INTRODUCTION TO LHC

LHC the Largest Machine Man Ever made Location: Geneva (It spans the border between France and Switzerland) situated 100 meters underground. CERN s Dream Project CERN Stands for Conseil Europen pour la Recherche Nuclaire Cost: About 3 BILLION EUROs i.e. 3000000000(300crore )EUROs

The largest machine in the world. The fastest racetrack on the planet. The emptiest space in the Solar System. The hottest spots in the galaxy, but even colder than outer space. The biggest and most sophisticated detectors ever built. The most powerful supercomputer system in the world.

HISTORY LHC
The idea of LHC began in early 1980s . CERNs LEP (Large Electron Positron Collider) ran from 1989-2000. In 1984, a symposium organized in Lausanne, Switzerland, became the official starting

point for work on the LHC.

Civil engineering work to excavate underground caverns to house the huge detectors for the

experiments started in 1998.

February 2002:-The last piece of LEP goes up to the surface. In 14 months of dismantling,

40 000 tonnes of material were removed from the 27-kilometre tunnel.

The LHC which was proposed in 1994, replaced LEP and with its facility for experiments to

discover the truth about the universe completed its construction in August 2008 .

LHC-LARGE HADRON COLLIDER MEANING

LARGE due to its Size (27 km in circumference). HADRON because it accelerates PROTONS or IONS.
COLLIDER-because the particles are collided at four places where the machine intersect.

ABOUT LHC IN GENERAL

DESIGN OF LHC
The LHC is the world's largest and highest-energy particle accelerator. The collider is contained in a circular tunnel, with a circumference of 27 kilometres (17 mi), at a depth ranging from 50 to 175 metres (160 to 574 ft) underground. The 3.8-metre (12 ft) wide concrete-lined tunnel, constructed between 1983 and 1988, was formerly used to house the Large ElectronPositron Collider. It crosses the border between

Switzerland and France at four points, with most of it in France. Surface buildings hold ancillary equipment such as compressors, ventilation equipment, control electronics and refrigeration plants. The collider tunnel contains two adjacent parallel beam pipes that intersect at four points, each containing a proton beam, which travel in opposite directions around the ring. Some 1,232 dipole magnets keep the beams on their circular path, while an additional 392 quadrupole magnets are used to keep the beams focused, in order to maximize the chances of interaction between the particles in the four intersection points, where the two beams will cross. In total, over 1,600 superconducting magnets are installed, with most weighing over 27 tonnes. Approximately 96 tonnes of liquid helium is needed to keep the magnets, made of copper-clad niobium-titanium, at their operating temperature of 1.9 K (271.25 C), making the LHC the largest cryogenic facility in the world at liquid helium temperature. Once or twice a day, as the protons are accelerated from 450 GeV to 7 TeV, the field of the superconducting dipole magnets will be increased from 0.54 to 8.3 teslas (T). The protons will each have an energy of 7 TeV, giving a total collision energy of 14 TeV. At this energy the protons have a Lorentz factor of about 7,500 and move at about 0.999999991 c, or about 3 metres per second slower than the speed of light (c). It will take less than 90 microseconds (s) for a proton to travel once around the main ring a speed of about 11,000 revolutions per second. Rather than continuous beams, the protons will be bunched together, into 2,808 bunches, so that interactions between the two beams will take place at discrete intervals never shorter than 25 nanoseconds (ns) apart. However it will be operated with fewer bunches when it is first commissioned, giving it a bunch crossing interval of 75 ns. The design luminosity of the LHC is 1034 cm2s1, providing a bunch collision rate of 40 MHz. Prior to being injected into the main accelerator, the particles are prepared by a series of systems that successively increase their energy. The first system is the linear particle accelerator LINAC 2 generating 50-MeV protons, which feeds the Proton Synchrotron Booster (PSB). There the protons are accelerated to 1.4 GeV and injected into the Proton Synchrotron (PS), where they are accelerated to 26 GeV. Finally the Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) is used to further increase their energy to 450 GeV before they are at last injected (over a period of 20 minutes) into the main ring. Here the proton bunches are accumulated, accelerated (over a period of 20 minutes) to their peak 7-TeV energy, and finally circulated for 10 to 24 hours while collisions occur at the four intersection points. The LHC physics program is mainly based on protonproton collisions. However, shorter running periods, typically one month per year, with heavy-ion collisions are included in the program. While lighter ions are considered as well, the baseline scheme deals with lead ions[30] (see A Large Ion Collider Experiment). The lead ions will be first accelerated by the linear accelerator LINAC 3, and the Low-Energy Ion Ring (LEIR) will be used as an ion storage and cooler unit. The ions will then be further accelerated by the PS and SPS before being injected into LHC ring, where they will reach an energy of 2.76 TeV per nucleon (or 575 TeV per ion), higher than the energies reached by the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider. The aim of the heavyion program is to investigate quarkgluon plasma, which existed in the early universe.

WORKING OF LHC
The LHC accelerates two beams of atomic particles in opposite directions around the 27km collider. When the particle beams reach their maximum speed the LHC allows them to collide at 4 points on their circular journey. Thousands of new particles are produced when particles collide and detectors, placed around the collision points, allow scientists to identify these new particles by tracking their behaviour. The detectors are able to follow the millions of collisions and new particles produced every second and identify the distinctive behaviour of interesting new particles from among the many thousands that are of little interest. As the energy produced in the collisions increases researchers are able to peer deeper into the fundamental structure of the Universe and further back in its history. In these extreme conditions unknown atomic particles may appear.

EXPERIMENTS

SIX EXPERIMENTS- ATLAS, CMS, ALICE, LHCb TOTEM, LHCf

ATLAS A Toroidal LHC ApparatuS Size: 46 m long, 25 m high and 25m wide. Weight: 7000 tonnes Location: Meyrin, Switzerland.

