Unit-2

[Models and Paradigms of Development Communication]

1. Linear Models: Rostow’s Demographic (Stages of Growth),
Transmission
2. Non-Linear: World System Theory, Neo-Marxist Theory
3. Changing Paradigms of Development
4. Alternative Paradigms: Participatory, Think local/Act global - Think
global/Act local

TOPIC-1
Linear Model: Rostow’s Theory of economic Growth

Rostow's Stages of Economic Growth model is one of the major historical models of economic
growth. It was published by American economist Walt Whitman Rostow in 1960. The model
postulates that economic growth occurs in five basic stages, of varying length:[1]

Traditional society
Transitional society
Take-off
Drive to technological maturity
High mass consumption

(1) Traditional Society:

The traditional society is one whose production functions are based up pre-Newton science
and technology. This unchanging technology places a ceiling on productivity. In this society a
higher proportion of resources is devoted to agriculture. Man is valued on family basis, not on
the basis of his capabilities. Long Fatalism prevails in such society. The ranges of possibilities
for a grand child are the same what they were for grandfather. The society is ruled by those
who owned or controlled land. These landlords used to have a long chain of servants and
soldiers. This society was available during the Medieval Ages in Europe.

(2) Pre Conditions to Take Off:

It is a period of transition where the conditions for take-off are developed. Historically, it was
due to invasion of advanced societies which destroyed the culture of traditional society. This
paved the way for the emergence of new ideas. In this way, when the new ideas develop
people start thinking about economic progress which could provide a better life for the
present and future generation. Once the changes set in, they feed on themselves. It is the
education which broadens the mental out look of the people, and it induces the people to
accept new challenges. In this way, the new entrepreneurs come forward to take risks.
Due to establishment of financial institutions savings and investment are mobilized in SOC.
But still the society is characterized by low productivity. Still there is a need to build an
effective national state against the traditional land lordism. According to Rostow, the
transition is a multi-dimensional phenomenon. A country with 75% of its population in agri.
will have to be shifted to industry, trade and commerce. The view to have more children will
have to be replaced by less children. The income will have to be shifted from the feudals to
those who will spend it on productive items. The man will be valued on the basis of his
competence.
Moreover, during this transitional period, the following major changes will occur:

(i) Crucial Role By Agriculture: For the sake of transition the self-sufficiency in agri. is required.
Such self-sufficiency is justified on the following grounds:

(a) To meet the increased needs of growing population.

(b) With agri. surplus foreign exchange can be earned to meet the import bill of capital goods.

(c) The overall increase in the productivity due to agri. development will provide stimulus to
other sectors of the economy.

In short, agri. sector must supply expanded food, expanded markets and expanded funds to
the modern sector.

(ii) Growing Outlays on SOC: According to Rostow in this period the resources are diverted
to SOC. The SOC has three distinctive characteristics:

(a) The gestation period is long, (b) It is lumpy, (c) It is beneficial for the community.

Due to these reasons it is the duty of state to provide SOC as during 1815 to 1840 the SOC was
provided by state in US and UK.

(3) Take Off Stage:

The take-off stage is a break-through in the history of the society. The take-off stage remains
for more than two or three decades. In this stage three conditions must be satisfied:

(i) The rate of investment must rise from 5% to 10% of GNP.

(ii) The development of one or more substantial manufactured sector with the high
growth rate.

(iii) The existence of social, political and institutional framework which could give impulses to
modern sector expansion.

Further:

(i) Increase in rate of investment: It is attached with changes in income distribution, i.e., the
income begins to flow into the hands of capitalists who would re-invest to increase the rate of
capital formation. This process of capital formation will further be promoted by fiscal
measures of govt., banking institutions and capital markets.

(ii) Emergence of leading sectors: The entrepreneurs of one or two leading sectors re-plough
their profits. Moreover, the expansion of leading sectors helps to pay for imports and debt
charges. It was the Canadian grain, Swedish timber and Japanese silk which helped these
countries to develop other sectors of their economies.

Loan able funds play an important role in the emergence of leading sectors, particularly in
financing large overhead capital. Rostow grouped the sectors of the economy as:

(a) Primary growth sectors:

Where possibilities for innovations in unexplored resources yield a higher growth rate.

(b) The Supplementary growth sectors:

Where these sectors supplement. For instance coal, iron, and engineering industry in relation
to rail road.

(c) The Derived growth sectors:

Advances in these sectors occur in relation to growth of total real income, population and
industrial production. Historically, these sectors range from cotton textile, heavy industrial
complex and dairy products.

(4) Drive to Maturity Stage:

According to Rostow 40 years after the take-off stage there is a long interval. During this
interval the economy experiences a regular growth and modern technology is extended over
to a bulk of resources. On the basis of entrepreneurial and technological development
everything is produced which is desired. There may be a shift in emphasis from coal, iron and
heavy engineering to machine tools, chemicals and electrical equipments.

