Divan, “ Power

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
conversion apparatus for dc-dc conversion using dual active
Time (s)
bridges”, U.S patent, patent number 5,027,264, June 1991
[2] M.H. Kheraluwala, R. W. DeDoncker, D. M. Divan, “Performance
Figure 22: Controller performance during reference voltage step - characterisation of a high-power Dual-Active Bridge dc-to-dc
10% converter”, IEEE Transc. on power electronics, Vol. 28, No. 6
November/December 1992
vin (r); vouRef (b); vout (g)
450
[3] M.H. Kheraluwala, R. W. DeDoncker, D. M. Divan, “A three-
400 phase soft-switched high-power-density dc-dc converter for high-
350

300
power applications”, IEEE Transc. on industry applications, Vol.
0.05 0.1 0.15
iDes (r); idc (b)
0.2 0.25 0.3 27, No. 1, January/February 1991
60
40
[4] G. D. Demetriades, “ On small-signal analysis and control of the
20
0
single- and the dual-active bridge topologies”, Doctoral
-20
-40
Dissertation, Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden, ISBN-91-
20
x 10
-6 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
phiTDes (r); phiTDesLim (b); phiTMeas (g); t2Per (c)
0.25 0.3
7283-966-x, 2005.
10
[5] G. D. Demetriades, Hans-Peter Nee, “Evaluation of different soft-
switching topologies for high-power applications”, NORPIE 2003,
0
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Stockholm, Sweden
6
[6] D. M. Mitchell, “DC-DC switching regulator analysis”, Published
opmode (r)

4
by DMMitchel Consultants, ISBN 0-07-042597-3
2

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Time (s)

Figure 23: Controller performance during reference voltage step

+10%

Both output voltage and inductor current are increasing

and decreasing monotonically without causing any
instability of the system.
The measurements presented in both figures are the
actual values sampled by the control unit. The signals
presented in the figures are:
1. Upper window in the figures: input, output and,
reference voltage.
2. Second window in the figures: Measured and
reference current

464

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