CMS Compact Muon Solenoid Size: 21 m long, 15 m wide and 15 m high. Weight: 12 500 tonnes Location: Cessy, France.

ALICE

A Large Ion Collider Experiment. The conditions just after the Big Bang are recreated in LHC. The ALICE detector monitors these conditions ,& study a state of matter known as quark-gluon plasma. Size: 26 m long, 16 m high, 16 m wide. Weight: 10 000 tonnes . Location: St Genis-Pouilly, France.

LHCb

Large Hadron Collider beauty The LHCb experiment will reveal data about antimatter by studying a type of particle called the 'beauty quark', or 'b quark'. Size: 21m long, 10m high and 13m wide Weight: 5600 tonnes Location: Ferney-Voltaire, France.

POWER CONSUMPTION
It is around 120 MW (230 MW for all CERN) Assuming an average of 270 working days for the accelerator (the machine will not work in the winter period), the estimated yearly energy consumption of the LHC in 2009 is about 800 000 MWh. The total yearly cost for running the LHC is therefore, about 19 million Euros.

PARTICLES OF LHC

ADVANTAGES OF LHC
There are two types of benefit that the LHC project produces for the UK. The less easily measured benefits are:

new understanding of the physical world, training of world class scientists and engineers, maintenance of a vibrant, world class UK research base and, a leading role in a major international project.

More easily appreciated are the knowledge, expertise and technology that is spun off from the LHC and can be directly applied to development of new medical, industrial and consumer technologies. The science of the LHC is far removed from everyday life, but the fact that the science is so extreme constantly pushes the boundaries of existing technical and engineering solutions. Simply building the LHC has generated new technology. The LHC is not primarily about building a better world. Rather, it allows us to test theories and ideas about how the Universe works, its origins and evolution. The questions asked, and answers found, are so fundamental that the information from LHC experiments will only be applied many years in the future, if at all. However, this is an experiment and one of the surprises from the experiment may be new science that can be applied almost immediately. Apart from fulfilling a quest for knowledge, studying particle physics provides wider benefits to society. Cancer therapy, medical and industrial imaging, radiation processing, electronics, measuring instruments, new manufacturing processes and materials, Information Technology, the WWW, are just some of the many technologies developed at CERN during research in particle physics. These benefits are felt particularly in medicine. For example, about 20 million people each year undergo diagnosis using radio-pharmaceuticals. A well known form of this is the Positron Emission Tomography, or PET scan, whose development owes much to CERN and the Geneva Cantonal Hospital as the forerunners of the detectors used in these scanners were developed initially as particle detectors for experiments at CERN. In the most recent development proton accelerators are now being adopted for hadron therapy. The advantage of protons is that they deposit all their energy in the same place, making them ideal for treating tumours near to delicate organs. CERN is now contributing to research that uses carbon ions instead of protons, which can be managed as precisely but can have higher energies.

TARGET OF LHC
PROOF FOR BIG BANG THEORY OF EVOLUTION HIGGS BOSON THEORY OF SUPER-SYMMETRY DARK MATTER, DARK ENERGY ANTI-MATTER

DISADVANTAGES OF LHC
Unprecedented energy collisions

Mini big bangs

Black holes - A black hole is a region of spacetime from which nothing, not even light, can escape. The theory of general relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass will deform spacetime to form a black hole. Around a black hole there is a mathematically defined surface called an event horizon that marks the point of no return. It is called "black" because it absorbs all the light that hits the horizon, reflecting nothing, just like a perfect black body in thermodynamics. Quantum mechanics predicts that black holes emit radiation like a black body with a finite temperature. This temperature is inversely proportional to the mass of the black hole, making it difficult to observe this radiation for black holes of stellar mass or greater.

Objects whose gravity field is too strong for light to escape were first considered in the 18th century by John Michell and Pierre-Simon Laplace. The first modern solution of general relativity that would characterize a black hole was found by Karl Schwarzschild in 1916, although its interpretation as a region of space from which nothing can escape was not fully appreciated for another four decades. Long considered a mathematical curiosity, it was during the 1960s that theoretical work showed black holes were a generic prediction of general relativity. The discovery of neutron stars sparked interest in gravitationally collapsed compact objects as a possible astrophysical reality. Black holes of stellar mass are expected to form when massive stars collapse in a supernova at the end of their life cycle. After a black hole has formed it can continue to grow by absorbing mass from its surroundings. By absorbing other stars and merging with other black holes, supermassive black holes of millions of solar masses may be formed. Despite its invisible interior, the presence of a black hole can be inferred through its interaction with other matter. Astronomers have identified numerous stellar black hole candidates in binary systems, by studying their interaction with their companion stars. There is growing consensus that supermassive black holes exist in the centers of most galaxies. In particular, there is strong evidence of a black hole of more than 4 million solar masses at the center of our Milky Way.

 Strangelets - A strangelet is a hypothetical particle consisting of a bound state of roughly

equal numbers of up, down, and strange quarks. Its size would be a minimum of a few femtometers across (with the mass of a light nucleus). Once the size becomes macroscopic (on the order of meters across), such an object is usually called a quark star or "strange star" rather than a strangelet. An equivalent description is that a strangelet is a small fragment of strange matter. The term "strangelet" originates with E. Farhi and R. Jaffe. Strangelets have been suggested as a dark matter candidate.

TARGET OF LHC
PROOF FOR BIG BANG THEORY OF EVOLUTION HIGGS BOSON THEORY OF SUPER-SYMMETRY DARK MATTER, DARK ENERGY ANTI-MATTER

REFRENCES

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider lhc.web.cern.ch/ www.lhc.ac.uk/