Germany, France, UK and US passed through this period during the end of 19th century. 10%
to 20% of GNP is ploughed in investment and output grows more than increase in population.
The goods which were earlier imported now they are produced at home. In short, the
economy becomes a part of international economy.

(5) Age of High Mass Consumption Stage:

According to Rostow as societies achieved maturity in 20th century, real incomes rose and the
people became aware of as well anxious to have a command over the consumption of the
fruits of mature economy. The leading sectors of the economy produce consumer durables
like TV, fridges and automobiles etc. Here the society pays more attention on social welfare
and social security than on economic growth. US passed through this stage in 1913-14, and
then in the post war period of 1946-56.
Practical Importance of Rostow's Stages:

The above stage theory of development, or the history of modern societies is of the view that
the advanced countries had passed the stage of take off into self-sustaining growth. While the
UDCs are still passing through traditional society or the pre-conditions to take-off.

Accordingly, UDCs must learn a lesson from the economic history of advanced nations. They
should follow the rules of development to take-off and then to self-sustaining economic
growth. In this respect, the UDCs should mobilize domestic and foreign savings in order to
generate sufficient investment to accelerate economic growth.

The economic mechanism whereby more investment will lead to more growth can be stated in
terms of famous Harrod Domar Model of Economic Growth. It means that the Rostow stage
theory stressed upon capital formation for the sake of economic development. And it is H-D
model which guides the UDCs.

Rostow's Stages and UDCs:

As we told earlier that Rostow stages have a greater appeal for UDCs. The take-off stage is
analogous to industrialization and the UDCs are desirous to industrialize their economies as
soon as possible. As they are having saving gap which can be filled up with foreign capital
(both public and private), as mentioned by H-D model. But there exist following problems
whereby Rostow and H-D models will be least beneficial for UDCs. They are as:

(i) Attitudes and Arrangements in UDCs: The Rostow and H-D models were found applicable in
DCs because the European countries which received aid under 'Marshall Aid Program',
initiated by US to construct war affected economies of Europe possessed the necessary
structural, institutional and attitudinal conditions, i.e., they had well integrated commodity
and money markets, highly developed transport facilities, well trained and educated
manpower, the motivation to succeed, and an efficient govt. bureaucracy. In this way, the
capital was effectively used to get higher levels of output The same like conditions, attitudes
and arrangements are not available in the UDCs like Pakistan They lack the managerial
experience, skilled labor and the ability to plan and administer a wide variety of development
projects.

(ii) Removal of Unemployment: The conditions regarding take-off as presented by Rostow do

not entertain the case of those countries which have abundance of population, and
unemployment is increasing there. How they will be able to remove their unemployment.
Thus the theory which does not present any solution to remove unemployment how it can be
applicable in case of UDCs.

(iii) Value of COR is not Constant: In Rostow and H-D models of growth the value of COR has
been kept constant. But such assumption may be true in case of DCs, but not in case of UDCs.
The UDCs produce agri. goods, and in the presence of rising population and stagnant
economic conditions the decreasing returns to scale apply, rather constant returns to scale.
(iv) Spontaneous and Automatic Growth: Rostow's take offstage shows that here the growth is
automatic and spontaneous. But in case of UDCs, there does not exist any possibility that in a
sudden growth will take place.

(v) Integration with World Economy: Now a days the UDCs are well integrated with the world
economy. The external factors which are beyond their control can nullify the best strategies
followed by UDCs. It means that development can not be attained just through supplying the
missing factors like capital, foreign exchange and skill.

Linear Model of Communication- THE Transmission Model

In linear model, communication is considered one way process where sender is the only one who sends
message and receiver doesn’t give feedback or response. The message signal is encoded and
transmitted through channel in presence of noise. The sender is more prominent in linear model of
communication.
Linear model was founded by Shannon and Weaver which was later adapted by David Berlo into his
own model known as SMCR (Source, Message, Channel, Receiver) Model of Communication.

Linear model is applied in mass communication like television, radio, etc. This model is not applicable
in general human communication as general human communication has to have feedback and
responses.

Components of Linear Communication

Linear model has defined set of components required for a communication to be established where

Sender is the person who sends a message after encoding.

Encoding is the process of converting the message into codes compatible with the channel and
understandable for the receiver.
Decoding is the process of changing the encoded message into understandable language by the
receiver.
Message is the information sent by the sender to the receiver.

Channel is the medium through which the message is sent.

Receiver is the person who gets the message after decoding.

Noise is the disruptions that are caused in the communication process in channel or in
understandability of the message.

Types of Linear Communications

Different types of communication models based on linear model of communication are:

Aristotle’s Model
Aristotle’s Model is a linear communication model which was made for public speaking. In Aristotle’s
model, the speaker sent message and the audience receive it. The model was made to establish a
propaganda. Learn more about, Aristotle Model of Communication.

Shannon Weaver Model

The Shannon Weaver Model of Communication is a mathematical model used for technical
communication or machine communication like telegraph and telephone. In Shannon Weaver’s model,
if the channel does not have distorting elements or noise producing elements, the communication is
successful. Learn more about Shannon Weaver Model of Communication.

Berlo’s SMCR Model

Berlo’s Model was made to understand general human communication. In Berlo’s Model,
communication depends on many factors: like communication skills, attitude, knowledge, socio-
cultural systems, the way in which the message has been sent, the content of the message, senses of
the receiver, etc. Learn more about, Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication

Criticisms of Linear Model

The model assumes that communication has a particular beginning and an end, so it is not continuous.
There is no concept of feedback which makes it inapplicable to direct human communication and only
applicable to mass communication like newspaper, television, etc. There is no way to know if the
communication was effective or not.
Human communication is mostly circular rather than linear as audience is also an active participant.
Communication may not happen in turns and more than one message can be sent at the same time.
The sender must have the ability to encode and the receiver must have the ability to decode.
The model has become less relevant to electronic communication and internet where it’s not clear who
is the sender and who is the receiver.
 TOPIC-2
World Systems Theory

The world systems theory, developed by sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein, is an approach to world
history and social change that suggests there is a world economic system in which some countries
benefit while others are exploited. Just like we cannot understand an individual's behaviour without
reference to their surroundings, experiences, and culture, a nation's economic system cannot be
understood without reference to the world system of which they are a part.
The main characteristics of this theory, which will be discussed in more detail throughout the lesson,
are:
The world systems theory is established on a three-level hierarchy consisting of core, periphery, and
semi-periphery areas.
The core countries dominate and exploit the peripheral countries for labor and raw materials.
The peripheral countries are dependent on core countries for capital.
The semi-peripheral countries share characteristics of both core and peripheral countries.
This theory emphasizes the social structure of global inequality.
According to Wallerstein, the unique qualities of the modern world system include its capitalistic
nature, its truly global nature, and the fact that it is a world economy that has not become politically
unified into a world empire.

Description of three-level hierarchy in Detail.

CORE COUNTRIES
Are the most economically diversified, wealthy, and powerful (economically and militarily)[2][6]

Have strong central governments, controlling extensive bureaucracies and powerful militaries

Have stronger and more complex state institutions that help manage economic affairs internally and
externally
Have a sufficient tax base so state institutions can provide infrastructure for a strong economy
Highly industrialised and produce manufactured goods rather than raw materials for export[2]
Increasingly tend to specialise in information, finance and service industries

More often in the forefront of new technologies and new industries. Examples today include high-
technology electronic and biotechnology industries. Another example would be assembly-line auto
production in the early 20th century.

Has strong bourgeois and working classes

Have significant means of influence over non-core nations

Relatively independent of outside control
Throughout the history of the modern world system, there has been a group of core nations competing
with one another for access to the world's resources, economic dominance and hegemony over
periphery nations. Occasionally, there has been one core nation with clear dominance over
others. According to Immanuel Wallerstein, a core nation is dominant over all the others when it has a
lead in three forms of economic dominance over a period of time:
Productivity dominance allows a country to produce products of greater quality at a cheaper price,
compared to other countries.
Productivity dominance may lead to trade dominance. Now, there is a favorable balance of trade for
the dominant nation since more countries are buying the products of the dominant country than
buying from them.
Trade dominance may lead to financial dominance. Now, more money is coming into the country than
going out. Bankers of the dominant nation tend to receive more control of the world's financial
resources.

Military dominance is also likely after a nation reaches these three rankings. However, it has been
posited that throughout the modern world system, no nation has been able to use its military to gain
economic dominance. Each of the past dominant nations became dominant with fairly small levels of
military spending and began to lose economic dominance with military expansion later on. Historically,
cores were found in Northwestern Europe (England, France, Netherlands) but were later in other parts
of the world (such as the United States, Canada, and Australia).

Peripheral nations OR Periphery countries

Are the least economically diversified
Have relatively weak governments.
Have relatively weak institutions, with tax bases too small to support infrastructural development

Tend to depend on one type of economic activity, often by extracting and exporting raw materials to
core nations.
Tend to be the least industrialized.

Are often targets for investments from multinational (or transnational) corporations from core
nations that come into the country to exploit cheap unskilled labor in order to export back to core
nations

Have a small bourgeois and a large peasant classes.

Tend to have populations with high percentages of poor and uneducated people

Tend to have very high social inequality because of small upper classes that own most of the land and
have profitable ties to multinational corporations
Tend to be extensively influenced by core nations and their multinational corporations and often
forced to follow economic policies that help core nations and harm the long-term economic prospects
of peripheral nations.

Historically, peripheries were found outside Europe, such as in Latin America and today in sub-
Saharan Africa.
Semi-peripheral nations-Semiperiphery countries
Semi-peripheral nations are those that are midway between the core and periphery.Thus, they have to
keep themselves from falling into the category of peripheral nations and at the same time, they strive
to join the category of core nations. Therefore, they tend to apply protectionist policies most
aggressively among the three categories of nations.They tend to be countries moving towards
industrialization and more diversified economies. These regions often have relatively developed and
diversified economies but are not dominant in international trade.They tend to export more to
peripheral nations and import more from core nations in trade. According to some scholars, such as
Chirot, they are not as subject to outside manipulation as peripheral societies; but according to others
(Barfield), they have "periperial-like" relations to the core.While in the sphere of influence of some
cores, semiperipheries also tend to exert their own control over some peripheries.Further, semi-
peripheries act as buffers between cores and peripheriesand thus "...partially deflect the political
pressures which groups primarily located in peripheral areas might otherwise direct against core-
states" and stabilise the world system.
Semi-peripheries can come into existence from developing peripheries and declining cores.Historically,
two examples of semiperipheral nations would be Spain and Portugal, which fell from their early core
positions but still managed to retain influence in Latin America.Those countries imported silver and
gold from their American colonies but then had to use it to pay for manufactured goods from core
countries such as England and France.In the 20th century, nations like the "settler colonies" of
Australia, Canada and New Zealand had a semiperipheral status. In the 21st century, nations like Brazil,
Russia, India, Israel, China, South Korea and South Africa (BRICS) are usually considered
semiperipheral.

External areas
External areas are those that maintain socially necessary divisions of labor independent of the capitalist
world economy.
 TOPIC-3
Changing Paradigms of Development: Perspective and
Changes!

The concept of development is not very old. As stated at the outset, it came in currency only
by the second half of the preceding century perhaps only when most of the present-day less
developed countries emerged as independent nations after their long subjugation to the
colonial rule and set out on the path of their own planned economic progress.

Development, like modernization, is a concept, which was used to analyze the level of social,
economic and political progress in colonial countries on the lines of progress attained by the
West after the Renaissance and the Industrial Revolution.

Social, political and economic changes that took place in Western Europe became the
parameters of development and modernization to assess the level of progress made by the
developing countries on this path.

That is why, though Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations is treated as the first treatise on
development economics, a systematic study of development began only in the middle of the
20th century when problems of developing countries attracted attention of economists and
other social scientists.

Development, therefore, emerged as a relative concept which presupposed a comparison of

the less developed countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America with the developed countries of
the West. There has been periodic paradigm shift in the concept of development ever since its
inception in academic writings.
This shift has been in correspondence with the changing experiences of development in the
less developed countries and the ideological approach of looking at development and progress
in society. Below we discuss various perspectives on development and the changes made over
time.
Economic Growth Perspective:

In the writings of early economists, the concept of development, as we define today, is

missing. These writings have confined themselves to what we treat as economic growth and
explained the concept only rationally and in economic terms.

The progress could be measured in terms of per capita income, GNP, and the number of
functioning industrial units. They looked at development from this angle, and referred
essentially to the successive growth in material and manual forces of production like land,
labour, capital and technology.

The theories of economic growth vary in their views but there are four common points in
them which explain the laws of economic growth:

1. The accumulation of capital and improvement of technology,

2. Population change,

3. The division of labour into specialized activities, and

4. Entrepreneurship.

Adam Smith, writing in the beginning of 18th century, propounded the first systematic theory
of economic growth. According to him, invention of better machines is responsible for
increase in productivity and material welfare.

The classical economics stressed upon development in terms of economic growth and
believed that if annual growth is at the rate of 5 to 6 per cent, it should be treated as a
developing economy. W.A. Lewis, one of the celebrated economists of classical era, has
favoured per capita production to distribution.
For Karl Marx, the determining force in history is technology. Technology, according to him,
would hasten polarization of classes and intense class struggle leading to the unity of workers
against capitalists and seizing power from them.

Adam Smith and David Ricardo were of the view that an increase in population growth would
reduce the rate of economic growth. But, later on, English economist John Maynard Keynes’
theory rejected the thesis of Smith and Ricardo and stressed that an increase in population
increases demand for goods, which stimulates investment and ultimately economic growth.

The last two decades of economic achievements of China and India – the two most populous
countries of the world – have also proved that population explosion is perhaps not necessarily
a detrimental force in economic development.

Accumulation of capital and economic growth lead to division of labour and vice versa.
Division of labour refers to specialization of production functions which increases skills among
workers and skilled and specialized work leads to increase in productivity. Smith emphasizes
the role of division of labour in the increase in production.

Entrepreneurship – a key factor in economic growth – was in fact not recognized in the early
economics. However, Ricardo did regard the role of capitalist as visionary investor and
organizer of rent of land, wages and production, which is paramount in economic growth.

But, the capitalist is not necessarily an entrepreneur. Joseph Schumpeter, much later, gave a
systematic definition of an entrepreneur and emphasized her/his role of an innovator as a key
factor in economic development.

Human Development Perspective:

The concept of human development has its origin in the writings of early economists like
Adam Smith, David Ricardo, Robert Malthus, John Stuart Mill etc., but over time, excessive
preoccupation with income growth obscured this objective of development. It is the United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP), which revived the concept in its Human
Development Report (HDR) of 1990 (UNDP, 1990).

This could be done only by realizing the fact that economic growth may not be termed as
realistic and down-to-earth development as the growth of wealth would not necessarily
ensure that nobody would really be hungry. Human development broadly refers to
improvement in the overall human well-being.

This focuses on the human face of development and this perspective could emerge on
realizing that there is no automatic relationship between the growth of GNP and improvement
in the quality of life. Sri Lanka, Chile, Jamaica, Thailand and Tanzania, for example, have done
far better on their human development ranking than on their income ranking, whereas Oman,
Saudi Arabia, Algeria and Senegal have a much higher income ranking than their human
development ranking (UNDP, 1990: 14-16). China, India and Pakistan have almost similar per
capita GNP level but human development performance of China is much better than the other
two countries.

It is not easy to measure the level of quality of life and people’s relative deprivation in this
context. However, the UNDP (1990) has introduced Human Development Index (HDI), which
may be used to measure relative human development position.

The indicators, which have been identified to measure the level of human development,
include:
(a) life expectancy,

(b) literacy rate,

(c) birth rate,

(d) death rate, and

(e) infant mortality rate.

India’s position is very sad as it ranks 126th out of 177 countries of the world.

In India, the death rate declined from 14.9 in 1971 to 8.9 in 1997, the infant mortality rate
from 129 in 1971 to 80 in 1991 and further to 71 in 1997. The birth rate also declined from
36.9 in 1971 per thousand to 29.5 in 1991 and further to 27.2 in 1997. However, if we look at
the inter-state variations, we find that there are wide variations.

For example, the life expectancy in Kerala is 72, which is much higher than that of Bihar,
Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. Kerala’s performance is comparable
with the other Asian countries like China, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and Sri Lanka, which
have made significant progress in human development over the years.

The reduction in death rate, birth rate and infant mortality rate in India is visibly significant
though not so encouraging if compared with that of developed countries and some of the
developing countries. The increase in health care and family welfare services in India has
contributed significantly to the performance it has made in the human development sector.

However, there are wide inter-state variations in human development performance levels. For
example, Kerala with life expectancy at 72 and literacy at 90 is far ahead of the states like
Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh, where the quality of life of
people is terribly poor.

The economists concentrating on the problems of Asian, African and Latin American countries
realized that the existing social, cultural and economic conditions of these countries required
radical transformation in order to move on the road of development. Culture and economy in
these countries had been primarily agrarian and poverty, illiteracy and traditional outlook
were dominant features.

The economists needed an apparatus to understand the problems and the levels of devel-
opment in these countries. They tried to undertake this keeping in mind the history and
culture of the then developed countries. Hence, a comparative approach.
However, the multidimensional process of development involves reorganization and
reorientation of the entire system – economic, social and cultural. Michael P. Todaro wrote
that development, along with economic development, involves radical changes in institutional,
social and administrative structures as well as people’s attitudes, customs and beliefs.

Thus, development is not merely an improvement in material conditions and the standard of
living of people of a society; it also includes and perhaps precludes improvement in human
index in terms of life expectancy, infant mortality, adult literacy and social conditions of
people.

The decades of 60s and 70s of the 20th century were treated as the “development decades”
by the United Nations which also resolved that if a country achieves the target of 6 per cent or
more annual growth rate of GNP it should be designated as a developing economy. Thus, the
UN defined development in terms of 6 per cent of GNP growth.

But, later on, it was felt that despite achieving the growth target set by the UN, the masses
could not be freed from the trap of poverty and unemployment in most of these countries.
This led to redefining the concept of economic development with more emphasis on the
distribution part of economy and the gross income achieved by the state.

Economic development during 70s was then redefined in terms of reduction or elimination of
poverty, inequality and unemployment within the context of growing economy. This
redefinition of development was made at the instance of Dudley Seers, who questioned the
claim of development if poverty has not been arrested and if unemployment and inequality
have increased.
Social Development Perspective:

The concept of social development gained currency at the time when the Third World
countries started to strive for economic development. The scholars and the agencies like UNO,
working on the problems of development in the developing countries, realized that these
countries due to prolonged colonial subjugation were left with sad social and economic
conditions at the time of independence and were far away from modern values.

This state of affairs subjected these countries to many constraints on the path to economic
development. Therefore, what was required of these countries was to adopt policies and
planning for the social development of their societies on priority basis.

The concept of social development, according to M.S.A. Rao, is inclusive of economic

development but differs from it in the sense that it emphasizes the development of the society
in its totality – including economic, political, social and cultural aspects. In this sense, social
development planning is not concerned with planning exclusively for social services any more
but it is also concerned with the planning for economic growth.

There are many areas, apart from social or welfare services, wherein the social perspective has
relevance, e.g., population policy, policy relating to urbanization, industrial location and
environmental pollution, regional development, income growth, income distribution and land
reform, policies governing administration and people’s participation in planning and the
implementation of plans.

Social development is a broad concept which refers to the development of society a whole.
The processes of social development are both means and ends in themselves. A society
gradually evolves into a modern society with a rational outlook and scientific temper. People
are not sentimentally attached to traditional forms of social structure and values and are
easily adaptive to change, oriented to welcome innovations and ready to move on a new path.

They are not dogmatic, gullible and superstitious. Social structure is democratic and not
authoritarian as the traditional societies used to be. The political system is secular and
democratic. Citizens enjoy autonomy and freedom to choose a path for themselves within the
constitutional confines.
Social development and economic development are mutually complementary processes. The
progress in one necessarily conditions progress in the other. The term ‘social’ is not precise
enough to be understood easily.

There is distinction between social and psychological terms like attitudes, motivations, ideas
and values but treating the term ‘social’ in opposition to the term ‘economic’ would include
these psychological terms within the sphere of social.

The concept ‘social’ consists of all non-economic factors. Social development is a pre-condition
for economic development. According to J.A. Ponsoien, social is an autonomous field and,
therefore, social development has to be defined in its own terms. The changes in the social
field which are compatible and conducive to economic development may be defined as social
development.
The spheres, which are indicative of the social realms, according to J.A. Ponsoien, are as
follows:
1. The cultural and mental background from which individuals operate and which causes their
willingness or unwillingness, their fitness or unfitness to take up various tasks in the economic
development.

2. The institutions and social structures, types of groups and social organizations, through
which the people are able to cope with these tasks for collective as well as for individual
purposes or, in other words, which enable them to bring their mental background into use.

3. The regulations of a society which enable individuals to cope financially with the
opportunities offered, this being done through redistribution of income or by special grants in
case of need or unexpected drop in income.

4. The welfare services of a society by which individuals are assisted who, through lack of
finance, knowledge or capacity, are unable to meet their own needs, so that these have to be
covered with the help of others.

Sustainable Development Perspective:

By the end of 70s of the last century, it was realized that the nature and extent of
development, as was conceived and being pursued, would harm more than help the mankind.
Cruel exploitation of the natural resources (the ultimate source of our life) reduced them to a
lamentable level.
The backwash effect of the blind race in achieving the kind of development as is done so far
emerged in the form of ecological imbalance, environmental degradation and pollution of
water and air. Also, there seemed to be a potential crisis of energy – the most necessary part
of development.

These alarming conditions forced scholars to contemplate about an approach to development

which would minimize these threats. This led to the emergence of the concept of sustainable
development. The approach of sustainable development refers to the method of development
which may, on the one hand, bring about better standard of living and life chances and, on the
other, the possibility of negative impact of the process of development may be minimal.

This involved the widening of the concept of development to include a part of social
development of awareness among people to be sensitive to the imperativeness of
maintenance of ecology and conscious and careful management of development problems to
avoid any danger to the living world.

There must be a limit to economic growth. This could be realized when environmental
misbalance and ecological attrition appeared as an apparent necessary offshoot of this
growth.

The ‘green movement’ arose world over and people became concerned about environmental
problems and started conserving and protecting the natural resources and animal species as a
response to the report ‘The Limits Growth’ published in the early 1970s by the Club of Rome –
a group formed by the industrialists, business advisers and civil servants of Italy.

The report warned that the current rates of industrialization and development would be
unsustainable due to pollution of air and water and depletion of the natural resources.
Anthony Giddens, in his book Sociology, has discussed the criticism labelled against the views
in the report of the Club of Rome.

The main criticism was that the report considered only the physical limits of the growth and
ignored the role of market forces, which work to keep balance between available resources,
demand and supply, and the capacity of human being to respond to the environmental
challenges of technological growth.

The view that economic development should be limited was also criticized as pointless and it
was argued that economic development should be promoted and less developed countries
should not be barred from their own process of development.

The debate on the limits of growth and the promotion of growth with environmental
consciousness led to the development of the idea of sustainable development. The term first
appeared in the 1987 report ‘Our Common Future’ of the United Nations. Sustainable
development was defined by the Brundtland Commission as meeting of “the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs”.
Since the publication of the report, the concept of sustainable development gained currency
the world over and attracted the attention of environmentalists, NGOs and governments.
United Nations, in particular, has been attentive since then and organizing summits with
agenda of sustainable development.

Economic development without considering its impact on environment and adopting

measures to protect it from ill-effects of development would be fatal for the human society.

The concept of sustainable development aims at maximizing the net benefits of economic
activities, subject to maintaining the stock of productive assets (physical, human and
environmental) over time and providing a social safety net to meet the basic needs of the
poor. Sustainable development attempts to accelerate development in an environmentally
responsible manner keeping in mind the intergenerational equity requirements (Economic
Survey of India, 1998).
 TOPIC-4
Participatory Communication

Participatory development communication refers to the use of mass media and traditional,
inter-personal means of communication that empowers communities to visualise aspirations
and discover solutions to their development problems and issues.

Participatory Communication "Participatory communication is a term that denotes the theory

and practices of communication used to involve people in the decision-making of the
development process. It intends to return to the roots of its meaning, which, similarly to the
term community, originate from the Latin word communis, i.e. common (Mody, 1991).
Therefore, the purpose of communication should be to make something common, or to
share...meanings, perceptions, worldviews or knowledge. In this context, sharing implies an
equitable division of what is being shared, which is why communication should almost be
naturally associated with a balanced, two-way flow of information."

Strengthen a regional training capacity to improve the development support communication

(DSC) skills of intermediate-level professionals so that they could improve the effectiveness of
the rural development programmes in which they work.
Initiate an example of a sustainable national DSC service to support rural development
programmes and projects.
Advance towards the creation of a group of DSC professionals in the region, by means of
preparing a regional Post-graduate DSC Professional Diploma Course (through collaboration
with the University of Zimbabwe in Harare).
Advise governments and other development-related organisations about the requirements for
effective DSC in Southern Africa, for future action.

Based on a "Results" section which synthesizes and recaps the main issues by reviewing how
the conception and levels of participation identified in his research have shifted in each phase
of the project, Megalopolis concludes by arguing that participatory communication is an
approach capable of facilitating people's involvement in decision-making about issues
impacting their lives - a process capable of addressing specific needs and priorities relevant to
people and at the same time assisting in their empowerment. In fact, he says, participatory
communication is "a necessary component, consistent with a democratic vision of
international development, needed to increase projects sustainability and ensure genuine
ownership by the so-called 'beneficiaries'."

SIX PHASES OF PARTICIPATORY COMMUNICATION PLANNING

Communication planning for development is a logical process guided by a systematic and

rational framework. This framework could be developed through situation-specific data
gathered using participatory research techniques.
1. Preliminary situation assessment
2. Communication strategy design
3. Participatory design of messages and discussion themes
4. Communication methods and materials development
5. Implementation
6. Evaluation

1. Preliminary situation assessment Situation assessment could be done most effectively

in a participatory manner through PRCA or participatory rural communication
appraisal. Three kinds of analysis are done in PRCA: audience analysis, programme
analysis, and situation analysis. Audience analysis Audience analysis is essentially
"listening" to what potential users of information need. They are the ones whom the
communication program intends to reach. Users of information are also referred to
as stakeholders of a communication program. Collecting baseline information about
these stakeholders is an essential preliminary step towards developing a
communication strategy. Segmentation, or dividing large groups of stakeholders into
smaller groups, helps achieve focus in communication strategy development.
Segmentation is usually done in two ways:
• Conventional segmentation according to a. socio-economic status (income, education,
age, sex, etc.), b. place of residence (urban-rural), and c. language/ethnic group;
• Innovative segmentation based on a. behaviour, b. needs, and c. values and lifestyles. d.
Situation analysis In doing situation analysis, planners look at both the possible problem
to be addressed by the communication program and the conditions surrounding such
problem. What are the factors which cause a gap between the existing and desired
behavior of stakeholders? Is the problem due to the stakeholders' lack of awareness or
knowledge of the nature of the problem? Or is it attitudinal in nature? Could the gap be
due to their lack of skills to carry out certain practices? Situation analysis likewise includes
assessing the communication resources in the area which could be tapped for the
communication program. Knowledge of the area's mass and small media, as well as
interpersonal means of communication, should contribute substantially to strategy
development. Programme analysis When doing program analysis, program planners need
to take both an inward and an outward look at the situation that is, looking at the
organization's own vision, policies, resources, strengths, and weaknesses relevant to the
problem. Are there adequate resources to realize this vision? How well are program
managers using available resources? At the same time, it is important to scan the
environment for existing programs that could affect, positively or negatively, the
communication strategy to be developed.
2. Communication strategy design Data that have been collected need to be analyzed and
interpreted carefully as these will serve as bases of the communication strategy.
Communication strategy is the combination of methods, messages, and approaches by which
the planner seeks to achieve the communication objectives. The second phase of the process
charts the direction of the communication program. It is at this stage where objectives and the
corresponding standards and indicators for monitoring and evaluation are formulated. The
very word strategy suggests a unique combination of techniques or approaches by which to
achieve program goals and objectives. During strategy design formulation, planners also begin
thinking of the following: • Preliminary action plan; • Communication modes/approaches; and
• Basic messages and discussionthemes.

3. Participatory design of messages and discussion themes The main activities under the
message design phase are selection of message appeals and approaches and selection of
communication channels and media. The big challenge at this stage is the development of
the big idea or the creative concept around which the whole communication program would
revolve. Professional communication outfits are often tapped to develop messages and
communication materials for the above-mentioned processes. The disadvantage of this
approach, aside from the huge expense involved, is the lack of participation from the
stakeholders themselves. Involving the stakeholders in message and materials development
increases the likelihood that the communication program would help achieve the bigger
development goals.

4. Communication methods and materials development Actual development of

communication methods and materials is undertaken once the communication strategy is in
place. A useful reminder to planners concerns the importance of pre-testing not only the
materials themselves, but also the creative idea and the messages. Pretesting allows for
adjustments in the communication activities before Substantial time, efforts, and resources
are spent on their actual production. Pretesting measures potential effectiveness of
communication messages, methods, and materials in terms of their being able to attract
attention, to be understood, to be accepted, and to generate the feeling of self-involvement
among the stakeholders.

5. Management and implementation Management of the organization carrying out the

communication program and networking are two of the most important activities in this
phase. A manager's internal task entails preparing or training people for their respective tasks
in the organization within a positive organizational climate. The external task calls for forging
linkages with key organizations engaged in the same area of development work. After all the
preparatory stages, launching and carrying out the communication campaign or program now
takes priority. Together with this come monitoring the process of dissemination,
transmission, and reception of programme inputs. The management aspect also covers the
management improvement process and the concept of leadership as they affect
implementation of communicationprogrammes.
6. Evaluation Although the last step is labeled evaluation, it is not complete without its twin
concept of monitoring. Monitoring enables the planners and implementors to answer the
question: Are things going all right? Evaluation, on the other hand, provides answers to the
question: So, did it work? Together, monitoring and evaluation help planners and
implementors: • Achieve better understanding of how the communication programme is
working; • Make informal decisions regarding operations and adjust to changingconditions;
Ensure most effective and efficient use of resources; • Look at the extent to which the
program/project is having or has had the desired impact; and • Fine-tune future programme
impact. To help gauge programme impact on stakeholders, it is important to set up clear
standards and indicators based on the objectives set. How much have the activities contributed
to achieving objectives of key organizations? This can be gauged by comparing evaluation with
baseline data, specifically those gathered during the PRCA. More importantly, monitoring and
evaluation data contribute to planning for program sustainability andself-sufficiency.
THINKING GLOBALLY, ACTING LOCALLY

The term “think global, act local” was first used in a development context by the environmental
movement in the 1960s and 70s. It referred to the need to be aware about world-wide environmental
issues such as global warming, and then to take action to address these issues by making
lifestyle changes in your household and community.

From a contemporary global citizens perspective it is time to re-examine what “think global/act local
means for today’s increasingly inter-connected and inter-dependent world. For starters, we need to
expand the subject matter about what we should “think global” about. Environmental issues haven’t
gone away and still deserve a great deal of our attention. But there are other issues, world-wide in
scope, that threaten our existence and that urgently need greater international cooperation to solve.
These include human rights, income inequality and poverty alleviation, gender equality, free and open
Internet access, sustainable development, terrorism, the prevention and cessation of conflicts between
countries, the elimination of weapons of mass destruction, and others.

Being a global citizen involves thinking globally about these issues. Thinking globally involves
understanding the ways in which these issues threaten the well-being of the planet; how they affect
everyone, not just you; asking yourself the question can you feel safe and secure if you are not being
affected by these issues but billions of other people are; finding out what has been done so far to
address these issues; is it working; if not why is that so; What can you do to work within your country
and with citizens in other countries to address these issues?

The times in which we live also require that the“acting locally” part of the slogan be expanded. As
global citizens we have the ability to continue to act locally as we have done before; but we also now
have( thanks to modern communications, information and transportation technology) the ability to act
on other levels. For example, we can act on a national level to urge our government to comply with the
international human rights agreements that they have signed. We can act regionally by making our
voices heard on policy issues with the European Union, the African Union , the ASEAN, and other
regional bodies. We also have the ability to act globally, working with citizens in other countries to
pressure global governance institutions, transnational corporations, and international professional
associations to change their policies and practices.
The expansion of the geographical domains for citizen action that are now available should not be
belittled. Acting in these domains is needed if we are to be successful in building a sustainable values-
based world community. We are no longer living in a time and place exclusively governed by the
sovereign states in which we live. Our status as citizens of these states remains, but we also have dual
citizenship responsibilities that cover my country and the world.